HANDBOOK FOR SPECIAL OPERATIONS BORNEO

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 201
• Document Creation Date: December 20, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 21, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: March 1, 1964
• Content Type: CH

HSO No. 2 MARCH 1964
GROUP 1
Excluded from automatic
downgrading and
declassification _
prepared by
Directorate of Intelligence
ease 20 - - 010002000 -6
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This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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RET
HANDBOOK FOR SPECIAL OPERATIONS
BORNEO
SEC
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CONTENT S
Page
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
viii
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
1
II. Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
5
A. Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
B. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
C. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
D. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
E. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
F. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
III. Physical Geography . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
9
B. Terrain, Drainage, and Vegetation. . .
. . .
10
1. Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . .
10
2. Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
11
3. Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
11
C. Upland Regions . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
20
1. Central Mountain Range . . . . . .
. . .
20
a. Northeastern Sector. . . . . .
. . .
20
b. Middle Sector. . . . . . . . .
.
20
c. Southwestern Sector. . . . . .
. .
22
2. Northwestern Mountains . . . .
.
22
3. Southeastern Mountains . . . . . .
. . .
25
4. Suitability for Operations . . . .
. .
25
D. Lowland Regions . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
27
1. Western Lowland. . . . . . . . . .
. .
27
2. Southern Lowland . . . . . . . . .
. . .
30
3. Eastern Lowlands . . . . . . . . .
. . .
31
4. Northern Lowlands. . . . . . . .
. . .
34
E. Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
37
1. General. . . . . .
*
37
2. Climatic Factors Affecting Land and
Air
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
38
Table I, Mean Monthly Rainfall . . . .
. . .
40
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Table II, Mean Daily Maximum and Minimum
Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
IV. Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
B. Migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
C. Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
D. Social Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
E. Occupations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
F. Language and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 54
G. Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
H. Dress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
I. Health and Medical Factors . . . . . . . . . 58
J. Major Ethnic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Ba j aus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Bandjarese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Buginese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Dusuns ,
6. Kayans and Kenyahs , ,
7. Kedayans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Kelabits , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
9. Land Dayaks , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
10. Malays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Melanaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Muruts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13. Ngad j us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Punans ,
15. Sea Dayaks (Ibans) ,
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
60
61
62
63
67
68
73
75
76
78
81
83
84
85
87
V. Politics and Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
A. Current Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1. States of Northern Borneo. . . . . . . . 93
2. Indonesian Borneo. . . . . . . . . . . . 93
B. Structure of Governments . . . . . . . . . . 93
1. Sarawak and Sabah. . . . . . . . . . . . 93
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2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3. Indonesian Borneo. . . . . . . . . . . . 94
C. Political Parties and Influence Groups . . . 95
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5. Indonesian Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
D. Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1. Northern Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2. Indonesian Borneo. . . . . . . . . . . . 99
E. Subversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5. Indonesian Paramilitary Activity . . . 102
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
VI. Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
B. Natural Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
C. Industry and Electric Power. . . . . . . . 106
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
D. Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
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3. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
E. Fishing and Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1. Northern Borneo. . . . . . . . . 110
2. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
F. Employment and Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . ill
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . ill
3. Sabah , . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
G. Foreign Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3. Sabah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
H. Foreign Loans and Aid. . . . . . . . . . . . 113
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
I. Currency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1. Northern Borneo. . . . . . . . . 114
2. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
J. Prime Economic Targets . . . . . . , . . . . 115
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
VII. Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
A. Inland Waterways . . . . . . . . . . 117
B. Roads and Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1. Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2. Trails . . . . . . . . . . 123
3. Transborder Movement . . . . . . . . . . 123
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C. Air Transport. . . . . . . . . . . . 125
D. Marine Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1. Merchant Marine. . . . . . 126
2. Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
E. Railroads. . . . . . . . . . . 131
F. Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
VIII. Telecommunications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1. Northern Borneo. . . . . . . 135
2. Indonesian Borneo .?. . . . . . . . . . 135
B. Sarawak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities
and Services . . . . . . . . . 135
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services . . 136
3. Specialized Networks . . . . . . . . . . 136
a. Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
b. Marine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
C. Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
d. Private . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
C. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities
and Services . . . . . . . . . 137
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services . . 137
3. Specialized Networks . . . . . . . . . 137
a. Brunei Shell Petroleum Company . . . 137
b. Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
c. Public Works Department. . . . . . 138
D. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities
and Services . . . . . . . . . . 138
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services 138
3. Specialized Networks . . . . . . . . . . 139
a. Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
b. Civil Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
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E. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities
and Services . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services . . 141
3. Specialized Networks . . . . . . . . . . 141
F. Prime Telecommunication Targets. . . . . . . 141
1. Sarawak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2. Brunei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3. Sabah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4. Kalimantan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
G. Place Name List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
IX. Military and Internal Security Forces. . . . . . 149
A. Indonesian Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2. Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4. Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5. Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
B. Northern Borneo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1. Military Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2. Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
X. Survival Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A. Food and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1. Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2. Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
B. Environmental Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . 162
1. Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2. Reptiles and Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3. Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
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C. Climatic Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1. Heat and Humidity. . . . . . . : . . 164
2. Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
D. Cultural Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
E. Medical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Appendixes
Appendix A. Airfields of Borneo . . . . . . . . . . 173
A. Usable Airfields . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
B. Former Airfields . . . . . . . . . . 177
C. Reported (but unconfirmed)Airfields. . . 179
Appendix B. Recommended Maps. . . . . . . . . . . 181
Appendix C. Recommended Films . . . . . . . . . 183
Diagrams
Diagram 1. Sarawak: Diagram of VHF Radio Relay
Network, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Diagram 2. Brunei: Diagram of VHF Radio Relay
Network, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Diagram 3. Sabah: Diagram of VHF Radio Relay
Network, 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Photographs
(abbreviated titles)
Figure 1. Tree of the tropical forest. . . . . . . 12
Figure 2. Forest floor with dense leaf canopy. . . 13
Figure 3. Forest floor with sparse leaf canopy . . 14
.Figure 4. Mangroves at low tide. . . . . . . . . 16
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Figure 5. Mangroves at high tide . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 6. Nipa palms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 7. Nipa palms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure S. Casuarina trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 9. Fresh water swamp forest . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 10. Fresh water swamp forest . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 11. Forested Uplands . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 12. Mountains of southeastern Sarawak. . . . 23
Figure 13. Limestone hill in Sarawak. . . . . . . . 24
Figure 14. Grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 15. Grassland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 16. Rivers in Western Lowland. . . . . . . . 29
Figure 17. Flooded grassland in Southern Lowland. . 29
Figure 18. Western part of Northern Lowland . . . . 35
Figure 19. Sandy beach along Sarawak coast. . . . . 35
Figure 20. Typical coastal settlement . . . . . . . 46
Figure 21. Sea Dayak longhouse. . . . . . . . . . . 46
Figure 22. Sea Dayaks burning hillside. . . . . . . 50
Figure 23. Young padi growing on cleared hillside . 52
Figure 24. Dusun girls of Sabah . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 25. Dusun house in Sabah . . . . . . . . . . 66
Figure 26. Gallery of Kayan longhouse . . . . . . . 69
Figure 27. Kayan men of interior Sarawak. . . . . . 69
Figure 28. Kayan boy making offering to gods. . . . 71
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Figure 29.
Figure 30.
Figure 31.
Figure 32.
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Figure 35.
Figure 36.
Figure 37.
Figure 38.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.
Figure 41.
Figure 42.
Figure 43.
Figure 44.
Figure 45.
Figure 46.
Figure 47.
Figure 48.
Figure 49.
Figure 50.
Figure 51.
Figure 52.
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Kenyah women husking rice. . . . . . . . 71
Kenyah longhouse . . . . . . . . . . 72
Kelabit men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Family room of Land Dayak longhouse. . . 77
Malay men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Mu ru t man . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
Murut longhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Punan man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Group of Punans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Sea Dayak men with blowpipes .
Sea Dayak men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Sea Dayak woman . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Oil refinery, Balikpapan . . . . . . 108
Oilfield, Tarakan Island . . . . , . 108
Typical landing along inland waterway. , 118
Native craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Lower reach of large river . . . ... . . 119
Upper reach of large river . . . . . . . 119
Road in Kalimantan in rainy season . . . 121
Brunei-Seria road. . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Road with encroaching vegetation .
River ferry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Port of Jesselton. . . . . . . . . . . . 132
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Figure 53. Railroad tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 54. VHF radio relay tower, Kuching . . . . . 140
Figure 55. Open wireline near Jesselton . . . . . . 142
Figure 56. Cable marker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Figure 57. Captured rebels, Brunei. . . . . . . . . 154
Figure 58. Gurkha patrol, Brunei. . . . . . . . . . 154
Figure 59. Malayan police force . . . . . . . . . . 156
Figure 60. Gurkha troops in mangrove swamp. . . . . 156
Maps
( Inside Rear Cover)
38284 Borneo: Main Map (Place names, Airfields, Trans-
portation)
Borneo: Population and Administrative Divisions
Borneo: Terrain
Borneo: Vegetation
Borneo: Ethnic Groups
Borneo: Economic Activity
Borneo: Order of Battle
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FOREWORD
This Handbook is designed primarily to support operational
planners, unit commanders, and personnel who may be involved
in special operations such as guerrilla warfare, counterin-
surgency, civic action, or allied .activities on the island of
Borneo. The purpose of the Handbook is to present essential
background material, some or all of which will be necessary
for those planning and carrying out special operations. The
Handbook is not designed for support of any specific opera-.
tion or for support of any particular type of special opera-
tion. It is intended to supply basic essentials to which can
be added more specific and more current details immediately
prior to any operation.
Secondarily, the Handbook is designed to be useful as
briefing, training, and familiarization material for those who
do not have the time or need for more detailed reading. It
will also serve as an introduction to Borneo for those who
need further, more specialized study.
The principal sources used in the preparation of individual
chapters of the Handbook are listed at the ends of the chap-
ters. Users of the Handbook are encouraged to refer to these
sources for more nearly complete coverage of the subject
material.
Various names are commonly applied to the political divi-
sions of Borneo. In this Handbook Kalimantan is used inter-
changeably with Indonesian Borneo, as Sabah is with North
Borneo, and Malaysian Borneo is with ex-British Borneo. The
latter two designations refer to Sarawak and Sabah together,
now states of Malaysia. The general term northern Borneo
refers to Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah.
The cutoff date for material contained in this Handbook
is 31 December 1963.
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I. Introduction
The northern part of the island of Borneo has been trans-
formed within the span of 2 years from a placid remnant of
the British Empire into a focal point of rival power interests.
A pattern of Indonesian-inspired, Communist-exploited insur-
gency has emerged: a hard-core dissident group operating in
terrain that favors guerrilla activity; weak local governments
whose electorates are divided by ethnic rivalries; and neigh-
bors willing to exploit the area's domestic problems in order
to further their own territorial claims or their ambitions to
area leadership.
Although a Communist front organization has existed in
northern Borneo since 1954, the tempo of political activity
was slow until 1961. In that year, the government of Malaya
proposed that Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah (then called
North Borneo), and Brunei form a federation, Malaysia. The
Malaysian concept originated in Malayan and British fears that
the Government of Singapore, the site of Commonwealth bases
vital to western strategic interests and due to become inde-
pendent in 1963, would fall under mounting Chinese chauvinism
and pro-Chinese Communist pressures. According to the pro-
ponents of this concept, Singapore's merger with strongly
anti-Communist Malaya, which would control internal security,
defense, and foreign affairs for Malaysia, gave the best
assurance of deterring further Communist growth. Singapore's
overwhelmingly (75%) Chinese population, however, made this
solution unpalatable to Malaya unless northern Borneo, which
is largely non-Chinese, was also included. Malaya's ethnic
balance is narrowly drawn between Chinese and Malays, although
it is dominated politically by the latter. The incorporation
of the northern Borneo territories into Malaysia also offered
Britain an opportunity to end its colonial role in this area
without granting premature full independence to unready native
governments. After lengthy negotiations among member states
which resulted in significant concessions to states' rights
sentiment, Malaysia was formed on 16 September 1963. Brunei,
however, decided not to join because of an unacceptable finan-
cial arrangement offered by the federation, questions of the
Sultan of Brunei's standing in Malaya's Conference of Rulers-
which chooses the constitutional head of state, and the oppo-
sition to Malaysia expressed in Brunei's first popular elec
tions in 1962.
Anti-Malaysia feelings are strongest among political
groups already opposed to their local governments' policies.
The abortive revolt of members of the pro-Indonesian Partai -
Ra'ayat in Brunei in December 1962 and a government crackdown
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on the Communist-penetrated Sarawak United People's Party
caused the hard-core elements of these parties to withdraw
into rural areas or to seek refuge in Indonesia. The Indo-
nesian Government, which regards Malaysia as a continuation
of British colonial power in the area and a block to its own
ambitions to area leadership, has provided the dissidents with
arms and military training for border raids into northern
Borneo.
A number of new political parties, largely favoring Malay-
sia, have been organized by northern Borneo's major ethnic
groups (Malays, Chinese, and tribal peoples). The British
gave encouragement and guidance to local leaders in the forma-
tion and orientation of some of these parties. During elec-
tions in 1962 and 1963 the center and right wing parties won
a majority of votes in Sarawak and Sabah. These parties now
represent a promising basis for stable government.
The international situation created by the formation of
Malaysia may prove more crucial to area stability than Borneo's
domestic problems. Its birth was greeted by an emotional out-
burst in Indonesia which resulted in the sacking of the British
Embassy in Djakarta and the temporary seizure of British enter-
prises. Malaysia was not granted diplomatic recognition by
Indonesia or by the Philippine Government, the latter insisting
that the Malaysian Government discuss Philippine claims to
Sabah, which are based on the hereditary rights of the heirs
of the Sultan of Sulu, now Philippine citizens.
Indonesia also cut off all trade ties with Malaysia, and
economic losses threaten to be heavy for both sides. Indo-
nesia could lose about 25 percent of its foreign exchange
earnings, already critically short, if other outlets are not
soon developed. Singapore estimates that its loss of Indo-
nesian trade will amount to about 9 percent of its total
national income and could result in the loss of jobs to some
20,000 persons, which would give a tempting target to renewed
Communist labor agitation.
The Indonesian Government has begun a steady build-up of
its military strength in Kalimantan and has stepped up covert
operations against northern Borneo, apparently hoping to
increase guerrilla strength to the point of toppling the
government. The central Malaysian Government has placed its
security forces on alert and has continued a crackdown on
leftist elements in Singapore. Additional Commonwealth forces
have been sent to northern Borneo from Singapore.
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Cross-border raids from Indonesian territory and increas-
ingly effective Commonwealth military countermeasures have
resulted in guerrilla warfare. Unless a political solution
is reached, this guerrilla activity, combined with other ele-
ments of the confrontation, could well escalate into open war-
fare between the protagonists in this area.
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II. Historical Background
A. Chronology
1841 Beginning of hereditary rule by Brooke family in
Sarawak
1881 British North Borneo Company established
1888 Brunei Sultanate became British Protectorate
1891 Boundaries established between British and Dutch
spheres of influence
1929 Discovery of oil in Brunei
1941 Third hereditary Rajah of Sarawak promulgated con-
stitution on centenary anniversary of Brooke rule
1945 Indonesian resistance to return of Dutch control
began
1946 Rajah of Sarawak ceded territory to British Crown
1946 North Borneo established as British Crown Colony
1949 Dutch Government transferred sovereignty to Indo-
nesian Government
1955 First popular (direct) elections in Indonesia
1959 Constitutional monarchy declared by Sultan of
Brunei
1959 First popular (indirect) elections in Sarawak
1959 Indonesian 1945 Constitution readopted granting
president virtually unlimited executive powers
1961 Prime Minister of Malaya proposed merger of Malaya,
Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo, and Brunei in a-
federation (Malaysia)
1962 Tour of Cobbold Commission (UK) to assess local
sentiment for federation
1962 First popular (indirect) elections in Brunei
(September); short-lived revolt by political ele-
ments in Brunei (December)
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1962 First popular (indirect) elections in North Borneo
1963 (June) Agreement for creation of Malaysia signed
by United Kingdom, Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, and
North Borneo. Brunei declined to join. Inaugural
date for Malaysia set for 31 August 1963
1963 (August) "Summit meeting" of heads of Malayan,
Indonesian, and Philippine Governments resulted in
creation of consultative association on regional
problems (called "Maphilindo") and delay in forma-
tion of Malaysia pending UN-supervised assessment
of local sentiment
1963 (September) Malaysia inaugurated 16 September
B. Introduction
Borneo has no documented early history, but various legends
and early chronicles describe the island as subject to inter-
mittent Chinese, Sumatran, and Javanese rule. During the 15th
century, Borneo was part of the powerful Moslem empire at
Malacca, and with its decline in mid-century sea-roving sul-
tans based in northern Borneo extended their control along
coastal areas. In the early 16th century western explorers,
in search of the source of the rich spice trade, saw the mag-
nificence of the Brunei court at the height of its influence.
With the rise of western colonial power in the area in the
17th century, the Brunei Sultanate entered a period of decline
in which piracy, slave trading, and headhunting became major
occupations. The desire for peaceful sealanes and exploita-
tion of natural resources led to increased British and Dutch
activity on the island during the 19th century. The two
governments in 1891 established the boundaries between their
spheres of influence, which are the present borders of the
northern states and Indonesian Borneo.
C. Sarawak
Private British interests in northern Borneo began in
1841 when James Brooke was granted the title of Rajah of Sara-
wak and a tract of land by the Sultan of Brunei for his help
in settling a local revolt. Expeditions against lawless ele-
ments in the surrounding areas added to the territory con-
trolled by the Brooke family, whose rule continued until 1941.
In that year, the third (and last) Rajah Brooke gave up his
autocratic powers and started the state toward self-government
under a constitution. Following World War II, he ceded the
territory to the British Crown. British colonial policy led
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to gradually increased popular participation in both local
and national government, and in 1959 the first statewide
elections were held.
D. Brunei
The Sultanate of Brunei by the end of the 19th century
had been reduced to two small coastal enclaves by the expan-
sion of North Borneo and Sarawak, and by the wars of local
chieftains. The British Government made Brunei a protectorate
in 1888 and restricted the Sultan's powers to matters of
Moslem and native law in 1906. The discovery of rich deposits
of oil in 1929 has had an important impact on Brunei's poli-
tical and social development since World War II. An extensive
development program was begun in 1953 to improve living
standards, raise educational levels, and provide numerous
social services. The British restored almost full executive-
powers to the Sultan in 1956, and in 1959 he enacted a con-
stitution which provided for popularly elected representatives
in national and local government. These progressive measures,
however, brought with them a number of new problems. The
development program stalled in 1959 because of inefficiency
in administration, increasing corruption, and the vacillations
of the Sultan's government. Unemployment increased as jobs
failed to keep pace with newly educated applicants and as new
construction slowed. General discontent was exploited by the
Partai Ra'ayat whose leaders, despite their capture of all -
elected seats in the national legislature, found themselves
still outnumbered by the Sultan's appointed majority. Since
an abortive coup attempt by some of the party's members in
December 1962, Brunei has returned to an outward calm, but
its basic problems remain unresolved.
E. Sabah
Sabah (formerly known as North Borneo) came under British
chartered company control in 1881. In that year, various
foreign interests were consolidated in the British North Borneo
Company following negotiations with the Sultans of Brunei and
Sulu, each of whom claimed rights over the land involved.
Company rule did little to encourage self-government, but pro-
vided a climate favorable for private investment and native
progress. Sabah suffered extensive damage during World War II
when it was occupied by the Japanese and regained by Allied
forces. Rehabilitation was beyond company resources, and the
territory was made a Crown Colony in 1946. In recent years
the area has achieved rapid economic development. Self-govern-
ment has been slower to develop, however, and popular elec-
tions were not introduced until 1962.
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F. Kalimantan
The modern history of Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan) has
been dominated chiefly by Javanese rather than local events.
Dutch colonial control was centered in a few cities; the rural
areas were controlled through the traditional rulers of local
groups, with a minimum of direct contact with Dutch adminis-
trators. Most of the fighting against the return of Dutch
control at the end of World War II took place on Java and
Sumatra, and Borneo played only a minor role in the achieve-
ment of Indonesian independence. Javanese leadership has
continued to dominate the Indonesian Government, causing con-
siderable local resentment and, in some areas, minor dissident
activity. By 1957 the central government had divided Kali-
mantan into the present four administrative areas (see map
Population and Administrative Divisions) as a result of diffi-
culties in administering it as one province and in response
to some agitation for greater freedom in handling local
problems.
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III. Physical Geography
A. Introduction
Borneo, the third largest island in the world, occupies
288,154 square miles of territory, more than the state of
Texas. It extends from 7?N across the equator to 4?S and
from 109?E to 119?E. In the north are the British Protec-
torate of Brunei (2,226 square miles) and two states of the
new federation, Malaysia -- Sarawak (48,250 square miles) and
Sabah (29,388 square miles). The rest of the island (208,290
square miles) is Indonesian territory.
Anyone whose first-hand knowledge of Indonesia is based
on visits to Java must revise his thinking to visualize
Borneo. The mountains in Borneo are lower and less rugged
than those in Java, and in many other respects Borneo con-
trasts sharply with its neighbor island to the south. In
Borneo the rivers are long and form an integral part of the
communications system, there are no active volcanoes (there
are 16 on Java), earthquakes are uncommon (only about 4 a
year as against 55 a year on Java), cultivated areas are
small and scattered, and much of the area is unpopulated.
Borneo is largely unexplored or very inadequately known.
It is a land of jungle; more than 90 percent of the island
is covered with dense evergreen forest. To illustrate the
completeness of the vegetative cover, it has been said,that
an orangutan could travel through Borneo from end to end with-
out once touching the ground.
Mountain ranges covered with dense tropical forest occupy
most of the interior of Borneo; poorly drained lowlands, also
covered with dense tropical forest, occupy the coastal regions
and extend inland more than 100 miles in some areas. Non- _
forested areas are small, scattered, and generally limited to
cultivated clearings along the rivers.
The physical characteristics of Borneo make the island
much more suitable for unconventional warfare than for con-
ventional military operations. Mountains in the interior,
swamps in the lowlands, and dense forest throughout -- includ-
ing almost impenetrable forests of mangrove and nipa palms
along much of the coastline -- preclude cross-country vehicu-
lar movement in all but a few small, scattered areas. Cross-
country foot travel, although generally possible throughout
the island, is arduous in most parts. The absence of good
paths and easily visible landmarks makes it difficult to find
one's way, even with the help of a compass. Travel at night
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is doubly difficult, as the forest is pitch black. Steep
slopes are a deterrent to foot movement in parts of the
interior. The mountains themselves are generally not hard
to climb, however, as all except the highest and those with
occasional sheer faces of bare rock are tree covered all the
way to the top and the trunks and exposed roots provide hand-
holds on slopes that would otherwise be too steep to climb.
The areas most unsuited to cross-country movement are the
vast, densely forested, poorly drained lowlands. The combina-
tion of saturated sultry atmosphere (temperature and humidity
are consistently high), land leeches (which no clothing will
effectively keep out), and innumerable streams that must be
forded, makes overland travel in Borneo extremely uncomfort-
able. The numerous rivers, although subject to flooding at
any time of the year, provide the best transportation routes
on the island.
B. Terrain, Drainage, and Vegetation
1. Terrain
A central mountainous backbone trends northeast-southwest
(see map Terrain) from Marudu Bay at the northeastern tip of
Borneo nearly to Tandjung Sambar at the southwestern corner.
This backbone divides rivers that flow to the South China Sea
on the northern and western sides of the island from those
that flow toward the Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Makassar
Strait on the east and toward the Java Sea on the south. The
central backbone, together with two secondary ranges that
extend laterally from it toward the sea, forms a very rough
"X" pattern which extends to the four corners of the island
and divides it into Western, Southern, Eastern, and Northern
Lowland Regions. One of the two lateral ranges that forms
part of the "X" pattern lies north of the watershed of the
Kapuas River and extends from the central range to Tandjung
Datu at the northwestern tip of the island.. It forms the
boundary between western Sarawak and Indonesian Borneo and
separates the Northern Lowlands from the Western Lowland.
The other lateral range extends southward from the east-
central part of the island -- west of the Mahakam Basin --
almost to Tandjung Selatan at the southeastern corner. It
separates the Eastern Lowlands from the Southern Lowland.
The Western and Southern Lowland Regions are continuous,
whereas the Eastern and Northern Lowland Regions comprise
several individual lowlands separated by spurs from the
interior mountains.
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Hilly or mountainous terrain occupies more than half the
island. Elevations in the upland regions are generally less
than 6,000 feet above sea level, and most ranges are breached
by gaps and passes at elevations of less than 1,000 feet.
Most of the mountain chains consist of short ranges with iso-
lated peaks and many low passes rather than of continuous
high ridges that extend for great distances. Some ranges
have flat-topped mountains with steep sides; others have
knife-edged ridges, summits barely wide enough to walk on,
and steep slopes. The lowland regions are monotonously flat
and poorly drained and may be under water several months of
the year.
2. Drainage
The upper courses of most of the rivers of Borneo have
steep gradients and steep valley walls. Waters are turbulent,
and flash floods -- with rises in stream level of more than
30 feet in a few hours -- are common throughout the year. In
the foothills, valleys are generally wider and stream gradients
more moderate than in the mountains, but there are occasional
gorges and rapids. Flash floods may occur at any time, partic-
ularly in the narrower valleys. In the lowlands, rivers
generally meander sluggishly in broad channels. The streams
are usually braided, and channels shift continually. Banks
are low and muddy, and sandbars and mudbars are numerous in
the stream channels. Long, narrow lakes that occupy beds
abandoned by the shifting channels dot the landscape. During
wet weather, wide areas along the stream channels are inundated
to depths of several feet and one can wander for miles in a
small boat through quiet flooded jungle.
Except for five of the major rivers -- the Kapuas, Maha
kam, Kajan, Sesajap, and Rajang -- the rivers of Borneo form
broad, shallow, single-channel estuaries as they empty into
the sea. The above five rivers divide into numerous broad,
shallow distributaries separated by mangrove-fringed islands
of mud where they enter the tidal zone. These distributaries
branch out to form broad deltas. At high tide the larger
streams can be entered from the sea by fairly sizable vessels,
but at low tide sandbars and mudbars block the entrances.
3. Vegetation
The mountains and hills of Borneo are, except for the
highest peaks, covered with a luxuriant forest of broad-leaved
evergreen trees. The few cultivated areas are generally con-
fined to lower slopes and to river valleys. In the upland
areas, up to an elevation of about 3,000 feet, the forest
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Figure 1. Tree of the tropical forest,
illustrating development of plate-like
buttresses along the base.
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Figure 2. The forest floor. Where the leaf
canopy is dense, little sunlight penetrates to
the forest floor, undergrowth is sparse, and
movement by foot, although hindered in places by
exposed roots, is relatively easy.
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Figure 3. The forest floor. Where the leaf canopy is
sparse, such as along paths and streams, undergrowth is
dense and foot movement off the trails is difficult.
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consists of trees up to 6 feet in diameter and up to 150 (and
occasionally 200) feet in height. The trees commonly have a
thin, platelike buttress that extends up the trunk as much as
15 feet and outward along the ground for several feet. The
tree crowns form a canopy, generally 80 to 150 feet above the
forest floor. There usually are secondary canopies at lower
levels. Density of undergrowth in this type of forest varies
according to density of leaf canopy and amount of sunlight
received on the forest floor. Where the canopy is dense, the
forest floor is quite open and free of undergrowth. Where the
canopy is relatively open -- on the margin of clearings and
along streams -- undergrowth is dense.
At elevations of about 3,000 to 7,000 feet, trees are
smaller, generally less than 100 feet high and 3 feet in dia-
meter, and undergrowth is denser. Evergreen shrubs commonly
form dense thickets 4 to 6 feet high. Undergrowth is less
dense along ridge lines where the soil is thinner and drier.
Coniferous trees appear in this zone and become more common
at higher elevations. On slopes where cloud cover is persis-
tent, trees are no higher than 40 feet, gnarled, closely
spaced, and festooned with wet moss; a mat of mossy vegetation,
often several feet thick, covers the ground. Above 7,000 feet,
a tangle of shrubs 3 to 4 feet high is interspersed with trees
less than 20 feet high. Steeper slopes may be bare.
Salt-water swamp forests of mangrove and nipa palm are
found along all coasts of Borneo but are most extensive on
the eastern and southern coasts. These forests may extend
unbroken along the coast for many miles and may extend inland
along the major rivers as far as the tidal influence (up to
about 20 miles). They vary in width from a few yards to
about 2 miles. The mangroves grow on the outer (seaward)
side of the salt-water swamp forest; nipa palms usually grow
on the inner (inland) side and along the rivers. The man-
grove tree is a broad-leaved evergreen, usually 10 to 100
feet in height and closely spaced. Although there is little
undergrowth among the mangroves, the trees have a complex
system of intertwined aerial roots that are exposed at low
tide. The nipa palm has a horizontal trunk, usually buried
in the mud, from which closely spaced fronds extend up to 20
feet. Movement through the mangrove and nipa forests is
extremely difficult.
In many places, particularly on the north coast, the low-
land regions are fringed on their seaward side by narrow
sandy beaches covered by groves of casuarina -- a tree that
resembles pine -- or coconut palms. The casuarina growth is
quite sparse and does not offer much hindrance to movement.
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Figures 4
and
5. Mangroves at low tide (above)
and high
tide
(below). Mangrove forests extend
unbroken
for
many miles along the Borneo coasts.
They vary
in
width from a few yards to about 2
miles.
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Figures 6 and 7. Nipa palms (above and
below). Nearly impenetrable growths of
nipa palms occur along the banks of
many rivers inland as far as the tidal
influence and sometimes along the in-
land side of the mangrove forests.
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Figure 8. Stand of casuarina trees. Groves of
casuarinas are common on sandy beaches, particu-
larly on the north coast. They offer little
hindrance to foot movement but opportunities for
concealment from ground observation are poor.
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Figures 9 and 10. Fresh water swamp forest.
The swamp forest, which covers most of the low-
land regions of Borneo, is dense, the ground is
spongy at best and flooded at worst, and move-
ment except by river craft is extremely difficult.
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Fresh water swamp forests extend inland from the area of
tidal influence to the foothills of the interior and also
cover much of the major interior river basins. They are most
extensive on the northern, western, and southern parts of the
island and least extensive in the east. These forests are
generally similar to the broad-leaved evergreen forests of the
upland areas, but the trees are smaller and more closely
spaced. Roots are often above ground, and platelike but-
tresses extend well up the trunk more commonly than in the
upland forest. There are many vines and low shrubs, and
undergrowth is dense. The ground is muddy or spongy and much
of the swamp forest is frequently inundated, particularly
between November and April.
Scattered throughout the swamp forest are broad marshy
depressions. They are of limited extent except along the
Barito River in southeastern Borneo and in the interior river
basins, notably the basins of the upper Kapuas and middle
Mahakam Rivers. The vegetation of the marshlands consists
of grass and reeds with scattered trees and bushes. The
ground is damp and spongy throughout the year, and from Novem-
ber through April the marsh areas become lakes up to 5 feet
deep.
C. Upland Regions (see Regions I through III on map
Terrain)
1. Central Mountain Range
The Northeastern Sector of the central mountainous back-
bone (which occupies most of Sabah) consists of a broad belt
of high, steep-sided parallel ridges trending northeast-
southwest and separated by narrow valleys. The ridges are
generally more than 100 miles long; the westernmost ridge
comes close to the coast. Sheer cliffs are common. Several
pinnacles exceed 10,000 feet in elevation. The highest peak
on the island -- Mount Kinabalu, in the Crocker Range on the
western side of the mountainous belt and about 40 miles south
of Marudu Bay -- is 13,455 feet high. Mountainous spurs
extend eastward from the main range to the east coast where
they form cliffs and rocky headlands.
b. Middle Sector
The central mountainous spine, the Middle Sector of which
is made up of the Iran and Muller Mountain ranges, continues
southwestward along the Kalimantan -- Sarawak border into
Kalimantan. The Iran Mountains are generally rugged and
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Figure 11. Forested Uplands. This view of the North-
eastern Sector of the Central Mountain Range shows
typically heavily wooded and rugged topography of the
Borneo Uplands. Note the scattered clearings in the
right foreground. Mount Kinabalu is in the right back-
ground. The river is tile Sungei Labuk.
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steep. Most crests are rounded and at elevations of 4,000
to 5,000 feet, although a few peaks are higher, the highest
reaching 7,800 feet. A number of ridges extend westward
toward the South China Sea and eastward toward the Celebes
Sea. They generally terminate as low foothills near the
coasts.
The Muller Mountains, which trend southwestward along the
eastern side of the Upper Kapuas Plain, are a chain of peaks
of volcanic origin, in part flat-topped, generally 4,000 to
5,000 feet above sea level. Slopes are almost vertical in
places, particularly on the western side of the range where
they drop sharply to the Upper Kapuas Plain. On the east,
several'low spurs extend eastward to the western edge of the
Mahakam Basin.
c. Southwestern Sector
The Schwaner Mountains trend southwestward from the Muller
Mountains almost to the southwestern corner of the island.
The Schwaner chain generally is lower (3,000 to 5,000 feet
above sea level, although one peak attains a height of about
7,500 feet) and narrower than the Muller Mountains, with
several passes at less than 1,000 feet. To the north the
slopes of the Schwaner Mountains drop quite steeply; to the
south they merge gradually with the hills of southwest Borneo.
2. Northwestern Mountains
A discontinuous chain of mountains that extends eastward
from Tandjung Datu at the northwestern corner of the island
forms the boundary between western Sarawak and Kalimantan.
In the westernmost sector, west of Kuching, crests are gener-
ally low except for one peak of about 5,000 feet, and there
are numerous passes at elevations of less than 300 feet.
South of Kuching is a belt of limestone hills with steep
slopes eroded into pinnacles in places and honeycombed with
numerous caves. The rest of the chain, known as the Upper
Kapuas Mountains, is characterized by greatly dissected east-
west trending hills and low mountains separated by broad,
flat to gently rolling valleys. Main ridges average less than
4,000 feet above sea level, but some peaks are higher.
Although the forest cover is dense, the Northwestern Moun-
tains, particularly between Tandjung Datu and Lubok Antu,
are not a serious hindrance to north-south foot travel
between Sarawak and Kalimantan. Movement is easiest in the
sector west of Kuching. The Northwestern Mountains merge with
the Iran Range northeast of the Upper Kapuas Plain.
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Figure 12. Mountains of southeastern Sarawak. These
ridges are westward-extending spurs of the Iran Range.
Slopes are steep, the forest cover is unbroken, and
foot movement in the area would be difficult. The
area is virtually uninhabited.
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Figure 13. A limestone hill in Sarawak. Such hills,
rising steeply above the surrounding terrain, are common
south of Kuching and in Sabah. They are commonly honey-
combed with caves.
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3. Southeastern Mountains
A series of low mountain ridges at elevations of about
2,000 to 4,000 feet forms the Meratus Range, which extends
from the eastern spurs of the Muller Mountains southward to
Tandjung Selatan. Several passes across the mountains con-
nect the valley of the Barito River with the east coast.
In the north, ridges trend almost due north-south; in the
south they curve northeast-southwest.
4. Suitability for Operations
Vehicular movement in most areas of the Upland Regions is
precluded by the dense forest cover and steep slopes. The
only extensive area where vehicles may be able to travel is
the lower western slopes of the Meratus Range in southeastern
Borneo, where grasslands prevail. Even here movement is not
easy because the grass is generally 2 to 4 feet high and has
stiff, sharp blades.
Movement on foot by individuals or by small groups is
possible throughout the Upland Regions, but is arduous in
many places because of steep slopes and dense vegetation.
Travel is easiest on slopes at elevations up to about 3,000
feet. Only on the margins of clearings and along streams is
the undergrowth dense and movement hindered by tangles of
trees and shrubs and climbing cablelike vines. Within the
forest, undergrowth is sparse and movement is relatively easy.
On slopes at elevations of about 3,000 to 7,000 feet move-
ment on foot is somewhat more difficult, as undergrowth is
denser. On the highest slopes of the Upper Kapuas, Muller,
Iran, and Crocker Mountains foot movement is seriously
hindered by short, gnarled, closely spaced trees. These high
elevations are easily avoided because passes at elevations
below 1,000 feet are numerous.
Throughout the greater part of the Upland Regions, areas
of grassland are few, small, and widely scattered. Most of
them are located near the junction of the boundaries of
Sarawak, Sabah, and Kalimantan, but the only extensive grass-
lands are on the western slopes of the Meratus Range. Move-
ment on foot may be slowed by the sharp blades of the grass.
During dry weather fire is a hazard.
Concealment from air and ground observation is good
throughout the greater part of the Upland Regions. Only at
elevations above 7,000 feet, where the slopes have sparse
vegetation or are bare, and in the grasslands is concealment
a problem.
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Figures 14 and 15. Grassland. Small, scattered grasslands
are scattered throughout the Uplands, particularly in the
Northeastern Sector of the Central Mountain Range and along
the western slopes of the Meratus Range. The grass blades
are stiff and sharp, up to 4 feet high, and burn easily dur-
ing dry weather.
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A dense evergreen forest makes nearly all of the moun-
tainous interior of Borneo unsuitable for use as aircraft
landing zones and drop zones. Other than the grasslands on
the western slopes of the Meratus Range, the only sizeable
flat area suitable for use as a drop zone is a tableland in
the mountains at the juncture of the Sarawak, Sabah, and
Kalimantan borders. This tableland, which is about 30 miles
from east to west and 50 miles from north to south, comprises
the upper drainage basins of the Baram, Tutoh, Limbang,
Trusun, Sesajap, and Bahau river systems. The flat areas are
either cleared for cultivation or are abandoned and now sup-
port a grass cover. They were used as drop zones by the
Allied forces during World War II.
D. Lowland Regions (see Regions IV through VII on map
Terrain)
1. Western Lowland
The extensive lowland region of western Borneo is roughly
triangular in shape and is bordered by the Northwestern
Mountains on the north and by the Muller and Schwaner Moun-
tains on the east and south. The region is divided into
eastern and western halves by a belt of north-south trending
low hills. To the east of this belt are the Upper Kapuas
Plain and the watershed of the Melawi River. The Upper Kapuas
Plain is 100 to 150 feet above sea level and is poorly
drained. Terrain on its margins is rolling. The rest of the
plain is flat, sprinkled with numerous lakes and swamps, and
crossed by a complex system of channels and tributaries of
the Kapuas River. Most of the plain is covered by evergreen
forest with dense undergrowth. There are also scattered
areas of marshland and cultivation. Most of the ground of
the Upper Kapuas Plain always is moist and frequently between
November and April is flooded. In dry weather, hollows filled
with black mud dot the landscape.
The low-lying area south of the Kapuas River, which is
the watershed of the Melawi River, is covered with grass.
The entire area is damp throughout the year, but flooding is
less frequent than in the Upper Kapuas Plain.
The lowlands of the west coast, which extend inland about
40 miles, are for the most part low, flat, poorly drained,
and covered with dense evergreen forest. The northern sector
of the west coast, between the Sarawak -- Kalimantan border
and Singkawang, is low, mostly sandy but with stretches of
mangrove, and backed by dense swamp forest. Hills descend
close to the sea at Singkawang. Southward to the delta of
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the Kapuas River the coastal strip continues low and swampy
with occasional patches of coconuts a short distance inland.
The Kapuas Delta, which extends along the coast for more than
100 miles, consists of many mangrove-fringed distributaries.
Most channels are obstructed by bars and shoals but are gen-
erally navigable by small craft. Offshore from the southern
part of the Kapuas Delta are two large islands which are low,
swampy, and fringed with mangroves. Numerous coral reefs and
small islets extend southwestward from these islands. Between
the Kapuas Delta and Tandjung Sambar at the southwest corner
of Borneo, the shores are low and densely covered with swamp
forest; there are a few rocky upland areas. North of Tandjung
Sambar are some offshore coral reefs.
Potential landing beaches are scattered along the entire
west coast except for the Kapuas Delta and other stretches
covered with mangrove-nipa swamp. Exits from beaches into
the interior, however, are blocked by dense vegetation.
Cross-country vehicular movement in the Western Lowland
is precluded by the moist ground, frequent flooding, and dense
vegetation. Similarly, movement on foot is arduous in the
interior of the region throughout the year and particularly
difficult between November and April when most of the region
is flooded to a depth of several feet. The areas of grass
along the Melawi River offer the least resistance to travel
on foot, but the ground is spongy at best and is muddy or
inundated during wet weather. Foot travel is extremely diffi-
cult in the coastal lowlands because of the dense vegetation,
which is often nearly impenetrable close to the coasts, and
because most of the land is inundated throughout the year.
In the Western Lowland, as in all lowland regions of
Borneo, rivers offer the easiest and in many instances the
only feasible way to travel. When traveling by river craft,
however, it is difficult to avoid detection by the local
people, who live mostly in small villages on raised banks of
the main streams, away from the wilderness of channels,
pools, and flooded forests.
Opportunities for concealment from ground and air obser-
vation away from waterways are excellent throughout most of
the Western Lowland. Concealment is likely to be a problem
only in the Upper Kapuas Plain and Melawi River grasslands
and in the areas of native cultivation (which are generally
confined to the northern banks of the Kapuas River and to the
better drained coastal stretches north of Pontianak).
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Figure 16. Confluence of the Kapuas and Melawi Rivers in the
Western Lowland. The area is a patchwork of forest, cultiva-
ted land, and grass. The area is poorly drained although
flooding is less frequent than in the upper stretches of the
Kapuas. Sintang is located at the juncture of the two rivers.
Figure 17. Flooded grassland along a tributary of the Barito
River in the Southern Lowland. Flooding is most extensive from
November through April. - 29 -
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No natural sites are suitable for aircraft landing zones
in the Western Lowland because of the dense vegetation and
the moistness of the ground. Wide stretches of the Kapuas
River and some of the larger lakes in the region are probably
suitable for use as seaplane landing sites. The lakes, how-
ever, may be too shallow for such use from May to October.
The areas best suited for use as drop zones away from
native settlements are in the grasslands of the Upper Kapuas
Plain and along the Melawi River. From November through
April, however, the flooding of parts of these areas may pre-
clude their use as drop zones. Indonesia was reported to have
dropped 200 to 250 troops near Sintang (00004'N-111?30'E) and
Senaming (00?55'N-111?00'E) in September 1963.
2. Southern Lowland
The Southern Lowland comprises a very broad, flat, and
generally poorly drained region bordered on the west and north
by the Schwaner and Muller Mountains and on the east by the
Meratus Range. The lowland extends inland more than 100
miles into the foothills of the mountains to the north. In
the west, spurs of low hills stretch southward well into the
lowland. Rivers are torrential along the northern margin of
the region but are slow and meandering for most of their
length.
Nearly all of the Southern Lowland is forested. Only
along the river valleys are extensive cultivated areas found;
many of these have been planted to rubber trees. The higher
lands of the north and west are covered with broad-leaved
evergreen forest. These higher areas, although moist during
much of the year, are generally free from inundation except
for brief periods after heavy rains, which occur most fre-
quently from November through April. The rest of the Southern
Lowland is covered with swamp forest -- mangroves and nipa
palms along the coast, broad-leaved evergreens in the interior.
In these swamp forests, the ground is always wet and frequently
inundated to a depth of several feet. Undergrowth is generally
dense.
The coastal strip of the Southern Lowland is low along its
entire length. It is swampy and lined with mangroves and nipa
palms along most of its length, with only occasional stretches
of sandy beaches. The most extensive sandy areas -- and the
stretches most suitable for use as landing beaches -- are east
of Tandjung Sambar, east of Tandjung Keluang, and along the
north-south trending shoreline between the estuary of the
Kumai River and Tandjung Puting. All these beaches are backed
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by dense swamp forest, however, and movement into the interior
is extremely difficult. The rivers that flow to the Java Sea
have no deltas. Most of them have wide, shallow estuaries
that are usually obstructed by sandbars and mudbars at low
tide. The Barito River is the major river that flows through
the Southern Lowland. At high tide, ships with 12-foot
draught can enter the Barito River and navigate far into the
interior. During the wetter part of the year, vessels drawing
7-1/2 feet can ascend the river beyond Muaratewe, more than
160 miles inland.
Cross-country vehicular movement is precluded throughout
the Southern Lowland -- with the possible exception of the few
small rubber plantations along the western rivers -- by the
dense forest cover, the moist ground, and in many areas the
long periods of flooding.
Foot movement is relatively easy in the dry northern and
western forest areas, which generally have a sparse under-
growth. Throughout the rest of the Southern Lowland movement
on foot is extremely difficult because of the wet and often
flooded ground and dense undergrowth. Rivers offer the best
travel routes but are not always navigable. The traveler may
be delayed for days by low water in the lower stretches or
by high water and strong currents in the upper courses.
The dense canopy of the broad-leaved evergreen forest
which prevails throughout the Southern Lowland provides
excellent concealment from air observation. The forest of
the western and northern foothills gives good concealment
from ground observation; the forest of the rest of the region
provides excellent concealment from ground observation.
There are no natural sites suitable for aircraft landing
zones in the Southern Lowland. Wide stretches of some of
the larger rivers in their lower courses may be suitable for
use as landing sites for seaplanes. Sites suitable for drop
zones are limited to the few scattered areas of cultivation
along the rivers. The most extensive cleared area is along
the Barito River north of Bandjermasin, where wetland rice
is grown.
3. Eastern Lowlands
Along most of the east coast the lowlands are narrow and,
particularly in the north, interrupted by mountain spurs that
extend to the sea. The watersheds of the Mahakam and Sesajap
Rivers, however, form extensive plains.
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A coastal lowland generally less than 25 miles wide
extends from Tandjung Selatan at the southeastern tip of
Borneo northward to the delta of the Mahakam. It is bor-
dered on the west by the Meratus Range. Terrain is pre-
dominantly flat, with scattered hills. Except for the immedi-
ate coastal area, most of the southeastern lowland is well
drained. Dryland evergreen forest and cultivated crops are
the prevailing vegetation types. Along the coast vegetation
types vary considerably. Between Tandjung Selatan and Pulau
Laut -- an island with low and mangrove-lined shores separa-
ted from the mainland by a narrow strait -- the coastal areas
are covered by swamp forest in the west and by grasslands
with some cultivated crops in the east. From Laut Strait
northward to the Mahakam Delta the coast is low and has exten-
sive stretches of mangrove and occasional patches of sandy
beach, dryland evergreen forest, and cultivated fields.
Several large bays are formed by estuaries. The coastal
grassland areas between Tandjung Selatan and Laut Strait
and the stretches of sand north of the Strait are suitable
for use as landing beaches.
The Mahakam River, in its middle stretches, flows through
a vast (more than 3,000 square miles) swampy basin with a
complex system of shallow lakes and waterways. The southern
edge of this basin is relatively well drained and is covered
by a secondary growth of evergreen forest with dense under-
growth. Most of the rest of the basin is covered with swamp
forest interspersed with areas of native cultivation and grass-
land. The Mahakam flows out of the basin and through a low
range of hills to the coast, where it divides into numerous
distributaries fringed with mangroves and nipa palms, forming
a fan-shaped delta.
North of the Mahakam Delta the lowlands become narrower
and more broken as spurs from the interior mountains extend
close to the coast or jut into the sea as promontories.
Sandy beaches are scarce. Northward from the Mahakam Delta
to Tandjung Mangkalihat the coastal lowland is less than 10
miles wide. It is lined with mangrove and nipa palm forests
as far north as the mouth of the Sungai Karangan. From here
north to Tandjung Mangkalihat the lowland, including the
coast, consists of dryland evergreen forest and scattered
areas of native cultivation.
North of Tandjung Mangkalihat to the Kalimantan -- Sabah
border the coastal lowland continues low and narrow with
hilly terrain extending close to the coast in fingerlike
projections between the main streams. Coral reefs are
numerous offshore. The Kajan and Sesajap Rivers form large
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muddy deltas with channels fringed with forests of mangrove
and nipa palm. The lower stretch of the Sesajap River forms-
a broad, poorly drained plain, covered with dense swamp
forest that extends about 60 miles into the interior. Along
the Kajan and Sesajap Deltas the coastal waters are shallow
and dotted with numerous small, low, mangrove-fringed islands
separated by muddy channels with many bars, banks, and shoals.
Chief among these islands is Pulau Tarakan, an oil-producing-
area which is relatively densely populated.
The east coast of Sabah is very irregular, with numerous
promontories; coastal lowlands are narrow or nonexistent.
Most of the coast is lined with mangrove and nipa palm forests.
The inner parts of the lowland area are for the most part
covered with swamp forest that has a dense undergrowth of
vines and creepers.
Cross-country vehicular movement in most of the Eastern
Lowlands is precluded by the dense forest and poorly drained
ground, much of which is flooded throughout the year. Only
the narrow sandy areas between Laut Strait and the Mahakam
Delta and the grassland area between Tandjung Selatan and Laut
Strait are suitable for travel by vehicle. Even here, move-
ment is confined to the coastal areas, as access to the
interior is prevented by dense forests.
Cross-country foot travel is extremely difficult through
the mangrove and nipa palm growth that prevails along most
of the east coast. Travel on foot is also difficult in the
areas of swamp forest in the plains of the Mahakam and Sesajap
Rivers. Foot travel in the dryland evergreen forest covering
most of the rest of the region is easier, as the ground,
although often damp, is rarely flooded and undergrowth is
generally sparse. Foot travel in the few scattered cultivated
areas is easy.
Good concealment from air observation is provided by a
dense forest canopy, except in the grassland area between
Tandjung Selatan and Laut Strait. Concealment from ground
observation is excellent in the swamp forests of the Mahakam
and Sesajap drainage areas, and good in the areas of dryland
evergreen and mangrove and nipa palm forests. The grasslands,
native crop areas, and rubber plantations offer poor conceal-
ment from ground observation. Large caves are numerous along
the north sides of Mangkalihat and Semporna Peninsulas. The
caves on Semporna Peninsula are unsuitable for use as clandes-
tine safe areas or cache sites. They are exploited regularly
for birds' nests for birds' nest soup.
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No natural sites are suitable for use as aircraft landing
zones because of the prevalence of dense forest throughout
most of the Eastern Lowlands. Even the grassland west of
Laut Strait cannot be used for landings because the grass is
too high and its blades too stiff and sharp. The wider
stretches of the Mahakam River and some of the larger lakes
in the Mahakam Basin may be suitable for seaplane landings.
The grassland west of Laut Strait and the few scattered areas
cleared for native cultivation may be usable as drop zones.
4. Northern Lowlands
Along Borneo's north side the lowlands are widest in the
western part. Lowlands in the east are narrow and are divided
by mountain spurs that descend close to the coast.
The western part of the Northern Lowlands, between Tand-
jung Datu and Brunei Bay, reaches its maximum width along
the Rajang River where the lowland extends more than 50 miles
into the interior. Elsewhere in the western part the width
of the lowlands is generally less than 20 miles, and is nar-
rowest west of Kuching and between Bintulu and Miri. The
lowlands are swampy (most of the region is inundated through-
out the year) and traversed by many meandering streams.
Chief among these is the Rajang River which, with its tribu-
taries, drains about 15,000 square miles of territory. Near
the coast, the Rajang branches into a number of distribu-
taries which flow through a wide swampy delta. Broad-leaved
evergreen forest with dense undergrowth covers most of the
region. Dryland forest, usually moist but rarely inundated
for extended periods, prevails where low hills extend into
the lowland region. Cultivated areas are extensive along
the rivers. There are numerous rubber plantations near
Kuching and along the Rajang.
The coastline of the western part of the Northern Low-
lands is generally regular and low-lying. Although mangrove
and nipa palm forests cover much of the coastal area, there
are extensive stretches of narrow sandy beach, often as high
as 4 feet above high tide level and covered with a sparse
growth of casuarina trees. The longest sandy stretches are
between Bintulu and Miri. Offshore approaches are clear.
The eastern part of the Northern Lowlands, between Brunei
Bay and Marudu Bay, consists of generally narrow coastal low-
lands, which are occasionally broken by headlands. With the
exception of the broad, swampy peninsula on the northeast
side of Brunei Bay, the lowlands are less than 5 miles wide,
flat to gently rolling, and dotted with isolated hills and
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Figure 18. The western part of the Northern Low-
land. Groves of palm trees fringe an occasional
village. Pepper -- usually cultivated by Chinese
-- can be seen at lower right.
Figure 19. Sandy beach along Sarawak coast at low
tide. Such stretches are found on all Borneo coasts
but occur most often in Sarawak. The sand is usu-
ally firm enough for use by wheeled vehicles.
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patches of swamp. They are crossed by numerous short rivers
with rapid currents. Mangrove and nipa palm forests grow on
the northeast coast of Brunei Bay and between Jesselton and
Kota Belud. Narrow sandy beaches covered with sparse stands
of casuarina trees extend along much of the rest of the coast-
line. Offshore approaches are generally clear. A belt of
cultivated land parallels the coastline behind the stretches
of beach and swamp. Inland from the cultivated land, a
secondary forest with short trees and dense undergrowth
extends into the foothills of the Crocker Range to the east.
Cross-country vehicular movement is precluded throughout
most of the Northern Lowlands by year-round flooding, parti-
cularly in the west, and by dense forest. Only on the sandy
beaches (where movement into the interior is prevented by the
dense forests along their inner margins) and possibly in the
areas cleared for cultivation around Kuching and between Kota
Belud and Brunei Bay can cross-country vehicular movement be
considered. Cross-country travel on foot is difficult in
the swamp forest, which is inundated throughout the year, and
in the secondary forest along the interior of the lowland
between Kota Belud and Brunei Bay, which has an almost
impenetrable undergrowth. Walking elsewhere in the region
is relatively easy -- on the casuarina-covered beaches, in
the dryland forest, and in the cultivated areas.
Opportunities for concealment from air observation are
excellent throughout the Northern Lowlands except on the
beaches and in the areas cleared for cultivation. Opportuni-
ties for concealment from ground observation range from excel-
lent to poor. They are excellent in the belt of secondary
forest between Brunei Bay and Kota Belud and in the swampland
areas of broad-leaved evergreen forest, generally good in the
dryland areas of broad-leaved evergreen forest, and poor in
the cultivated areas and in the casuarina growths on the
beaches.
No natural sites are known to be suitable for use as air-
craft landing zones in the Northern Lowlands. The larger
rivers of Sarawak probably have some stretches suitable for
seaplane landings. Areas suitable for use as drop zones are
limited to the sandy beaches and to the cultivated regions
that are found mainly along the larger rivers, in the Kuching
area, and along the west coast of Sabah.
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E. Climate
1. General
On Borneo the equatorial climate imposes its monotonous
uniformity more than anywhere else in Indonesia. Climatic
elements vary little during the year; rainfall, temperature,
and humidity remain high (see Tables 1 and 2 at end of
chapter). There are no seasons as we know them. Instead the
climate is dominated by monsoons -- winds out of the north
between November and April and from the south between May and
October. The monsoonal winds are, as a rule, light to moderate
and blow steadily only in exposed coastal areas. Typhoons and
other tropical cyclones are rare on Borneo, but thunderstorms
are frequent, particularly during the north monsoon and during
the transitional periods between the monsoons (usually during_
April and October). In June and July, there are occasional
winds of gale force along the coastal. regions of Sabah.
Along the west coast, local squalls occur during the period
of the south monsoon. In the southern and western coastal
areas, land and sea breezes are marked, the sea breeze occur-
ring during the day and the land breeze at night.
Rainfall is very high throughout Borneo -- generally
between 100 and 200 inches annually. Unlike much of the rest
of the Indonesian archipelago, where rainfall during the
period of the south monsoon is considerably less than during
the north monsoon, on Borneo the monthly fluctuation in amount
of rainfall is insignificant. Rainfall during the north mon-
soon season is only slightly higher than during the south
monsoon, the difference being most pronounced in the southeast
part of the island where only about 10 percent of the yearly
total occurs between July and September. From area to area,
however, the amount of rainfall varies considerably. Preci-
pitation is generally less in the eastern and southeastern
parts than in the rest of the island. Rain falls more than
200 days a year in most areas but as few as 110 days in some
areas on the southeast coast. Muaraantjalung, in the Mahakam
Basin, receives only 87.3 inches of precipitation a year, and
Bandjermasin, in the lower Barito valley, receives only 93.3
inches. Interior areas generally have more rainfall than
coastal areas. Proceeding inland along the Kapuas River,
Pontianak, on the coast, receives 125.2 inches of rain a year;
Sintang, about 100 miles inland, receives 140 inches; and
Putussibau, 140 miles from the coast, receives 170.9 inches.
Precipitation fluctuates over particularly short distances in
mountainous regions, where the broken terrain affects the
amount of rainfall. Windward slopes may be covered by thick
banks of clouds and be drenched by heavy rain while leeward
slopes only a few miles away are cloudless.
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The weather of Borneo follows a regular daily pattern. A
blanket of mist develops over low-lying areas in the early
morning. The mist usually is dispersed by midmorning and
replaced by a cumulus cloud cover that reaches its maximum
extent and ascends into the mountains in the early afternoon.
By midafternoon, towering cumulonimbus clouds usually develop
and short thunderstorms are likely to occur. The clouds begin
to dissipate toward evening, and by sundown the sky may be
practically clear.
Sustained high temperatures throughout the year are char-
acteristic of Borneo. Monthly variations are considerably
less than daily variations. In the coastal areas, tempera-
tures rarely fall below 70?F or rise above 92?F. In the
mountain areas temperatures are lower (temperature decreases
about 1.6 degrees for every 300-foot increase in elevation)
and may plunge into the 50's during the night. Daily tempera-
ture variation is significantly greater in the mountains than
in the lowlands.
2. Climatic Factors Affecting Land and Air Operations
Frequent heavy rainfall which results in muddy or inundated
ground is the most serious climatic factor affecting ground
operations on Borneo. Roads and trails are likely to be
impassable during heavy rains. Although heavy rains fall at
any time during the year, flooding of lowland basins is most
serious from November through April.
The heat and high moisture content of the air cause rapid
deterioration of clothing and equipment.
Visibility on the ground is generally good, although it
may be limited to a few hundred feet during heavy rains and
to even less in the lowlands during the early morning mists.
It may also be poor on the highest peaks during the late
afternoon and early evening periods of cloudiness.
Winds and turbulence are usually not severe enough to
affect air operations seriously. Some turbulence occurs near
the crests of the interior mountains, particularly during the
afternoon and evening.
Cloud cover extensive enough to hamper air operations
occurs more frequently in the mountainous areas than in the
lowlands. Thick cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud banks persist
on windward slopes in the late afternoon and early evening.
In the lowland areas, cloud cover -- generally a thin stratus
layer with its base between 1,500 and 2,500 feet above sea
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level -- is most common in the morning or during rainstorms.
Cloud cover is usually light over both lowlands and mountains
during the night. Cloud cover is usually less from May to
October than during the rest of the year.
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U I N N l!1 C1 r I rl 1-9 L M Lf\ C~ r I
FH'' J OO H r-I rH NO H 0 rl H I 1 H H
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
3. CIA. NIS 44, British Indonesia, sec 22, Sep 51. C/NOFORN.
4. Ibid., sec 24, Aug 55. C/NOFORN.
5. CIA. NIS 100, Indonesia, sec 21, Apr 56. C.
6. Ibid., sec 22, pt II, Dec 54. C.
7. Ibid., sec 23, Feb 54. C.
8. Ibid., sec 24, Jan 56. C.
9. Harrisson, Tom. "Explorations in Central Borneo," The
Geographical Journal, vol CXIV, nos 4-6, Oct-Dec 49,
p. 129-150. U.
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IV. Population
A. Introduction
The total population of Borneo, according to 1960 census
figures for the northern part of the island and 1961 statis-
tics for Kalimantan, is about 5,385,000. The population and
density for individual political units are:
Sarawak
744,396
Brunei
83,877
Sabah (North Borneo)
454,328
Kalimantan
4,101,475
Density
(persons per
square mile)
Borneo has few urban centers, the urban population forming
only 10 percent of the total. Only five cities -- Kuching in
Sarawak, and Samarinda, Balikpapan, Bandjermasin, and Ponti-
anak in Kalimantan -- have populations over 50,000. Six
others -- Sibu and Miri in Sarawak; Jesselton, Sandakan, and
Tawau in Sabah; and Singkawang in Kalimantan -- have popula-
tions between 10,000 and 50,000 (see map Population and
Administrative Divisions).
The distribution of population on Borneo is uneven. Rela-
tively densely settled pockets are centered on the coastal
cities; the valleys of the lower and middle stretches of the
larger rivers (the Rajang, Kapuas, Mahakam, and Barito) sup-
port a somewhat lower density. The rest of the lowland
regions are generally sparsely populated. Large areas of the
mountainous regions are uninhabited.
Although there are no pronounced racial differences among
the peoples of Borneo (only the alien elements -- Chinese,
Europeans, Indians, Arabs, and the like -- are easily identi-
fiable), there is a lack of cultural uniformity on the island
partially due to the inhospitable terrain and dense vegetation
which have caused isolation of settlements.
The ancestors of the peoples of Borneo are believed to
have arrived from other parts of southeastern Asia in succes-
sive waves of migration over several centuries. Each wave
brought its characteristic social organization, customs, and
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language, and generally its people were culturally advanced
beyond those who had already arrived. The less advanced
peoples were pushed farther and farther into the interior.
They generally moved up the major rivers from the coasts, but
stopped short of the mountainous regions. Because there has
been little contact between the peoples on opposite sides of
the drainage divides in the interior, cultural contrasts
between peoples separated by, mountain barriers are greater
than those between groups separated only by jungle. People
of Malay extraction (including the Bandjarese and the Bugi-
nese)* now inhabiting the coastal areas of Borneo generally
have a considerably higher cultural level than people occu-
pying the interior lowlands and foothills who practice primi-
tive slash-and-burn agriculture. However, through the efforts
of missionaries and colonial administrators, and as a result
of improved communications, people of the interior are assimi-
lating the way of life of the more civilized people along the
coasts.
The Malays, Bandjarese, and Buginese tend more toward
Mongoloid physical traits than peoples of the interior. Some
Mongoloid characteristics appear among the latter, however,
including wide cheekbones, small oblique eyes with a peculiar
fold of the upper lid near the nose, and scanty beard. Their
stature is short and stocky (men average under 5'4"), hair is
black and generally straight, and skin color varies from
brown to yellow.
All indigenous** groups have some broad cultural traits
in common. For example, most practice slash-and-burn agri-
culture, live in communal longhouses, and have an animistic
religion. Because of isolation and lack of communication,
each group has developed its own distinctive language, which
generally is unintelligible to others. Language difference
is therefore the chief factor in cultural differentiation
among the indigenous groups.
* The maJor`et nic groups on Borneo are discussed in Sec-
tion J of this chapter. The distribution of individual groups
is shown on the map Ethnic Groups. Information on the size
and culture of ethnic groups in the Malaysian-Brunei part of
the island is reasonably accurate, as anthropological studies
are relatively abundant and census statistics are recent.
For Kalimantan, however, information is scarce, and the
figures provided in this chapter are correlations of various
estimates.
** The terms "indigenous" and "native" as used in this chapter
refer to the peoples who were on Borneo before the arrival of
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B. Migrations
Except for the Punans, a nomadic people who traditionally
have lived off the jungle in the far reaches of the interior,
the indigenous peoples of Borneo have a sedentary way of life.
They move their village sites a few miles up or downstream
every 10 to 15 years, after the soil in the village area has
been depleted. While this is usually the limit of tribal
movement, historically there have been noteworthy migrations
by various ethnic groups in the interior. For example, the
Sea Dayaks, Land Dayaks, Kenyahs, and Muruts once inhabited
only areas in that part of Borneo which is now Indonesian,
but over several generations they have expanded their areas
northward well into the Malaysian part of the island.
The Sea Dayaks are the most mobile of the indigenous
peoples, and many of them have migrated to Malaya and other
islands of the Indonesian Archipelago to seek employment.
Some of the Sea Dayaks living in Sarawak are relatively recent
arrivals, having come from Kalimantan to work in the oilfields
or to enlist in the British Army or in the police force.
Because of the lack of contact among the various tribes
within a group, there is little ethnic consciousness. For
instance, a Land Dayak, Sea Dayak, Kayan, Kenyah, or Kelabit
of Sarawak or a Murut of Sabah does not necessarily identify
himself with a person of the same ethnic group on the Kali-
mantan side of the border. For most of its length, the bor-
der between Malaysian Borneo and Indonesian Borneo follows the
divide that separates the rivers that flow to the north from
those that flow to the east, west, and south. A tribal com-
plex* within an ethnic group does not usually occupy an area
on both sides of the border. In some cases, however, particu-
larly west of Lubok Antu where the divide is low, tribal com-
plexes do straddle the border, and people cross the border
extensively. Because for most of its length the border tra-
verses remote, rugged, and heavily forested terrain and is
undemarcated, those natives who cross it are often unaware of
its existence.
the Malays, specifically these groups: Bajau, Dusun, Kayan,
Kedayan, Kelabit, Kenyah, Land Dayak, Melanau, Murut, Ngadju,
Punan, and Sea Dayak (Iban). Although most of them live in
the interior, the Bajaus, Kedayans, and Melanaus are found pri-
marily in coastal areas.
* The term "tribal complex" refers to an alliance of adjacent
villages of a single ethnic group but does not normally include
all villages of that group.
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k Yr,
T:~ s OF
Figure 20. A typical coastal settlement.
4 s
t1 ~ ~ ~3d
k .~ s y
Figure 21. A Sea Dayak longhouse.
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Of the peoples of the coastal areas, the Malays -- most
of whom migrated from the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, or the
Riau Archipelago -- and the Bandjarese -- who migrated from
Java -- have lived on Borneo for several centuries. The Chi-
nese have settled on Borneo only during the past 100 years.
As of 1959, under Indonesia's transmigration program, about
15,000 colonists from the overcrowded islands of Java, Madura,
and Bali had been resettled in Kalimantan, most of them in the
areas around Pontianak and Bandjermasin. Many of the Buginese,
who are found along the southeastern and eastern coasts, are
recent immigrants from the Celebes.
C. Housing
The rural peoples of the coastal areas on Borneo usually
live in small compact villages of single-family dwellings.
The houses, which are rectangular and usually have about four
rooms, are constructed with wood or palm thatch walls and
thatch roofs. Because they are built either over a river or
near a river on land subject to flooding, they are raised on
piles. Houses built over the water are connected to the shore
by catwalks. Canoes are used to travel between houses.
Villages of the interior usually consist of one or more
communal longhouses, which often are linked together by cat-
walks of split bamboo. Such villages are commonly situated
on a ridge above a riverbank, often on the inner side of a
sharp bend in the river. Villages along the lower stretches
of the rivers tend to be larger than those farther inland.
The longhouse varies considerably in length but averages
more than 50 feet and is 30 to 60 feet in width. It accommo-
dates from 50 to several hundred people. Additions are con-
structed as the number of occupants increases. The longhouse
is erected on a "forest of piles," with the floor generally
from 10 to 20 feet above the ground, and must be entered by
using ladders or notched logs that are propped against the
side of the house. Floors are rough-hewn planks or bamboo;
walls are board or bamboo; the roof is usually covered by palm
fronds, although wooden shingles are sometimes used. The
space beneath the house is used for storage, including paddy
(unmilled rice), and is usually also occupied by large numbers
of goats, pigs, dogs, and fowl. A loft beneath the roof is
generally used for storing grain. When, after 10 to 15 years
of occupancy, the village is abandoned, the longhouse is dis-
mantled, and the timbers are moved to the new site to be
used in the construction of a new longhouse.
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A veranda used for work, religious ceremonies, and as a
sleeping place for strangers extends along the full length of
one side of the longhouse. Verandas are entirely covered
except in Sea Dayak longhouses, where the veranda consists of
an inner roofed part and an outer unroofed part, and in Murut
longhouses, which have no veranda at all. In addition to
many household items and religious materials (for example,
arrangements of chicken feathers used as offerings to the
household gods) that hang from the rafters of the verandas,
many longhouses have on display a collection of blackened
skulls of heads taken in war by ancestors of the occupants.
Behind the veranda is an enclosed communal area running
the full length of the longhouse. Still farther back are
apartments, about 25 feet wide, that house single families of
six to eight persons. The chief's apartment is usually near
the middle of the longhouse, and the part of the veranda in
front of it is reserved for reception of guests and for formal
meetings.
D. Social Organization
Among the peoples of the interior, villages usually con-
sist of members of the same ethnic group. Although villages
inhabited by people of two different groups may be found near
one another -- even along the same river -- commonly a number
of villages of one group occupy a single river basin and will
be loosely allied. Traditionally, such alliances served
defensive purposes primarily. Even though large-scale inter-
tribal warfare has been all but eliminated, the pattern of
allied villages persists. Although the individual village is
virtually autonomous and usually is the highest form of social
organization, advice and cooperation are asked of chiefs of
neighboring villages when major decisions are to be made.
Because intermarriage is customary, neighboring villages within
a tribal complex have close ties of kinship.
A headman generally is in charge of each longhouse. If
there is more than one longhouse in the village, one of the
headmen also is recognized as the chief of the village. Gen-
erally the headman has little authority except in settling
quarrels within his own longhouse. Matters concerning the
entire village -- such as questions about crops, moving to
another site, and intertribal disputes -- are brought before
the village chief, who usually consults with village elders
before making a decision. In addition to these functions,
the village chief also levies punishment for minor crimes
(punishment for major crimes in all but the most remote areas
is now handled by Malaysian or Indonesian government authori-
ties), plays a leading role in social ceremonies and religious
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rites (he is responsible for seeing that taboos and omens are
observed), and serves as an arbitrator and mediator in such
matters as debt, inheritance, and divorce. Before the elimina-
tion of intertribal warfare, he was the leader of war parties.
In addition to his obligations to the people of his village,
the chief also acts as the link between the government and
his people; in this capacity, one of his main functions is
tax collecting. Although the position of chief is elective
and not hereditary, usually one of the sons of the late chief
is favored as his successor. In the Malaysian part of the
island the government often is influential in the selection
of the village chief. Sometimes a particularly strong chief
will extend his authority over neighboring village chiefs with-
in the tribal complex.
Although they are becoming less distinct, three social
classes are still distinguishable among most indigenous tribes.
An upper class, which is quite small and relatively wealthy,
includes the village headmen and their close relatives. The
middle class includes the great majority of the people. The
lower class is made up of descendants of captives taken in war
who served as slaves to the other two classes. The slaves
generally lived with their owners, and in the case of those
living with people of the middle class, the status of the two
groups was nearly equal.. Since the virtual elimination of
intertribal warfare, the lower class is disappearing rapidly,
and its members are being assimilated by the middle class.
Tribal codes of morality are generally strict. Marriage
is taken very seriously. Although no clear-cut laws control
marriage, native society is basically monogamous. However,
if a first wife has not borne children, a chief may take a
second wife. Marriage is usually within the members' class,
particularly in the upper class. Marriage between people of
villages within the same tribal complex is common, and marriage
between members of different ethnic groups is not uncommon.
A typical day in the villages of the interior begins
shortly before dawn, when animals and fowl become noisy. The
women rise shortly thereafter, light the fires in the long-
house, and go to the river for water for bathing and cooking.
The men begin to rise shortly after daybreak and eat the break-
fast that the women have prepared. During the rice-growing
season (usually October to February or March) all able-bodied
persons leave for the paddy fields after breakfast. Sometimes
all able-bodied villagers live in temporary huts in the fields
during the growing season.. During the rest of the year,
employment is more varied and includes hunting, fishing,
gathering jungle products, mending boats, and repairing the
longhouse.
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Figure 22. Sea Dayaks burning off a hillside prior to
planting. During August and September, the sky may be
hazy and overcast from such fires.
- 50 -
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Except during the rice-growing season, women remain in
or near the longhouse doing household chores such as pounding
paddy. The midday meal is eaten in the longhouse by those
who have remained in the village. About an hour before sun-
down, the men return from fishing or from their hunting and
gathering forays in the jungle. They bathe in the river and,
as darkness falls, go to their apartments for supper; the
women eat later. After supper the villagers gather on the
veranda to talk. They normally go to bed about 9 o'clock,
although when parties are held, they may stay up most of the
night.
E. Occupations
Although most of the people of Borneo who live in the
coastal lowlands are engaged in subsistence agriculture, many
also are employed in other economic enterprises, including
the timber and oil industries, and the pepper, coconut, and
rubber plantations. For most of the people, however, the
annual cycle of activities revolves around rice. The various
stages of its cultivation are the calendar of the countryside.
In the lowland areas, wetland rice is usually grown. The
people also raise vegetables, fruits, nuts, and other crops
as well as small animals and poultry. Rubber, pepper, and
copra are produced as cash crops.
In the interior the people have a subsistence economy,
and nearly all of them grow rice as their major crop, 95 per-
cent of which is dryland rice grown on a shifting, slash-and-
burn basis. The Dusuns and Muruts, most of whom live in
Sabah, are the only indigenous groups with a well-developed
system of wetland rice agriculture. In the Malaysian part of
the island the governments have initiated programs -- so far
not very successful -- to resettle tribes now practicing
wasteful, shifting agriculture, by moving them from the
mountainous interior to lower lands, in the hope that they
will become sedentary farmers.
In slash-and-burn agriculture a site -- usually a well-
drained hillside -- is selected by the village, and the trees
are felled and burned. During August and September the sky
is hazy and overcast from hundreds of fires as the trees are
burned. The drier the weather, the more complete the burnoff,
and the better the subsequent harvest. The clearing and har-
vesting generally are done in common by the villagers,
although each family lays claim to a part of the cleared land
and the rice harvested from it. After the trees have been
burned, the rice seeds are planted -- usually by women -- with
no further preparation of the land. During the growing season,
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Figure 23. Young padi growing on a cleared hill-
side. During the ripening season, people of the
community move into the small huts seen scattered
throughout the fields. The fields may be several
miles from the village.
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watchers equipped with elaborate devices of poles and ropes
are stationed in and around the fields to frighten away birds-
and other marauders. To assure a good crop the plants are
given great care and, as a further guarantee, religious rites-
are performed. Among many tribes, village longhouses are under
taboo for several days during the harvesting of the crop. =
After all the grain has been reaped and stored the people hold
a festival, perhaps lasting several days, with heavy eating
and drinking and much dancing. Neighboring villages may be
invited to attend.
After the harvest of the first rice crop the land usually
lies fallow for 1 or 2 years. Saplings that have grown up
during this period are then cut and burned to replenish the
soil for the next crop. This procedure may be followed three=
or four times, after which that land may be planted to other
crops such as yams or sugarcane for one or two seasons. By
the time 10 to 15 years have elapsed the soil all around the
village has been depleted. The site is abandoned, and the
village is moved to a new site.
In addition to rice, the villages have small gardens of
allspice, sugarcane, and various vegetables and fruits
(including corn, yams, cucumbers, bananas, pumpkins, melons,
and cassava). Nearly all villages have coconut trees, and
dense thickets of sago palm are found around many. The pith
of the trunk of the sago palm serves as a substantial part of-
the diet for the less advanced peoples, and as an emergency -
food for others when the rice yields are poor. Most indigenous
peoples drink a brew made from the distillation of fermented
rice water. Sometimes the drink is made from sugarcane, sago
palms, or mashed and boiled fruits. Betel palms are raised
for their nuts which are chewed as a mild stimulant, and
which stain the teeth black. Tobacco is grown by many groups.
As most villages of Borneo are situated near large rivers,
fish provide an important part of the diet. Fish are caught
in a variety of ways -- occasionally with rod and line, but
more commonly with casting nets, traps, or with spears after
the fish have been stunned by a poison that has been dumped
into the river. The last method -- using the sap of the root
of the tuba plant as the poison -- formerly was very common
but, because it kills 411 the fish, large and small, the
Borneo governments in recent years have discouraged the prac-
tice.
In addition to keeping small domestic animals and poultry,
the natives of Borneo hunt a number of wild animals, most com-
monly pig and deer, but also wild cattle, monkeys, tigers,
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bears, lizards, and various types of birds. The hunter uses
many methods. Often he drives the animals into a net of
rattan or uses various types of traps. Weapons include the
spear, the parang (a heavy steel blade mounted in a bone han-
dle, which has been used for everything from clearing the
jungle to decapitating an enemy), the blow pipe with poisoned
darts (long the traditional weapon of most natives of Borneo),
and the shotgun (introduced to the natives more than 50 years
ago).
The peoples of the interior of Borneo barter products of
the jungle -- rubber, camphor, rattan, honey, beeswax, sago,
birds' nests, resin gum, and gutta-percha -- with coastal
tradesmen in exchange for manufactured goods. The jungle pro-
ducts are gathered by small parties that may remain away from
the villages for several months. The coastal traders are
usually Chinese (although an edict issued in 1959 forbids
Chinese tradesmen from operating in the rural areas of Indo-
nesia), but Malays, Buginese, and Bandjarese also engage in
coastal trading.
F. Language and Education
English (mostly limited to northern Borneo), various
dialects of Chinese, and a large number of dialects of several
Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken in Borneo. The last
group includes dialects of the coastal peoples of Malay
extraction (Malays, Buginese, and Bandjarese) and of all indi-
genous peoples, many of whom speak and understand more than
one dialect or language. Linguistic complexity is increased
by the fact that the various Chinese dialects are mutually
unintelligible. The various dialects of the Malayo-Polynesian
languages also are mutually unintelligible, although many
words of one dialect bear a strong resemblance to words of
another. Furthermore, within the large group of closely rela-
ted dialects that may be used by one ethnic group, no single
form may have gained sufficient prominence to provide a
standard language by which the group as a whole may be iden-
tified.
English, Mandarin Chinese, and Malay stand out as vehicles
for communication outside the local indigenous groups. Man-
darin is used in the Chinese schools and most of the Chinese
on Borneo can speak and understand it, but it is rarely used
in day-to-day conversation; most of the Chinese on Borneo are
from southern non-Mandarin areas of China. None of these
three languages, however, is understood by more than a part
of the people, although Malay approaches being a lingua franca
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throughout the island; most tribes speak pidgin Malay as well
as their own dialect. Written forms exist for only a few of
the languages of the indigenous peoples.
Borneo has three main educational systems -- those of the
governments, the Chinese, and the missionaries. The schools
operated by the governments are almost all at the primary
level; secondary education generally is obtainable only in the
missions and in the Chinese schools. In Malaysian Borneo and
Brunei there are 815 schools operated or subsidized by the
governments, 329 Chinese schools, and 246 mission schools.
More than 182,000 students, a disproportionately large number
of whom are Chinese, are enrolled in these schools. Informa-
tion is not available on the number of schools or students
in Kalimantan, but the educational system there is believed
to be less advanced than in the northern states of Borneo.
Malay is the usual language of instruction in schools adminis-
tered by the governments in Malaysian Borneo and Brunei.
Bahasa Indonesia is the language used in the non-Chinese
schools of Kalimantan. It is as closely allied to Malay as
U.S. English is to British English.
The literacy rate varies among the three territories of
northern Borneo -- 21 percent in Brunei, 14 percent in Sara-
wak, and 12 percent in Sabah. The literacy rate also varies
among the different ethnic groups. The Chinese have the high-
est rate (30 percent), the Malays have 15 percent, and the
indigenous groups have much lower rates. Some literate Chi-
nese are also literate in English. The Malays are literate
in the Malay language, written either in the Arabic script or
in the Romanized alphabet. The indigenous groups are literate
primarily in Malay and increasingly so in English. The Roman
alphabet has been adapted to several languages such as Bajau
and Sea Dayak, in which a few people are literate. These
languages, as well as English, are taught in the mission
schools. Current information is not available on the literacy
rate in Kalimantan, but it is probably lower than in northern
Borneo. As in northern Borneo, the Chinese are by far the
best educated group in Indonesian Borneo.
Students in Borneo who desire an education beyond the
secondary level must go abroad. Those who have completed the
full 12-year course offered by some of the mission schools
in the former British territories generally are fluent enough
in English to enter universities in English-speaking countries.
Either with the aid of the government or private scholarships
or at their own expense, a few students study overseas, mainly
in the United Kingdom. Many Chinese students have gone to
mainland China for higher education, but their exodus is now
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closely controlled because the governments of Borneo fear that
returning students might become instruments of Communist pene-
tration. When British administrators in the former British
territories were in office they believed that the Chinese
schools, at best, were oriented toward traditional China, and,
at worst, were openly against the British and for the Communist
Chinese. Chinese schools in Kalimantan generally have been
pro-Communist.
G. Religion
Among the people living in the.coastal regions of Borneo,
most of whom follow Islam, there are some Christians, and most
of the Chinese have retained their traditional religious
beliefs -- Confucianism, Taoism, or Buddhism. Adherents to a
considerably modified form of Islam are found in all of coastal
Borneo, and some of the pagans of the interior are being con-
verted. The Christians in Malaysian Borneo and Brunei number
about 200,000, and those in Kalimantan probably no more than
that. Other than members (mostly British) of the Western
community in Malaysian Borneo, most of the so-called Christians
are members of the indigenous community who have been converted
by missionaries and who practice a brand of Christianity that
incorporates many of their animistic beliefs. Rarely has an
entire tribe been converted. Normally a tribe includes con-
verts to Christianity or to Islam as well as pagans, but the
faith of most tribesmen is somewhere between. The Muruts of
Sabah, who have been largely won over to Christianity, and
the Melanaus of Sarawak, nearly all of whom now accept the
teachings of the Koran, are exceptions to this general rule.
As with those converted to Christianity, the pagans converted
to Islam retain many of their animistic beliefs.
Most of the peoples of the interior still retain their
pagan religious practices. Although, in general, they are
monotheists and believe in a Supreme Being, they also believe
they are surrounded by a host of malevolent and benevolent
spirits embodied in such tangible things as animals, trees,
mountains, caves, and rivers, and in such intangible things
as lightning and thunder. These spirits exercise much con-
trol over the lives of the natives, many of whom wear charms
of beads, shells, teeth, and roots to help ward off the evil
ones. Many rituals practiced today are designed to ward off
evil spirits and placate good ones. Sickness, drought, and
floods are believed to be the work of evil spirits, which can
be propitiated by sacrifices or other offerings. These rites
are usually conducted under the direction of a village priest
or priestess (who is sometimes a chief) and who supposedly
has magical powers that can be used to entice the spirits and
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"keep them in line." Although some tribes have no carved
idols, most tribes have many within the village, and religious
ceremonies are usually focused on them. Among all the pagans
of Borneo there are many taboos associated with the planting
and harvesting of rice.
Most of the pagans believe in an afterlife. Departed
souls are thought by some tribes to reside in certain mountain
peaks. For example, the.Dusun dead are believed to inhabit
Mount Kinabalu, and therefore a Dusun is reluctant to climb
it without first propitiating the spirits of the dead with an
offering. Certain animals are considered by different tribes
to embody the souls of departed humans. The crocodile in
particular is considered by many to be sacred.
Nearly all pagans are profound believers in omens, often
associated with animals or birds (particularly the latter),
or appearing in dreams. Omens are especially important when
the native is traveling in unfamiliar territory. It is diffi-
cult for an outsider to conceive of the extreme degree to
which omens control the life of the pagan. To have a snake,
scorpion, or centipede cross one's path may require complete
alteration of a journey; and the presence near the village of
a particular bird may alter the crop planting or harvesting
date by several days. Omens vary considerably from tribe to
tribe, and a good omen for one tribe may be a bad omen for
another. An important form of interpreting omens involves
study of the shape and condition of the liver of a pig that
has been recently slaughtered.
Taboos among the pagans of Borneo are many and, like the
omens, have much influence on their lives. They vary consid-
erably from tribe to tribe.
H. Dress
Western style dress is common among the peoples living
along the coast and is becoming increasingly popular among
those of the interior. The traditional male. attire of the
indigenous peoples has consisted simply of a wide cotton cloth,
often brightly colored, wrapped around. the waist and between
the legs, with flaps hanging down in front and back.. On occa-
sion a short coat or vest is worn, along with a hat of rattan
or a headcloth. The attire of the women is less uniform. than
that of the men but usually consists of a highly decorative
knee-length or ankle-length skirt split along the left side.
The upper part of the body sometimes is covered with a jacket
but more often is left bare. Various adornments -- earrings,
necklaces, bracelets, and legbands -- are worn by the women
C T O
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of all tribes, and tattooing is practiced by many tribes.
Traditional styles and adornments vary considerably from one
tribe to another. Sea Dayak and Dusun women sometimes wear
corsets made from coiled rattan, and on festive occasions the
women of some tribes wear silver girdles. Kayan women wear
cotton cloth wrapped around the body from above the breasts
to the ankles. Land Dayak women encase their calves in solid
sheaths of metal rings; this causes deformation of the calf
muscles. A common practice of both men and women of some
tribes (for example, the Sea Dayaks and Dusuns) is gradual
elongation of the ear lobes through the use of progressively
larger studs inserted in holes in the lobes during childhood.
Brass rings, often falling below the shoulders, are inserted
in these holes. Among many tribes (for example, the Dusuns),
teeth are blackened and sometimes filed down to the gums.
Removal of eyebrows and eyelashes is common among the Kayans
and Kenyahs.
1. Health and Medical Factors
The most common of the serious endemic diseases are
tuberculosis and malaria. Steady progress has been made in
recent years in combating both, particularly malaria. An
impressive decline in the number of cases of malaria reported
in the northern territories of Borneo can be attributed to the
relatively successful programs for eradicating the disease.
In Sabah, for example, there were 14,827 cases reported in
1962 in contrast to 45,343 cases in 1957. In Brunei the inci-
dence dropped from 3,062 cases in 1953 to 16 in 1960. In
Sarawak there were 30,000 cases in 1946 but only 1,139 in
1961. Little has been done to combat malaria in Kalimantan,
and its incidence there is much higher than in northern Borneo.
Total elimination of malaria in all parts of Borneo cannot be
achieved until the proposed Indonesian program for its eradi-
cation in Kalimantan has been implemented successfully.
Dysentery and other intestinal ailments are very common
and account for about 10 percent of all disease. They are
caused primarily by poor or nonexistent sanitary facilities
and polluted water supplies in rural areas. Typhoid fever and
filariasis are endemic. Cholera epidemics occurred in Sara-
wak in 1961 and in Sabah in 1962. Although the nutritional
level in Borneo is above average for rural areas of southeast
Asia, conditions of malnutrition -- mainly beri-beri and
anemia -- are by no means uncommon.
There is no specific information on life expectancy among
peoples of Borneo. The general picture conveyed by the limited
information available indicates a slowly falling mortality
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rate and a birth rate either rising or remaining at a high
level. The population is young -- 44 percent of the people
of Sarawak and Sabah are under 15 years of age, and only 14
percent are over 45.
Medical facilities are inadequate in all parts of the
island but are believed to be particularly lacking in Kali-
mantan. Most of the facilities are located in the major
cities and, because of generally poor transportation, exten-
sion of health services into rural areas has been slow. There
are nine hospitals with a capacity of 1,213 beds in Sabah,
three hospitals with 355 beds in Brunei, and seven with 990
beds in Sarawak. Information is not available on medical
facilities in Kalimantan.
J. Major Ethnic Groups
The following table lists the major ethnic groups of
Borneo and their numbers in each of the political units.
Unless otherwise noted, figures provided for Sarawak, Brunei,
and Sabah are from 1960 censuses. Figures for Kalimantan
ethnic groups are estimated since the 1960 census for Kali-
mantan did not gather information on individual groups.
Borneo: Major ethnic Groups by Political Unit
1960
Ethnic Group Sarawak Brunei
Sabah
Kalimantan
Total
Bajau
-- a/
--
59,710
--
59,710
Bandjarese
--
--
--
500,000
500,000
Buginese
--
--
N.A.b/
200,000
200,000
Chinese
229,154
21,795
104,542
400,000
755,491
Dusun
--
2,757
145,229
--
147,986
(Kadazan)
(1947)c/
Kayan
7,899
--
--
N.A.
7,899
Kedayan
7,207
6,726
N.A.
--
13,933
(1947)
Kelabit
2,040
--
--
N.A.
2,040
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Table
(Continued)
Ethnic Group Sarawak Brunei
Sabah
Kalimantan
Total
Kenyah
8,093
--
--
N.A.
8,093
Land Dayak
57,619
--
--
240,000
297,619
Malay
129,300
45,135
N.A.
1,000,000
1,174,435
Melanau
44,661
2,517
--
--
47,178
(1947)
Murut
5,214
296
22,138
N.A.
27,648
(1947)
Ngadju
--
--
--
500,000
500,000
Punan
4,675
--
--
N.A.
4,675
Sea Dayak
237,741
1,330
--
150,000
389,071
(Iban)
(1947)
a. A dash indicates negligible representation.
b. Information not available.
c. The 1960 Brunei census did not provide information on the
size of individual ethnic groups other than the Malays
and Chinese.
1. Bajaus
The Bajaus of Borneo live along the coast of Sabah, where
they are concentrated in two places -- in the northwest between
Kudat and Papar, chiefly near Kota Belud, and in the east along
the shores of Darvel Bay, chiefly near Lahad Datu and Semporna.
Although they number well under half the Dusun population, the
Bajaus form the second largest indigenous group in Sabah. They
live in small villages of individual houses usually built on
stilts over the water of an estuary or an inlet. About half
of the Bajaus are farmers who grow wetland rice and raise cat-
tle. Many of the rest work in the timber industry or on rubber
plantations, and a few who live on the east coast are fisher-
men. In the past, many Bajaus were pirates, and a few still
are engaged in pirating and smuggling in the waters between
Sabah and the Sulu Islands of the Philippines, where Bajaus
comprise part of the population.
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Over the years various Europeans have described the Bajaus
as bold, independent, lawless, savage, ferocious, truculent,
and swaggering, and have accused them of cattle thievery and
burning Chinese shops. However, the Bajaus were subdued con-
siderably during the British administration of Sabah, and now
are reported to be particularly friendly toward Europeans.
They like to gamble, and betting on cockfights is a favorite
pastime. The Bajaus are excellent horsemen; ponies (and occa-
sionally buffaloes) are used for herding cattle, hunting, and
travelling to market.
Although the Bajaus are Moslems and worship at mosques
found in larger Bajau villages, they retain many vestiges of
their former animistic religion and cherish many superstitions.
Once a year they launch rafts loaded with offerings to bear
evil spirits away from the village. They adhere to most
Islamic tenets, however, and their villages are easily dis-
tinguished from those of the Dusuns and Muruts by the absence
of pigs, since they do not eat pork. They observe Ramadan,
the Moslem month of fasting when eating and drinking during
daylight is forbidden. They do not adhere strictly to the
Moslem law that forbids drinking alcoholic beverages at any
time; some of them drink beer.
The Bajau men wear bold colors, including gaily colored
wraparound headgear, the color and arrangement of which gen-
erally differs from one village to another. They usually
carry a knife in a sheath over the left hip. Bajau women
usually wear drab clothing and few ornaments.
2. Bandjarese
The Bandjarese are the predominant ethnic group along the
southern coast of Borneo. They are concentrated mainly between
the Barito River and the Meratus Mountains and particularly
around Bandjermasin, a city of over 180,000 which they founded
in the 15th century. The census of 1930, the latest one to
provide information on the size of this ethnic group, listed
314,661 Bandjarese in Kalimantan. Today they probably number
more than 500,000. The Bandjarese are descendants of Hindu
Javanese colonists who arrived on Borneo more than five cen-
turies ago. They have mixed considerably with the Malays and
Buginese and, to a lesser extent, with the Ngadjus. Although
they were originally Hindus, Islam was introduced to the
Bandjarese in the 16th century, and the great majority are
now Moslems though a few Hindu customs remain.
Although many live off the land by raising wetland rice,
most Bandjarese are engaged in more progressive enterprises.
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Traditionally,they have been a trading people and today are
the group most actively engaged in commerce in southern
Borneo. Many Bandjarese own small rubber plantations; others
are bankers, shipowners, bus operators, and manufacturers.
They are fairly independent economically and, unlike many of
their more unsophisticated neighbors in Kalimantan, have not
been exploited by the Chinese. In southern Borneo, particu-
larly around Bandjermasin, there are conspicuously few Chinese,
who normally form the major group engaged in trade in Borneo.
Although the Bandjarese consider themselves good Indo-
nesians, most of them favor more autonomy for their own area,
and some would favor the creation of an autonomous state,
preferably an Islamic one.
3. Buginese
The Buginese, who are native to the southwestern penin-
sula of Celebes, are found in Borneo primarily along the east
coast, but also along the delta of the Kapuas River south of
Pontianak. They probably number more than 200,000 in Kali-
mantan and a few thousand in Sabah (mostly in the areas of
Semporna, Tawau, and Lahad Datu). There are none in Brunei
or Sarawak.
The Buginese first settled on Borneo several centuries
ago, and, although most families can trace their island ances-
try several generations, some, particularly those in Sabah,
are recent arrivals. Many living in Sabah were encouraged
by the British to immigrate there to work on rubber plantations
and in the timber industry. Immigration of Buginese as well
as other Indonesians into Sabah has been curtailed in recent
years because a balance between labor and employment is slowly
being achieved. As a result of the policy of "confrontation"
of the Indonesian Government toward Malaysia, legal immigra-
tion by Indonesians into Sabah has ceased. There is currently
some illegal infiltration of Indonesians into the Tawau area.
The Buginese are a seafaring people. They have a mari-
time tradition of more then 350 years of trade, piracy, and
colonial conquest in many parts of central and eastern Indo-
nesia. Their colorful sailing boats are a common sight not
only in Indonesian waters but also in the seas around the
southern islands of the Philippines.
Most Buginese not engaged in maritime activities are
settled on the land and cultivate wetland rice. Such land is
held individually, but its use is subject to requirements of
the village. Uncultivated land is held in common by the
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village. Buginese settlements are indistinguishable from
those of other coastal peoples; they usually contain about 30
single-family houses built on piles along a waterway.
The Buginese formerly had three distinct social classes --
nobles, commoners, and slaves. Slavery is no longer permitted,
and this structure of social rank is declining, though there
is still much class consciousness. Relations among people of
different social classes or age groups may be considerably
restrained. Women have an important role in Buginese society,
and many chiefs are women. Although a few Buginese still have
strong beliefs in spirits, most of them are Moslems.
The Buginese in Sabah form part of an Indonesian community
that totals about 25,000 people. Although an estimated 90 per-
cent of these Indonesians refuse to become involved in politics,
the community is a potential vehicle for subversive activity,
and it is believed that within it a covert military organiza-
tion has been established. Many Buginese in Sabah as well as
in Kalimantan come from areas of Celebes where the anti-Djakar-
ta Darul Islam, a fanatical Moslem sect that has political
aspirations, has been active, and therefore some of them pro-
bably oppose, or at least do not support, the policies of the
Indonesian government.
4. Chinese
The Chinese in Borneo are found mostly in the coastal
areas, where they form large communities in and around the
chief trade centers. Although they are not evenly distributed
throughout Borneo (more than 80 percent of the Chinese in
Sarawak live in the First and Third Divisions, nearly half of
those in Kalimantan live in the western part of the territory,
and a few live in the southeast), the Chinese are in practi-
cally every village in all parts of the island. Even the
smallest town in the hinterland may have a Chinese trader.
In spite of their penetration into remote districts, more than
70 percent are settled in urban areas.
The Chinese are the largest ethnic group in Kuching and
Sibu in Sarawak; in Jesselton, Tawau, and Sandakan in Sabah;
and in Singkawang and Pontianak in Kalimantan. Among the major
cities, only Bandjermasin has a small Chinese population.
Only during the past 100 years have the Chinese settled
on the island in sizable numbers. The Chinese community has
grown at a substantial rate through natural increase and immi-
gration, and now there are more than 750,000 on the island.
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Restrictions controlling the influx of Chinese into all
parts of the island, particularly the northern part, have been
tightened in recent years, and now Chinese immigration to
Borneo has almost ceased. Most of the Chinese on the island
are second or third generation Borneans.
Most Chinese families in Borneo emigrated originally from
the southern provinces of Kwangtung and Fukien, and they con-
tinue to speak the dialects that are spoken there -- Hakka,
Foochow, Hokkien, Cantonese, and Tiechiu. Hakka, the most
common dialect, is spoken by more than 40 percent of the Chi-
nese on Borneo. Mandarin has been the official language in
the Chinese schools of the former British territories for more
than 40 years, and all of the younger generation can speak it,
though it is rarely used outside the schools. Most Chinese
businessmen in northern Borneo also can speak Malay, and most
in Kalimantan can speak Bahasa Indonesia. In addition, most
Chinese can communicate in the languages spoken by the native
groups with whom they do business.
Economically, the Chinese are the most important ethnic
group on Borneo. Commerce and finance are mainly in their
hands. They dominate export trade in such products as rubber,
pepper, and sago, and they control a substantial part of
import trade. Most shopkeepers, artisans, and small business-
men are Chinese. They produce considerable quantities of rub-
ber and garden products and, in Sarawak, most of the pepper.
Most of the timber and mining industries are in their hands.
Professional men and bankers are largely Chinese, and so are
large numbers of government officers. Buses, taxis, and river-
boats are usually run by Chinese.
Jungle products such as camphor, rattan, and gutta-percha,
gathered by the native groups, are collected by Chinese traders
either in native settlements or in coastal bazaars. In return,
the Chinese provide the natives with groceries, manufactured
goods, cash, or credit. This debtor-creditor relationship
inevitably has resulted in some friction, but generally the
Chinese businessmen have established relationships of mutual
trust and confidence with their indigenous neighbors. There
have been instances of shady dealings, however, and though
these are rare, they generate ill will.
Some Chinese are settled on the land, where they generally
produce wetland rice for their own consumption. However, the
Chinese are an enterprising people and are not satisfied with
a subsistence economy. They find it profitable to plant some-
thing in addition to rice, particularly rubber. In Sarawak
during periods of low rubber prices, the Chinese often borrowed
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land from their Malay and Sea Dayak neighbors, since their own
land was planted in rubber, and planted it in rice. When
prices for rubber went up, the Chinese returned to tapping rub-
ber trees. In order to protect the economically unsophistica-
ted native peoples from Chinese entrepreneurs, the governments
of the former British territories maintain policies that, in
effect, prevent the Chinese from gaining additional land at
the expense of the native.
The Chinese are extremely eager for education. Wherever
they have settled, they have financed and opened their own
schools. Sarawak has 234 Chinese schools; Brunei, 8; Sabah,
87; and Indonesian Borneo well in excess of 200 schools. In
Sarawak in 1960, 80 percent of Chinese children of school age
attended school, as opposed to 35 percent of children of
school age of other ethnic groups.
The Chinese communities are the most strongly united and
politically cohesive of any on the island. Although it is
difficult to assess the loyalties of the Chinese to the two
Chinas, there probably is little active support for the
Nationalist regime. Both old and new generations maintain a
sentimental attachment for mainland China, and many Chinese
regard it, rather than Borneo, as "home." These attitudes
render the younger generation in particular, with its pride
in the growth of Chinese power and its enthusiasm for social
change, vulnerable to Chinese Communist propaganda. Because
of the large Chinese population in the Pontianak-Singkawang
area, the Indonesian Government believed in 1959 that there
was danger of the region becoming a virtual Chinese Communist
state. Consequently, they closed some of the Chinese busi-
nesses, curtailed Chinese trading activities in the rural
areas, and closed most of the Chinese schools in the area.
The Chinese in Sarawak and Sabah generally have not been
receptive to the federation of Malaysia, as they believe that
it will be, in effect, a Malay state and that Malays will be
given preferential treatment. Malays have always been the
preferred group in the northern territories of Borneo; how-
ever, rarely in the past has there been any open antagonism
between the two groups. Within the Sarawak United Peoples
Party (SUPP)*, which represents most of the Chinese popula-
tion, there are anti-Malaysia elements, particularly the mili-
tant Clandestine Communist Organization (CCO). Up to December-
1963, about 1,000 CCO supporters reportedly had crossed the
border into Kalimantan, where, along with other Chinese and
some natives from Kalimantan, they were trained in guerrilla
* See Chapter V.
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Figure 24. Dusun girls
of Sabah.
Figure 25. A Dusun house near Papar in Sabah. The
communal longhouse is rare among the Dusuns living
in the coastal areas.
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warfare. Many of the Chinese had infiltrated back into Sara-
wak, possibly with personal arms, and were believed to have 25X1
begun training other CCO supporters.
the potential armed strength of the Chinese
in Sarawak, as of October 1963, was estimated at 3,500 and is_
likely to increase in 1964. It is estimated that there were
about 20,000 tacit CCO supporters in October 1963.
5. Dusuns
Most of the Dusuns* live in Sabah, where they are settled
in the foothills behind the narrow coastal lowland and on the
lower slopes of the mountains. Major concentrations of Dusuns
are in the Kudat area of the northwest coast, the Tambunan and
Ranau plains in the interior, and the valleys of the Sugut and
Labuk Rivers in the east. Many of those living in the interior
are now moving to the coasts to work on plantations and in the
lumber industry. The Dusuns are the largest ethnic group in
Sabah. The Brunei census of 1960 does not separate the Dusuns
from the Muruts and the Kelabits, who are closely related, but
in 1947 there were about 2,700 Dusuns living in the interior
of the western part of Brunei.
The Dusuns display greater group cohesiveness than the
Muruts and Kelabits, and the 15 or so Dusun tribes are closely
affiliated. The Chinese have a strong influence among the
Dusuns, and intermarriage is common. The Dusuns live either
in single-family dwellings or in small longhouses that rarely
shelter more than six or seven families.
Although many have been converted to Christianity or
Islam -- in 1960, 36,148 Dusuns were listed as Christians and
9,880 as Moslems -- most of the Dusuns living in the interior
still are animists. The majority, including many who have
accepted the new faiths, are intensely superstitious and have
great faith in omens. One noteworthy superstition involves
veneration of certain porcelain jars which possess various
grades of sanctity. The Dusuns, as well as many of the other
peoples of Borneo, bury their dead in such jars.
Mount Kinabalu is considered to be the home of souls of
departed tribesmen, and these spirits must be propitiated before
one attempts to climb the mountain. The Dusuns set great store
in talismans, and charm belts are usually worn. They throw
* The term "Dusun" is a Malay word that means "people of the
orchards" or, in effect, "country yokels." The Dusuns call
themselves "Kadazans."
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rice and eggs into the river as an offering to water spirits
in the hope that they will send rain.
Taboos are strong among the Dusuns and include prohibi-
tion against wearing anything white, red, or yellow while a
religious ceremony is in progress; working on the "bad" days
of the month (each month has both "good" days and "bad" days);
and living in a new village in which a person has died within
6 months of its completion. If this occurs, the village must
be abandoned and a new site selected.
Some of the Dusuns living in the interior practice shift-
ing cultivation of dryland rice, but most grow wetland rice
on small terraced fields of from 1/2 to 3 acres. Each field
is usually owned by an individual family. Dusun women plant
rice seeds in nurseries in August or September. At about the
same time the men of the village prepare the fields to which
shortly thereafter young rice shoots are transferred. Just
before and during the harvesting of the rice (usually during
February or March), most of the villagers live in temporary
huts scattered throughout the fields, leaving the village
nearly deserted.
When the harvest is completed, the Dusuns hold a large
feast and drink much native brew, which they make from the sap
of the sago palm or from rice. In addition to rice, the
Dusuns grow manioc (tapioca), corn, sweet potatoes, and melons.
Coconut groves are found in all villages, and tobacco is often
grown. Food surpluses are taken to the coast and traded.
6. Kayans and Kenyahs*
The Kayans are located principally in the watersheds of
the middle and upper Rajang and Baram Rivers in Sarawak, behind
the coastal complex of Malays, Chinese, and Melanaus in the
Third, Fourth, and Fifth Divisions. The area occupied by Kayan
tribes also extends southward across the Sarawak -- Kalimantan
border and includes the headwaters of the Kapuas River. Kayans
also inhabit much of the interior of northeastern Kalimantan in
an area that is mostly the watershed of the Bahau River. This
area is believed to have been the original habitat of both the
Kayans and the Kenyahs. Villages of Kenyahs are dispersed
throughout the area, although the Kayans are the predominant
*Although the Kayans and the Kenyahs speak different languages,
they have many cultural traits in common and often are found
living near one another. They are therefore treated here as
one ethnic group.
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Figure 26. The gallery of a Kayan longhouse.
Figure 27. Group of Kayan men of interior Sarawak.
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ethnic group except in the higher parts of the Kayan-Kenyah
regions, where the Kenyah villages tend to out-number those
of the Kayans.
During the first half of the 19th century the Kayans and
Kenyahs migrated northward from Kalimantan into Sarawak. The
Kenyahs are believed to have preceded the Kayans. The Sea
Dayaks, pushing in from the southwest at about the same time,
soon came into conflict with them, and a state of warfare pre-
vailed between the two groups. In 1863 the Kayan-Kenyah power
was broken by an expedition of Sea Dayaks led by Charles Brooke,
who later was to become the second Rajah of Sarawak. The
Kayans and Kenyahs made no effective resistance; they were
easily driven farther into the interior and never again were
a significant force. Since their suppression by the Brooke
expedition, their numbers have declined steadily, apparently
because they were pushed into malaria-infested valleys, which
they still inhabit. Only in recent years has it been known
that the high mortality rate was caused by malaria, and mea-
sures have been undertaken to control the disease.
Ties of kinship between Kayan and Kenyah tribes living on
opposite sides of the Malaysia -- Kalimantan border are reported
to be close. Those tribes living in Sarawak, however, are con-
sidered generally loyal to the Malaysian authorities. During
the uprising in Brunei in December 1962, the Kayans and the
Kenyahs responded to a call for help from the British adminis-
trators. In July 1963, a body of 60 Indonesian soldiers
encamped north of Longnawan (1?54'N-114?53'E) reportedly
attempted to intimidate and subvert Kayan and Kenyah tribes
living on the Kalimantan side of the border. According to
accounts, the Indonesians were not well received even though
the natives were frightened by the well-armed unit.
The Kayans speak one language, with little local diver-
sity. The Kenyahs speak a number of mutually unintelligible
dialects of one language. However, because most Kenyahs can
speak more than one dialect of their own tongue, as well as
the language of the Kayans, most of them can communicate with
other tribes in their immediate area.
The Kayans and Kenyahs at one time were notorious head-
hunters (headhunting was an essential part of their religious
ritual), and it was this that led to the expedition against
them in 1863. Except during their boisterous feasts, they are
a quiet, reserved, slow, and rather phlegmatic people, charac-
terized as being loyal, truthful, dependable, and hospitable
to outsiders.
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Figure 28. A Kayan boy making offering to
the gods after recovery from an illness.
Figure 29. Kenyah women
husking rice on the long-
house veranda with pestle
and mortar. Distended ear
lobes decorated with cop-
per rings are common among
both men and women of many
Borneo tribes.
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Figure 30. A Kenyah longhouse settlement along the upper
Baram River of Sarawak. Settlement is recent as evidenced
by lack of fruit trees.
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Unlike the Sea Dayaks, the Kayans and Kenyahs are class
conscious, and their social system is well defined. The chiefs
are exalted, and even their paddy fields are cultivated for
them in the manner of a feudal due. The chief occupies a
large room at the center of the longhouse, with the ordinary
people occupying rooms on either side, generally decreasing
in social standing toward either end of the house.
Most Kayans and Kenyahs are still animists and believe
that spirits are embodied in plants, animals, mountains, rivers,
and the like. Carved idols, used when addressing the gods,
are extremely common. Since World War II, however, increased
European influence has prompted many of these tribesmen to dis-
card their animistic beliefs and adopt Christianity, although
many converts have retained their traditional beliefs and have-
molded Christian beliefs to fit their old religion..
The Kayans and Kenyahs practice slash-and-burn agriculture,
with dry rice as the chief crop. Because their areas are not
overpopulated, shortage of land is not a problem, and famines
are rare. Kayans and Kenyahs are very artistic. Some groups
are skillful wood carvers, and the Kenyahs in the region of
the upper Bahau River in Kalimantan are excellent metal crafts-
men. They make steel sword blades for trade. Both the Kayans
and the Kenyahs are well known for their skill in canoeing.
7. Kedayans
The.Kedayans occupy an area a short distance inland from
the coast of northern Borneo, extending from near Miri in the
Fourth Division of Sarawak through the two Brunei enclaves to
Papar in Sabah. Most of the Kedayans in Sarawak are in the
Limbang area between the two enclaves of Brunei. The 1960
census for Brunei did not count the Kedayans as an individual
group, but in 1947 there were more than 6,500. A few thousand
live in Sabah.
Little is known of the background of the Kedayans. They
are believed to have migrated originally from Java to Brunei
and from there northeastward along the west coast of Sabah.
They have intermarried with Malays and Muruts, losing much of
their identity, and many authors do not consider them a dis-
tinct ethnic group. Most have adopted Islam as their religion
although, like most other indigenous groups in Borneo, they
have continued to cling to many of their animistic beliefs.
Most Kedayans are farmers and grow rice along with some rubber
and fruit trees, but a few are fishermen.
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Figure 31. Kelabit men from the uplands of
eastern Sarawak near the juncture of the Sara-
wak, Sabah, and Kalimantan borders.
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Most of the non-Malays who participated in the uprising
in Brunei in December 1962 were Kedayans. Most Kedayans are
reported to be sympathetic to the Partai Ra'ayat (People's
Party) and to the Tentara Nasional Kalimantan Utara (North
Kalimantan National Army -- TNKU).* The Kedayans are longtime
enemies of the Kayans and Kenyahs.
8. Kelabits
The Kelabits are a small group who occupy the inaccessible
hill country centered on the headwaters of the Baram River in
Sarawak, although some Kelabit country extends into Kalimantan.
In 1960 there were about 2,000 Kelabits in Sarawak, and there
may be an equal number in Kalimantan. They once were far more
numerous but have been decimated by disease. The Kelabits live
in rugged hill country, generally higher than 3,000 feet above
sea level. They are skillful farmers. Most of them grow dry-
land rice, although some grow irrigated rice on small fields.
Large amounts of vegetables and fruits are raised.
The Kelabits have a strong social structure, and class
lines are strictly observed. They normally marry within their
class. The chief, whose position is inherited, exercises con-
siderable authority. They have been spoken of as the most
realistic and logical people of the interior and have been
characterized as intelligent, rational, generous, gay, and
extremely hospitable. They look for similar traits in other
people, but respect firmness as well. Unlike the usual long-
house of other groups, but consistent with the open and friend-
ly ways of the Kelabits, their longhouses have no partitions
The occupants seem to have developed a spirit of cooperation
and comradeship above the usual level, but a visitor usually
requires considerable time to adapt to the lack of privacy.
The Kelabits consume immense quantities of rice beer at
their festivals, and every event -- births, deaths, harvests,
arrival of visitors, and the like -- is an excuse for drinking.
The noise, good humor, and hospitality of a Kelabit festival
are said to be almost overpowering to an outsider. Their .
increased contact with outsiders has prompted them to abandon
many of their superstitions, though few have been converted to_
Christianity. Today, although they seem more wordly than other
hill peoples, they still feel that they are looked on by the
lowlanders as "up-country cousins," and are eager to improve
their status.
* See Chapter V.
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The Allied forces used drop zones in Kelahit country when
entering Borneo during the late phases of World War II. The
Kelabits welcomed the Allies and were easily persuaded to take
up arms, including blowguns, against the Japanese. They
achieved an extraordinarily good wartime record and since the
war have been considered fiercely loyal to the British
authorities. Most probably they are unhappy at the British
withdrawal from Borneo.
9. Land Dayaks
The Land Dayaks occupy the inland part of the First Divi-
sion of Sarawak and most of Kalimantan Barat Province of Indo-
nesian Borneo. In the latter they occupy all the province
except the Upper Kapuas region, where the much more numerous
Sea Dayaks form the predominant ethnic group, and the coastal
belt, which is inhabited by Malays, Chinese, and Buginese.
Both Land and Sea Dayaks are believed to have settled origi-
nally in the southern part of Borneo and migrated northward.
The Land Dayaks have made no significant migrations eastward
across Sarawak because the more aggressive Sea Dayak tribes
are located along their eastern flank. Only 600 of the more
than 57,600 Land Dayaks in Sarawak live outside the First
Division. In Kalimantan they have been estimated to number
about 240,000.
The language of the Land Dayaks is distinct from that of
the Sea Dayaks, although related to it. Like all major indi-
genous groups in Borneo, Land Dayaks are divided into numerous
tribes, each with its own dialect.
The Land Dayaks are a mild, shy peoples in contrast to
their bolder, more adventurous neighbors, the Sea Dayaks.
Because of their nonaggressive nature they were in danger of
extinction in the early part of the 19th century, being unable
to withstand attacks by the Sea Dayaks of neighboring areas
who captured and sold them as slaves to the Malay leaders of
Sarawak. The arrival in 1841 of James Brooke, the first White
Rajah of Sarawak, put an end to such exploitation. Since then
the Land Dayaks have lived a peaceful and secure, although
austere life. Animosities between the Land and Sea Dayaks,
however, still exist, and the Land Dayaks of Sarawak have
regarded the British administrators as protectors.
The economy of the Land Dayaks is based on subsistence
slash-and-burn cultivation of dryland rice, although a few,
mostly living in downriver areas, are engaged in economic pur-
suits such as working on rubber plantations. Most of the area
in Sarawak occupied by Land Dayaks, and much of their area of
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Figure 32. A family room of a Land Dayak
longhouse.
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Kalimantan, has been burned over at least once for rice culti-
vation. As a result, dense second-growth forests and thickets
of bamboo have grown up. Overworking the land has left few
areas suitable for cultivating rice, but the Land Dayaks are
reluctant to move elsewhere. The Sarawak government has tried
to` discourage the wasteful system of shifting agriculture by
resettling these people along the coast, but the program has
met with little success.
Most Land Dayaks are animists, but as the result of long
contact with Europeans, many have embraced Christianity. In
1960 nearly 16,000 were Christians. Some observers believe
that their animistic religion bears certain resemblances to
Hinduism. They practice cremation of the dead, a custom
unknown in other parts of Borneo.
The Land Dayaks live in villages that consist of several
small longhouses with roofed verandas. The longhouses are
linked together by walks of split bamboo. These villages dif-
fer from those of other peoples of Borneo in typically having
a building with a high, steeply pitched roof. This building
is used for social gatherings, accommodation of visitors, and
as a dormitory for village bachelors.
The Land Dayaks have never been considered particularly
loyal to the British, but 13,000 in the Bau District of the
First Division of Sarawak stated in October 1963 that they
"were ready to sacrifice everything to fight against any
enemy." Their passive nature, however, would probably limit
their military or paramilitary potential. Indonesia reportedly
was unsuccessful in attempts to subvert several hundred Land
Dayaks from Sarawak during 1963. A few Land Dayaks from Kali-
mantan, however, were reported to be involved in cross-border
raids on the village of Tebedu in 1963.
10. Malays
Malays inhabit the coastal areas all around the island,
with major concentrations on the northwestern and western
sides. They have been a powerful force on Borneo since their
migrations there from Sumatra, the Riau Archipelago, and
southern Malaya in the 14th century. Because they were more
advanced culturally than the indigenous inhabitants, they
easily assumed and retained political control of the island
until the European powers began to carve out their spheres of
influence in the 16th century. Although they ultimately
yielded control to the British and Dutch, they have remained,
with the exception of the Chinese, the most politically con-
scious non-European group on the island. The Malays provided
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Figure 33. Malay men. Note mixtures of influ-
ence in their attire.
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the main support for the Brooke regime, which controlled Sara-
wak from 1841 until it became a British crown colony in 1946.
Under the Brooke administration, they held nearly all the high
offices of state, but the government services are now staffed
(although perhaps still disproportionately favoring the Malays)
by people from all ethnic groups. Most civil service positions
in Kalimantan are held by Malays, Buginese, or Bandjarese.
The Malay community has increased at a rapid rate through
the absorption of other peoples. Few Bornean Malays today are
of pure Malay stock. Their group includes indigenous persons
who have merged with them through marriage or who have adopted
Islam and the Malay language. Although there are minor differ-
ences in dialect and customs among Malays living in various
parts of Borneo, there is a strong cultural cohesion among all
of them. There are also basic affinities between the Malays
of Borneo and those of Malaya and of other parts of the Philip-
pine and Indonesian archipelagos.
Islam is by far the most powerful unifying force among
Malays, and it has produced a considerable measure of uni-
formity among those who embrace it, regardless of original
ethnic affiliation. In fact, in Borneo the term "Malay" often
is used loosely to refer to any person who professes Islam.
All the larger Malay villages have mosques. Although the
Malays take their religion seriously (many have made the pil-
grimage to Mecca), they are, nevertheless, quite tolerant in
their practices. Many Malays drink alcohol. The women go
unveiled. Polygamy is permitted for Moslems, but monogamy is
the rule among the Malays of Borneo. Islamic rules that are
rigidly adhered to include abstinence from pork and the obser-
vance of the fast of Ramadan.
The Malays have an aristocratic social tradition with a
system of hereditary rank ranging through four or five stages
from ex-slaves and commoners to a titled upper class. This
pattern reached its highest development in the Brunei Sultanate
and among the upper class Malays of Sarawak under the Brooke
rajahs. Moslem ancestry is valued, and the Malay who can look
back on several generations of Moslem ancestors feels superior
to those more recently converted. A pilgrimage to Mecca also
assures prestige and provides a means for a prosperous Malay
of doubtful antecedents to climb the social ladder.
Most Malays gain their livelihood by fishing and growing
wetland rice and sago. A few are traders, but they rarely have
much success in this field. It is likely that since the 1959
edict forbidding the Chinese to trade in rural areas of Indo-
nesia, some Malay traders have replaced Chinese traders in
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Kalimantan. Malays of Brunei formed the major component of
the TNKU -- the rebel force that revolted against the British
in Brunei in December 1962. The TNKU has since served as a
front for Indonesian-sponsored raids along the Malaysia -
Kalimantan border.
11. Melanaus
The Melanaus live in the poorly drained coastal areas of
Sarawak and Brunei. Most of the nearly 45,000 in Sarawak live
in the Third Division. They were the original inhabitants of
the Sarawak coast and formed a distinct ethnic group there
before the arrival of the Malays. Most of them still live in
their own villages and have retained their own language, simi-
lar to that of the Kayans, and a highly stratified social sys-
tem. Nevertheless, they have lost much of their identity as a
result of mixing with the Malays, who now form the predominant
ethnic group in the coastal regions. Most of the Melanaus
have adopted Islam, a few are Christians, and some are still
animists. A single village is likely to have adherents to all
three beliefs, although isolated villages may contain only
pagans.
The Melanaus formerly lived in longhouses but now live in
single-family dwellings raised on piles. Their villages,
indistinguishable from Malay villages, usually consist of a
straggling line of houses along a riverbank, often with a
wooden platform over the river and extending the full length
of the village. This platform serves as a work area and as a
place for village meetings, much as the veranda of the long-
house in interior villages.
Because the Melanaus live along lower stretches of rivers.
not far from the sea, they are an amphibious people. Nearly
all travel is by canoe. They are excellent sailors and fisher-
men and sometimes fish in extremely rough seas in their small
but seaworthy craft. The Melanaus cultivate swamp crops --
notably the sago palm, which at one time provided the staple
of their diet but which has been replaced by rice. They grow
rubber trees on some of the better drained land. Many work in_
the timber industry.
The Melanaus are gentle and peace-loving. They are
reported to be exceedingly likable, good-humored, industrious,_
and intelligent. Because they are recent converts to Islam,
they do not have the prestige of true Malays. This fact, com-
bined with their generally passive nature, has relegated them
to a minor role in governmental affairs. They have, however,
begun to show considerable interest and aptitude in the develop-
ment of local governing bodies.
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Figure 34. A Murut from
the uplands of Sabah.
Figure 35. A Murut longhouse. Sections of the roof are
propped open to admit light to the family compartments.
Communal houses are being replaced among the Muruts by
smaller dwellings.
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12. Muruts
The Muruts are concentrated in the isolated hilly country
where the territories of Sarawak, Sabah, and Kalimantan meet,
various Murut tribes occupying territory in all three states.
A few Muruts also live in the eastern enclave of Brunei. In
Sarawak they are found mostly in the upper valley of the Trusan
River, which flows along Brunei's easternmost border. In
Sabah, where they are sometimes called Tagals, some live in
the valley of the upper Padas River and along the railroad
between Tenom and Jesselton, but most are found along the
rivers flowing southward into Indonesian territory. In Kali-
mantan Muruts are found as far south as the Sesajap River.
They are closely related to the Dusuns, their neighbors on
the north, and to the Kelabits, who occupy the valley of the
upper Baram River to the southwest.
The Murut communities were ravaged during the first half
of the 20th century by diseases such as smallpox and cholera
introduced by outsiders, and standards of health among them
remain low. Additionally, heavy drinking has depleted their
numbers. Much of their rice crop is used for making wine, and
they have a reputation for regularly drinking themselves into
a 'stupor. Their general state of squalor and wretchedness has
made the Muruts a target for Christian missionary efforts,
particularly during the past 30 years.
There is little unity among the Muruts. They form fairly
independent groups, each differing somewhat in customs and
language. Chiefs have little authority within the loose social
organization of the Muruts.
Because the Muruts inhabit rugged uplands, where rivers
generally are too turbulent for canoes, most movement is on
foot. As a result, they have finer physiques than most other
peoples of Borneo. They are reported to be a dour and obsti-
people, though not unreliable. During World War II, some
nate
Muruts aided Europeans who took refuge from the Japanese in
their territory. When paramilitary forces were organized in
the Trusan valley during the closing stages of the war, Muruts
took up arms against the Japanese with considerable success.
A few of the tribes living in the Sabah -- Kalimantan border
area were reported to have actively aided the Japanese, how-
ever.
Some of the Muruts of Brunei are Moslems. They joined
forces with the Malays and the Kedayans in the rebellion
against the British in December 1962. Many of the chiefs of
Murut tribes in Sabah are ex-police officers. For this reason
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most Muruts in Sabah probably would be loyal to Malaysia if
attempts to subvert them were made by Indonesia. Some living
near the Sabah -- Kalimantan border (the tribes that assisted
the Japanese) reportedly are not favorably inclined to the
Malaysian concept, however, and may be sympathetic to Indonesia.
Muruts are good farmers. While most practice shifting
cultivation, some, particularly in the Trusan valley of Sara-
wak, have developed an advanced system of irrigated rice cul-
tivation. Occasionally a Murut village has one large communal
rice field, but usually villagers grow rice independently on
small family plots. The Muruts of the Malaysian part of the
island are generally more prosperous than those across the bor-
der in Kalimantan, and often Malaysian Muruts hire Indonesian
Muruts to do heavy work for them.
The traditional longhouse of the Muruts is unique in that
a corridor, with family cubicles on either side, extends
through the middle. There is no veranda along the front, and
the interior is dark even though sections of the roof are
propped open to admit light. Longhouses. are rapidly disappear-
ing, however, and many villages now consist of houses built
on stilts and occupied by one, two, or three families.
13. Ngadjus
The Ngadjus* are found only in Indonesian Borneo, mostly
in the interior of the southern lowlands, back from the coastal
strip occupied by Malays, Buginese, Bandjarese, and Chinese.
The Ngadjus also inhabit parts of the upland region -- the
Schwaner and Muller Mountains and the northern part of the
Meratus Range -- but most of these mountainous areas are
sparsely populated.
Ngadjus live to the east of the Land Dayaks and to the
south of the Sea Dayaks, Kayans, and Kenyahs. Because all of
these peoples have common cultural traits, in the transitional
areas it is extremely difficult to determine to which group a
particular tribe or village belongs. Little information is
available on traits that would help distinguish Ngadjus from
neighboring peoples. Apparently language has been the basic
criterion used to identify them as a group. The Ngadjus have
little ethnic unity. Affiliations are usually limited to
loose alliances of villages within a small area.
* Use of the term "Ngadju" varies. Here it is used in a broad
sense, and much of the information therefore may not be appli-
cable to all Ngadju subgroups.
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Most Ngadjus practice slash-and-burn agriculture and pri-
marily cultivate dryland rice. Jungle products, notably
camphor, are gathered and traded to Chinese in exchange for
cloth and other manufactured goods.
Most Ngadjus are animists. Planting practices are ritu-
alistic, and taboos and superstitions are deeply rooted. For
example, virgins plant the rice seeds, pregnant women sleep
in the fields to impart fertility to the growing grain, and
longhouses are taboo for a period of 8 days during the harvest.
During the period of Dutch administration, some Ngadjus
were converted to Christianity. When the Dutch departed,
many of the converts reverted to their traditional animism.
Although the present Indonesian Government has done little to
impose Islam on the peoples of Borneo, a significant number
of Ngadjus have been converted since 1949. Greatest conver-
sion has occurred in the Barito Valley, where outside influ-
ence has extended relatively far into the interior.
Although they are suspicious of outsiders and their con-
fidence is not easily gained, the Ngadjus are normally quiet
and peace-loving. Formerly they were headhunters, said to be
fearless in battle. Some of the more progressive Ngadjus
resent Indonesian Government neglect of Borneo, particularly
in the field of education.
Ngadjus from the Bandjermasin and Samarinda areas report-
edly have been trained by Indonesia for guerrilla warfare in
western Kalimantan, but have been found unreliable for such
activity.
14. Punans
The nomadic Punans* are the most primitive people on Bor-
neo. They collect wild fruits and vegetables and hunt and
trap animals in the most remote jungles of Sarawak and Kali-
mantan. Because of their migratory way of life, they have no
permanent homes; instead they erect crude huts of thatch near
a supply of wild sago palm, which provides the staple of their.
diet. After several weeks, when the sago is exhausted, or
when game or jungle products have become scarce, they move to
a new location always travelling by land, never by river.
* Although the term "Punan" is generally used to refer to this
group, the term "Penan" is sometimes used in Sarawak. Some
authorities believe that there actually are two closely rela-
ted peoples: the Penans, who are nomadic, and the Punans, who
are sedentary.
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Figure 36. Punan man with
loin cloth and jacket of
bark. Collection of birds
is an indication of the
accuracy that can be
achieved with a blowgun.
Figure 37. A group of Punans of the Baram valley of Sara-
wak. Although some are now agriculturists, most Punans
still practice a primitive hunting and gathering economy.
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Some Punans have adopted a sedentary way of life. There are
several Punan longhouse.communities along the Rajang River
system of Sarawak, and a particularly large village near Kapit.
The Punans trade jungle products to more advanced tribes,
who in turn sell them to Chinese on the coast. Among the pro-
ducts collected and bartered are gutta-percha, rattan, and
gallstones of monkeys, valued by the Chinese for medicinal
purposes. Tobacco and iron are the two trade products most
desired by the Punans. In hunting, animals are killed with
poison darts shot from blowguns, with which the Punans are
notoriously accurate, but this weapon is being replaced by
steel spears and, to a lesser extent, by shotguns. Punans
living in northeastern Kalimantan used blowguns against the
Japanese during World War II. The Punans usually emerge from
the jungle only to barter the products they have collected.
In Sarawak, trading meetings supervised by the government are
held two or three times a year to accommodate the Punans.
The Punans are fine physical specimens -- well built,
strong, and vigorous. They are a shy, furtive people not
likely to harm one without provocation. When unjustly treated,
however, they await patiently an opportunity for revenge.
They are said to be stubborn and untrustworthy and to feign
stupidity if it suits their purpose. Their clothing is usually
confined to a loincloth for men and a skirt for women, both
traditionally made of bark, or in recent years more commonly
of cotton cloth. Their nomadic life does not permit complex
social organization. They generally live in groups of 20 to
30, each an extended family with a senior male as its chief.
There is little ethnic cohesion above this level, though mar-
riage is usually within the Punan community.
15. Sea Dayaks (Ibans)
The Sea Dayaks, who are also called Ibans, are concen-
trated in the interior of the Second and Third Divisions of
Sarawak and in an area of about the same size across the bor-
der in the upper Kapuas region of Kalimantan. The latter area-
is generally regarded as their original homeland, from which
they migrated northward into Sarawak. Some have moved east-
ward into the Fourth and Fifth Divisions and into the western
enclave of Brunei in the past 100 years.
The Sea Dayaks probably are the most publicized people
of Borneo. Until headhunting was suppressed by the Brooke
regime it was practiced by many Bornean tribes, but the Sea
Dayaks were the most notorious. Since taking a head -- whether
of a man, women, or child -- was considered proof of manhood,
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great effort was required on the part of the Rajahs to suppress
headhunting. Until very recent years punitive expeditions were
necessary to quell repeated outbreaks. Collections of black-
ened skulls are still found in most longhouses of the Sea
Dayaks, though they are less venerated than formerly.
The Sea Dayaks were also notorious pirates along the
northern coast of Borneo, and their piracy brought them into
relatively early contact with Europeans as well as conflict
with the first Rajah of Sarawak. With the help of the British
Navy, the Rajah broke up the sea forays of these people in the
1840's. Although the name "Sea Dayak" is no longer appropriate,
it is still the official term used by the Sarawak Government.
The social organization of the Sea Dayaks is highly com-
munal and is democratic, though ill-defined and somewhat
chaotic. They live in villages of one or more longhouses with
each family responsible for the construction and maintenance
of its segment of the house. 'Each house has a headman with
power to settle small disputes and impose penalties if quar-
ters are not properly maintained. In Sarawak a chief is elec-
ted by the village headmen of a particular area, usually a
river valley containing 20 to 30 villages. He is responsible
for the good order of his area and for settling major family
and land disputes and is paid a salary by the Government.
There are such chiefs in Kalimantan, as well,'but it is doubt-
ful that they maintain effective liaison with the Indonesian
Government. Although the office of chief is not hereditary,
lineage is respected, and a chief is often succeeded by one
of his sons.
The traditional way of life of the Sea Dayaks revolves
around the shifting cultivation of dryland rice. Because popu-
lation pressures are increasing, areas suitable for dryland
rice are diminishing rapidly. The Sea Dayaks are hard pressed
in their search for new village sites. The Government of Sara-
wak has initiated resettlement programs in an effort to move
them to lowlands where it is hoped they will adopt sedentary
agriculture, but most Sea Dayaks seem to have a natural wan-
derlust and are reluctant to settle down.
Expeditions to isolated places to gather jungle products
and to fish and hunt are common. In recent years this migra-
tory habit has been partly satisfied by emigration to other
areas to seek work, particularly to Malaya, Sumatra, Celebes,
and New Guinea. The Sea Dayaks prefer work in the oilfields
or with the British Army in Malaya. Until recently, many
living in Kalimantan crossed the border into Sarawak to seek
work. Travel passes were issued to some, but because of poor
security along the border many crossed illegally.
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NoMl
Figure 38. Sea Dayak men demonstrating the use of the blow-
pipe. This weapon, although still used, has been replaced,
among the more sophisticated tribes by more modern weapons.
Figure 39. Sea Dayak men wearing traditional loin cloths made
from tree bark. Western style dress has been adopted by many.
Figure 40. Sea Dayak woman collecting water from river.
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Although most Sea Dayaks are animists, many who live in
the lower river valleys of Sarawak have been converted to
Islam or Christianity (415 Moslems and 26,608 Christians are
listed in the 1960 census). Sea Dayaks who remain animists
have no idols, prayer houses, nor priesthood, but they do call
on witch doctors to cure the sick. The practice of reading
omens by interpreting the shape and condition of a pig's liver
is still common among some tribes. A pig is slaughtered for
this purpose on every important occasion.
Monogamy is nearly universal among the Sea Dayaks.
Divorce is easy, but uncommon. Promiscuity is common among
the unmarried, but fidelity 'is the rule. after marriage. In
Sea Dayak society, women occupy a position of equality and
respect, enjoying considerable independence and a strong voice
in village politics.
The downriver Sea Dayak communities, which have been in
closest contact with Malays, Chinese, and Europeans, are more
aware of the outer world than those upriver. Education has
made progress among them although the number of educated Sea
Dayaks is still small. In upriver areas, which encompass all
Sea Dayaks living in Kalimantan, they still live very much as
their forefathers did, and literacy is rare. Interest in and
desire for education are growing slowly. The Sea Dayaks have
no script of their own but do have a system of hieroglyphics
that can be read by all Sea Dayak tribes.
The hospitality of the Sea Dayaks is outstanding. Their
longhouses have no locked doors. The visitor is fed and looked
after, no matter how limited the food supply. Relations with
Europeans have always been cordial.
The Sea Dayaks probably are the most individualistic and
dynamic of the indigenous peoples of Borneo. They are excel-
lent jungle fighters, and during World War II gave invaluable
help to the Allies, being largely responsible for the contain-
ment of Japanese forces within the coastal areas of Borneo.
After the war some Sea Dayaks from Sarawak were organized into
the "Sarawak Rangers," a special unit of the British Army.
They were used effectively as trackers in Malaya in the sup-
pression of Communist terrorism in the late 1940's and in the
1950's. They helped the British forces in mopping-up opera-
tions after the rebellions in Brunei in December 1962. Al-
though a few Sea Dayaks in the Sibuti area of Sarawak report-
edly joined the Brunei rebels, having been told there would
be "a good fight downtown," the Sea Dayak community in Sarawak.
is generally considered loyal to the Malaysian authorities.
Reportedly, however, a few Sea Dayaks from Sarawak have crossed
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into western Kalimantan, where they have received military
training -- along with some Sea Dayaks and others native to
Kalimantan, and Chinese. Indonesia reportedly has had con-
siderable success in gaining the'loyalties of chiefs of both
Land and Sea Dayaks from the Kalimantan side of the Kaliman-
tan -- Sarawak border. Some of the chiefs reportedly were
flown to Djakarta, where they were entertained and presented
with gifts such as radios and knives. If this report is
accurate, Indonesia probably is hopeful that these chiefs will,
in turn gain support from chiefs on the Sarawak side of the
border.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Sarawak and North Borneo, Superintendent of Census.
North Borneo Report on the Census of Population, 1960,
1962. U.
2. Sarawak and North Borneo, Superintendent of Census.
Sarawak Report on the Census of Population, 1960, 1962. U.
3. Evans, Ivor H. N. Among Primitive Peoples in Borneo,
London, 1922. U.
4. Harrisson, Tom. "Explorations in Central Borneo," The
Geographical Journal, vol CXIV, nos 4-6, Oct-Dec 49,
p. 129-150. U.
5. Harrisson, Tom. World Within, London, 1959. U.
6. Hose, Charles and McDougall, William. The Pagan Tribes
of Borneo, (2 vols), London, 1912. U.
7. Human Relations Area Files, Inc. Country Survey Series:
North Borneo, Brunei, Sarawak, New Haven, 1956. U.
8. Morrison, Hedda. Sarawak, London, 1957. U.
9. Rutter, Owen. The Pagans of North Borneo, London, 1929.
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V. Politics and Government
A. Current Problems
1. States of Northern Borneo
The major problem facing the inexperienced governments of
northern Borneo is one of providing effective administration
while preventing the mutual distrust among major ethnic groups
from becoming a serious source of trouble. Language and
literacy barriers prohibit the early growth of mass communica-
tions. Political party activity has mushroomed in recent
years, and nearly all parties have appealed to the special
interests of one ethnic group over the others. Although inter-
nal security is the responsibility of the Malaysian Govern-
ment, the implementation of security measures will require
the close cooperation of local governments. (see E. Sub-
version).
2. Indonesian Borneo
Low-level dissident activity has been almost entirely
stopped by the imposition of army martial law. Although mar-
tial law was lifted in 1963, the army remains strong in Bor-
neo's administrative structure. Economic stagnation and the
prevalence of Javanese in the bureaucracy remain a source of
criticism of the central government. This has been offset
by popular support for such government policies as gaining
control of West New Guinea from the Dutch and opposing the
formation of Malaysia.
B. Structure of Governments
1. Sarawak and Sabah
Sarawak and Sabah are headed by governors who are appointed
by the Government of Malaysia, in whose House of Representa-
tives Sarawak has 24 delegates and Sabah 16. These delegates
are selected by the legislative bodies of Sarawak and Sabah.
The governors perform a largely ceremonial role, and the main
executive powers are held by chief ministers who head parlia-
mentary cabinets responsible to state legislatures. In Sara-
wak the legislature (called the Council Negri) consists of 40
members, 36 of whom are elected. Sabah's Legislative Council
has 25 members, 18 of whom are elected. In both states, the
remaining legislators are appointed by the governors.
An indirect system of election is used, with direct popu-
lar votes being cast only for local government representatives
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(the district councilors). These councilors select delegates
to the next highest echelon of government (division in Sarawak
and residency in Sabah), which in turn selects delegates to
the national legislatures.
Sarawak is divided into five divisions, each under a Resi-
dent, with headquarters at Kuching (First Division), Simang-
gang (Second), Sibu (Third), Miri (Fourth), and Limbang
(Fifth). Sabah is divided into four residencies: West Coast
(headquarters Jesselton), Interior (headquarters Keningau),
Sandakan (headquarters Sandakan), and Tawau (headquarters
Tawau). Divisions and residencies are subdivided into dis-
tricts. Local government has been increasingly entrusted to
the popularly elected district councils.
Sarawak and Sabah each has its own system of native courts
which have jurisdiction over matters involving customary law.
The higher court system is part of the Malaysian judiciary,
which is an extension of the system used by Malaya.
2. Brunei
Brunei is a British protectorate ruled by a hereditary
sultan. The 1959 Constitution, declaring a constitutional
monarchy, provides for a Privy Council consisting of 24
advisers selected by the Sultan, a 16-man Executive Council
(also appointive), and a 33-member Legislative Council with
an elective minority of 16 representatives (elected indirectly
through district councils, as in Sarawak and Sabah). The
Sultan suspended the constitution following an abortive revolt
in December 1962 and reverted to personal rule for an indefi-
nite period.
Brunei is divided into four districts: Belait (head-
quarters Kuala Belait), Tutong (headquarters Tutong), Tem-
burong (headquarters Bangar), and Brunei and Muara (head-
quarters Brunei Town).
Brunei has its own system of lower courts and until
September 1963 shared in the Supreme Court of Judicature which
also served Sarawak and North Borneo. The present status of
its higher court system is not known.
3. Indonesian Borneo
The four provinces of the Indonesian portion of the island
are administrative divisions of the Republic of Indonesia.
The names of the provinces and their capitals are: Kalimantan
Timur (East Borneo) -- Samarinda, Kalimantan Selatan (South
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Borneo) -- Bandjermasin, Kalimantan Tengah (Central Borneo)
-- Plangkaraja, and Kalimantan Barat (West Borneo) -- Ponti-
anak. The heads of provincial and subprovincial governments
are appointed by the central government in Djakarta and have
extensive powers to suspend or veto acts of the partially
elected regional legislatures. Small (two- to five-man) daily
executive boards are appointed by the regional heads to per-
form the main executive tasks. The four Borneo provinces are _
also represented by 19 delegates. (appointed by the central
government) to the People's Consultative Congress at the
national level.
The electoral system (not now in use) is one of propor-
tional representation by direct ballot. A new electoral sys-
tem is reportedly being devised in which elected officials
will be a minority.
The judicial system consists of a national supreme court
with state courts presiding in the provinces.
C. Political Parties and Influence Groups
1. Introduction
Political party activity is relatively new in northern
Borneo. The first party was organized in 1956 in Brunei.
Most of the parties champion the special interests of one of
the major ethnic groups. In each of the three states of
northern Borneo, however, a number of parties have found suf-
ficient common ground to form Alliance Parties which have
lasted beyond the electoral campaigns and now form the basis
of government party coalitions. This type of party coopera-
tion developed originally in Malaya and appeared in northern
Borneo during the elections of 1962 and 1963 when the pending
formation of Malaysia was a major campaign issue. Communist
activity is illegal in northern Borneo, but Communist influ-
ences are exerted through labor and youth organizations,
through traditional Chinese social organizations, and through
the affiliation of some party leaders with Communist or Com-
munist-penetrated organizations in neighboring nations. Com-
munist influence is much greater in Sarawak than in Sabah.
Political parties in Indonesia have been relegated to a
minor role by President Sukarno's "guided democracy" concepts.
In early 1960 a National Front was formed under Sukarno's
leadership for the purpose of blending political parties and
special interest groups into one semiofficial organization to
provide mass support for state policies. At the same time,
the number of political parties was reduced from 40-odd to 10,_
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and all were required to affirm their allegiance to the govern-
ment. With key political posts subject to approval by the
central government and with elections repeatedly postponed
since 1959, most of the political parties have been hard put
to maintain a meaningful existence. The Communist Party of
Indonesia (PKI) is one of the 10 legal parties and has pro-
fited from the decline of the other parties. About 25 percent
of the appointed national legislature and top advisory agencies
created during 1960 are PKI members or are susceptible to Com-
munist direction. Approximately 30 percent of the membership
in the top executive boards of the National Front is oriented
toward the PKI. To date, Communists have not been appointed
to key policy-making posts within the Cabinet. The PKI is
well organized, well financed, and controls a network of effec-
tive front organizations.
2. Sarawak
a. The Sarawak Alliance is a coalition of ethnic
parties which holds a majority (19 seats) in the legislature.
It campaigned on a pro-Malaysia platform in the 1963 elections.
Chairmanship is held by the Partai Pesaka Anak Sarawak (PAPAS),
a Dayak party formed in July 1962 under the leadership of
Temenggong Jugah Anak Barieng, who is the chief leader of the
Sea Dayak community. Other members of the Alliance are the
Barisan Ra'ayat Jati Sarawak (BERJASA), a Malay-Sea Dayak
party; the Sarawak National Party (SNP), a conservative Sea
Dayak-based party led by Stephen Kalong Ningkan, who is Sara-
wak's new Chief Minister; and the right wing Sarawak Chinese
Association (SCA), founded in July 1962. The majority of the
Alliance vote was delivered by PAPAS and SNP.
b. The Sarawak United People's Party (SUPP) is a
Communist-penetrated party formed in June 1959 which holds
five seats in the legislature. A majority of its members is
Chinese and the party is strongly anti-Malaysia. SUPP ranks
have split on the issue of ousting Communist members. The
SUPP chairman and leader of the moderate right wing is Ong
Kee Hui, a wealthy Kuching banker. Its secretary-general and
leader of the left wing is Stephan Yong, a British-educated
lawyer. Both are Sarawak-born Chinese. The SUPP cooperates
openly with the pro-Communist Barisan Sosialis Party of
Singapore.
c. The Partai Anak Negara Sarawak (PANAS),
organized in April 1960, holds five seats in the legislature.
PANAS is almost exclusively Malay and campaigned for the for-
mation of Malaysia. Its chairman, Abang Haji Mustapha bin
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Abang Haji Moasili, is the traditional head of the Malay
community.
3. Sabah
a. The Sabah Alliance includes all of Sabah's
major parties and was opppsed in the 1962 elections only by
independent candidates. Alliance members supported Malaysia,
but in widely differing degrees. The leader of the Alliance
is the United National Kadazan (Dusun) Organization (UNKO).
The UNKO, headed by Donald Stephans who is Sabah's new Chief
Minister, draws most of its support from the Kadazan community
but includes some Chinese. The Alliance also includes the
United Sabah National Organization (USNO), primarily Malay
Moslem and headed by Datu Mustapha; the United National Pasok
Momogun (UNPM), formed by leaders of the west coast rural
tribes and led by G.S. Sundang; and the Borneo Utara National
Party (BUNP), which is a merger of two local Chinese-based
parties (the United Party of Sandakan area and the Democratic
Party of the Jesselton area).
4. Brunei
a. The Partai Ra'ayat (People's Party), organized
in 1956,by A.M. Azahari, captured all 16 elective seats in
the legislature in mid-1962. The party's leadership launched
an abortive revolt in December 1962, and the party has since
been banned. Partai Ra'ayat campaigned on a platform of oppo-
sition to Malaysia and advocacy of a three-state Borneo federa-
tion under the leadership of the Sultan of Brunei.
b. The Brunei Alliance, formed after the banning
of the Partai Ra'ayat, is a coalition of parties reportedly
strongly influenced by the Sultan. It includes the Brunei
United National Organization, formed by a splinter group from
the Partai Ra'ayat, and two parties closely associated with
court circles, the Brunei United Party and the Brunei National
-Organization.
5. Indonesian Borneo
a. In East Borneo (Kalimantan Timur) the non-
Communist parties are virtually inactive. The activities of
the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) are also at low level,
but the PKI has used a variety of front organizations in labor
and village community affairs. The PKI has a noteworthy poten-
tial in the Balikpapan area among oil refinery unions affili-
ated with the Communist-dominated labor federation, SOBSI.
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b. In South Borneo (Kalimantan Selatan) the
Moslem parties (Masjumi and Nahdatul Ulama-NU) have what
approaches a monopoly on political influence, although the
Masjumi was banned as a political party in 1960. Provincial
wealth is concentrated in the hands of the traditional leaders
of the Moslem community and is used to reinforce Moslem
leadership. The PKI has made a strong bid for the support of
Javanese migrants and Chinese labor, especially in the port
of Bandjermasin. The Moslem population is largely Bandjarese,
and their resentment of the dominant position of the Javanese
in national policies has prompted delaying tactics in carry-
ing out central government programs.
c. In Central Borneo (Kalimantan Tengah) Chris-
tian Dayak influence is strong because of superior education
obtained in missionary schools, which are still functioning.
This important minority supplies most of the local govern-
ment's administrative personnel and led the agitation for
separate provincial status. Two factors affect local will-
ingness to accept stronger government control, however: (1)
most of the key administrative positions are held by Javanese
appointed by the central government and (2) the traditional
Dayak leadership looks to Djakarta to protect its position
against the growing strength of a sizable Bandjarese minority.
d. In West Borneo (Kalimantan Barat) the Com-
munist-penetrated Partai Indonesia (Partindo) has gained an
important advantage through its affiliation with leaders of
the now-banned Dayak Union Party (Persatuan Dayak-PD). The
Dayak Union was the largest single party and drew support
from up-country Dayak peoples and the Chinese. Most of the
non-Communist parties are ineffective. The PKI has courted
Dayak support with an unknown degree of success, but the com-
bined PKI-Partindo efforts are probably increasing the Com-
munist subversive potential.
D. Foreign Relations
1. Northern Borneo
Sarawak and Sabah, as Malaysian states, and Brunei, as a
British protectorate, have no control over their own foreign
policies, which are in the hands of the Malaysian and the
British Governments respectively.
The former Government of Malaya, which will dominate
Malaysia during,its formative years, is pro-Western and
strongly anti-Communist. Neutralist tendencies, long evident
in Malayan opposition parties and the bulk of Singapore's
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Chinese population, will probably increase with the addition
of the Borneo states' energetic Chinese and politically
inexperienced tribal populations.
2. Indonesian Borneo
The formulation of foreign policy is a function of the
central government, and the individual provincial governments
play no part in the process. The Republic of Indonesia is
highly nationalistic, and anticolonialism is a basic principle
of its foreign policy. The Indonesian Government is publicly
committed to disrupting Malaysia and has developed a foreign
policy of "confrontation" which combines diplomatic and eco-
nomic pressures and subversive activity. In September 1963
Indonesia cut off all trade ties with the new Malaysian nation
and stepped up covert operations against northern Borneo.
E. Subversion
1. Introduction
Significant subversion exists only in the three states of
northern Borneo. With the end of colonial rule in an area
not ready for self-government, several factors have created
security problems in Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah. Among these
are lack of basic social unity, political immaturity of the
inhabitants, and Indonesian ambitions.
The population is racially diverse. Language barriers
and high illiteracy deny effective mass communication.
The Malays, with the exception of the Chinese the most
politically sophisticated of the inhabitants of Borneo, were
given preference by the British in education and together
with the Chinese hold most government jobs. They are inclined
to look down on the Chinese and other Bornean ethnic groups
and are resented and mistrusted by both the tribal peoples
and the Chinese.
The Chinese, the best educated, and politically and econom-
ically adept, retain loyalties to mainland China. Often con-
sidered aliens by the rest of the population, the Chinese com-
munity is vulnerable to Communist penetration.
The tribal peoples are apprehensive over the departure of
the British, to whom they looked for protection from the Chi-
nese and Malays. Totaling half the population, these people
represent a force for stability, but their lack of political
experience makes them a target for subversion.
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The motivating force for exploitation of subversive ten-
dencies comes from Indonesia's opposition to Malaysia.
Djakarta has an interest in northern Borneo because of geo-
graphic nearness, historical claims, ethnic ties with two of
the area's main racial groups (the Malays and the tribal
peoples), and its desire to acquire more territory. At Presi-
dent Sukarno's instigation, Indonesia seems determined to pre-
vent such a closely related area from becoming a stable part
of a rival Southeast Asian power.
2. Sarawak
Significant organized communism is found only in Sarawak,
where a third of the population is Chinese. Here the Sara-
wak Advanced Youth Association (SAYA), the youth arm of the
Sarawak United Peoples Party (SUPP), and also the front group
for the Clandestine Communist Organization (CCO), represents
the greatest subversive threat. Its basic aim is the estab-
lishment of a Communist state in Sarawak. Until 1962, the
CCO, whose membership is exclusively Chinese, pursued this
aim through constitutional methods. Since the CCO is essen-
tially a Communist Chinese organization, its ultimate aims
and the aims of the Indonesian Government are incompatible.
Nevertheless, the Indonesians have decided to use members of
the CCO as a ready weapon for their immediate purposes in
Sarawak. There are also indications that the CCO has succeeded
in establishing a firm link with the Indonesian Communist
Party (PKI). The PKI has in some measure been responsible
for sponsoring the recruitment and training of CCO members.
The CCO's political activities have been concentrated in
the SUPP, the most articulate, organized, and vigorous of
Sarawak's political parties. The CCO has significant influ-
ence at the branch level and on national committees but has
never succeeded in gaining absolute control of the SUPP.
The CCO is well established in all divisions except the
Fifth, where the Chinese population is small. It has estab-
lished a network of cells in Chinese schools for the purpose
of talent spotting, indoctrination, and recruitment. The CCO
is represented on the staffs and boards of management of many
Chinese schools.
The CCO also makes use of the small trade union movement
to further its aims. Recent government administrative action
to combat this influence has had some success, but CCO control
of and influence in trade unions in the First and Third Divi-
sions of Sarawak is still effective.
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The Sarawak Farmer's Association is an illegal puppet
organization of the CCO designed to achieve a controlling
influence among the Chinese rural masses. Established in all
divisions but the Fifth, it has attracted no tribal support,
but its membership is increasing and may total 8,000.
After the Brunei revolt in December 1962 the CCO leadership
began to prepare for armed struggle. Military training in
guerrilla tactics and jungle warfare was started in the First,
Second, and Third Divisions in February 1963. CCO trainees
also received tactical instruction in attacks on police and
security force personnel and posts.
CCO personnel have been crossing from Sarawak into Kali-
mantan and receiving military training there from Indonesian
military and civil authorities. It is known that a few Chi-
nese have been assimilated into the Indonesian-sponsored
raider units based in areas opposite the First and Second Divi-
sions. Most are probably being reinfiltrated into Sarawak to
provide the nucleus for an internal uprising.
It is estimated that the CCO has about 1,000 full members
and a potential armed strength of about 3,500. This force
could probably be supported and supplied by about 20,000 non-
militant Communist sympathizers. These sympathizers include
members of the Sarawak Farmer's Association and other elements
of the CCO-influenced Chinese rural population.
As a countermeasure to the CCO's program of militancy, in
April 1963 British forces and Sarawak police units began
patrolling in areas of CCO strength and along the Indonesian
border. The Sarawak Government has also ordered that all arms
owned by Chinese residents in the first four divisions be sur-
rendered. The vast majority of these weapons, mainly shotguns,
have been turned in and this, combined with the intensive
patrolling, has led to a virtual cessation of CCO training
within Sarawak. The movement of Chinese into Kalimantan and
reinfiltration back into Sarawak is continuing.
3. Brunei
The degree of subversive danger in northern Borneo was
first revealed by an armed revolt in Brunei on 8 December 1962
by the Tentara Nasional Kalimantan Utara-TNKU (North Kaliman-
tan National Army). The TNKU was formed and armed by the now
defunct, left wing Partai Ra'ayat (People's Party) of A.M.
Azahari under the nose of the British without arousing great
suspicion. The causes of the revolt centered around the
inefficiency, corruption, and decadence of the Sultan's
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Government and the anti-Malaysia sentiment of most of Brunei's
predominantly Malay population who fear that Brunei's oil
wealth might be drained off for development of the other two
Borneo territories. About 80 percent of the Brunei population
was and still may be sympathetic to the Partai Ra'ayat. Even
though the failure of the revolt produced disillusionment,
Brunei will remain a potential danger spot for subversion.
The TNKU, which numbered about 3,500 at the time of the
revolt, was composed almost entirely of Brunei Malays and
Kedayan tribesmen, closely related to Malays. They were par-
tially equipped and trained in Indonesia. When the revolt
was crushed by several thousand British troops, the majority
of the TNKU (3,000) surrendered. Most of the rank-and-file
captives upon interrogation showed little comprehension of why
they had been fighting and were later released. About 200 of
the hard-core TNKU managed to disperse throughout the Borneo
territories or escaped into Indonesian Borneo. Today no more
than 50 TNKU insurgents are believed to be at large in the
Borneo territories and the TNKU as an independent force is
practically defunct. Azahari, an Indonesian-sponsored exile,
appears to have lost the allegiance of his old followers, and
TNKU activity is now largely limited to the participation of
TNKU units or individuals in Indonesian-based border raids
into Sarawak.
4. Sabah
Of the three states of northern Borneo, Sabah is the least
troubled by subversive elements. There was no significant
sympathy in Sabah for Azahari's revolt, and most inhabitants
are pro-Malaysia. In the summer of 1963 the British expelled
two members of the Indonesian Central Intelligence Agency
(BPI) operating in Jesselton under consular cover. They had
been engaged in various subversive activities among the large
Indonesian labor force, which represents the chief threat to
security. British authorities have also been expelling Indo-
nesian immigrants and closing down Indonesian organizations
suspected of subversive activities.
5. Indonesian Paramilitary Activity
Indonesian paramilitary operations against northern Borneo
involve penetration by Indonesian guerrilla units operating
under TNKU cover. These units are believed to be attempting
to establish pockets of resistance and rallying points for
dissident support within Sarawak. They may be engaged in
sabotage missions. Regular Indonesian army units have been
sent to remote border areas to provide patrols and contact
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points for meeting CCO members from Sarawak and Malays from
Brunei. Communications stations are in operation to maintain
radio contact with guerrilla units operating in Sarawak. There
has also been a military reinforcement of the border near each
seaward end of the Kalimantan -- Malaysia border by troops
normally stationed in southern Kalimantan. Improvement of
interior airstrips has begun, and the Indonesian Air Force has-
been patrolling the border for several months. Indonesian
Army Intelligence maintains agents and contacts in northern
Borneo. This net is believed to be directed by the consulate
at Jesselton with contact with Indonesia at Tarakan. The
Indonesian Communist Party, whose operations are directed from
.a headquarters in Pontianak, is also believed to maintain con-
tact with agents in northern Borneo.
The Indonesian military is recruiting, supporting, and
directing border-raiding parties. These parties consist of
CCO and TNKU elements, tribesmen, Indonesian irregulars, and
Indonesian military personnel acting as trainers and leaders.
They are reported to be training Dayak infiltrators near
Malinau and about 1,500 to 2,000 volunteers in northwest
Kalimantan -near Singkawang. It is estimated that the volun-
teers will total 3,000 by the spring of 1964. Instruction
is believed to be given in the use of .303 Enfield rifles,
Sten and Owen submachine guns, hand grenades, plastic bombs,
and 50mm and 61mm mortars. This covert activity is conducted
under the term "A Operations" and is controlled by the BPI.
The raids, which began in April 1963, have increased in
frequency and generally have taken place close to the Indo-
nesian border in the western section of Sarawak where the
terrain is least mountainous, although recently raids have
been made in central Sarawak. In most raids TNKU propaganda
leaflets have been left behind.
In response to the increasing threat posed by these raids
into Sarawak, British military forces there are being heavily
reinforced and intensive patrolling by troops and helicopters
is under way.
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3. CIA. CIA/RR GP 63-43:L, British Borneo, Feb 63. S/NO
FOREIGN DISSEM.
4. CIA. NIE 54/59-62, Prospects for the Proposed Federation.
of Malaysia, 11 Jul 62. S /CONTROLLED DISSEM.
5. CIA. SNIE 54/59-63, Prospects for Malaysia, 20 Feb 63.
S/CONTROLLED DISSEM.
6. American Universities Field Staff Reports Service.
Southeast Asia Series, vols X and XI, 1962 and 1963. U.
7. Human Relations Area Files, Inc. Country Survey Series:
North Borneo, Brunei, Sarawak, New Haven, 1956. U.
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VI. Economy
A. Introduction
The economies of Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah, and Kalimantan
are each dependent upon the export of one or two commodities.
Economic development is confined to the coastal areas. The
most important export crops, rubber, copra, and pepper, are
cultivated primarily by smallholders, although there are a few
large plantations.
Northern Borneo is enjoying prosperity, while Kalimantan
suffers from the problems affecting the Indonesian economy..
Sabah relies on rubber and timber for income. The major source
of income for Sarawak, Brunei, and Kalimantan is petroleum,
which is the only industry of economic importance in Borneo.
Nevertheless, Borneo oil represents an insignificant share of
total world production -- less than 2 percent. Diversifica-
tion of existing industries as well as new industries is needed
to lessen dependence on declining oil reserves and on rubber
for which world prices fluctuate widely.
Prospects for industrial development on Borneo are limited
by lack of transportation, electric power, and skilled labor.
At the present time, light consumer goods are manufactured,
and agricultural products and timber are processed. Surveys
of potential mineral resources have prompted the planned
development of a small iron and steel facility in Kalimantan.
Other surveys may discover minerals which exist in profitable
quantities. Additional oil resources are being sought with
some success both on land and offshore near Brunei, Sabah, and
Sarawak.
B. Natural Resources
1. Sarawak
Oil, bauxite, phosphate, lime, and extensive tropical
forests are Sarawak's main natural resources. About 25,000
tons of bauxite a year are mined in western Sarawak, while a
few Chinese mine gold on a small scale. At one time antimony,
mercury, and diamonds were also mined. Their extraction may
be revived. Coal deposits have been discovered and may be
exploited. Good timber is available, but the better grades
are on high, relatively inaccessible land in the interior.
Forests supply firewood for home use.
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2. Brunei
The main resources of Brunei are petroleum and tropical
forests. There are no known deposits of nonferrous metals.
Crude oil production is declining because of depleting
reserves. There are deposits of high grade lignite, but
exploitation has been unprofitable. Tropical forests provide
timber and firewood for home use.
3. Sabah
Sabah's most important resource is its tropical forest.
There are nonferrous metal deposits which may be exploitable.
Known locations of asbestos, chromite, copper, gold, and
silver are being surveyed. There are no known oil fields.
4. Kalimantan
Kalimantan has a wide variety of natural resources and
produces about 10 percent of Indonesian oil exports. Coal,
found principally between Balikpapan and Samarinda, is an
important resource. Bauxite deposits have been surveyed by
Japanese firms, but there is no large-scale exploitation.
Gold and silver are mined in northwestern Kalimantan. Prom-
ising undeveloped antimony deposits have been found in west-
ern Kalimantan. Manganese is mined at Gunung (mountain) Besi
near Siluas and mercury on the east coast at Gunung Sekerat.
There are unexploited areas of nickel-bearing iron ore in
southeastern Kalimantan.
C. Industry and Electric Power
1. Sarawak
Sarawak's major industries are petroleum refining, lumber
milling, and sago and copra processing. Consumer goods such
as cigarettes, metal cans, bricks, arrack (a strong alcoholic
drink), soap, rubber footwear, and light clothing are manu-
factured.
The only oil refinery in northern Borneo is operated by
Sarawak Shell at Lutong. It receives crude oil by pipeline
from the Brunei fields and from the declining Sarawak field
at Miri. The refinery has a capacity of 2.4 million tons and
produces primarily gasoline and diesel fuel.
Lumber milling is thriving; about 70 sawmills are scattered
throughout the country. A plant to manufacture veneer sheets
is located at Selalang.
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Electric power output is small, and its distribution con-
fined to the main towns. Most electricity is produced by a
government-owned public utility. Continuous electricity is
supplied by diesel generators to Kuching, Simanggang, Sibu,
Sarikei, Binatang, Kapit, Miri, Bentulu, and Limbang. Other
towns have limited service. Total generating capacity is more
than 11,000 kilowatts (kw).
2. Brunei
The only industry of importance in Brunei is oil. Brunei
Shell operates the oil fields at Seria and a small field in
the eastern part of the state. Peak production was obtained
in 1956 when 42 million barrels were extracted. Since then
output has declined. A Shell plant on the Seria field pro-
duces gasoline and diesel fuel -- all for domestic consumption.
Natural gas is also processed into gasoline on this field.
The greatest portion of crude output, however, is shipped to
Lutong, Sarawak, where part of it is refined and the remainder-
exported.
Industries based on petroleum and natural gas -- such as
fertilizer, plastics, and petro-chemical manufacturing -- may
soon be established, as may fisheries and glass and timber
industries. There are about 17 small sawmills, but additional-
lumber must be imported from Sarawak.
Shell operates a 10,850 kw thermal power plant at its
Seria oil field. It consists of a 6,000 kw steam unit and a
4,850 kw gas-turbine unit, which generates power for the oil
field and Seria township. Shell also operates a 3,000 kw
diesel plant at Seria. Brunei Town (3,800 kw), Kuala Belait
(257 kwj and Tutong (375 kw) all have diesel units. There
are also small diesel plants at Brooketon (Muara) and Bangar.
3. Sabah
Industry in Sabah is very limited. Agricultural and timber
products are processed for export and foodstuffs and consumer
goods are prepared for the local market. Seventy-one sawmills,
which are operated by large concession holders and licensees,
cut lumber.
Electric power facilities are meager, consisting of gen-
erators in the main towns. Total capacity was 9,431 kw in
1961. Diesel power plants are located in Jesselton, Sandakan,
Labuan, and Tawau. There may be possibilities for hydro-
electric power development.
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P ry
' ., mow. .+~. ..
INIMENNIN -7-
Figure 41. Oil refinery, Balikpapan.
m x
Figure 42. Oilfield, Tarakan Island.
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4. Kalimantan
Kalimantan has little industry. A single oil refinery,
owned by Shell Oil, is located at Balikpapan. It produces
aviation turbine fuel, diesel fuel, and kerosene, but cannot
produce aviation gasoline. The capacity of the refinery is
about 3.65 million metric tons a year.
A rubber vulcanization plant is operating at Bandjermasin.
Sawmills, operated by Chinese, are located near Pontianak.
A small iron and steel industry is scheduled for development
in southeastern Kalimantan under a Soviet credit. Surveys
are now being conducted by Soviet technicians to locate the
ore deposits necessary for this industry.
Electric power facilities are few. The Balikpapan refinery
has a 30,000 kw thermal unit which also supplies power to the
town. Balikpapan is also served by a 1,000 kw diesel unit.
Diesel power plants exist at Bandjermasin (2,000 kw), Pon-
tianak (1,400 kw), and. at Plangkaraja (200 kw). A 2,100 kw
diesel plant supplies the oilfields, the oil storage facili-
ties, and the town of Lingkas. Other towns in Kalimantan
have small diesel power generators.
D. Agriculture
1. Sarawak
Sarawak is basically an agricultural country, but soils
are generally poor. Although more than 75 percent of the
labor force is engaged in agriculture, only about 20 percent
of the total land area is cultivated. Cultivation occurs pri-
marily in the coastal regions; the inland areas are covered
by tropical forests. The traditional farming practice has
been a wasteful system of slash-and-burn, shifting cultivation.
Cash crops include rubber, pepper, sago, and coconuts.
Rubber, the principal cash crop, is produced largely by small-
holders, although there are five large estates. Production
is about 50,000 tons a year but is expected to increase sub-
stantially when recently planted high-yielding trees mature.
Despite the fact that three-fourths of the cultivated
area is used for rice production, approximately one-half of
Sarawak's total requirements of rice must be imported. Other
food crops include tapioca, yams, sweet potatoes, and maize.
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2. Brunei
There is little agriculture production in Brunei. No
information is available on the percentage of land under cul-
tivation. Rice, coconuts, fruits, and vegetables are grown,
but not in sufficient quantity to support the population.
3. Sabah
In Sabah about 6 percent of the land is cultivated. The
most important agricultural export is rubber, 60 percent of
which is produced by smallholders. Other cash crops include
copra, hemp, and tobacco. Falling world market prices for
rubber and hemp have resulted in sharp declines in the value
of these exports. Prospects for Sabah's agricultural export
future depend on two new crops -- oil palm and cacao. Rice,
the staple foodstuff, is produced by primitive methods of
shifting cultivation. Little rice is grown commercially; one--
third of domestic requirements are imported.
4. Kalimantan
Cash crops grown in Kalimantan include rubber, coconut,
and pepper. These products are. grown principally around
Sambas and Pontianak and in the southern lowlands north of
Bandjermasin, where rice is also grown. Copra production
has been declining in recent years because of aging trees and
an inefficient replanting program. Food production is inade-
quate to support the population; rice is imported.
E. Fishing and Forestry
1. Northern Borneo
Commercial fishing is insignificant in northern Borneo.
Fish are important, however, as a source of protein for much
of the population. Fresh-water fisheries are found in Sara-
wak, Brunei, and Sabah. Prawns are caught along the coast
and exported from Sarawak and Sabah. Tuna fishing is carried
out in Sabah around Pulau Si Amil.
About three-fourths of the land area in northern Borneo
is covered with primary forests. A portion of this is under
state protection to insure the future availability of timber
stands. Future timber exploitation is likely to take place
in the highlands where better grades of timber can be obtained.
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2. Kalimantan
Kalimantan supplies about one-third of total Indonesian
salt and fresh-water fish. There are no canning facilities.
The fish are dried and salted.
Eighty percent of Kalimantan is covered by tropical for-
ests. About 10 percent of the total forest area is protected
to insure future timber reserves. Large-scale mechanized
logging has been started by the state forest service. Many
of the forested areas are inaccessible for commerical exploi-
tation.
F. Employment and Labor
1. Sarawak
The labor force of Sarawak consists of about 38 percent
of the population. The majority of these people are occupied
in rice farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing. The more
profitable crops, such as rubber and pepper, are cultivated
by Chinese farmers. There is a shortage of skilled laborers,
and those used by Shell Oil, the timber mills, and new indus-
tries must be recruited from outside.
Government policy encourages trade unions, so long as they
can be covertly controlled to prevent Communist penetration
and direction. In 1961, there were 31 unions, but many are
too small to be effective. The older and bigger unions con-
tinue to develop, but none are politically significant.
2. Brunei
Most workers in Brunei are occupied in cultivating small
farms, fishing, and harvesting jungle products. Shell Oil
is the largest industrial employer. Both skilled and unskilled
labor are in short supply. Skilled labor is recruited from
Hong Kong, Malaya, and Singapore; unskilled and semiskilled
labor from Sarawak and Sabah.
3. Sabah
Sabah's labor force numbers about a third of the popula-
tion. Nearly all of these people work as producers of raw
materials. The rest work in manufacturing, transportation,
communications, commerce, public services, professions, and
personal and domestic services. There is no unemployment.
Skilled and semiskilled workers from Hong Kong and Singapore
are employed by construction and engineering firms.
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The government is sponsoring responsible trade unions,
but the union movement is still in its earliest stages.
4. Kalimantan
Labor is generally scarce in Kalimantan. Some skilled and
unskilled labor is obtainable from the areas of major popula-
tion concentrations (the northeast coastal area and the
Bandjermasin, Balikpapan, and Tarakan areas). Skilled labor
has been obtained from Java to man the oil installations.
Most of the population is engaged in smallholder agriculture
(rubber and copra).
Trade unions have a membership of 25,000. Their influence
is very limited because of government control over all unions.
G. Foreign Trade
1. Sarawak
Exports from Sarawak for 1962 totaled US $134 million,
and imports were US $132 million. Fifty-five percent of total
exports was refined and crude petroleum, most of which was
imported from the Seria field in Brunei. Twenty percent of
total exports by value is rubber. Timber and pepper are the
next most important exports.
Crude petroleum from Brunei accounts for 48 percent of
total imports. Other imports are manufactured goods, rice,
and other foodstuffs.
Sarawak's most important trading partner is Brunei
because of the re-exporting of a large share of Brunei's oil.
Major countries exporting goods to Sarawak are the United
Kingdom, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Exports are sent primarily
to Japan, Australia, and Singapore, although Hong Kong has
been steadily encroaching on the Singapore trade.
2. Brunei
Brunei's exports totaled US $66 million in 1962; imports
were US $16 million. Ninety-four percent of total exports
was crude oil sold to Sarawak. (Brunei has no adequate port
facilities for international shipping.)
Imports consist largely of manufactured goods and food.
Most imports come from Singapore; direct trade with the United
Kingdom and Australia is increasing.
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3. Sabah
Sabah's exports for 1962 were US $77 million and imports
were US $79 million. Timber, rubber, and copra are the most
important exports.
Primary imports are machinery, rice, and other provisions
from the United Kingdom, United States, and Indonesia. Tobac-_
co is purchased for re-export. Most exports are sent to Japan,
Malaya, and the United Kingdom; Japan alone receives 43 percent.
4. Kalimantan
The rubber production of Kalimantan accounts for one-third-
of the total rubber exports of Indonesia and amounts to about
US $60 million annually. About 85,000 tons of rice are
imported each year.
H. Foreign Loans and Aid
1. Sarawak
Economic assistance to Sarawak has consisted of grants
from the United Kingdom and technical assistance under the
Colombo Plan and from the United Nations. The United Kingdom
provided US $2 million during 1961, and similar amounts in
earlier years. Colombo Plan assistance ranged over a number
of projects which included sending an expert to advise on bush
airfields, a team to revise the secondary school curriculum,
and a number of teachers. The United States has assigned
Peace Corps volunteers to Sarawak. The Soviet Bloc has
extended no economic assistance to any of the countries of
northern Borneo.
2. Brunei
Brunei has received no external economic assistance in
the form of grants or loans. The United Nations has provided
technical assistance for the purpose of designing a develop-
ment plan.
3. Sabah
Sabah receives assistance from the United Kingdom, the
United Nations, and under the Colombo Plan. In 1961, grants
from the United Kingdom totaled about US $2.5 million. The
Colombo Plan countries have provided training facilities and
technicians in various fields. Assistance in malaria control
has been received from the World Health Organization (WHO)
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and the United Nations International Children's Emergency
Fund (UNICEF). The United Nations also has given assistance
valued at US $0.8 million for a large scale natural resource
survey in the Labuk Valley. The US Peace Corps has sent
volunteers to Sabah.
Very little information is available on the dollar value
of external assistance to Indonesian Borneo as a separate
entity. The US Government has provided assistance to projects
for local government improvement, diesel electrification,
fisheries, and various educational training programs. Czecho-
slovakia provided long-term economic credits to Indonesia of
which US $5.5 million went for tractors and other agricultural
equipment for use in Kalimantan. The USSR has begun work on
extensive roadbuilding projects and on an iron and steel pro-
ject including a steel mill.
1. Currency
1. Northern Borneo
The Malayan -dollar, equal to $0.327, is used in all of
northern Borneo. The following currency is in circulation:
Notes Value in US Dollars
M$1 $ 0.33
M$5 $ 1.63
M$10
M$50
M$100
M$1,000
$ 3.27
$ 16.34
$ 32.68
$326.80
M$.01
(copper and bronze)
0.003
M$.05
(cupro-nickel)
0.02
M$.10
(cupro-nickel)
0.03
M$.20
(cupro-nickel)
0.07
M$.50
(cupro-nickel)
0.16
2. Kalimantan
The Indonesian rupiah is used in Kalimantan. On the free
market, such as in Singapore, it is worth approximately 1,000
to US $1.00. There are bank notes of 1, 22, 5, 10, 25, 50,
and 100 rupiah. Aluminum coins of 1, 5, 10, and 25 rupiahs
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are in circulation, as are cupro-nickel coins valued at 50
sen or one-half rupiah.
J. Prime Economic Targets
There are two economic targets in Borneo, oil installa-
tions and public utilities.
Oil refineries are located at Lutong in Sarawak and at
Balikpapan in Kalimantan. A 150-mile pipeline connects the
Balikpapan refinery and the Tandjung oilfield. All these
facilities are operated by Shell Oil. Although their des-
truction would not greatly affect the world petroleum market,
the domestic economies of Brunei, Sarawak, and Indonesia would
be seriously affected.
Public utilities such as electric generators would be
prime economic targets for the small unit. These facilities
are found only in the main towns. Their destruction would be
of nuisance value rather than the cause of great economic
damage.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
2. Far Eastern Economic Review -- Yearbook, Dec 62. U.
3. Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 Nov 62, p. 319-342. U.
4. North Borneo. Colony of North Borneo: Annual Report,
1962, 1963. U.
5. Sarawak. Annual Report, 1961, 1962. U.
6. Brunei. State of Brunei: Annual Report, 1960, 1962. U.
7. Commonwealth Consultative Committee on South and South-
east Asia. The Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic
Development in South and Southeast Asia, 11th annual
report (Australia), Nov 62. U.
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VII. Transportation
A. Inland Waterways
Inland waterways are the most important means of trans-
portation on Borneo. There are roughly three times as many
miles of inland waterways as of roads in Kalimantan, and the
total mileage of inland waterways in Malaysian Borneo and
Brunei exceeds the total combined mileage of roads and rail-
roads by a wide margin. Rivers usually offer the only means
of surface transport into the interior of the island. Typi-
cally, cargo moves downriver in shallow-draft native craft to
ports near the mouth of the river, where it is transferred to
coastal vessels and enters coastal traffic; and upriver from
coastal ports into the interior.
No dams, locks, or irrigation devices and very few bridges
obstruct navigation on the rivers of Borneo. The waterways
are not interconnected, however, and it is often necessary to
portage cargo from one navigable stretch to another or from
one river to another, particularly in the upper reaches
which are impassable because of rapids and waterfalls. The
lower reaches generally traverse sluggish coastal swamps that
are difficult to navigate because of their numerous meanders
and abandoned channels. Many rivers can be entered only at
high tide because sandbars lie across their mouths. Because
of excessive rainfall, sudden changes in water levels are
common, and a rise of 30 feet in a few hours is not unusual.
Periods of low water are most common from June to August, and
maximum levels normally occur between November and March.
During periods of heavy rainfall, navigation is handicapped
by rapid floodwaters that carry large items of debris, such
as trees. Furthermore, coastal areas are often flooded to
the extent that it is hard to find the navigable channels.
Most vessels on the inland waterways of Borneo are of
shallow draft and of 2-ton to 20-ton capacity. Many are hand
powered, but there also are some paddle-wheeled steamers and
powered junks. Most vessels are privately owned, but a few
are owned by organized companies, mostly Chinese, that main-
tain scheduled service on the larger rivers.
B. Roads and Trails
1. Roads
The roads of Borneo, probably less than 5,000 miles in
total length, are mostly short, isolated, and capable of
serving only local needs. No actual network or unified road
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Figure 43. Nondescript facilities along the Kapuas River.
Such facilities are typical of native craft landings along
the inland waterways of Borneo.
Figure 44. Native craft on the Rajang River. Much of the
cargo transported over the inland waterways of Borneo is
carried in vessels such as this. Note the outboard motor.
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Figure 45. The lower reaches of most large rivers
in Borneo are navigable.
Figure 46. Typical portage on the upper reaches
of a large river.
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system has been developed for the island as a whole, partly
because many of the rivers are navigable and have served ade-
quately for transport to the interior. Furthermore, dense
vegetation and rugged terrain are serious deterrents to the
development of an extensive road system. Most of the roads
are in the coastal areas of the northern, southeastern, and
western parts of the island. They serve the hinterlands of
such ports as Brunei Town, Jesselton, and Sandakan in the
north, Balikpapan and Bandjermasin in the southeast, and
Kuching and Pontianak in the west (see main map Borneo). Few
roads penetrate deeply inland, and no roads cross the border
between Malaysian Borneo and Kalimantan.
A few of the all-weather roads are surfaced with asphalt
or crushed stone, but actually the term "all-weather" is mis-
leading because most of Borneo's roads are unsurfaced and
even the surfaced ones may be impassable during part of the
year. Heavy rainfall throughout the year frequently causes
flooding and washouts that can make even the best roads tem-
porarily impassable. Flooding is particularly likely and
unsurfaced roads are especially muddy from November to April.
Much of the overland traffic comes to a halt during the heavy
rains. Roads are poorly maintained throughout the island,
although maintenance usually is somewhat better near urban
centers.
Most of the bridges, fords, and ferries along the roads
of Borneo are bottlenecks, especially the ferries because of
their limited capacity. Many ferries, are nothing more than
a few native craft tied together, and most of the bridges are
only one lane wide.
In Sarawak, Sibu and Kuching will ultimately be linked
by a road that is being extended from Simanggang. In Sabah
a road is being built across the northern part of the island
to connect cities of the west coast with Sandakan. Most of
the road construction and improvement now in progress in
Kalimantan is in the southeast. Although the roads in wes-
tern Borneo near the Kalimantan -- Malaysia border do not
form a complete network, they are significant because of
their relation to the border. In Kalimantan the coastal
towns of Pontianak, Sungaipenju, and Singkawang are connected
by road to Siluas, approximately 10 miles from the border.
The road from Sungaipenju continues inland to Sintang, and
from this road, trails and navigable tributaries of the
Kapuas River (not to be confused with the Kapuas River that
empties into the Java Sea near Bandjermasin) extend northward
toward the border.
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Figure 47. An example of road conditions in Kalimantan dur-
ing the rainy season. Road travel is restricted throughout
Borneo during this period.
Figure 48. A section of the Brunei-Seria road.
Most of the roads in Borneo are not of this quality.
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Figure 49. Gravel-surfaced road, illustrating
problem of encroaching vegetation.
Figure 50. River ferry in operation. Most fer-
ries are of limited capacity, and many are hand-
powered.
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Only 8,307 motor vehicles were registered in Kalimantan
in 1959. Of these 2,911 were trucks, 2,844 were passenger
cars, and 2,225 were motorcycles. There were 327 miscellane-
ous-type vehicles. By comparison, the states of northern
Borneo have a relatively large number of motor vehicles. In
1960, 4,374 motor vehicles were registered in Brunei, and in
1962, Sarawak and North Borneo, respectively, had 8,660 and
12,450 motor vehicles. Passenger cars and motorcycles are
more numerous than other types of motor vehicles in Malaysian
Borneo and Brunei.
Off-road, cross-country movement by wheeled vehicles any-
where on Borneo is extremely difficult because most of the
island is rugged, swampy, or covered with dense forest. With
the exception of a few coastal areas, only parts of the
southeastern corner of the island and a few isolated areas
in the interior are suited to such movement. Where it is pos-
sible at all, cross-country vehicular movement is easiest
between July and October.
2. Trails
Trails on Borneo have been used to connect inland water-
ways and, more recently, to supplement motorable roads. No
extensive network has been developed, and most of the rugged,
uninhabited interior as well as large sections of the swampy
coastal areas lack even local trails. Most of the trails are
in western Kalimantan between the Malaysian border and the
long Kapuas River and in the upland area at the junction of
the borders of Sarawak, Sabah, and Kalimantan. Many in western
Kalimantan are near the border, and a few cross into Malaysian
territory. A few of the trails near the trijunction of the
Sarawak, Sabah, and Kalimantan borders parallel or cross the
international border. Along the southeast coast of Kalimantan.
and along the coastal areas of Sabah the trails provide trans-.
port to the interior but rarely extend beyond the limits of
navigation of the rivers.
3. Transborder Movements
The boundary between Kalimantan and Malaysia extends
approximately 900 miles through areas that are characterized
by low population density, rugged terrain, and dense vegeta-
tion. Only a small segment of the boundary, southwest of
Kuching, has been demarcated. The western end of the boundary
travers.es hilly, forested terrain for approximately 150 miles,
and the eastern end of the boundary crosses a poorly drained
coastal area. The western segment from Tandjung Datu
(2?05'N-109?39'E) to a point approximately 30 miles east of
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Figure 51. Most of the trails in Borneo are ob-
scure footpaths. Encroachment by vegetation is
a constant problem.
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Lubok Antu (1003'N-111?50'E) traverses relatively flat, open
country and can be crossed almost anywhere with relative ease.
Most of the remainder of the boundary extends through heavily
forested, mountainous terrain at elevations between 3,000 and
7,000 feet.
Transborder movements are difficult along the entire bor-
der, but they would be possible along (1) a route that follows
the Kajan River and its tributaries in Kalimantan and the
Rajang River and its tributaries in Sarawak; (2) a route that
extends from Malinau in Kalimantan up the Mentarang River and
its various tributaries, joins the Padas River in Sabah, and
eventually leads to Lawas on Brunei Bay; and (3) another route
from Kalimantan into Sabah that follows the Sembakung River
and its tributaries across the border to the town of Pensiangan.
From Pensiangan it is possible to travel by various means to
Lawas, Beaufort, Kota Belud, and other places in Sabah.
Although there probably are some trails near the eastern end
of the border, this segment would be hard to cross because it
is extremely swampy. Infiltration in this part of the island
would be faster and easier by sea.
Transborder movements by men on foot were rather common
and in general were officially ignored before December 1962.
Border patrols were few, and smuggling was commonplace. Many
natives of Kalimantan smuggled crude rubber across the bor-
der because it brought higher prices in Sarawak. Border
patrols have been increased since 1962, but the border is
virtually impossible to patrol effectively because of its
length and inaccessibility.
C. Air Transport
Air transport is important on Borneo because the island
has no well-developed system of surface transportation. Domes-
tic service throughout the former British territories of
Borneo is provided by Borneo Airways, which offers scheduled
service to 21 airfields. The airline maintains a fleet of
three Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer aircraft and one DC-3.
Borneo has a total of 86 usable airfields (see main map
Borneo and Appendix A). Only two airfields, Kuching and
Labuan, in Malaysian Borneo, have surfaced runways exceeding
6,000 feet in length. The runway at Anduki, between Kuala
Belait and Brunei Town, is 6,300 feet long but has a grass
surface. Brunei Town has an airfield that is 5,800 feet long,
and Jesselton one that is 5,100 feet. Both have macadam sur-
faces. Borneo Airways offers service to Bareo, Belaga,
Bintula, Brunei, Jesselton, Keningau, Kuching, Kudat, Labuan,
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Lahad Datu, Lawas, Long Akah, Lutong, Marudi, Mukah, Ranau,
Sandakan, Sapulut, Sibu, Simanggang, and Tawau. None of these
airfields is capable of performing routine maintenance.
International service is provided by two airlines.
Malayan Airways uses Viscount and DC-3 aircraft and offers
daily service from Singapore to Brunei, Jesselton, Kuching,
Labuan, and Sibu, and twice-weekly service to Lahad Datu,
Sandakan, and Tawau. Cathay Pacific Airways uses Lockheed
Electras and offers service twice weekly from Hong Kong
through Manila to Jesselton.
The Brunei Shell Petroleum Company and the Borneo Evange-
lical Mission own the two most important private air facili-
ties in northern Borneo. Brunei Shell also maintains its own
airfield at Anduki. In 1962 the company had three Percival
Prince aircraft and three chartered helicopters. Also in
1962 the Borneo Evangelical Mission, with headquarters in
Lawas, owned, operated, and maintained two Piper Tri-Pacer
aircraft.
Civil air service in Kalimantan is operated by the Govern-
ment of Indonesia. The Department of Civil Aviation operates
flights by Garuda Indonesian Airways into Kalimantan. Garuda
provides scheduled service to Pontianak, Bandjermasin, Tand-
jung, Balikpapan, and Tarakan. These five airfields have
runways that range between 3,600 and 5,600 feet in length;
none of them has facilities to perform major maintenance on
aircraft. Although the exact number of aircraft in Garuda's
fleet is unknown, in 1963 the fleet was composed of the fol-
lowing types of aircraft: Convair, Lockheed Electra, Douglas
DC-3, Twin Pioneer, and DeHaviland Beaver. Before 1958, many
of Garuda's personnel were Dutch. After the ouster of the
Dutch in 1958, much of the domestic air service was curtailed,
but an accelerated training program has partly alleviated the
shortage of qualified Indonesian personnel. The Government
maintains a Civil Air Academy at Tjurug, Java, for the train-
ing of Indonesian personnel.
The only private air operations in Kalimantan are the
occasional flights of the Shell Oil Company in connection
with its concession at Tandjung.
D. Marine Transport
1. Merchant Marine
The merchant marine of Malaysian Borneo is similar to the
merchant marine of Malaya. Most of the service between
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Malaysian Borneo and Singapore is provided by the Straits
Steamship Company and the Sarawak Steamship Company. It is
reported that in 1962 the services of these companies were
supplemented by the Hua Siang Shipping Company and the Hiap
Eng Moh Lines, but no detailed information is available on
their ships or schedules. The Straits Steamship Company and
the Sarawak Steamship Company offer scheduled freight and
passenger service between all of the major ports of Brunei,
Malaysian Borneo, and Singapore. The Sarawak Steamship
Company has its offices in Kuching. Its largest ship is the
Rajah Brooke (2,312 gross tons). The company also has at
least five smaller vessels of less than 1,000 gross register
tons (GRT) engaged in coastal trade.
By far most of the ships of the merchant marine of Malay-
sian Borneo are engaged in coastal rather than open traffic.
The vessels employed in this work are mostly diesel-powered,
wooden craft owned by Chinese. The capacity of each of these
vessels is normally small, with few exceeding 50 tons dead-
weight capacity. Most of them are owned by individuals or
groups of individual shareholders rather than by companies,
and there is little standardization with regard to ship
design, safety,, or qualified seamen.
In Kalimantan the ports of Singkawang, Pontianak, Band-
jermasin, Balikpapan, and Samarinda are regular ports of call
for interisland service. Most of the ships of the merchant
marine are owned by the Indonesian Government. In 1960, the
government owned 98.5 percent of the total tonnage of ships
larger than 1,000 GRT, and 63 percent of the total tonnage
in the category of 100 to 999 GRT. These ships are managed
through various government agencies, the most important of
which is the National Indonesian Navigation Company (PELNI).
Of the 43 Indonesian merchant ships of more than 1,000 GRT,
32 are freighters, 8 combination passenger freighters, 2
tankers, and one passenger ship, aggregating 87,671 GRT.
Thirty-seven of these ships are less than 10 years old, and
the Government has contracts outstanding for construction of
additional ships, most of which will be more than 1,000 GRT.
The Government often charters foreign ships, especially from
Hong Kong, to supplement the limited capacity of the Indo-
nesian merchant marine.
There is a shortage of qualified Indonesian maritime per-
sonnel. As a result, foreigners'are frequently employed,
mostly on chartered ships. The Indonesian Government has
established maritime schools at Makasar, Semarang, and
Djakarta to meet the growing demand for Indonesian mariners.
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2. Ports
Brunei, Sarawak, and Sabah are served by numerous ports,
most of which are located on navigable rivers likely to be
affected by floods and sandbars. Kalimantan has fewer ports.
Information on the most important ports of Borneo is given
below, in clockwise order around the island, beginning in
southwestern Sarawak.
Total
Length
Name of of Alongside Covered
Port Wharves Depth Storage Remarks
feet (feet) (sq. ft.)
Malaysian Borneo and Brunei
Kuching 2,100 7-13 123,000 Accommodates 300-foot
vessels drawing 15 feet.
Three wharf cranes of
1/2-ton to 10-ton capa-
city, two 5-ton mobile
cranes. Port clearance
by road and inland
waterway.
Sibu
Miri/
Lutong
1,200
925
Kuala
Belait
725
Brunei
Town
880
7-19 64,500 Accommodates 280-foot
vessels drawing 16 feet.
Numerous harbor craft.
3-7 105,800 Water depth over bar at
mouth of Miri River only
1 to 4 feet. Miri has
three 10-ton mobile
cranes, one 5-ton. Lutong,
6 miles north of Miri,
has four deep-water oil-
loading berths.
4-7 20,600 River harbor only 7 feet
deep at high water. Five
cranes of up to 25-ton
capacity, one 30-ton der-
rick. Port clearance by
road and inland waterway.
4-19 29,000 Accommodates 250-foot
vessels drawing 15 feet.
Marine railroad and 10-
ton mobile crane. Port
clearance by road and
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Total
Length
Name of of Alongside Covered
Port Wharves Depth Storage Remarks
feet (feet) (sq. ft.)
Malaysian Borneo and Brunei
Victoria 1,885 7-31 60,650 Natural harbor accommo-
(Labuan dates vessels of any
Island) length drawing 34 feet.
Two mobile cranes and
two marine railroads..
Numerous harbor craft.
Jesselton 1,020 7-23 120,800 Accommodates ships of
any size. One 5-ton
overhead crane. Numerous
harbor craft. Port
clearance by road and
rail.
Sandakan 1,300 2-24 299,000 Accommodates ships of
any length drawing 28
feet. One 15-ton crane,
two 5-ton cranes, sev-
eral mobile cranes, and
two marine railroads.
Port clearance by road
and narrow-gauge rail-
road to timber areas.
Tawau 1,630 7-15 86,000 Accommodates ships of
any size. Five lighters
with derricks; lifting
power varies from 5-tons
to 10-tons. Port clear-
ance by road.
Lingkas 700 11-31 35,000 Accommodates vessels of,
any size. Harbor facil-
ities include one 3-ton
crane and, possibly, one
15-ton floating crane,
two towing launches, and
at least three lighters
of 200-ton to 300-ton
capacity. Port clearance
by road.
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Total
Length
Name of of Alongside Covered
Port Wharves Depth Storage Remarks
feet (feet) (sq. ft.)
Balik- 4,000 12-35 160,000 Accommodates vessels
papan drawing 25 feet. Harbor
facilities include six
cranes (maximum lift 20
tons) 19 tugboats, and
approximately 40 lighters.
Marine railroad (117 feet
long) and small shops
serve ships of up to 150
tons. Clearance by two
surfaced roads.
Bandjer- 1,300 10 190,000 Accommodates vessels 300
masin feet long drawing 15
feet. Harbor facilities
include some power-driven
launches and a 20-ton
crane. Port clearance by
inland waterway and road.
Pontianak 1,250 9 113,000 Entrance via Kapuas-ketjil
River is restricted to
vessles 300 feet long
drawing up to 6 feet.
Vessels drawing up to 12
feet can enter harbor via
Punggur-besar River and
Kapuas-ketjil. A number
of lighters of 70-ton to
100-ton capacity. Dry-
dock large enough for
vessels of 300 GRT. Port
clearance by road and
inland waterway.
Two of Kalimantan's ports are especially equipped to process
petroleum and petroleum products. The port of Balikpapan, a
natural harbor on the eastern side of Balikpapan Bay, serves
as the refining and storage depot of the Shell Oil Company. It
is the terminal for the pipeline from the Tandjung oilfields
and has facilities for storing 3,764,000 barrels of petroleum.
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A narrow-gauge railroad owned by Shell leads to the oilfields.
In general, Balikpapan is the best equipped port in Kalimantan.
Oil also is exported from the port of Lingkas, located on the
island of Tarakan. Lingkas has an oil storage capacity of
75,000 tons and facilities for minor repairs.
E. Railroads
Railroads play a very minor role in the transportation
system of Borneo. Kalimantan has no permanent railroads,
although a few short, temporary lines run into areas where
timber is cut. A Shell Oil Company subsidiary operates a
private, narrow-gauge railroad for a distance of 6 miles
between Seria and Badas in Brunei.
The only public railroad is a single-track, meter-gauge
line in Sabah, owned and administered by the government. The
main line runs from Jesselton through Papar and Beaufort to
Melalap, a distance of 96 miles. A branch line runs south-
ward for 20 miles from Beaufort South (across the river from
Beaufort) to Weston on Brunei Bay.
Maintenance of the railroads is especially difficult
because the roadbed, particularly in swampy sections, is sub-
ject to subsidence under heavy traffic. Heavy rains cause
washouts, landslides, and flooding, and special efforts must
be expended to keep the track clear of fallen trees and the
constantly encroaching vegetation. Barriers must be maintained
in some of the coastal sections to prevent tidal floods.
The railroad is not designed to handle heavy traffic.
Only steam engines and rail cars operate between Beaufort and
Melalap. As there is no rail connection across the Padas
River, passengers and freight transferring from the main line
to the Beaufort South-Weston branch must be ferried across the
river from Beaufort to Beaufort South by means of a cable-
hauled pontoon ferry of 40-ton capacity.
As of December 1961 the railroad had a variety of power
and rolling stock, including six wood-burning steam locomo-
tives, three diesel locomotives, and four gasoline locomotives.
It also had three diesel train sets (power unit and trailer).
Enginehouses are located at Tenom, Beaufort South, and Weston.
The principal repair shops are at Tanjong Aru, 4 miles south
of Jesselton, and auxiliary facilities are at Beaufort and
Papar. Traffic is very light, averaging only one or two
trains per day.
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Figure 52. Port of Jesselton, 1958.
Figure 53. Pangalat Tunnel, on the railroad, located 3.3
miles northeast of Papar (5?45'N-115?58'E). This tunnel is
600 feet long.
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Most bridges are of steel construction. Five on the
Jesselton-Beaufort section are more than 100 feet in length.
There also are two tunnels, one in the Jesselton-Beaufort sec-_
tion near Papar and one in the Beaufort-Tenom section. A
telephone system owned and operated by the railroad serves
as the only signal system.
F. Targets
The transportation systems of Borneo offer few targets
because they are so poorly developed. The inland waterways
and the airlines offer no targets because they have so few
vulnerable facilities. Roads offer some minor targets. There
are numerous ferries throughout Borneo whose destruction would
interfere with vehicular traffic. Also, there are some bridges,
usually of small capacity, that are vulnerable.
The railroad in Sabah is the most vulnerable part of
Borneo's transportation systems. There are 24 bridges and
2 tunnels between Jesselton and Melalap. Most bridges are
short, but five exceed 100 feet. The longest (400 feet)
bridge, which crosses the Papar River, is built on concrete
piers and abutments. One tunnel (600 feet) is near Papar on
the Jesselton-Beaufort section, and the other (100 feet) is
in the Penotal Gorge in the Beaufort-Tenom section. The
Beaufort South-Weston section has only three bridges. The
ferry that links rail traffic between Beaufort and Beaufort
South also is vulnerable.
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1. Gt Brit, Colonial Office. Sarawak: Report for the Year
1962, 1963. U.
6. Brunei. State of Brunei: Annual Report, 1960, 1962. U.
7. North Borneo. Colony of North Borneo: Annual Report,
1962, 1963. U.
8. CIA. NIS 44, British Indonesia, secs 31, 32, 33, and 36,
1952. C/NOFORN.
9. CIA. NIS 44B, British Borneo, sec 35, Feb 59. C/NOFORN.
10. CIA. NIS 100, Indonesia, ch III, 1953-56. C.
11. CIA. NIS 100A, Republic of Indonesia, secs 33, 36, and
37, 1956-63. C.
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VIII. Telecommunications
A. Introduction
1. Northern Borneo
The telecommunication systems of Sarawak, Brunei, and
Sabah are administered by Departments of Posts and Telegraphs
(DPT). Although not well developed, the facilities of these
systems provide telephone, telegraph, and radiobroadcasting
services that meet present internal and external communica-
tion needs.
Throughout northern Borneo, telephone and telegraph serv-
ices are carried mainly over high-frequency (HF) point-to-
point radio and very-high-frequency (VHF) radio relay networks.
Use of wire lines is confined to local telephone systems, with
the exception of Sabah where some open wire and underground
multiconductor cable lines are in use on long-distance tele-
phone routes. Besides the DPT, a number of other government
and private enterprises operate separate HF and VHF radio
facilities for their own special needs.
2. Indonesian Borneo
The telecommunication facilities of Kalimantan are inade-
quate to meet either the internal or external communication
requirements of the area. Facilities consist of a public sys-
tem managed by the Indonesian Department of Post, Telephone,
and Telegraph, and a private system operated by Shell Oil
Company.
B. Sarawak
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities and Services
A VHF radio relay network is the main medium used for long-
distance communication (see Diagram 1). More than 4,000 tele-
phones are served by automatic and manual telephone exchanges.
The most important exchanges are at Kuching (2,000 lines),
Sibu (1,200 lines), and Miri (400 lines). Most of the 60 or
more outstations of the VHF network have small manual exchanges.
Facilities of the VHF network also carry telegraph traf-
fic -- manual Morse and teleprinter. The main centers for
teleprinter traffic are at Kuching, Sibu, Miri, Sarikei, Mukah,
Marudi, and Limbang.
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HF radio transmitting facilities at Stapok, near Kuching,
provide telephone connections to Brunei, Sabah, Singapore,
Malaya, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Australia, the United King-
dom, and the United States. There are no direct telephone
or telegraph connections to Indonesia, including Kalimantan.
HF facilities provide teleprinter service between Kuching and
Singapore and manual Morse service between Miri and Labuan
Island, Sabah; between Miri and Seria, Brunei; and between
Limbang and Labuan Island.
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services
Radio Sarawak, with studios and transmitters in the Kuching
area, broadcasts in English, Malay, Chinese, Land Dayak, and
Melanau. Medium-wave broadcasts are carried by 10-kilowatt
(kw) and 5-kw transmitters and short-wave by a 5-kw transmitter
and a 7.5-kw transmitter. More than 40,000 radiobroadcast
receivers are in use.
3. Specialized Networks
The police operate HF radio facilities at Divisional Head-
quarters in Kuching, Simmanggang, Sibu, and Miri as intra-
divisional links to mobile patrols. The VHF network of the
DPT is used for interdivisional communication. These facili-
ties also are used at Kuching, Sibu, and Miri for local commun-
ication to vehicles and boats.
An HF radio network connects marine stations at Kuching,
Sibu, and Tanjong Sirik. The VHF network of the DPT serves
ships in Sarawak waters through coastal relay stations at
Tanjong Po, Tanjong Kidurong, Tanjong Jerijeh, Tanjong Lobang,
Tanjong Baram, Mukah, Bintulu, Miri, Sarikei, and Limbang.
C. Air
Civil aircraft are served by radio stations at Kuching,
Sibu, Lutong, Simmanggang, and Bintulu.
Sarawak Shell, the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation, and
other firms have their own facilities. Details are not avail-
able.
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C. Brunei
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities and Services
Long-distance communication requirements are met by a
single-channel VHF radio relay network connecting Brunei Town
with about eight population centers (see Diagram 2).
There are about 1,000 telephones in use, most of which
are connected to automatic exchanges. Automatic exchanges
are located at Brunei Town (800 lines) and Kuala Belait (500
lines).
Domestic telegraph service is available only between Brunei
Town and Kuala Belait, Seria, and Temburong.
International telephone and telegraph needs are served by
VHF and HF radio facilities: The VHF network provides tele-
phone and telegraph connections from Brunei Town to Limbang,
Miri, and Kuching in Sarawak and to Labuan and Jesselton,in
Sabah. An HF manual Morse circuit operates between Brunei
Town and Singapore. There are no communications of any type
between Brunei and Indonesia, including Kalimantan.
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services
Radio Brunei operates three medium-wave transmitters
broadcasting in English, Malay, and Chinese. These trans-
mitters are located near Brunei Town, Tutong, and Kuala Belait
and have powers of 1.2-kw, 20-kw, and 0.015-kw, respectively.
About 6,000 receivers are in use.
3. Specialized Networks
a. Brunei Shell Petroleum Company
Brunei Shell operates a VHF radio network linking Seria
with Brunei Town, Badas, and Kuala Belait in Brunei and with
Miri and Lutong in Sarawak. The company also operates fixed
and mobile HF radio facilities in the Seria area and operates
and maintains its own 800-line automatic telephone exchange.
b. Police
The police operate an HF radio network that connects police
headquarters in Brunei Town with Kuala Belait and Seria in
Brunei, with Jesselton and Labuan in Sabah, and with Miri and
Kuching in Sarawak. Police VHF radio facilities connect head-
quarters in Brunei Town with Seria as well as with mobile
patrols throughout the state.
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c. Public Works Department
The Public Works Department has HF radio facilities con-
necting the Roads Section Office in Brunei Town to its workshop
at Sungei Liang (Belait District).
D. Sabah
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities and Services
Long-distance communication requirements are met by a VHF
radio network that connects Jesselton, the capital, with the
main population centers (see Diagram 3).
Use of open wire and underground multiconductor cabl
e lines
for long-distance telephone communication is confined to
the
west coast area. Open wire lines follow the railroad an
d con-
nect Jesselton to Beaufort, with extensions from Beaufor
t to
Weston and Membakut. In 1961, construction began on an
under-
ground multiconductor cable line from Jesselton to Papar
and
from Jesselton to Tuaran
Th
li
.
ese
nes were in the final
stages of completion in early 1963; a new cable line from
Papar to Beaufort was scheduled for construction in 1963.
There are approximately 4,500 telephones in use. The most
important exchanges are located at Jesselton (1,500 lines),
Sandakan (1,000 lines), and Tawau (500 lines).
The VHF network also carries manual Morse telegraph traf-
fic between Jesselton and major towns. Jesselton has VHF
teleprinter circuits to Sandakan and Labuan.
VHF, HF, and submarine cable facilities are used to meet
international telephone and telegraph requirements. The VHF
stations at Sandakan and Labuan have direct teleprinter con-
nections to the telegraph submarine cable terminals at Jessel-
ton. These cables, owned and operated by Cable and Wireless
Ltd., provide direct telegraph connections to Hong Kong and
Singapore. Cable and Wireless Ltd. also operates HF radio
transmitting facilities at Jesselton that afford telegraph
connections to Hong Kong and Singapore and telephone connec-
tions to Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, Australia, Canada, and
the United Kingdom. No telecommunication circuits operate
between Sabah and Indonesia, including Kalimantan.
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services
Radio Sabah, with studios and transmitting facilities in
the Jesselton area, provides statewide radiobroadcasting
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service in English, Hakka, Malay, and Kadazan. Radiobroad-
casting facilities consist of a 0.5-kw medium-wave trans-
mitter and a 5-kw short-wave transmitter. About 20,000
receivers are in use.
3. Specialized Networks
a. Police
Police authorities operate extensive mobile and fixed VHF
and HF radio facilities that connect police headquarters in
Jesselton with police stations throughout the country. In
1961 the police mobile force was equipped with walkie-talkie
radios, and speedboats engaged in antipiracy patrols were
equipped with VHF and HF radio gear.
b. Civil Air
In 1961 a new air-to-ground and ground-to-air VHF network
was placed in operation. It enables the flight information
center at Labuan to communicate with aircraft in flight on
126.7 megacycles via a relay station on Mount Kinabalu.
Civil air authorities also operate an HF telephone and tele-
printer circuit between Labuan and Singapore and an HF manual
Morse circuit between Labuan and Manila.
E. Kalimantan
1. Telephone and Telegraph Facilities and Services
Open wire and HF point-to-point radio facilities consti-
tute the Department of Post, Telephone, and Telegraph system.
The facilities are concentrated along the northwestern and
southeastern coastal regions and provide some communication
to areas in the interior. The main communication centers are
Pontianak and Bandjermasin.
Pontianak operates HF point-to-point radio facilities that
are used for internal main line telephone and telegraph service
as well as for telephone, telegraph, and subscriber teletype
(TELEX) service to Djakarta. Long-distance telephone service
is available over open wire line routes connecting Pontianak
with Mampawah, Singkawang, Sambas, Siluas, and Sintang, all
in northwest Kalimantan. Pontianak has a 500-line manual
telephone exchange. Other points on the wire line route use
manual exchanges of 20 to 40 lines.
Bandjermasin is also served by HF radio and open wire line
facilities, with HF radio the primary transmission medium for
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Figure 54. VHF radio relay
tower, Kuching, 1961.
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main line telephone and telegraph service internally and to
Djakarta. Open wire. lines for long-distance telephone communi-
cations connect Bandjermasin with Tandjung via the towns of
Martapura, Kandangan, Barabai, and Amuntai, all in the south-
east. In 1956 a 700-line manual exchange was in use in
Bandjermasin.
2. Broadcasting Facilities and Services
The radiobroadcasting facilities of Kalimantan are run
by Radio Republic Indonesia and consist of short-wave trans-
mitters located at Pontianak, Bandjermasin, and Samarinda.
Broadcasts from Pontianak are carried by 5-kw and 1-kw trans-
mitters; those from Bandjermasin are carried by 10-kw and 1-kw
transmitters. A 1-kw transmitter at Samarinda is used to
relay programs of unknown origin. The number of receivers in
use is unknown.
3. Specialized Networks
Shell Oil Company operates extensive telecommunication
facilities. They consist of wire line, HF, and VHF radio
networks that are centered on Balikpapan. Open wire and
underground multiconductor cables are used to connect sub-
scribers to the two automatic telephone exchanges (500 lines
each) and one manual exchange (100 lines) installed by the
company in Balikpapan. All company installations along the
eastern coastal area are connected to Balikpapan by either
HF or VHF radio or both.
F. Prime Telecommunication Targets
The telecommunication facilities chosen as targets were
selected because their destruction would disrupt the command-
control structures of the governments of the various regions
by isolating their capitals.
1. Sarawak
Destruction of VHF towers at Kuching, Sibu, Miri, Simang-
gang, and Limbang would halt network operations. Figure 54
shows the VHF radio tower serving Kuching. Other VHF towers
in Sarawak are similar in appearance. They are usually on
the outskirts of town.
The studios and transmitters serving Radio Sarawak are at
Kuching. Destruction of the antennas serving these trans-
mitters would curtail broadcasting indefinitely. The antennas
are 100 to 150 feet high.
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open
? 1962
Je seiton'
for denti~-
6. Cale xn d cable hoes
f g atlon of undergrou
142
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2. Brunei
Destruction of the VHF tower on the outskirts of Brunei
Town would cut most internal communications as well as those
to Sarawak and Sabah. This same tower relays broadcasts from
the studio in Brunei Town to the transmitter at Tutong. Des-
truction of the VHF tower would thus also halt the broadcast
of programs from the studio.
3. Sabah
The wire line network of Sabah is centered on Jesselton
and offers vulnerable targets. Open wire line follows the
railroad and connects Jesselton to Beaufort, with extensions
from Beaufort to Weston and Membakut. Underground multicon-
ductor cables connect Jesselton to Beaufort via Papar and
link Jesselton to Tuaran. Destruction of wire and cable any-
where along these routes would disrupt communications for a
number of days. Figure 55 shows open wire pole line facili-
ties leading from Jesselton. Cable markers (see Figure 56)
identify the location of underground cables.
All circuits of the VHF network radiate from the station
on the outskirts of Jesselton. Destruction of this station
would completely disrupt network operations.
Submarine cables are used for telegraph traffic to Hong
Kong and Singapore. These cables land at Jesselton. Loca-
tions of the cable landing points are unknown but may be
identified by cable markers and/or by small cable huts on the
shoreline.
The radiobroadcasting facilities of Radio Sabah also are
located near Jesselton. Destruction of the antennas would
halt broadcasting.
4. Kalimantan
The open wire line routes in the vicinity of Pontianak
and Bandjermasin are highly vulnerable. They are used for
long-distance telephone traffic. They connect Pontianak with
the northwest towns of Mampawah, Singkawang, Sambas, Siluas,
and Sintang and connect Bandjermasin with the southeast towns
of Martapura, Kandangan, Barabai, and Amuntai. Destruction
of pole line facilities, similar to those shown in Figure 55
would disrupt communications for a number of days.
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Several place names appearing on the Sarawak and Brunei
Telecommunication Systems Diagrams do not appear on map 38284
12-63. These locations and their coordinates are listed below.
Sarawak
BALINGIAN
02
55
N-112
32
E
BEKENU
04
05
N-113
50
E
BETONG
01
24
N-111
31
E
DALAT
02
43
N-111
56
E
DARO
02
31
N-111
26
E
GEDONG
01
14
N-110
41
E
KABONG
01
48
N-111
07
E
KANOWIT
02
06
N-112
09
E
LINEI
04
01
N-114
28
E
LINGGA
01
21
N-111
11
E
LONG LAMA
03
46
N-114
24
E
LONG SEMADO
04
15
N-115
34
E
MATU
02
41
N-111
30
E
MELUAN
01
52
N-111
56
E
NANGA JULAU
02
01
N-111
55
E
PANTU
01
08
N-111
07
E
PUSA
01
36
N-111
17
E
RAJANG
02
09
N-111
15
E
ROBAN
01
54
N-111
18
E
SANTUBONG
01
44
N-110
20
E
SEBAUH
03
07
N-113
16
E
SEBUYAU
01
31
N-110
56
E
SINIAWAN
01
27
N-110
13
E
SIMUNJAN
01
23
N-110
45
E
SONG
02
01
N-112
33
E
SPAOH
01
27
N-111
28
E
SUNDAR
04
54
N-115
12
E
TANJONG MANI
02
10
N-111
21
E
TATAU
02
54
N-112
50
E
TEBAKANG
01
06
N-110
30
E
TEBEDU
01
01
N-110
30
E
Brunei
LABI
04
23
N-114
27 E
SUNDAR
04
54
N-115
12 E
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0<
z
0
J J
z
? z?
v]i Q O W
P\~QO
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0
In
LL
LU
LL
0
C9
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SABAH (MALAYSIA): DIAGRAM OF
THE VHF RADIO RELAY NETWORK
1963
- VHF Channel
2 Denotes Number of
Telephone Channels
on the Route
Diagram 3.
GROUP 1
' rvo ouu?s"siric~ooNxcxxoixc
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3. Army. SCIA. S-82-57, Sep 56. S.
4. Brunei. State of Brunei: Annual Report, 1960, 1962. U.
5. North Borneo. Annual Report of the Department of Posts
and Telegraphs, 1960, 1961. U.
6. North Borneo. North Borneo: Annual Report, 1961, 1962. U.
7. Sarawak. Annual Report, 1960, 1961. U.
8. Sarawak. Annual Report, 1961, 1962. U.
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IX. Military and Internal Security Forces
A. Indonesian Borneo
1. Introduction
The Indonesian military services, known collectively as
the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (APRI), total
352,000 men and consist of the Ground Forces (ADRI) 297,000,
the Air Force (AURI) 34,000, and the Naval Forces (ALRI) 21,000.
The APRI is strongly nationalistic and basically western
oriented. The US military training program has had a wide
impact on the Indonesian Army, many of whose officers have
been trained in the United States. The higher echelons of
the Army are firmly anti-Communist, but there has been some
leftist penetration among junior officers and enlisted per-
sonnel. The traditionally strong western orientation of the
Navy has been considerably watered down because of the acquisi-
tion of a large number of ex-Soviet ships and the Soviet train-
ing missions accompanying them. Communist orientation is
strongest within the Air Force because of its reliance on
Soviet combat aircraft, extensive training programs within the
Soviet Union, and the leftist attitudes of some senior Air
Force officers.
The APRI has only a limited capability to wage offensive
war or to defend the Indonesian archipelago effectively. How-
ever, equipment obtained since 1958, mostly from the USSR,
gives the APRI the most powerful military potential of any
nation of Southeast Asia. Indonesia has a manpower reserve
of about 13.2 million males fit for military service. Common
religion, physical stamina, mental alertness, individual
loyalty and obedience -- at least through the battalion level --
favor the development of effective forces. These assets are
offset by lack of combat experience, command problems, poor
leadership, ethnic and language differences, and the generally
low level of training. Technical and logistic deficiencies
and the necessity for weapons and equipment procurement from
foreign sources will continue to limit the development of the
APRI's total military potential. Its greatest capability is
to conduct effective guerrilla warfare, in which it had some
experience in West Irian (ex-Dutch New Guinea), and during
the revolution against the Dutch, 1945-49.
2. Army
The Indonesian Army includes 140 infantry battalions, 8
armored battalions, and 20 artillery battalions. The Army is
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equipped with a large variety of light infantry weapons of
varied origin: Soviet Bloc, Netherlands, United Kingdom,
United States, Japan, and others. The basic stocks of weapons
turned over by the withdrawing Dutch in 1949-50 are virtually
worn out and are being replaced by large-scale deliveries of
Bloc equipment of almost all types.
A very limited US program that provided small arms and
spare parts has been suspended because of reaction against
Indonesia's policy of "confrontation" against Malaysia. The
MAP personnel will be removed, but the program for training
officers in the United States continues.
Indonesian artillery consists of 72 Russian 122mm howitzers,
66 Yugoslav 105mm and 76mm howitzers, and 20 Swedish 75mm
howitzers. Indonesian armor consists of 80 Russian, 75 French.,
and 25 US light tanks, and 275 Russian and British armored
personnel carriers. Ammunition up to light artillery shells,
grenades, and land mines is manufactured at the arsenal at
Bandung in Java but all explosives, metals, and propellants
must be imported.
Indonesia is organized into 17 military District Commands
or Kodams. Kodams IX, X, XII are located in Borneo (see map
Order of Battle). For administrative convenience an inter-
regional command was established for these Kodams at Bandjer-
masin. The interregional commander is a deputy army chief of
staff and acts as the representative of the ADRI commander
within his area. In security operations, however, the chain
of command appears to go directly from Djakarta to the Kodam
commander concerned. The Kodam commander exercises control
over all troops in his area and is responsible as well for
training, martial law, and some recruitment.
The overall Army strength in Borneo is 8,000, about 6,00()
of which are combat troops. The battalion is the largest
tactical unit normally employed offensively. The standard
infantry battalion has a Table of Organization strength of
874 but actual strengths vary considerably. It is organized
into a headquarters company, four infantry companies and one
support company. The six infantry battalions on the island
are garrison battalions of low quality. They have had no
training above battalion level and are armed with conventional
infantry small arms. Support weapons include.303 Vickers
machine guns, 80mm and 50mm mortars. The Army has no armor or
field artillery of any significance in Borneo, but is increas-
ing anti-aircraft strength.
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A raider battalion with headquarters at Bandjermasin, is
attached to the interregional command and was partly or wholly
recruited in Borneo. This battalion includes a number of
Dayaks and one report suggests that Dayaks are grouped together
to form an infiltration unit or to train infiltrators. (The
exact location of this battalion, which specializes in guer-
rilla warfare, is not known and it is possible that it is dis-
persed throughout Indonesian Borneo.) Another raider battalion
was recently sent from Java and is now deployed along the bor-
der opposite Sarawak's First and Second (administrative) Divi-
sions.
Most Indonesian troops in the border regions have been
deployed from battalions normally stationed farther south in
Borneo. The bulk of the two infantry battalions at Singkawang
and Sintang have been moved up close to the western Sarawak
border. One company of naval marines (KKO) has been placed
on the west coast and 1,500 volunteers, made up of such diverse
elements as PKI (Communist Party) members, Dayak tribesmen,
and Indonesian workers from Sabah, are reported in training
at a camp at Bengkajang, near Singkawang. An inland communi-
cations and command center has been established at Sintang
from which small patrols fan out to cover the border. To the
northeast troop reinforcements in not greater than company
size are scattered at border villages and strategic inland
locations. These troops come primarily from Balikpapan and
Samarinda. Two companies of marines have reinforced the small
naval station at Tarakan.
3. Navy
The Indonesian Navy's principal units consist of a Soviet
light cruiser, 12 Soviet submarines, 5 Soviet destroyers, 2
Italian light destroyers, and 4 Soviet destroyer escorts. In
addition, there are 5 Soviet Komar missile firing patrol boats
and about 60 other regular patrol craft (submarine chasers,
patrol gunboats, and torpedo boats) mostly of Soviet origin.
The Navy is now establishing an air arm and is acquiring 6 to
8 IL-28's from the USSR to be used for anti-submarine patrol-
ling. Pilots for these planes and some helicopter pilots will
be trained in the USSR.
The Indonesian Navy's capabilities, despite good morale
and fair discipline, are low because of lack of experience
and poor leadership, training, and maintenance. Almost all
Indonesian warships are based at Surabaya in Java. Only a
few small patrol boats and landing craft are based in Borneo,
primarily for anti-smuggling duties. None of the four ports
in Indonesian Borneo could support a major naval force.
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Bandjermasin and Balikpapan are the best equipped. Ports near
northern Borneo are inadequate, having virtually no repair
facilities. Makassar in Celebes is the responsible naval
headquarters for Borneo naval operations.
The Indonesian Air Force combat squadrons consist of 2
medium bomber squadrons of TU-16's; 2 light bomber squadrons
of IL-28's, B-25's, and B-26's; 2 all-weather fighter-inter-
ceptor squadrons of MIG-19's and MIG-21's; 1 fighter-bomber
interceptor squadron of MIG-15's and MIG-17's; and 1 fighter-
bomber squadron of F-51's and T-6's. An additional squadron
of MIG-21's is being acquired from the USSR.
The AURI has only light utility planes and a few transport
planes in Borneo. Bandjermasin can handle all types of AURI
aircraft. Almost all airfields in Indonesian Borneo would
require extensive development before they could be used to
support large-scale operations. (For Borneo airfields see
main map Borneo and Appendix A.) Helicopter pads and air-
strips for Cub-type aircraft are being rushed to completion
along the Sarawak -- Kalimantan border.
The AURI can drop paratroop units from C-130 and C-47 air-
craft. It is acquiring 6 AN-12's from the USSR. They also
have a number of light aircraft which, operating from small
strips along the border, could be used to support clandestine
operations. In addition the AURI operates 15 amphibious air-
craft, some of doubtful serviceability. Operating from their
main bases in Java and in the future probably from Bandjer-
masin, Pontianak, and Balikpapan, C-130's could lift 1,000
paratroops from Java to any point on the island. This force
could be backed up by short range transports (IL-14's and
C-47's) which could operate from forward airfields at Tarakan,
Pontianak, and possibly Singkawang.
Indonesia's ground attack units (F-51's, B-25's, B-26's)
can operate from Borneo airfields and reach any point in
northern Borneo. Jet fighter units (MIG-17's and MIG-19's)
could also be used as ground attack units, but lack of suit-
able airfields in northern Kalimantan would keep Brunei and
Sabah out of range.
The Indonesian National Police consists of four services --
the General Police, the State Police Security Service, the
Criminal Investigation Service, and the Mobile Brigade.
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The main body of the 106,000 man Indonesian National Police
is the General Police. The bulk of this force, whose duties
are to handle routine police functions, is stationed in the
larger towns. The basic unit is the three man patrol which
operates from local police stations. The State Police Security
Service, which is poorly staffed and organized, is the intelli-
gence and security arm of the National Police. The Criminal
Investigation Service has overall supervision of the prevention
and detection of crime.
The Mobile Brigade (Mobrig) is a tough paramilitary force
and is the elite element of the National Police. It is a
light infantry organization trained for internal security
duties and in the past has been effective in operations against
rebels. In Kalimantan Mobrig headquarters is at Bandjermasin.
Units of two battalions, possibly up to company strength, are
located in a number of main centers. In times of emergency
the Mobile Brigade may be placed under military control.
The Indonesian National Police is capable of coping with
small-scale passive resistance, strikes, and demonstrations.
Should insurgency become dangerous, the Army would be called
upon to restore public order.
1. Military Forces
Responsibility for the defense and internal security of
Sarawak and Sabah is now a function of Malaysia, backed by an
extension of the 1957 Agreement on External Defense and Mutual
Assistance with the UK, which promises British aid in the
event of an attack. The British Government is responsible for
the defense and internal security of the Brunei protectorate.
British Far East Forces total approximately 45,000 of all
services, excluding the Hong Kong garrison and the two-battal-
ion Australian-New Zealand contingent in Malaya. There is a
12,000 navy-air force component and nearly 28,000 well-
trained and efficient British and Gurkha troops in Singapore
and Malaya from which ground forces are drawn for use in
northern Borneo. This number includes 14 infantry battalions,
1 guard battalion, 1 armored car battalion, 4 artillery regi-
ments, and 2 commando battalions.
The British could airlift 1,500 men from Malaya in about
24 hours. They did this during the Brunei rebellion of Decem-
ber 1962. More than 6,000 British troops, having their head-
quarters in Brunei Town, are now deployed in northern Borneo
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Figure 57. Captured rebels marched to
compound by British troops, Brunei,
December 1962.
Figure 58. Gurkha patrol in search of
rebels, Brunei, December 1962.
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(see map Order of Battle). Malaysia has a small army of
14,600 men including 9 infantry battalions, 2 reconnaissance
battalions, and 1 artillery battalion, but has no naval or
air combat units. In September 1963 a Malaysian infantry
battalion was sent to Sarawak and 2 more are scheduled for
duty in Malaysian Borneo. With these additions Malaysian
troops in Borneo should total 2,700.
The British fleet at Singapore includes 1 aircraft carrier,
1 light cruiser, 8 destroyers, and 5 submarines. British naval
activity in the Borneo area is largely confined to destroyer
patrols off Tawau and Kuching and the transporting of troops
and supplies up river.
The British Far East Air Force, stationed in the Malaya/
Singapore area, has two combat squadrons -- a fighter squadron
of 16 Javelin F (W-9's, 19 Hunter GA.9's, and 1 Meteor T.7,
and a light bomber.squadron of 8 Canberra B.15's and 1 Can-
berra T.4. Two Australian Air Force squadrons in the area are
equipped with Sabre MK-32's and Canberra MK-20's. Detachments
of Hunter GA.9's are stationed at the airport on Labuan
Island in Brunei Bay and at Kuching airport. During December
1963 a squadron of 8 longrange, medium jet bombers (Victor
bombers), capable of reaching any target in Java and returning
to base, arrived in Singapore.
2. Police
Law enforcement in Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah in the past
was carried out by police forces under the supervision of
Commissioners of Police, directly responsible to the colonial
authorities. Cooperation and communication among the forces
of the three territories was so close that they seemed at
times to be parts of a single system. The Sarawak and Sabah
forces are now being integrated with the Singapore and Malayan
forces into a Malaysian force. Efficiency is high and the
police apparatus is adequate for the maintenance of internal
order under normal conditions.
Police headquarters are at Kuching, Jesselton, and Brunei
Town in Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei respectively. From these
cities radiates a network of police communications and substa-
tions in the outlying areas. The structures of the three forces
are almost identical except that the Brunei police organization
is much less elaborate. Each of the police forces consists of-
three main branches: a Regular Force, which performs all rou-
tine police functions, a Field Force, and a Special Force. In
addition to the three main branches of Brunei's police force
the Brunei Volunteers Police Force serves as an oilfield
security force.
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Figure 59. Malayan police force awaits departure for Sara-
wak to reinforce local troops. Kuala Lumpur, Malaya,
September 1963.
Figure 60. Gurkhas, in pursuit of Brunei rebels, take boats
as far as possible into mangrove swamp before advancing on
foot.
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The Field Force, or Mobile Force as it is known in Sabah,
is a mobile striking force of military character which is
designed to suppress riots or serious breaches of order. Its
members are trained in jungle warfare and, in Sarawak and
Brunei, are kept strictly separate from the Regular Force.
Since the Brunei emergency they have been used to supplement
military forces. The Special Forces are in charge of the
detection of political subversion, and are also responsible
for criminal investigation.
Police personnel are drawn mainly from Malays and tribal
peoples, but many commissioned police officers still are
British; these officers in time will be replaced by native
personnel. Despite recruitment efforts, the number of Chinese
personnel is not proportionate to the size of the Chinese
population. The lack of Chinese-speaking officers is a partic-
ular handicap to the Special Forces since Communist subversive
potential centers in the Chinese community.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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X. Survival Factors
A. Food and Water
1. Plants
A traveler in Borneo should have little difficulty living
off the land if he is willing to eat unfamiliar foods. Wild
fruits, nuts, and vegetables are plentiful and often serve as
an emergency food supply for the natives when rice harvests
are poor. The best places to search for food plants are in
forest clearings and along trails and streams. The commonest
edible vegetation consists of wild fruits (breadfruit, bananas,
papaws, pineapples, figs, oranges, mangoes, raspberries, and
passion fruit), various types of nuts, plant leaves, roots,
tubers (taros and yams), grasses, and shoots of ferns, bamboo,
palms, and other trees.
Taro is most plentiful in damp places. Its tuberous root
should be cut into small pieces and boiled in water that is
changed two or three times. Young taro leaves, though slightly
acid, also are edible if cooked in the same way. The yam,
found at the base of the stem of a twisting plant with ivylike
vines, is edible if it does not have an acrid taste. Fern
fronds and stalks, which are found almost everywhere in the
forests, and the roots and tubers of the water chestnut, water
lily, and bulrush can be eaten raw or cooked. The stem and
root shoots of wild rice, which grows in poorly drained areas,
can be eaten raw. Coconuts are a good source of food -- grow-
ing wild most commonly along the coasts, and cultivated in or
near native villages. The sago palm -- a large thorny palm
with huge leaves, generally found in moist regions -- also
grows both wild and cultivated. The pith of the trunk is
edible if crushed to a pulpy mass and then washed and dried.
The white kernel inside the nut of the nipa palm is also
edible.
Crops are cultivated near native villages. Wetland rice
is the most common cultivated crop in the lowlands, and dry-
land rice is the staple food in the uplands. Corn, tapioca,
and sago are raised to supplement rice. There are usually
gardens of fruit and vegetables in or near villages. Ripened
crops may be available in village fields, but extreme caution
is necessary to avoid detection when pilfering because the
fields are closely watched for predatory birds and animals
during the ripening period. The best approach to the fields
is from the downwind side after dark.
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Several plant foods may be toxic. Cassava, from which a
commonly consumed flour is made, contains cyanide. To avoid
cyanosis, cassava flour must be soaked and washed well before
consumption. Native foods prepared from certain molds may
produce toxoflavin poisoning. Symptoms of this poisoning are
vomiting, perspiration, cramps, coma, and sometimes death.
A fermented food called ontjom made from peanuts may produce
temporary jaundice. No specific antidotes for these poison-
ings are known.
Some plants have poisonous roots and tubers and should
not be confused with edible plants. The tuba plant, which
looks like the soybean plant and has a black stem and pink
flowers about half an inch long, has a poisonous root. Natives
make a fish poison from the root; the poison is also used as a
means of suicide. Gadoeng is a climbing plant with a poisonous
tuber. Gloriosa superba is a vine growing up to 20 feet long
with large flowers appearing singly on long stalks. Its roots
contain a poison used to kill dogs and fish. No specific
antidotes are known for these poisonings.
2. Animals
Meat is abundant in the forests of Borneo. Most animals,
birds, reptiles, and fish are edible, and their meat is gen-
erally more nourishing than wild plant food. Only the denser
and darker parts of the forest lack plentiful animal life.
Large animals abound, but it is usually dangerous to attempt
to kill them; small animals such as wild pigs, monkeys, deer,
badgers, otters, squirrels, and foxes are easier to catch and,
for the most part, are tastier. All native villages have
domestic animals and poultry, but stealing them is risky.
Borneo has an enormous number of bird species, all of which
are edible. Included are pheasants, hornbills, and swifts.
Birds' eggs also are a good source of food. All of the many
varieties of snakes on Borneo, including the poisonous species,
can be safely eaten if the head -- where the poison sacs are
located -- is removed.
The rivers contain a wide variety of fish and Amphibia
including frogs, turtles, and lizards. Crocodiles are
becoming rarer. Crabs, crayfish, and clams are found, parti-
cularly in the mangrove areas. Generally all fresh-water fish
and amphibious life are safe to eat, although they should be
cooked well because of the prevalence of flukes and other
parasites. Fish can be caught with the fishing equipment in
standard survival kits, with crude improvised equipment, or
by spreading poison on the water. Fishhooks can be made from
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pins, needles, wire, wood, or bone; lines can be made from
bark, roots, or the leaf and stem fibers of various trees and
plants; spears can be made from bamboo or saplings. Poison
can be derived by crushing the parts of several types of
plants (notably the tuba plant) or by extracting lime from
burned coral or seashells. Fish are usually easiest to see
in small shallow streams, but they prefer to congregate in
pools of deep calm water, particularly when streams are low.
Edible grubs are found in rotten logs, in the ground, and
under the bark of dead trees. Edible termites are common
throughout the jungles. Both can be eaten raw without ill
effects, although cooking is probably preferable. Caterpillars
should not be eaten, as some are poisonous.
3. Water
There is a ready supply of water in most of Borneo, but
availability of uncontaminated water suitable for drinking can
be a serious problem. Water supplies, except in major urban
areas, are not controlled and should be regarded as contami-
nated. Dysentery, cholera, and typhoid are the commonest of
the water-borne diseases; blood flukes and worms can also be
picked up from drinking contaminated water. Other than rain-
water, which is safe to drink if collected in a clean con-
tainer, the safest water supplies are streams at high eleva-
tions -- above the sources of contamination. The most dan-
gerous sources of water are still or slow-moving bodies of
water near native villages. Water should be purified by using
chemical water purifiers or by boiling for 1 minute plus 1
additional minute for each 1,000 feet of elevation. In poorly
drained coastal areas, only brackish or salt water is avail-
able and a desalter kit must be used to provide fresh water.
Fluids may be obtained by chewing the fruits, growing
tips, leaves, stems, and buds of many plants. Water may be
extracted from some varieties of bamboo and from many of the
woody vines in the forests. Vines with large pores contain
the most water. They should be cut into 2-foot or 3-foot
lengths and allowed to drip. Potable liquids also may be
obtained from the trunks of banana trees and many palms, from
coconuts, and from the stems of nipa palms. The milk of
ripened coconuts contains an oil that may cause diarrhea. The
milk can be drunk safely by allowing it to stand, as the oil
will separate from it and can then be drained off.
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B. Environmental Hazards
Large animals are a potential hazard in the Borneo jungles,
but they are seldom encountered because they normally avoid
humans. They rarely attack a man unless provoked; it is best
not to attempt to kill them. Elephants, although not native
to Borneo, were imported in the 19th century and are found
wild in Sabah. The rhinoceros (particularly common in southern
Sabah), wild pig, leopard, bear, and ape may be encountered
throughout the island. Potentially the most dangerous ape is
the orangutan, which lives only on Borneo and Sumatra. The
orangutan is commonest in northwest and southeast Kalimantan
and along some of the rivers of Sarawak. It is reported to be
in danger of extinction because of the high prices paid for the
young, which are greatly prized by zoos.
Dogs and other animals may carry rabies.
2. Reptiles and Fish
Borneo has many snakes, but only a few are dangerous to
man. The krait, cobra, and viper are the most dangerous of
the poisonous snakes. The python, a large nonpoisonous
snake that crushes its prey, is found on Borneo. Its numbers
have been depleted by the natives who sell its skin for use
in the manufacture of clothing. Crocodiles -- nonpoisonous,
but dangerous when aroused -- are found in rivers but are
becoming rarer.
To minimize the chance of being bitten by a snake, basic
precautions should be observed at all times. Extreme caution
should be taken in gathering firewood, particularly around
fallen trees and limbs. When traveling in rocky terrain, one
should not place his hands on rocks or ledges above his head
or step down into shadowed rock crevices without first visually
examining the site. During the heat of the day, all areas
with deep shadows should be regarded as potential shelters for
snakes. Clothing and equipment should be hung on tree limbs
rather than left lying on the ground. Instead of sleeping on
the ground, a hammock or sleeping platform should be improvised.
Dangerous fish which may be found in the waters off Borneo
include sharks, stingrays, and puffers. All meat of the puf-
fer, particularly the roe, is very poisonous. The fish has
no scales and puffs up with air when removed from the water.
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3. Insects
The danger of bites and stings from insects varies con-
siderably from place to place and from individual to individ-
ual. As precautionary measures, contact with all insects and
other small animals such as leeches should be avoided whenever
possible and repellents used.
Mosquitoes are common in all parts of Borneo. At best,
their bite is unpleasant; at worst it can lead to delirium and
death. Many species of mosquito are vectors of malaria;
others carry dengue and filariasis. Schemes to eradicate
malaria have greatly reduced the incidence of the disease in
northern Borneo, but in the Indonesian part of the island
malaria is still a serious problem. All mosquitoes require
water for breeding. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes are most
prevalent in coastal districts and in poorly drained lowlands
of the interior where they breed in pools open to the sun.
Disease-carrying mosquitoes are also found, but in lesser
numbers, in areas up to about 5,000 feet where they breed in
mountain streams, particularly in slow-moving stretches open
to the sun. A traveler in mosquito-infested areas should use,
suitable clothing and netting to keep exposed skin to a mini-
mum, particularly after sundown when mosquitoes are most
likely to bite.
Several species of flies are found on the island. Their
bites may cause swelling and intense itching and may result
in secondary infection if scratched. Near infested villages
they may carry intestinal diseases and trachoma. One can
usually escape flies by moving out of the vicinity because
most flies travel only short distances from their breeding
areas.
Fleas, numerous in native villages, carry many diseases.
Rat fleas are vectors of plague and typhus. If it is necessary
to kill rodents for food, the animals should be hung up as
soon as killed and not handled until cold; fleas soon leave
dead animals. Lice, also common among native groups, may
transmit typhus or relapsing fever.
The bloodsucking land leech is perhaps the most irrita-
ting form of animal life on Borneo. Leeches are very diffi-
cult to avoid, especially in forested areas after heavy rain.
They cling to blades of grass, leaves, and twigs and fasten
themselves to the skin of passers-by. They can slip through
coarse socks or the eyelets of shoes. Although their bites
may cause discomfort, they generally are painless and often
are discovered only after examination of the body. In leech-
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infested country the body should be examined regularly, as
failure to remove leeches promptly will result in loss of
blood. Leeches should be removed from the body very care-
fully in order to avoid secondary infection. They are best
removed by applying a burning cigarette or a dehydrating sub-
stance such as salt, iodine, alcohol, or dry ashes.
Ticks and mites may carry scrub typhus. Additionally,
they may cause secondary infections (tropical ulcers) if improp-
erly removed from the skin. Ticks and mites are usually more
difficult to remove than leeches. If the substances recommended
for the removal of leeches are not effective in removing ticks
and mites, a sterile instrument should be used to extract them.
Repellents are fairly effective in keeping ticks and mites
away.
Scorpions, which average about 1-1/2 inches in length but
are sometimes as long as 8 inches, are found on Borneo. They
should be carefully avoided because their sting, although
rarely fatal to humans, is extremely painful. Scorpions usu-
ally hide under the loose bark of fallen timber, under boulders,
and in dry, grassy areas during the daytime; they move about
at night. Clothing, shoes, and equipment should not be left
on the ground, as scorpions are likely to crawl inside.
There is a variety of spiders on Borneo. Their bites,
although not normally fatal to man, may cause severe pain and
swelling. The bites of numerous other insects are poisonous
but rarely serious. Because of the danger of secondary infec-
tion, however, care should be taken to avoid bites or stings
from ants, centipedes, wasps, and other insects.
C. Climatic Hazards
1. Heat and Humidity
The tropical heat of Borneo is oppressive. Temperature
and humidity are high throughout the year, particularly at
lower elevations. The most pleasant and most healthful cli-
mate is in the mountains. Loss of body moisture through per-
spiration is high and has a debilitating effect unless the
salt balance of the body is maintained. Men unaccustomed to
tropical climates have low resistance to infection and are
particularly subject to intestinal and gastric infections.
Young individuals in prime physical condition and with ade-
quate diet usually become acclimatized in 1 to 2 weeks and
usually retain unimpaired health for periods varying from 6
months to a year or more. Exertion of any kind, even for the
acclimatized, is more taxing than in a moderate climate.
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Activities requiring exertion must be undertaken with caution;
overexertion often results in heat exhaustion and temporary
disability. Chronic overexertion may result in premature
physical deterioration and, consequently, a shortened period
of effectiveness in Borneo.
Fungi and molds grow rapidly because of the high humidity
and cause rapid deterioration of cloth and leather.
2. Precipitation
Rainfall is high throughout the year in all parts of Bor-
neo; it is highest in the interior and generally lowest in
the east and southeast. Torrential rains are common. Sleeping
accommodations should be adequately insulated against ground
moisture and protected against night rains. Campsites should
be well above stream level, particularly in narrow valleys,
as a sudden rise of 30 feet or more in water level is not
uncommon during heavy rains. Streams are hazardous to ford
during and immediately after heavy rains, when they become
raging torrents with swift currents and numerous whirlpools.
Contact with local people is hard to avoid on Borneo
except in the more remote and virtually unpopulated mountainous
areas of the interior. Most interior villages are situated
on riverbanks, and rivers are the most practical travel routes,
particularly in the poorly drained lowlands. In order to
avoid contact with people, one should travel at night and in
the early morning, preferably from midnight until about an
hour before dawn, when the people are asleep. During Ramadan,
however -- the month when Moslems fast from dawn until sunset --
Moslem villages become active earlier in the morning. (In
1964, Ramadan began on 13 January; it advances at the rate of
11 days and 3 hours per year on the Christian calendar.)
Hostility to strangers is unlikely among the people of
Borneo. In spite of the earlier notoriety of some groups as
headhunters, most of the people now are friendly and are
likely to receive visitors warmly. Headhunting was virtually
eliminated before World War II. The last known beheadings
were those of Japanese soldiers during the War. Some of the
people, in particular the nomadic Punans, may be shy and sus-
picious at first, but this attitude should not be construed
as unfriendliness. If the visitor shows no antagonism toward
his hosts, relationships should warm up rapidly. A visitor
who acknowledges native hospitality quickly and politely is
likely to be accepted. One who has a sense of fun will please
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the natives most; stuffiness or an air of superiority is al-
most-sure to antagonize them.
Spirits and omens are believed to be embodied in various
animate and inanimate things (animals, birds, trees, mountains,
caves, rivers, thunder, and lightning). They vary from tribe
to tribe; objects sacred to one tribe are not necessarily
sacred to another. When in the company of native people, one
should not kill an animal or bird without first determining
whether or not it is sacred to their tribe. When traveling
with natives, no route should be selected without their approval
lest it cross sacred rivers or mountains. If natives wish to
travel far out of the way to avoid offending the spirits, it
is probably best not to question their decision, as to do so
will strain relations. Failure by an outsider to acknowledge
the host of spirits, omens, and taboos of the natives is not
likely to evoke violence. To avoid an offense serious enough
to arouse ill feelings in the people of a tribe and to affect
future contacts between the tribesmen and the outsider, how-
ever, one should watch carefully for native reactions and
quickly attempt to rectify any faux pas committed.
During the periods of British and Dutch administration,
relationships between natives and Europeans were good. Mission-
aries have been active in Borneo and have done much to foster
good relations between natives and white men. Many natives
in northern Borneo remember the return of the Allied forces --
mostly British and Australian -- near the end of World War II
with particular fondness. Since the beginning of the Indo-
nesian "confrontation" policy against Malaysia, however, many
of the tribes in the Indonesian Borneo -- Malaysia border
area have been politically indoctrinated by Indonesia. Their
receptiveness and helpfulness to white men traveling in the
area may depend on the degree of success of such indoctrina-
tion.
E. Medical Factors
Factors in the climate of Borneo affecting the health of
men operating in the back country are much the same as in other
tropical areas. Diseases are carried by mosquitoes, mites,
ticks, and other insects, and are also caused by contaminated
soil and water (see tabulation at end of chapter). Personal
hygiene and the cleanliness of camps and messing facilities
are essential. Although most of Borneo is tropical, there are
some mountainous areas with peaks exceeding 10,000 feet.
Operations in such areas would present the problems of cold
climate.
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Grasses such as alang, Bermuda, panic, and couch differ
from similar grasses in the United States and Europe and often
produce allergenic reactions such as hay fever. Sensitive
individuals should carry a good antihistamine. Chlortrimeton
(8 mg.) will suffice.
The saps of some trees contain irritant poisons. These
saps cause itching and blistering if they touch the skin.
Treatment consists of washing the area of contact with strong
soap or applying mild alkali.
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
3. CIA. NIS 100, Indonesia, sec 21, Apr 56. C.
4. Ibid., sec 24, Jan 56. C.
5. CIA. NIS 44, British Indonesia, sec 22, Sep 51. C/NOFORN.
6. Ibid., sec 24, Aug 55. C/NOFORN.
7. Craighead, F.C. and J.J. How to Survive on Land and Sea,
Annapolis, 1962. U.
8. Harrisson, Tom. World Within, London, 1959. U.
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
MISSING PAGE
ORIGINAL DOCUMENT MISSING PAGE(S):
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
APPENDIX A
AIRFIELDS OF BORNEO*
A. USABLE AIRFIELDS
Sarawak
1.
BA KELALAN
03
58 N
1,050 feet grass
115
40 E
2.
BAREO
03
42 N
1,800 feet grass
115
27 E
3.
BATU GADING
03
50 N
1,100 feet grass
114
40 E
4.
BELAGA
02
39 N
1,415 feet grass on clay
113
46 E
5.
BINTULU
03
12 N
3,600 feet grass on hard
113
02 E
sand
6.
KUCHING (Batu
01
29 N
6,300 feet blacktop
Toujoh, Stabar)
110
20 E
7.
LAWAS
04
51 N
1,800 feet grass on
115
24 E
stone
8.
LIO MATU
03 09 N
1,020 feet grass
115 14 E
9.
LONG AKAH
03 18 N
1,400 feet grass on clay
114 47 E
10.
LONG ATIP
03 51 N
1,500 feet grass
114 45 E
11.
LONG BANGA
03 11 N
1,320 feet grass
115 27 E
12.
LONG GENG
02 37 N
1,140 feet grass
114 08 E
13.
LONG LELLANG
03 27 N
1,140 feet grass
115 06 E
* Keyed to main map Borneo
- 173 -
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
14.
LONG SEMADOH
04 14 N
1,416 feet grass on sand
115 36 E
15.
LONG SERIDAN
03 59 N
1,080 feet grass
115 03 E
16.
LONG TEBANGANG
03 23 N
1,080 feet grass
114 52 E
17.
MARUDI
04 11 N
1,400 feet grass on sand
114 19 E
18.
MIRI (Lutong)
04 27 N
3,366 feet grass
113 59 E
19.
MUKAH
02 54 N
1,400 feet grass on sand
112 04 E
- planned extension to
2 500 - 3000 feet (Dec. 62)
20.
PATIK
03 44 N
800 feet grass
115 17 E
21.
SELALANG
02 01 N
720 feet grass
111 20 E
22.
SEMATAN
01 49 N
2,350 feet grass on sand
109 46 E
23.
SIBU
02 20 N
3,600 feet grass on
111 50 E
stone - being extended
(Dec. 62) to 4,500 feet
blacktop. Temporarily
reduced to 1,800 feet
during re-surfacing.
24.
SIMANGGANG
01 13 N
1,800 feet blacktop
111 27 E
Brunei
25.
ANDUKI (Seria)
04 38 N
6,300 feet grass on sand
114 23 E
26.
BRUNEI (Berakas)
04 55 N
5,800 feet blacktop, be-
114 56 E
ing extended (Dec. 62)
to 6,300 feet
27.
SERIA TOWN
04 36 N
1,000 feet grass
(Penaga)
114 17 E
- 174 -
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
Sabah
28.
ALLEN FIELD
06 21 N
858 x 55 feet grass
116 24 E
29.
DHABU
06 25 N
1,020 feet grass; runway
116 33 E
overgrown
30.
JESSELTON
05 56 N
5,100 x 100 feet black-
116 03 E
top
31.
KALABAKAN
04 25 N
1,000 feet clay
117 29 E
32.
KENINGAU
05 22 N
2,400 feet grass
116 12 E
33.
KOTA BELUD
06 22 N
4,500 x 150 feet grass
116 28 E
on graded earth.. On a
strip 6,300 feet long
34.
KUDAT
06 57 N
2,400 feet grass on
116 48 E
coral
35.
LABUAN
05 17 N
6,070 feet blacktop
115 16 E
36.
LAHAD DATU
05 02 N
3,600 feet sand over
118 19 E
coral
37.
MARAK PARAK
06 17 N
1,290 feet grass
116 44 E
38.
MELIGAN
04 39 N
1,500 feet grass
115 37 E
39.
MERIDI
06 06 N
1,350 feet grass
117 03 E
40.
PA SIA
04 24 N
1,350 feet grass
(Long Pasa)
115 45 E
41.
RANAU
05 58 N
2,700 feet grass
116 41 E
42.
SANDAKAN
05 54 N
4,110 feet gravel
118 04 E
43.
SAPULUT
04 46 N
1,700 feet grass
(Sepulot)
116 30 E
- 175
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
44.
SIPITANG
05
05 N
2,100 feet sand
115
33 E
45.
TAWAU
04
17 N
4,500 feet crushed stone
117
53 E
and sand
46.
TELUPID
05
40 N
1,700 feet sandy clay
117
09 E
47.
ULU TOMANI
04
43 N
1,440 feet sand
115
54 E
48.
WALLACE BAY
04
15 N
1,100 feet clay
117
34 E
Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan)
49.
BALIKPAPAN
01
(Sepinggang)
116
50.
BANDJERMASIN
03
(Ulin)
114
51.
BUKITKELAM
00
(Sintang)
111
52.
KETAPANG
01
(Kali Nilam)
109
53.
LONG BAWAN
03
115
54.
LONG NAWANG
01
114
55.
MUARATEWE
00
(Bengaris)
114
56.
PALANGKA RAYA
02
(Pahandut,
Penarung)
113
57.
PANGKALANBUUN
02
(Kotawaringin,
Sukabumi)
111
16 S 4,100 x 100 feet perfo-
54 E rated steel plank on
coral
27 S 5,660 x 150 feet black-
45 E top
04 N 2,000 feet grass (est.)
30 E
52 S 2,300 feet, probably
59 E grass
48 N 1,968 feet, probably
34 E grass
54 N 2,000 feet grass (est.)
53 E
57 S 1,640 feet, probably
53 E grass - may have been
extended to 1,800 feet
16 S 2,000 feet grass (est.)
56 E
42 S 2,750 x 150 feet (est.),
41 E Rolled earth rehabili-
tated 1958 on site of
World War II 5,200 feet
airfield
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
58.
PONTIANAK
00 09 S
3,610 x 100 feet gravel
109 24 E
59.
PURUKTJAU
00 35 S
2,000 feet grass (est.)
114 35 E
60.
PUTUSSIBAU
00 50 N
2,000 feet grass (est.)
(Kedamin)
112, 56 E
61.
SAMARINDA
00 30 S
1,650 feet grass (est.)
(Karangasam)
117 07 E
approx.
62.
SAMARINDA 2
00 12 S
2 , 000 feet grass (est.).
(Melak, Sendawar)
115 46 E
Rehabilitated 1958 on
site of World War II
runway 4,500 feet long.
63.
SAMPIT
02 33 S
2,000 feet earth, grass-
112 58 E
(est.)
64.
SINGKAWANG
01 05 N
3,000 x 200 feet earth,
109 41 E
grass
65.
TANDJUNG
02 13 S
4,265 x 100 feet gravel
(Warukin)
115 26 E
66.
TANDJUNG REDEB
02 10 N
2,460 feet probably
(Kalimarau)
117 29 E
grass
03 20 N
4,595 x 100 feet gravel
117 34 E
68.
NATUNA* (Ranai)
03 54 N
4,200 feet rolled earth
108 23 E
(est.)
B. FORMER AIRFIELDS
Sarawak
01 32 N
110 19 E
5,000 feet coral
*Administratively a part of Sumatra, but listed with the air-
fields of Borneo because of its location.
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
70.
RAJANG
02 14 N
4,500 feet rolled earth
(Belawai)
111 14 E
71.
TROMBOL
01 42 N
3,600 feet grass on sand
(Kuching 2)
110 10 E
(nil)
05
20 N
4,545 feet; surface
116
10 E
unknown
73.
NANGOH
05
58 N
1,290 feet grass
(Tiendu Batu)
117
18 E
74.
ItIMBALAI
05
20 N
3,600 feet coral
115
12 E
Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan)
75.
ASA (Melak
00
West)
115
76.
BALIKPAPAN/
01
MANGGAR
116
77.
DAJU
02
115
78.
KUALAPESAGUAN
02
110
79.
MANDOR
00
109
80.
SINGKAWANG 3
00
109
81.
TABANIO
03
(Kartungan)
114
13 S 4,400 feet grass
44 E
12 S 3,940 feet coral
58 E
00 S 2,750 feet grass
04 E
0:1 S Not known
08 E
15 N 4,000 feet grass
20 E
55 N Not known
32 E
41 S 6,300 feet coral and
36 E rolled earth
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
C. REPORTED (BUT UNCONFIRMED) AIRFIELDS
Indonesian Borneo
(Kalimantan)
82.
KUALAKAPUAS
03
01 S)
114
21 E)
83.
KUALAKURUN
01
07 S)
Town coordinates
113
53 E)
84.
LONGRIAN
03
43 N)
115
46 E)
85.
SIMPANG
01
03 S)
110
06 E)
Town coordinates
86.
TANAHGROGOT
01
55 S)
116
12 E)
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
APPENDIX B
RECOMMENDED MAPS
No topographic map series covers all of Borneo at a scale
larger than 1:1,000,000. Two series at a scale of 1:250,000
together with two series at 1:253,440 cover nearly all of
Malaysian Borneo and Brunei and parts of Kalimantan. All of
the recommended series are in English and all but one are
available in quantity at the Army Map Service.
1. Borneo; 1:200,000; 1944. Army Map Service Series T531.
Redrawn from Dutch series published 1912-41.
53 sheets cover western Sarawak and western
Kalimantan.
2. Indonesia; 1:250,000; 1961-63. Army Map Service Series
T503. 12 sheets cover parts of western and southern
Kalimantan. Compiled in part from aerial photo-
graphy.
3. Borneo; 1:250,000; 1945. Army Map Service Series T532.
2.5 sheets cover most of Sabah and much of south-
eastern Kalimantan. Sheets of this series will
be superseded by sheets of series T503 as they
become available.
4. Sarawak; 1:253,440; 1945-46. HIND Series 1113 reprinted
and distributed as Army Map Service T534. 11
sheets cover Sarawak and Brunei. Sheets of this
series will be superseded by Series T503 as they
become available.
5. Borneo; 1:253,440; 1962-63. Great Britain Directorate of
Survey, War Office and Air Ministry Special Series.
7 sheets cover Brunei, western and northeastern
Sarawak, and southwestern Sabah.
6. International Map of the World; 1:1,000,000; 1961. Army
Map Service Series 1301. 7 sheets cover entire
island.
Aeronautical chart coverage of Borneo at a scale of
1:1,000,000 is complete and reasonably current. The two ONC
charts that cover the island provide a good general picture
of the terrain and drainage pattern along with a fair amount
of cultural information.
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
1. USAF Operational Navigation Charts (ONC); 1:1,000,000;
Sheets L-11 and M-ll cover entire island with air
information current through 14 March 1963 and
7 February 1963 respectively.
2. USAF Jet Navigation Chart (JN); 1:2,000,000. Sheet number
JN-54 covers Borneo north of about latitude 1?S.
Air information is current through 31 May 1961.
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
RECOMMENDED FILMS
1. Malaysia (Chet Huntley Reports). NBC-TV, May 1963, 16
millimeter, sound, black and white, 30 minutes. CIA
film S6459.
2. Progress in Sarawak. Malayan Film Unit, 1958, 16 milli-
meter, sound, color, 25 minutes. CIA film N7028.
3. Land of the Hornbill. Sarawak area survey, British Infor-
mation Services, 1954, 16 millimeter, sound, black and
white, 12 minutes. CIA film H6233.
4. Lost Continent. Indonesia area study, Astra Cinemato-
grafica, Leonardo Bonzi, 1954, 35 millimeter, sound,
color, approx. 15 minutes (Borneo section only). CIA
film K6926.
5. Expedition: Borneo, Land of the Sleeping Giant. Zoo-
logical expedition, Copley Productions, 1961, 16 milli-
meter, sound, color, 13 minutes. CIA film 50261.
6. Than Trackers. Borneo natives as guides and trackers in
jungle operations against Communists in Malaya. Malayan
Film Unit, 1952, 35 millimeter, sound, black and white,
11 minutes. CIA film D7848.
7. Ten Million Strong. Examines the chances for the success
of the new federation of Malaysia. ABC-TV, February
1964, Australian Broadcasting Commission, 16 millimeter,
sound, black and white, 60 minutes. CIA film T6115.
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/0: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
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 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100020001-6
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