JPRS ID: 8704 USSR REPORT PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

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9 OCTflBER i979 C FOt10 ~ 3lT9 ~ i OF 2
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FOR UFFIC7A1. USi: ONI.Y
. JPRS L/8704
9 October 1979
U~SR Re ort ~
p
PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
CFOUO 3/79)
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~'PR5 L/8704
� October 1979
USSR REPORT
- PHY~ICS AND MATHEMA~ICS
~FOUO 3/79)
This serial publication contains articles, abstracts of articles and newa
items from U~SR scientific and technical ~ournals on the specific subjPCts
reflected in the tab;le of contents.
Photoreproductions ~of forei~n-language sources may be obtained f rom the
Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. 20540.
Requests should provide adequate identi�ication both as to the source and the
individual article(s) desired.
CONTENTS PAGE
LASERS AND MASERS
Experimental and Theoretical Studies of a Closer-Circuit
Gasdynamic C02 Laser
(G. M. Klepach, et al.; KVANTOVAYA ELEKTRONIKA,No 6,1979). 1
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Construction and Startup of the First Atomic Reactor in the
Soviet Union
(I.F. Zhezherun; STROITEL'STVO I PUSK PERVOGO V SOVETSKOM
SOYUZE ATOMNOGO REAKTORA, 1978) 7
OPTICS
The Problem of Optimal Processing of Light Fields Distorted
by a Turbulent Atmosphere
(N. A, ffakut, et a1.;RADIOTEKHNIKA I ELEKTRONIKA,
No 8, 1979) 58
A Qiiantum Model of Radio Wave Scattering in Matter With
Hyperexcited .Atoms
( N. D. Ustinov, et a1.;KVANTOVAYA ELEKTRONIKA,
No 7, 1979) 65
- a - ~ [III - USSR - 21H 5&T] ~
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CON7'ENTS (~ontinued) Page
PUBT ICATIONS
Problems of Subatomic Space and Time -
(Vladilen Sergeyevich Barashenkov; PROBLEMY
SUBATOMNOGO PROSTRANSTVA I VREMENI, 1979)........... 80 -
Semiconductor Plasma
Vadim Vladimircvich Vladimirov, et al.; PLAZMA
POLUPROVODNIKOV, 1979) 86
ABSTRACTS
Acoustics 91
Crystals and Semiconductors 96
Lasers and Masers 105
Magnetohs~drodynamics.~ 113
Nuclear Physics 115
Optics and Spectroscopy 124
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LASERS AND MASERS
UDC 621.378.33
~XPERIN~NTAL AND THEORETICAL STUDIES OF A CLOSED-CIRCUIT GASDYNAMIC CO LASER
2
Moscow KVANTOVAYA ELEKTRONIKA in Russian No 6, 1979 PP 71-75
[Article by G. M. Klepach, V. F. Konakh, V. A. Soldatov and V. F. Sharkov,
Institute of Atomic Energy imeni I. V. Kurchatov, Moscow]
[Text] The development of a continuous-operation CO2 gas-
dynamic laser in which a mixture of C02, nitrogen and hel_~um
circulates through a closed circuit is described. The oper- �
a~ting parameters of the device are: gas temperature ~ 1?_OOK,
compression ratio 6, gas flow < 1 kg/sec. The measured '
value for the gain coefficient is N 0.25 m'1. It is shown
that by using a closed circuit the total iaser efficiency of
the unit can be considerably increased, wliich is extremely
important in the practical use of such devices in treatment
of materials and in metallurgy. �
Currer.tly C02 gasdynamic lasers are undergoing intensive study, both theore-
tical and experimental [1-6]. Primary attention is being devoted to the de-
velopn:ent of units operating in the pulse (~r~ 1 msec) and quasicontinuous
^ 1-5 sec) modes, apparently because of the engineering simplicity of such
units. However, it appears obvious that the most promising units for prac-
tical applications are those in which the active medium circulates through a
closed.circuit, giving off no gas into the atmosphere and offering the pos-
sibility of achieving high laser efficiency L7-11], which will ultimately lea.d
to decreased er.ergy consumption.
Ide use+d such a unit, developed at the Institute of Atomic Energy imeni I. V.
Kurcha.tov, t~ study the effect of design characteristics of the individual
compor..ents (ilozzle, diffuser and the like) on the operating characteristics
of gasdynamic lasers with prolonged > 10 min) circulation of the active
medium through a closed circuit.
- Measurements results were compared with theoretical calcula.tions and experi-
mental data obtained from an open-cycle device with similar temperature,
pressure and mixture characteristics [6].
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r' ~f~, -{~L1Jl' t`T ~M1;~ .f 1
,
~ q
;
s ~ ~ - ~ =
4: ~ _
, ~
~J 1
� ; _ . ~
. � , ~ ~-'~'�o-�
L_''_.~-~ 6 _ j'"~ ~
' ~ ' , `
c~~ ~
Fig. 1. Block Diagram of the Device
Description of the Experimental Apparatus
The apparatus (Fig. 1) is a closed, sealed circuit through which the active
medium, a mixture of C02, nitrogen ar:d helium, is circulated. The mixture,
compressed sixfold in a centrifugal compr~essor (8), is fed through tubes to
the re5enerator ( 3), where it is heated to T~ 750� K by a counterflow of ho~L
spent ~as.
Vext t:he gas passes through two successive heater sections (1) capable of
- heatin~ it to T~ 1200� C and enters the working channel (2), where it is
;~,ccele:rat;ed by the nozzle assembly to a speed of M= 3- 3. 5. The resulting
"freezing" of the vibration levels of the nitrogen and C02 (001) produces
the conditions for lasing in a radiation cavity with a wave"length of 10.6
microns.
The supersonic flow is slowed in a diffuser, after which the gas passes through
~tY~e regenerator (3} and cooler (4), is cooled to 20� C and reaches the com-
presso.r intak.e. The act:.ve mixture is prepared for filling of the circuit and
continuous compensation of leakage in a special tank. A bypass line with a
cooler (4) and a filter (6) are provided in thP c.ircuit for constant cleaning
of the mixture. The evacuation system (5) assures cleanliness of the circuit
ar.i guarantees a constant composition for the mixture. The compressor assem-
b~;~ (8) for helium-containing mixtures, with a compression x�atio 6, has two
i..;ermediate coolers and is operated by an asynchronous elec:tric motor (7).
The heater, designed for a miximum electric powe~ of 180 kW, consists of ~;wo
sections, whose heating elements are polished tubes made of the high-tempera-
ture alloy KhN7CYu. The tubes are heated by passing alternating current -
through them.
1 `
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`i'he wcrkinY :~ection (1'i~;. 2) consists of e. forechamber, the norz:le ~ssem~t~ly
(.l), l�li~. rc:s~~ti~LLur cuia ~.Y~~~ cllft'uaer (3)� 'l'}~c~ fIUZY,l~~ ui~iL r.on.s.L:;tu ul'
ilat, shaped nozzle vanes with a critical section height of 0.�3 rrun. Prelim-
inary testing of the nozzle array on an aerodynamic stand confirmed the cal-
culation~ for t'low ~.fter the nozzle (M ~.3.5)� The optical cavity of the
resoriatox� has ciimensions of 3 x 15 x 10 cm. In addition to monitor:ing thz wor�k-
in~ charactez�istics of the circuit (static pressure, temperature, flow rate), _
we mea,suz�ed the gain factor K~ at a distance of 2 cm from the end of the
nozzle while varying the intensity of a standard radiator. ~
~ ~ 't�~,~'~I
' ~ ~r
i ~ � ~':o.~-s?tl~~ . . . .
~ ( ~ .
'~;,t .~,D'tiii ~ ~
- r -
~~u,~:i . ,
_ , �.irn.,.,~�-e~.., .
from heater ~ I~;~ to heat exchanger
v ,
'
I~ig. 2. Diagram of the Working Channel of the Gasdynamic Laser.
Discussion of Results
The measured parameters of the closed-circuit gasdynamic laser and the gain
factor are as fol.lows:
Composition of working mixture, moles: 2C0~ + 5N2 + 3He
Temperature of heater walls, �K: 1,270
Temperature of gas stagriation at working section
inlet, �x 950
Pressure in foi�echamber, atm ~+�2
Pressure in ~�esonat.or, atm 0.1
Pressure at compressor intake, atm 1.02
Pressure at compressor outlet, atm 5
Temperature ~~.t compressor in~take, �C 20
Temperature ~.t compressor outlet, �C 8~
Gas iluw ra~~E., kg/sec 0.35
Gain factor, meter~ -1 0.25
The above data give a ratio of 0.024 for the static pressures in the resonator
and the forechamber, which corresponds to a Mach number M= 3�1 at the resonator
intake. At such flow rates and with a stagnation temperature N 1,000� C, a
specific radiant energy of ~=4-6 kJ/kg (KD = 0.3-0.6 meter-1) can be obtained
[3, 4, 6].
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y 1 vJ a. J.vi. u.l V. ~ 1 I 1i1rJ.1~~
'1'he u:;e of relatively 1ow stagnation temperatures makes it impossible to
r.~chieve largr~ energy yields from the gasdynamic laser, but it makes it possible
ta avc:id desigri 3nd process difficulties such as cooling of the tizbing, use of
expen~ive ma1;erials f'or construction of the circuit, dissociation of C02 and
the like. I~i acldition, the lifetimes of the individual assemblie5 are con-
siderably increr~sed, t;heir reliability improved and operation simplified.
~ Judging by the measured gain factor Kp = 0.25 meter-l, the energy supplied to
~ the resonator is comparable to the calculated amount. In addition, note
should be taken of the good stability of the gain factor throughout operation
of the unit. It appears that the discrepancy between the theoretical and ex-
perimental v~.lues of' K~ is explainable by the nonoptimal cross section in
- wtiich the gain factor was measured and by the presence of stagnant zones of
hot, a.bsorbitig gas in pockets in tbe resonator.
We now estimfite the theoretical increase in efficiency resulting rrom use of
such a closeci system [10, 11]. The electrical energy introduced into the act-
ive medium per unit mass can be determined by the formula
E=c~j,~1(7' -T41+T,-T il)
5
- where m is the number of compressor levels separated by intermediate coolers;
T~ and T5 ~,re the temperatures at the compressor intake and outlet~'; T1 is
the temperature at the inlet to the nozzle assembly; T~ is ttie temperature
at tlle heater inlet; and c is the heat capacity of the mixture at const~.nt
temperature. For an open system, this energy is given by
E = cP(T, -'1'�)� 1'_')
where T~ is.the ambient temperature.
� f'or� identical. specific laser radiation powers, the efficiency ratio of the
closed a,rid open systems is inversely proportionai to the ratio of' the energies
introduced:
?t=(7'~-~~�1 [m{T5-Tq)+T~--7~4~. 1~~~
ior a.diabatic comp.ression in the compressor,
1. = 141~xr -~~~?IK+ 1~i xi = nk~ k. (11
wr;:re 1ikL is the degree of compression in the compressor stage, and ~ K is
the adiabatic efficiency of the compressor.
Clearly rk = 1/d , where d is the coefficient of pressure recovery around
Lhe circuit. The -temperature Tq is related to the level of regeneration
by the simple equation .
~'y = ~'s + P(T, - rs) ~3 ~
~iostituting formulas (4) and (5) into (3), we obtain
~ - ~~0/7', i - r,/r, ~
n ~ I! p) + ~~~1~~,> (t~X; - i)~K) (m - i + p~ ij = --P?+ B ~7
~ We assume that the temperatures at the inlets and outlets of all the levels
are the same.
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When > 0, ~o increase ~ the temperature at the compressor inlet (the low
tempei�ature c~f the cycle) must be decreased to the level T1 = T~. When B~ 0,
the temperature T1 should be increased to the maximum possible value, which
can be determined from the condition T5= T1. This system was proposed in
references 7 and 8. It does not include a regenerator, and the formula for
~ has the form
~1-(i -'/'a~7',)~~+~K~xt-11]r~''. (71
~ .
p~ ~
,,n '
io ~
i
U.=a p=l
. i
a QB .
Q./ 0'J ~ /I~III `^7`
/
~ / ~
/ � ' ~
~ ' - O.B
~ i~
~ i~i~ ~
/ ~ .
v v,s ~ i~~ soa iaao sau'~'i,
-'k.
Fig. 3. Plot of P and c for m= 3. Fig. Plot of ~ as a function of
temperature at the input of the gas-
` dynamic laser for Tl = 3000� K, m= 3,
~K = 0 . 8 and = 0 .2 ( solid lines ) ~
and 0.5 (dotted lines). The triangle
gives the experimental value.
Fig. 3 shows solutions of the equation B= 0 for various compressor efficien-
cies. In the upper area B~ 0, and in the lower area B< 0. The triangle
marks the point corresponding to the experimental values of the parameters
P and a- . The dependence of ~ on the temperature at the nozzle assembly
inlet is shown in Fig. 4. The strong effect of pressure losses~along the
circu9.t and of the level of regeneration on ~ is clearly visible. '
It fol.lows f.rom .formula ( 6) ttiat when B~ 0, ~
l imh ~ (g~
T,~�~ ~-"P
Thus, to incre~,se the effectiveziess of the closed system, it i.s most important
to increase -the level of regeneration and to decrease pressure losses.
In our� exper:iments level of pressure recovery in the diffuser was 0.26, i.e.
about tne same as the coefficient of pressure recovery in normal shock wave
= 0.3)� This value is ~,ppa.rently not a limiting one, and it may be in-
creased, for ex~.mple, by the use of a variable di:'fuser [12]. We should also
like to draw attention to the necsssity of cooling the working channel, the
nozzle vanes and the resonator chamber. During operation, the channel is
heated to 800� K; the nozzle array, even though designed for the temperature
conditions of the ga,sdynamic laser, was still defor~ried by thermal expansion.
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In car~c~l~~~i.oa, it mu~t be str~ssed that the ~asdyna.mic la.ser with circul.r~l;i.un
uI' th~ work.ing sub~Lunce throu~h t~ closed circuit can havr: a tii~,h efl'ic~iency
only ii' all the working para.meters of the device are simultaneous.ly made
optime.l. Th;zs it is clearly disadvantageous to make gasdynamic lr3.sers to
study physicr~l processes in the active medium of C02 lasers, since this always
entails variation of the working parameters over extremely wide r~.nges.
On the basis of our experiments we may conclude that it is technically feas- _
ible to develop an indusi,rial continuous-operation gasdyna.mic C02 laser oper-
ating under preselected optimal working conditions. In our view, the high
effect�iveness of such a gasuynamic laser makes up for the expenditures on
implementation of the closed circuit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. Anderson, J. D., and Harris, E. L. AIAA Paper No 72-143, 14 (1972).
2. Anderson, J. D. AIAA J., 12, 1699 (197~+)�
3� Kr�~.snitskaya, L. S.; Napartovich, A. P.; and Sharkov, V. F. TVT, 11,
1~-~5 ~1973) .
~E. Napartovich, A. P., and Sharkov, V. F. TVT, 12, 69 (1.974).
5. Losev, S. A., and Makarov, V. N. KVANTOVAYA ELEKTf:ONIKA, l, 1633 (1974);
2, 1~54 (19?5)~ 3, 960 (1976)�
6. Abrosimov, G. V.; Vedenov, A. A.; Vitshas, A. F.; Napartovich, A. P.;
and Sharkov, V. F. TVT, 13, 865 ~1975)�
7. Tulip, J., and Seguin, H. J. APPL. PHYS., 42, 3393 (1971).
Hertzberg, A.; Christiansen, W. H.; Johnson, E. W.; and Ahlstrom, H. G.
AIAIt Paper P1o 71-106 , 16 (1971) .
9. Karnyushin, V. N., and Soloukhin, R. N. FIZIKA GORENIYA I VZRYVA, 8,
1.63 (197~ ) .
lU. Soldatov, V. A. Preprint IAE-2966, 1978.
11. Soldatov, V. A. Preprint IAE-2975~ 1978�
l,-'. Mez�kly, P. E. AIAA J. , 1~+, 1.68 (1976) .
~.,ceived 9 June 1978.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Sovetskoye Radio", "Kvantovaya Elektronika", 1979
8~+80
cso: 81~E4/1748
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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
tm C 62i.039�51
CONSTRUCTION AND STARTUP OF THE FIRST ATOMIC REACTUR IN THE SOVIET UNION
Moscow STROITEL'STVO I PUSK PERVOGO V SOVETSKOM SOYtiZE ATONIIVOGO REAKTORA in
Russian 1978 signed to press 11 Oct 78 pp 5-12, 6b-~1.5
[Chapters 1, 4 and 5 from book by I. F. Zhezherun, Atomizdat, 2,200 copies,
1.44 pp]
[Text] Chapter 1. Introduction
After the phenomenon of nuclear fission of uranium was discovered by 0. Hahn
and F'. Strassmannin 1939, the utilization of the energy witnin the nucleus,
which until recently had seemed a drea.m, began to become a real possibility.
On the front line of worldwide nuclear science, Soviet phys:icists carried out
intensive investigations of the phenomenon of fission and related questions.
From that time onward, experimental studies of uranium fission by neutrons
acquired a central place in I. V. Kurchatov's laboratory in the Lc~ingrad
Physicsl and Technical Institute. Investigations were also carried on in the
Physical and Technical Institu.te in Khar'kov, the Institute of Physics imeni
P. N. Lebedev, USSR Academy of Sciences in Moscow, and also in the Radium
Institute, USSR Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Chemical Physics, the
Pedagogical Institute in Leningrad and other research organizations. In 1.939~
Kurchatov's collea~ues G. N. Flerov and L. I. Rusinov established that the
~ fission of a u~~~anium nucleus releases. an aver.age of 3 tl secondary neutrons,
that neutron capture by the main uranium isotope, 238U, does not lead to
fission but produces the radioactive nucleus 239U, and that the thermal neu~rons
observed in uranium fiss:ion experiments should be ascribed to the uncommon iso-
tope 235U. At the beginning of 19~+0. K. A. Petrzhak and G. N. Flerov discovered
spontaneous fission of ur.an.ium.
Soviet theore.tical physic:ists did not lag behind the experirnentalists. For
example, in the snring of 1939 Ya. I. Frenkel' had already develc,ped the first
quantitative theory of fission, and in 1939-~+0 ~a. B. Zel'dovich and Yu. B.
Khariton developed the theory of the fission chain reaction. An extensive
discussion of experimental and theoretical work on fission questions took place
at the Fourth All-Union Conference on the Physics of the Atomic Nucleus and
Cosmic Rays, held on 15-20 January 1939 in Khar'kov and at the Fifth All-
Union Conference on the Atomic Nucleus, held on 20-26 November in Moscow.
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'1'he level o~' theor~tical and experimental work by Soviet ph;,rsicist.s, embrt~cin~;
both fission and the chain reaction, was so liigh that in th~~ sprir~g oi' 1940
Kurchatov could already ~3eclare, "The goe,l is a realistic a;zd viat~le one."
He repeated this idea in a report at a session of the Depar~tment of Physic~,l
and Mathematical Sciences, USSR Acaden~y of Sciences, on 26-27 January 1.940.
And at the Fifth All-Union Conference on the Atomic Nucleus, where Kurchato~
cleveloped this idea i'urther in a summary report and indicated the ttieoretical
possibility of solving the problem of using the energy of the nucleus in the
chain-reaction dec~,y of uranium, the question of applying to the government to
.~.llocate la.rge sums for research work was urgently raised. The mi.litary
- signit'icance of the fusion chain reaction was also clear. �
1Curchatov arid other scientists planned to initiate expensive reser~.rch. He
sent the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences a plan for the expansion of woi-k
~~n the nuclear chain reaction. And had it not reen for the war ar~d i;he re-
sultin~ st;oppage oF work, K. A. Petrzhak has noted, Soviet physicists would
not have lagged behind the Americans at all, and might possibly have carried
out a, chain reaction before 1942. Foreign authors too have shared this opinion.
_ We shall no+ dwell further on the works on fission which were published during
the prewar and wartime periods, since they have been systematically and rather
fully discussed in V. V. Igonin's book ~'Atom i SSSR" [The Atom and the USSR],
bu~. ratYier will conclude our quick survey with a list of the basic results of
importance for the problem of fission and the nuclear chain reaction which wer�e
- known at that time and were discussed in Kurchatov's report mentioned above.
.l. In f'ission, the uranium nucleus produces about 200 MeV of er.ergy and emits
2-3 secoridary neutrons. About 1 percent of these neutrons are delayed by
from 0.1 to ~a5 seconds, ~Tith the average being about 10 seconds.
2. Under the influence of slow neutrons, only the isotope ?35U ur~dergoes
i'ission; its effective i'ission cross section varzes approximately as 1/v
(i.e. is inversely proportional to the velocity v of the neutro~:) and is equ~.l
~to (300-~+00) �10-24 cm2 for thermal neutrons. The main uranium isotope, ~3~U,
~zndernoes fission on~y under the influence of fast neutrons with energies N 1
I~IeV or greater.
~ 3. The absorption of slow neutrons by 238U leads to the formation of the r~,dio-
ac~ive isotope ~39U and tias a resonance character for energies in the tens of
F^lectron-volts. ~39U undergoes beta decay with a half-life of 23.5 minutes
~.r~1 is converted iiito a transuranium element wii;h atomic number Z= 93 � This
1r~Lter beta-active element decays with a half-life of 2.3 days, f'orming an
c�~ement with atomic number Z= 94, assumed to be an alpha em:itter. The possi-
Li.iity ~that this last element might, like 235U, undergo fission when acted upon
by tnermal neutrons was not ruled out.
~F. The fission (decay) chain reaction of 235U under the influence of thermal
neutrons in a mixture of uranium and a moderator of unlimited dimensions is .
possible provided that
k~, - v~p0 ~ 1. (1.1)
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Hc~re ? is t;i~ie nlnr!ber of' Secondary neutrons emitted by a single fi:~siori occur-
r~e~uce; cQ 1a Ltie probability of mod4l~+~l-ion of ~rhese net~Ll~ori:. Lu I;hcrmzl:l ~ii~~l~-
h i~~:, ; N,i ui Q~ ~~~�200 350
i i ~
a ~ ; i
N
N x~ 150 yi'Z Z
600 .
o ~hX~ ,
0
A �
d ~
Fig. 4.2. Appearance (a) and ~Diagram (b) of Experiment for Testing Graphite
by the Comparative Method. (0: neutron detector; I1 and I2: locations of
alternating placement of neutron source; inset of graphite to be tested is
shown shaded).
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in mee.suring d for the ste,ndard graphite, and whicr~ thus represents a
systenatic el�ror~in the values of , the comparative method nonetheless
has th.e advasitage of allowing the tes�ing of small lots (1.5-2 tons of graphite)
and thus of achieving better differentiation. And the systems,tic error can be
allowed for in the final results.
The checking of the graphite was conducted round-the-clocl: in a special tent
set up for the purpose in a gr~up consisting of scientific staff inember I. F.
Zhezherun, laboratory assistants I. P. Afonin, V. K. Losev, A. I. Pivovarov,
N. L. Chinnov and others, and a brigade of laborers. Some 99 lots of graphite
~~tith a weight of about 600 tons were tested by these methods, 80 percent of
them by the comparative method. The absorption cross section d~ was above
5�10-~7 cm~ in only 5 percent of the lots. For the rest of th.e graphite it
was (3-5.) �10'~7 cm2, averaging 3.7 �10'~7 cm2. The ash content varied in
the range 0.005-0.04 percent and the density from 1.62 to 1,72 g/c:m3 (averaging
1.69 ~/~m3)�
Analysis of the measurements identified a correlation between the absorption
cross section and the ash content of the graphite: the lower the ash content
the lower the absorption cross section (Fig. ~+,4). This was correct on average
both for different lots of graphite and for graphite in a single lot, since the
ash content distribution of the graphite in a lot depended on the position in
the furnace during graphitization. There were exceptions to this general ten-
dency associated with differences in the chemical composition of the impurities
in the graphite (ash).
.~Q ~ .
~
~
~ ~
~
v ~
N ~
~ 4,5
o ~
'
b ~
~
4,0 ~
~
J~5
I
~00,0~ o,ni~ 0,02 o,oz5 003 o,n,~5 0,04
3o~aHOCmb,% ash
Fig. b.4. Results of graphite testing by the comparative method. The points
represent average absorption cross section d and ash content of groups of
lots of graphite (all the graphite tested was ~divided into 5 groups by magni-
tude of cross section).
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Chemical ana~_ysis of the impurities was conducted in Sector No 3 c~f Labor~,tory
No 2 under ]3. V. Kurchatov, by N. F. Pravdyuk with the participation of A. M.
Yeremicheva, V. I. Novgorodtseva and R. V. Novikova on dozens o:� lots of
graphitP. Almost half of the elements in Mendeleyev's periodic table were
Found in the ash. The contribution to the total absorption cross section made
by the impurities, given by formula (3.3), was in agreement with the measure-
ments of a' , although there was not exact coincidence owi:ng to the incomplete-
ness of the chemical analysis data. The impurities which were found increased
the absorption cross section of the carbon in various lots of graphite by
~~.35-0.85) �10-~7 cm2 (without allowance for absorption by nitro~en in the
air which was in the ores of the graphite). In lot B17, for example, where
O' was above 5�10-~7 cm2, the contribution of impur�ities to the cross sec-
tion was as follows: boron 0.31 �10'~7 cm2; iron, aluminum, calcium mag-
nesium and silicon, 0.019 � 10'~7 cm2; rare elements, 0.008 �10-~7 cm~; water,
0.20 � 10'~7 cm2. In lot B~+7 the contribution made by oxygen absorbed by the
graphite alone came to 0.25 �10'~7 cm2.
We note that the comparative method was so simple and convenient that with
certain changes it was subsequently adopted for the testing of reactor graph-
ite in the plants themselves.
Tn October 1946 the lots of graphite which were shown to be most homogeneous in
J cross section (average cross section d 3.9 �10-~7 cm2) in testing by the
comparative method were used to construct a 365-ton graphite cube with dimen-
sions 6 x 6 x 6 meters (Fig. 4.5) for more precise measurements of diffusion
length. These measurements were conducted by I. F. Zhezherun, N. M. Konopatkin,
V, A. Kulikov, I. S. Panasyuk and K. N. Shlyagin. An Ra-alpha-Be neutron
source with an activity of 200 or 2,000 mCi was placed at th2 cen~er of the
cube a~d detec~tors (BF3 chambers or indium foil) were placed at different dis-
f;ances irom the source. The measurement results are shown in Fig. 4.6. It
is cle~.r that ln [N (r)r ] is a linear function of the distance r over a wide
c~,nge, in agreemen~t with formula (2.23), which is correct for an infinite
meditun. Analysis of the linear part of the graph gave a diffusion length
L=~~8.j +1.0 cm, in agr ement with the average absorption cross section (for
a tr - 4� 83 � 10-2~ cm2 and a graphite density of 1.69 g/cm3 ) of
d ~=~+.0 �0.2 x 10-~7 cm~.
`.rne value of d tr used here (and in other measurements of diff sion length was
almost identical with the exact value d tr =(4,80 �0.05) �10-2~ cm2 obtained
much later from measurements of the diffusion coefficient b,y the pulse method.
Exponential Experiments with tYie ilranium-Graphite Lattice
:~i~;er the first lot of inetallic uranium was delivered it became possible to
:~et up the long-awaited exponential experiments with a uranium-graphite lat-
tice, the theory for which had been developed by I. Ya. Pom~ranchuk as early
as January 19~+4. These experiments were conducted by I. V. Kurchatov and I. 5.
Panachu~c in January-March 19~+6.
A diagram of the experiment is given in Fig. 4.7. First a prism measuring
99 x y9 x 350 cm was built from graphite blocks to measure the diffusion length,
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~ ~
z :n:s
' ~ ;
,
~ ~ ~
~
~ M.
f~'irr. `+�5 /lssembly of the 365-Ton C,raphite Cube
lnl/r ~
7
6
5 ~a`
4
d
2
>
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 r, cM .
:'i~,. ~a.F i~ie~-~surements of the Tnerma.l Neutron Density N(r) Alon~ the Axis of
the ;~5-`~'on Cu'.:~e.
i:ey: crieasurements by Bi~3 chamber with source activity of 20U mCi;
o, measurements by BF3 chamber with source activit,y of 2,000 mCi;
X, mea~urements of indiiun foil.
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which proved to be L= 48 � 2 ern (with a gre,phite density of 1.68 ~r/ctn3) . f~ext,
tioles were dxill.ed in some of the blocks and in them were placed cylindrical
a:lugs of urriniiun 32 mm in di~meter and 100 mm lon~;. Thus a uran:ium-~~raphite
:Lr~ttler. with n, cubic elemen~tcry cell, fillinF a,7.1 or ril.mc~;,L r~1] ~~I' blir 7~r~i.;uu, waa
created. ~l'hc 1.attice filled almost al1 of the pri~m at the be~inninn~; of the .
experiments, wYien there wa3 insufficient uranium, and a p;raphite .layct� wn,s 1et't
in part of' the prism. However, as V. S. Fursov showed, with the proper loca-
tion of the neutron sources this prism too could be coneidered homogeneous.
The neutron density on the axis of ~he prism at rather large distances from
the source, where the higher harmonics had died out, was cietermined by the
equation
N (a) = const exp yz), (4.4)
where is the decrement of attenuation of the main harmonic
Ya - ~a ~Q 2 -I- b-2) - (k~, - 1)/(La -f- k~ti) = B1- xo (4.5)
and is det~rmined by the effective cross-sectional dimensions of the prism and
the lattice parameters.
During measurement, the neutron detector (a BF3 chamber) was placed on the
prism axis at a distance 50 cm from the lower base, and the Ra-gamma-Be
source on the axis at a distance of 99-156 cm from the detector. At such
dis~ta.~.r~cc:;, the corrections for the e!'fect oi' the end. o.f' the prism and the
higher harmonics could be ignored. The neutron densit,y ratio d= N(z)/N(z +dz)
for 4 z= 22 cm was as follows :
l. Tn a lattice wlth a cubic cell measuring 22 x 22 x 22 cm, containing 400 kg
of uranium and with a concer.,tration ratio of carbon to uranium nuclei cC/cU:=
250 S= 2.66:~0.02; since Bi= 1.88 � 10-3 cm2, for the lattice x 2< 0 and
k~, 1.
3. In a lattice with a cubic cell measuring 22 x 22 x 22 cm, in which the
uranium slug:; were replaced by aluminum cylinders with an equivalent neutron
absorption arid containing a mixture of boron and paraffin, d'= 3.64 t 0,04, and
for the diffizsion length in the lattice a value of L= 25 crr~~ was obtained.
4. In a lattice with a body-centered cubic cell and with the uranium slugs
rF~laced as in par. 3, a= 4.53 t0.04, which gives a valuE of L= Z8 � 0.2 cm
fv~ the diffusion length.
The measurements make it possible to find k~ by formula (4~.5) and~9 by
the formula 4,6
Lz =(1 -0)L~, ( )
where L~ and L are the diffusion lengths for neutrons in graphite and in the
lattice. Accordingly the values k p, = 0.90 + 0.02, D= 0.73 � 0.03 and ko, _
1.09 � 0.02, 0.06 + 0.03 were found for the cubic and body-centered cubic
lattices respectively.
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In adc.ition, the blockin~ coeffictent was also determi.ned: the r,~,tio c~f tYie
o,verage denslties of thermal neutrons in graphite and in uranium. Thi~ quan-
ti~y Frovecl ~,o be equal to 1.'75 � 0,25 for the body-centered cubic lattice.
4.4 Neutron-Physical Testing of �the Uranium
The expo2iential experiments with the uranium ].attices in a prism measuring
99 x 99 x 350 cm described in section 4.3 and other experiments in prisms
measuring 210 x 120 x 310 cm conducted with other lots of uranium slugs measur-
ing 32 and 35 ~n indicated that for a body-centered cubic lattice with a
spacing of 2U cm the multiplication coefficient k~, 1. It is true that cer-
tain experiments gave values k~ =(i.09 +0.02) -(l.ll � 0.02), i.e. slightly
higher values. This may have resulted from errors in the experiments, pri-
marily losses through neutrons, or from the approximate nature of the values
of L an~3 ~ in formula (1+. 5).
H~wever, it was clear that the purity of the uranium and graphite used in
� these experiments was sufficient to produce a chain reaction in a uranium-
graphite reactor built from them. It was only necessary to conduct careful
testin~ and selection of the uranium delivered for the reactor, since accord-
ing ~o chemical analysis it was not uniform and some lots a.mong the first to
be produced were considerably contaminated.
I~ was possible to test the uranium in the exponential experiments. But in
order to measure k a, in such an experiment with the necessary accuracy, 1.5-
2 tons of uranium were needed, while the weight of the lots of uranium
shipped by the factory was 120-750 kg, Accordingly, a simple comparative
method analogous to that used for testing ~he graphite was used.
First the neutron densities f.rorn spontaneous fission NU anc~ N~ in two lots
of uranium of equal weight (one of them used as a standard) at the centers of
two identical uranium-gr~.phite lattices measuring 120 x 120:c130 cm were com-
pared. Simple estimates made by I, S, Panasyuk made it possible to establish
the relationship between d' =TdU/N3 and k~ for a lattice and to find a
criterion oF unsuitability (k~ < 1). But the low density of spontaneous neu-
trons made it; impossible to measure S with the required accuracy in an accep-
table time period, although differences between lots (with varying by 7* 3
percent from unity) were noted.
A more convenient and sensitive method was that of making the measurements in
a nonuniform graphite prism, ~;he theory of which was developed by V. S. Fursov.
Considering t,he distribution of' neutrons in a prism similar to th~.t 5hown in
Fig. 4.1 but with the shaded ~.z�ea occupied alternately by the sample and stan-
dard uranium,. he established that
tS - N3 = YuDu yD '
( Y3~3 -i- YD ) ~P ~(~'u Ye) h], (4.~
where D, D a , DU and ~,.~3 ,and .are the coefficients of diffusion and
decrements of a~;tenuation for the graphite part of the prism, the standard
la.ttice and the lattice being tested. The first multipliEr is close to 1, and
ac cordingly -
S exp I ~yU -1'a~ h] � (4.8)
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' ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ,
- ; - ~ r
~
~
~ 2
2
3
4
~ p c~ ' ~ _
U
~~P. ~ %
i ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .
, ~ .
~ I i
5 ; ~ . 6
. : ~
.
\
_ Fig. ~.7, D~.agram of th~ Exponential Fxperiment with a Uranium-Graphite ~
Lattice.
Key: l. Cadmium covering of prism;
2. Graphite blocks;
3. Graphite blocks with cylindrical
uranium slugs;
4, Movable ~;raphite blocks for placement
of Ra-gamma-Be neutron source;
5� Channel for detector (BF3) chamber);
6. Cylindric:al slugs of ineta_Llic uranium.
Z~.a sensitivity of the m~thod with a prism having cross-sectional dimensions
of a= b=120 cm and an inset breadth of h=120 is as follows : a 1-percent
change in ko, causes a 2.5-3 percent change in d~ ,
T2sting of the uranium by this method was done in a prism whose arrangement
is shown in Fig. 4.8. The 36 horizontal channels in the prism could hold 432
slugs 750 kg) of inetallic uranium or the corresponding quantity of briquets
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1200x>200
>
~ 2
~ 3
~o
o ' �
M 4
O O O O O �
o a-~o 0 0 0
0
~ N ~ i
0 0 o p . p . . p
M ~ ~ ~ 200~--
O O O Q Q O
I
O O O O O O
O O O O C~ O ~5
0
M
b
~o
/ / i , / /
Fi~. 4.8. Diagra.m of a Prism for Neutron-Physical Testing of Uranium
Key ::L . Craphite prism measuring 1200 x 1200 x 3100 mm;
2. Cadmium prism covering;
3. Ra-alpha-Be neutron source;
4. Channels for uranium slugs; ~
1 5, Netitron detector (BF~ chamber).
of urariium oxide. If a l.ot contained a smaller number of si_ugs, they were
].ocatecl only in the centz~al part of the prism. The Ra-alph~,-Be neutron source
with ari activity of' S00 or 2,000 mCi was located on the prism axis in the
upper part; the detector (a BF3 chamber) was located in the lower part on the
axis of the prism at a distance of 180 cm from the source.
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The tY~ermal neutron density NU, i.e. the pulse rate from the detector a.s re-
corded by a radio device, was compared with the standard N 9, w}lich was
~iven by the count rate of the same detector when it was located in the center
of a large (dimensions N 1 m) paraffin drum with an Ra-alpha-Be source with
an activity of 50 mCi. The drtun was well shielded from external radiation by
atone a,nd boron.
The prism w~,s used to test all uranium products intended for the first reactor:
30 tons of inetallic uranium cylinders (slugs) 35 mm in diameter and 100 mm long;
~+.5 tons of the same cylinders with a diameter of 32 mm; 9�5 tons of com-
pressed uranium dioxide (U02) in the form of spheres 80 mm in diameter; and
2.5 tons of U30g in the form of briquets measuring 49 x 58 x 58 mm. The measure-
ments of the ratio d= NU/N3 , which was called the "physical index" of a lot
of uranium, ranged.from 1.15 � 0.02 to 1.80 t 0.03 (figured for 432 slugs in a
lot) for all produ~,ts tested, including U02 and U30 . A lot with an index
1.3 was re~ecte3, since the multiplication coef~icient for a lattice would
in this case be k~ ~ 1. .
The physical testing of the uranium was conducted by a group consisting of
scientific staff inember I. F. Zhezherun, laboratory assist~,nts I. P. Afonin,
B. G. Bulatov, V. I. Dedyulin, Yu. A. Mokin and H. L. Chinnov, and a brigade
of workers from the beginning of 191+6 until the startup of the reactor, using
the same tent as was used for testing the graphite. This ~tas extremely labori-
ous a.nd intense round-the-clock work which required repeated testings of all
products, since the characteristics by which it would have been possible to
subdivide a product for loading into the prism were not yet known.
Initially the loads were made up in order of manufacturer's number for the
uraniwn slugs and in order of their arrival at Laboratory No 2. It turned out
tt~at t'~e lots which were produced later were of better quality, since the pro-
ductioiz technology was being steadily improved. However, measurements of the
1~hysic~.l index did not dF~tect the imr~ovement: all lots had about the same
~.verag~~ quality and it was imp~ssible to grade the uranium according to
~~u~zlit;y. The reason for this, as was later understood, was that slugs of good
f~.nrl po~~r quality ur~.nium were present in roughly equal quan~tities in each lot.
l~oz~ th~ next test, the loads were made up according to the results of chemical
i~na~iysis of iron content conducted at the plant. The measurements of d' were
in the range 1.41-"1.64 and showed no correlation with the c~~ntent by weight of
impuri;ies, which varied from lot to lot by from 0.15 to 0.~~1 percent or more.
In the third test, uranitun produced by different shops in the plant was assigned
i:o difti�erent loads. In this case it turned out that the first shop usually pro-
uu~ed uranium of significantly better quality (physical index ranging from 1.52
t~ 1.7y) than the ~econd (index from 1.17 to 1.51). This w~,s a complete sur-
prise to the plant specialists, since they saw no difference in the production
technoic~gy in the two shops. The discovery of this fact and additional segreg-
ated testing of the uranium produced by different shifts and in different fur-
naces to arrange the production of good uranium (with an index 1.6k-1.80).
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The ce.use of the poor quality of some of the uranium, as discovered after care-
ful selectivc~ cherr~ical analysis of several lots, was in most case:~ a ~light ad-
mixture of s~;rongly neutron-absorbing elements: cadmium, boron and lithitun.
For example, for two lots with a boron content of 5�].0-3 percent by weight,
the index was 1.35-1.38. The lots containing only a tenth to a fiftieth
that quantity had an index S= 1.64-1.80.
Testing of tlie oxides (U02 and U308) found no significant difference among lots
of these materials and indicated that they were of high ~:~~rity and suitable for
the reactor.
Thus neutron-physical testin~ of the uranium products not only made it possible
to carry out careful differentiation, grading and classificatSon by quality,
but also led to an improvement in the uranium production technology. Later
it made possible efficient disposition of the uranium in the reactor which was
being built, making its startup a success. Without this grading, the mixture
of uranium products from different shops Would have been unsuitable for initi-
ation of a chain reaction.
4.5 The Effect of the Crystalline Structure of Graphite and Uranium on Its
Total Cross Section
Tn May-October 1946, K. (V. Shlyagin and I. S. Panasyuk measured the total neu-
tron interaction cross sections o't of various samples of graphite and uranium
which had been delivered for the uranium-graphite reactor, in order to iden-
tify the dependence of these cross sections on the crystal structure. The
measurements were made with the neutron gun already described (see Fig. 3.3)
using water as a moderator. The graphite scattering sa.mples had a thickness
of 3-4 g/cm2 and those of uranium 10-21.2 g/cm2,
'Phe me~,surements were as follows:
1. For samples of industrial (axtificial) graphite with a density of 1.5-1.7
g/cm3 with re.ndoml;y oriented crystalline grains measuring 10'S-10'6 cm, the
cross sections dt were (4.58--4.94)' 10-24 em2, i.e. almost almost identical
within the limits of error.
2. ror sa.mp].es of refined natural graphite with a density of 2.06-2.08 g/cm3
with c layered, partially ordered distribution of crystalline gra ns (plates)
with a size of sli~htly less than 0.1 cm, dt =(4.20 + 0.12) �10-2~ cm2 with
the incident neutron beam perpendicular to the plates.
3. For a sample o� metallic ur~.nium with crystalline grains measuring no
greater than 3� 10"3 cm ~average 1.6 � 10-3 cm; rig. b.9a), dt =(16.02 + 0.38)
x 10-~~~ cm2. '
4. For a sample of ineta_llic uranium subjected to additional heat treatment
(heatin~ to 670� C followed by fast cooling) with crystalline grain dimensions
not exceeding 8.8 � 1Q~3 cm (average 3.3 ' 10'3 cm; see Fig. ~+.9b), d.~ _
(15 . 48 � d . ~+0 ) � 10-2!{ cm2 .
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5. Fcr a satnple of powdered uranium metal, dt =(16.67 � 0.48) � 10-2~~ cm2.
The measuremF~nts in (2) were r_orrected by 0.08 �10'2~ cm2 to allow for the
moistu~e in the sa.mple, while for cases (3) and (4) the correction was 0.6
x 10-` cm2 ~to allow for the presence of other elements in the sa~nples. The -
impuri~ti.e~ in the samples of inetallic uranium were not determined.
A comparison of the measurements (1) and (2) for graphite samples and (3) and
(4) for samples of uranium indicated that increased crystal grain diameters
could significantly decrease the cross section. But for the uranium and graph-
ite flzrnished for the reactor by the industry, these effects could be ne-
glected and the following cross section values assumed: o't =(1+.8 t 0.2)
x 10-2~ cm2 for graphite and a't =(15.8 t 0.~+) � 10'2~ cm2 for ura ium. The
uranium capture cross section was then taken as d~ _(5.9 � 1)�10'2~ cm2 and
- the fusion cross section df as (2-3) �10-24 cm2.
The number of secon3ar neutrons per fission of the 2J3U or ~35U nucleus
by slow neutrons or of a 23~ nucleus by fast neutrons was n~easured by V. P.
Dzhelepov ancl M. S. Ko~.o~.ayev . They determined that (~33U yM ~ 235U
1. 27 + 0.10 and v~ ( 23~U )/~J~ ( 235U 1.19 t 0. 09 .
4.6 Determining the Geometric Dimensions of the Reactor
The planned reactor was intended to produce a nuclear chain reaction per se,
and for the exper~:mental study of reactor physics and of questions which might
arise in the construction of a high-power industrial uranium-graphite reactor.
With the task formulated thus, a cooling system was superfluous for the first
reactor, which was called the "physical reactor" (F-1), ar.d the problems of
protection from radiation were relatively easy to solve.
Thus the physical reactor was seen by its creators as an efficient facility
consisting of the uranium-graphite lattice, graphite, and remote-controlled
control rods which, for radiation protection purposes, would be placed, for
ex~-nple, in a pit at a certain depth in the ground. The quantity keff - 1
was to be made lower than the proportion of delayed neutrons To save
materials, the uranium-graphite lattice area must have the shape of a sphere
surrourided by a spherical graphite insulator and installed in a graphite cyl-
inder for st~,bility. It was proposed that the thickness of the insulation
layer by 80 c:m. This me�~,nt that the critical radius of the reactor would be
decreased by an amount equal ~;o the diffusion length L=~+8 cm.
T}~e exponential experiments w:~th the uranium-graphite lattice and the results
o' neutron-pYiysical testing o~' the graphite made it possible ~o estimate the
ci�itical dimensions of the reactor even during physical testing of the uranium.
These dimensions had to be known before construction of the pit in the reactor
building, which was originally called "Building K" ("reactor [kotel] building"),
_ ~,nd later conventi~nally called the "Installation Sliops."
As noted above, the physical testing detected a considerably nonuniformity in
the quality of the uranium delivered for the reactor; the measured physical
index d~ cor~esponded to a value of k~o for the uranium-graphite lattices
(with a concentration ratio of carbon and uranium nuclei ~ 100) ranging from
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35
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Key: 1, 2. Internal and external
electrodes of removable ioniza- Key: l, 2. Flectrodes;
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charges of capacitor C. 5. Sleeve;
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r'
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.
_ . .
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-
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; N'1~3, where N is the density) is not distinguishable from a free elec-
tron, and so liighly excited an atom is not distinguishable from an ionized one
[51, For example, on the basis of this criterion hyperatoms with n= 100 can .
exist in the ~arth's atmosphere at altitudes above about 100 km (since N N 1012
cm'~ at these altitudes, N-1~3 N 10-4 cm), while kinetic considerations based on
the results of- the quantum mechanics of particle interaction. decrease this
boundary to attitudes of about 50 km, as will be shown below.
In classical physics, limiting estimates for the stability of highly excited
at~ms during collisions can be derived using the equation for the adiabaticity
_ . .
a~tor u,~~'%U~1. _
(5)
where is the orbital frequency of an electron in the hyperatom (coinciding
with the radiation frequency in neighboring transitions); and v is the speed
of approach of colliding particles. The upper and lower conditions refer re-
spectively to elastic and nonelastic collisions. If we substitute into (5) the
67
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value c�f i/ from (1) and v=(kTm-1)1~2 (where m is the mass of the particle),
~;e obt~in cri!_eria for the stability of highly excited atoms with the critical
excitation level
~i�~,:.'~kr:u(k7'rn
Estimates based on this equation indicate that in a medium with, for example,
kT N 1 e.V, atoms with n= 100 will be stable relative to atom-atom collisions,
while a.toms will be stable with respect to electron-electron collisions only
for n1.
Thus the area of quasicontinuous scattering of waves in the range in question
in an altitude range lower than 90 km results from the impact mechanism of line .
broadening, while kinetic Stark broadening will be effective in the range be-
tween 90 and 2000-3000 km, where Ne ~'r104 cm 3[14-16J.
We now have grounds for considering that it is in the D layer of the ionosphere,
tiie densest layer for cosmic particles penetrating the atmosphere, that the area
of greatest density of hyperatoms, generated by corpuscular-ray fluxes during
solar eruptions, occurs.
tde further assume that the attenuation of radio waves to the extent of 40 dB,
i.e. by a factor of 104 el~, occurs at an effective path length leff 10 km.
T'ien, using the Bouguer-Beer law (30), we obtain an expirical estimate for the
a~~sorption coefficient ~~+10 ~eff-1 ^'10 � 10-6 cm'1^~10'S cm-1, which corres-
F~nds to the relationship between the density of the resonance atoms and the
L~oss section of their interaction with radio quanta: ~a* = Na* d a*r�
Since at present there are no theoretically determined values for these quan-
tities in nonequilibrium processes, we may propose a rough estimate of the con-
centration of hyperatoms in the area in question making use of the following
premises, which are based on the energetic principle. We assume that during
sporadic corpuscle-ray emanations the value of the nonequilibrium concentration
of hyperatoms in the D layer of the ionosphere is of the same order as the
"perturbation" value of the density of free electrons (i.e, is ^~103 cm 3).
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY �
'l'lii5 i~ ~u~tifiuble lr we consider that energy of the same order i~ required
for both ioni::ation of atoms and their excitation to high levels.
Finally, we mr3y derive an empirical estimate of the effective cross section for
the prccess of_ resonance interaction of hyperatoma with radio quanta ("radions")
with a frequency of 106 - 10~ Hz
Qa�r=='~a�~~~.~^ ~l)-b Cht-1~~U'i CM';~~-I,~, ~n-n C~l~.
Comparing this expirical estimate af the effective cross section for absorp-
tion of radio quanta by hyperexcited atoms with the experimental values of this
quantity in the optical range (d~N10-18 - 10-17 cm2 we fi.nd that they are in
accordance with the frequency depende8ce Zf di('v -~j2) esta5lished by the _4 3
Kramers formula 32) , ~a*r~a* 10 cm /10 ~ � 5 cm - 109 � ~['V r/y~ ] ~ )
,~+[106.5~1014~-4~3 = 1010. ~
An indirect piece of evidence in favor of the hyperatomic mechanism for strong
attenuation of radio waves in the earth's ionosphere is the correspondence of
the duration of attenuation processes with the duration of solar eruptions,
which is exp lainable by the short lifetime of highly excited atoms in a col-
lisional medium.
The mechanism of resonance scattering of radio waves by hyperatoms may also be
employed to explain other features of the propagation of radio waves in hyper-
excited media. For example, the greater attenuation of radio waves in the day-
time than at night may also be connected with the larger concentration of excited
atoms in the ionosphere under the influence of solar radiation than in the night,
when the main source producing them is recombination processes. The greater
attenuation o� the long wave section of the short and medium radio wave spectrum
is in accordance with the frequency dependence of the parameters of the quantum
mechanism which we are discussing.
We should notF in particular that account should be taken of the possibility of
existence in perturbed regions in the atmosphere of atoms with a lower excita-
tion level (n w 50-100) when studying resonance attenuation of radio waves in
the ultrashort wave and microwave ranges which are used in space radar and radio
communications with spacecraft while they are in hypersonic motion in planetary
atmospheres, and also in studying quantum intensification of radio waves when
titey are scattered in associated flows created by meteorites and falling space-
craft.
Conclus~ions
This article ra~ses the question whether a quantum mechanism for the interaction
of electromagn.etic radiation with excited atoms can be employed to study processes
of radio wave propagation in collisional media. In the applied subjects that
have been discussed, the main attention has been devo~ed to bound-free transi-
tions, although in principle the quantum mechanism may operate in radio wave
scattering for free-free transitions (movement of free electrons in the Coulomb
76
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fields of ions and atoms) as well; moreover, the effectiveness of the latter
is h~ /kT times greater than in baund-free transitions [5]. However, among the
real conditio~.is i'or existence of excited matter, we must take into account the
role of collective effects of the interaction of radio waves with free electrons,
as well as the possibility of Debye screening of certain regions of a plasma
from the penetration of radio waves with a frequency lower than the Langmuir
frequen.cy.
For example, along the path of hypersonic movement of a spacecraft in a
planetary atmosphere, radio communication may be disrupted not only by the
"steel helmet" effect produced around the spacecraft by free electrons in the
plasma which surrounds it [18] and which have a supercritical density, but also
as a result of resonance attenuation of radio waves. To the extent that behind
_ the shock wave front the speed of relaxation processes leading to the formation
of hyperexcited atoms is greater than the speed of processes resulting in ioniza-
tion [19], the electronic "steel helmet" has a"covering" of hyperatoms which
are extremely effective in attenuating radio wave energy (given a normal popu-
lation in the shock wave). Thus, in developing ways of making the plasma trans-
lucent for radio waves under such conditions, it is necessary to take into
account the effect of both mechanisms of interaction of excited matter with
rad iation. ~
For a comparison of the effectiveness of interaction of electromagnetic radia-
tion with free and bound atoms, it suffices to note that in the former case
the interaction cross section is given by the Thompson value of 10'25 cm2,
while estimates based on the Kramers formula give a value 10-8 cm2 in the
rad io spectrum,since only negligible concentrations of hyperexcited atoms are
required for the appearance of extremely strong, macroscopically measurable
quantum radiophysical effects. Thus, reference 20 demonstrates the role of
East electron nonlinearities in highly excited media during the propagation of
self-�ocusing microwave fluxes through them.
- ihe same mechanism may be used to explain strong radio emissions from astro-
physical sources, in particular radio galaxies and quasars.
The used of a medium with highly excited atoms as a working substance in quantum
electronics opens new possibilities for the conversion of electromagnetic radia-
tion into low-energy quantum transitions, which will make it possible to cover
the entire radio-frequency spectrum. It should be borne in mind that the de-
generacy of energy .levels in terms of orbital and magnetic moments in hyper-
excited atoms will make it possible to obtain from such media significant reson-
ance radiation powers, while the high receptivity of hyperatoms will make it
porsible to realize a high effectiveness for interaction with radio-frequency
r~ iation with hyperexcited matter.
[de may hope that the further development of the questions of hyperatomic physics
which have been touched upon in this article will help in resolving pressing
problems of radio communications, space radar, astrophysics and quantum elec-
tron ics: wher.ever we .~re concerned with the propagation or radio Paves and
their in.teraction with hyp~rexcited matter in its various states.
77
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The authors a,:e deeply grateful to G. V. Kison'ko and Yu. N. Mazhorov for `
aupj~orting thc:Lr work and to G. A. Aakar'yan, P. A. Bakut, I. DT. Matveyev,
A. A. Smirnov and E. N. Shumilov for fruitful discussions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 5mirnov, B. M. "Iony i vozbuzhdennyye atomy v plazme" [Ions and Excited
Atoms in Plasmas], Moscow, Atomizdat, 1974.
2. Bayfield, J, E., and Koch, R. M. PHYS. REV. LETTS., 33, 258 (1974).
3. Born, M. "Atomic Physics," rioscow, Nauka, 1970.
4. Shpol'skiy, E. V. "Atomnaya fizika" [Atomic Physics], Moscow, Nauka, 1974.
5. Zel'dovich, Ya. B., and Rayzer, Yu. P. "Fizika udarnykh voln i vysoko-
temperatuznykh gidrodinamicheskikh yavleniy" [The Physics of Shock Waves
and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena], Moscow, Nauka, 1966.
6. Golant, V. E.; Zhilinskiy, A. P.; amd Sakharov, S. A. "Osnovy fiziki
plazmy" [Fundamentals of Plasma Physica], Moscow, Nauka, 1977.
7. Kupriyanov, S. Ye. ZhETF [JETP], 51, 1011 (1966).
8. Hotop, H,, and Niehaus, A. J. CIiEM. PHYS., 47, 2506 (1967).
9. Kupriyanov, S. Ye. ZhETF [JETP), 55, 460 (1968).
10. Loudon, R. "Kvantovaya teoriya sveta" [The Quantum Theory of Light],
Moscow, Mir, 1976.
11. Griem, H. R. ASTROPHYS. J., 148, 547 (1967).
12. Beygman, I. L. ZhETF [JETP], 73, 1729 (1977).
13. Unsold, A, "The Physics of Stellar Atmospheres," Moscos, IL, 1949.
14. A1'bert, Ya. L. "Rasprostraneniye elektromagnitnykh voln i ionosfera" .
[The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves and the Ionosphere], Moscow,
Nauka, 1972.
15. Bauer, E. "Fizika planetnylch ionosfer" [The Physics of Planetary Iono-
spheres], Moscow, Mir, 1976.
16. Mitra, A. "Vozdeystviye solnechnykh vspyshek na ionosfery" [The Effect of
Solar Eruptions on the Ionosphere], Moscow, Mir, 1977.
78
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17. Grudinskriya, G. P. "Rasprostraneniye racilovoln" [The Propagation of
Radio WavesJ, Moscow, Vysshaya shkola, 1975.
18. Martin, .1. "Entry Into the Atmosohere," Moscow, Mir, 1969.
19. Stupochenko, Ye. V.; Losev, S. A.; and Osinov, A. I. "Relaksatsionnyye -
protsessy v udarnykh voln" [Relaxation Processes in Shock Waves],
Moscow, Nauka, 1965.
20. Askar'yan, G. A. PISMt1 V ZhETF [JETP LETTERS], 4, 400 (1966).
Received 13 September 1977; revision completed 1 March 1979.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Sovetskoye radio", "Kvantovaya elektronika", 1979
8480
CSO: 8144/1881 B
79
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Publications
PU1~L LCA'1'lUNS
UDC 539.12
PROBLEMS OF SUBATOMIC SPACE AND TIME
Moscow PROBLEMY SUBATOMNOGO PROSTRANSTVA I VREMENI in Russian 1~79 signed
to press 20 Jan 79 pp 1-7, 199
jAnnotati~n, preface and table of contents from book by Vladilen Sergeyevich
Barashenkav, Atomizdat, 3450 copies, 200 pages)
[Text] The book is devoted to a detailed discussion of the physical and
_ philosophical aspects of space-time relations of the microcosm. An exami-
nation is made of the experimental status of the problem, its present theo-
retical state and the possibilities of various generalizations: faster-
than-light signal velocities, nonlinear approaches, attempts to quantize space
and time,~geometric concepts. Principal attention is given to microcausality
and the relation between properties of space-time and laws of conservation.
The book is intended for instructors in vuzes and for scientists, physicists
and philosophers inter.ested in fundamental problems of modern natural science,
~ and also For students takinp advanced courses in physical, physicomathematical
and philosophical faculties, who are acauainted with the fundamental prin-
ciples of ~relativistic and quantum physics.
PreEace
The currer.:t sta~e in the developmenti of physics of micronhenomena is charac-
terized by an extraordinary influx of new experimental data. 7'he extensive
use of computinQ devices has enabled a considerable degree of automation of
processes :of ineasurement and preliminary analysis of the results of these
measurements. Right now experiment is frequently ahead of theory, and a
_ large number of experimental facts are finding only a phenomenological in-
terpretation, or.in the best case a semiphenomenological rough model inter-
pretation.
A remarkable situation has come about in the current theory of microphe-
nomena. On the one hand, the theory explains all experiments involving
electromagnetic interactions with fantastic precision to the ninth or tenth
decimal place, and on the other hand many actually finite quantities such as
80
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mass, charge and magnetic moment turn out to be infinite in the theory, while
the strict "f.ield equations" that describe interactions 'I~etween mesons and
hyp,~rons have not been solved at a11, and experimental data are described by
using model approaches that differ and often do not agree with one another
very well. The renormalization technique that is successfully used to
eliminate divergent expressions from consideration in quantum electrodynamics
is totally unsuitable in many other cases; the theory is internally contra-
dictory. At the same time, experimental data do not contradict known physical -
concepts in the qualitative respect.
What is the matter here? Could it be that we have not grasped some cardinal
physical idea that would enable formulation of new principles and quantitative
description of the diversity of e~erimental facts, or is it just that we have
not yet learned to so'lve the intricate intertwin:Lng system ~f operator field
equations?
~
~ Under these conditions a critical analysis of the fundamentals of our physical
notions takes on particular significance. Clearly such an analysis inevitably
involves general procedural principles and categories. The physical and
philosophical aspects of research here a.re uncommonly intimately related,
almost merging. Therefore it is no accident that physicists are now showing
considerable interest in the philosonhical problems of natural science.
This book that we offer for the reader's perusal is devoted to a detailQd
discussion of the physical and philosophical aspects of the space-time
relations of the microcosm. This is one of the central and most urgent
problems of modern science that is involved to some extent in a real way with
all fundamental problems of nhysics o.f the microcosm that are now known.
Several interesting mono~raphs have been published in recent years, discussing
different properties of microscopic space and time [Ref. 1-6J. However, the
question j.s so complex and multifaceted that many of its very important
aspects have remained unexamined. It is the author's hope that a new book
wi.ll fill such gaps to some extent, the moreso as development in this area
is taking place very rapidly: new experimental data are showing up, new
viewpoints are forming, and... many new questions are arising. Of course the
progress of modern physics is so headlong that some of the material is already
out of date as the book is being published.
Since the beginning of this century the minimum space-time intervals acces-
sible to experimental research have shrunk by more than a billion times:
fro~n molecular-atomic distances and durations of ~x ~ 10-~ cm, at~10-1~ s
to ultrasmall scales of ~x ~ 10'17 cm, ~t~10-27 s in modern experiments ~aith
cosmic radiation. itita~ty images and concepts worked out o~n the basis of
everyday macroscopic exper9.ence and taken as defining the entire structure
of our thinking, what we have come to call coimnon sense, have lost their
meaning and become inapplicable. The description of physical phenomena is
taking on more and more an abstract form that is like nothing else and at
times seems to be just a contradyction of "common sense." The methodological
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ele,nent i:, playLng a more and more important part in the~,~retic~l construc-
tions. Ir~ this connection, a number of questions concer:ting tt~e mutual
relations betwe~n "pure" physics and philosophy are becoming especially
acute: can philosophy as an independent science generate within itself any
criteria and guidelines that will be of assistance in natural science research
and in some way determine its direction, or does the role of pYiilosophy reduce
to mere interpretation and comprehension of results already available; do
philosophical hypotheses have a right to exist, or is this in all instances
equivalent to a switch to natural philosophy? Ide have mentioned only some
of the questions that have arisen. The way they are answered can have a
considerable effect on selecting the direction of research, and may show up
in the approach taken to interpretation of observed phenomena. The intro-
duction to the book deals with consideration of these problems and some
others that are important in the subsequent exposition.
In discussing the properties of space and time, one must clearly distinguish
between reaZ, pfiysical space and time that objectively exist externally to
and independent of us, and coneeptuaZ space and time that are a reflection
of the real space and time in uur theories, and represent the natural science
concepts of space and time. It is also very important to realize that
although conceptual space and time are a reflection of certain aspects of
reality, they are always to some extent abstract, and they often contain a
quite considerable hypothetical element as well.
This situ~ition is fairly obvious when de:xling with abstract mathematical
concepts af. space, but it is much more difficult to realize (and is some-
times altogether forgotten) when considering physical theories that agree
with expex�ience. Therefore this book ~ives particular attention to the cur�-
rent.state of the art in experiment.
The discussion commences with an elucidation of the kinds of space-time
intervals that are accessible to experimental study at the present time,
and the kind of pro~;ress that can be expected here in the not-too-distant
future, say the next 10-20 years. Such an examination is absolutely neces-
sary so that in future we can stand firmly on the ground of realistic ex-
perimental possibilities. T`hen with recourse to the latest experimental
data an analysis is made of the kinds of changes that are to be observed in
space-time relations (especially cause-and-effect relations) in the region
of microscopic scales 6x and ~t accessible to modern experiment. In doi.ng
this, all conclusions are based solely on direct e:cperimental :Eacts without
usin~ any theoretical extrapolations or assumptions that have not already
been experimentally conf.irmed.
An examin~ation of this kind is all the more important right now, because in
recent years research has been published that gives a quite one-sided, biased
� interpretaCion of the microscopic properties of space-time that in many cases
is based on a quite subjective sorting of specific developments ~nd generali-
zations, rather than on experiment.
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Artificially ascribinQ assumed properties to natural phenomena on the basis
of certain one-sided considerations that might seem quite probable at a given
instant tc+ a Ri~ven author, but have not yet been confirmed by experiment, can
hardly be considered a progressive approach in scientifir_ research; such a
subjective: appruach can lead to nothing but dead ends and confusion. At the
same time, when there has been a comprehensive and ob~ective analysis of an
existin~ experimental situation, theoretical conjectures and assumptions, no
matrer how fantastic and improbable they may seem at times, have enormous
heuristic force, and to a great extent determine the development of scientific
researr_h.
The part of the book devoted to discussion of the experimental situation
concludes with examination of space-time symmetries and tlie closely related
conservation laws, in particular the question of how uni~~ersal these laws are
(for example the law of conservation of energy).
A special chapter deals with attempts at further development and generali-
zatl.on of known space-time concepts: the possibilities of faster-than-light
signal velocities; nonlocal, nonlinear and other theories, the "cosmological
approach" in which micro-objects are taken as the result of gravitational
collapse of enormous macroscopic masses, geometrodynamic attempts to reduce
the entire universe surrounding us to "empty" space. Since the greater part
of the material considered in this chapter is hypothetical and to a great
extent not yet complete, its discussion as well is quite debatable, par-
ticularly when dealing with the significance of some theoretical area. It is
possible that some approaches that seem interestin~ and promising at the
present time will quickly die out, and research will come to the fore that
now seems of. little interest.
The difficulties associated with interpreting experiments on investigation
of t:he internal structure of elementary particles, and some results found in
attempts to ~enPralize existing theories brin~ up the question of the charac-
teristics that distinguish the space-time mode of existence of matter from
other possible modes of existence. In a somewhat differ~nt~aspect, this
~uestion is often formulated as follows: Can we be certain that on any
level of organization of matter descriptions of physical phenomena in terms
cP ;~pace-time cancepts are always applicable, or can we at least in principle ~
admi_t any "nonspatial" and "nontemporal" modes of existence of matter?
Phy;~icists are riow intently considering these questions, and they have found
ref].ection in this book.
It should be pointed out at the outset that this book is not "material for
ligY~t reading," since the problems discussed here involve the most profound
divisions of modern elementary particle physics, and are very complicated
in t:hemselves; iinderstanding even on a quite nopularized level demands con-
sidera~le concentration. The difficulties are aggrevated by the fac~ ihat
there are at the present time still very few popular articles and books on
elementary particle physics.
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In the most difEicult places references are cited to literature where a more
det.3iled e~xposition can be found for the pertinent problem.
In ~~onclusion I would like to thank Associate Member of r_he Soviet Academy
of 3ciences M. r. Omel'yanskiy, doctors of philosophical sciences Yu. V.
Sachkov, I. A. Akchurin, L. B. Bazhenov, Yu. B. Molchanov and other col-
lea~ues of the Institute of Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the
USSR for numerous discussions that stimulated the writin~ of this book.
I.am also sincerely grateful to Doctor of Philosophical Sciences A. M.
Mostepanenko, and especially to Associate Member of the Soviet Academy of
Sciences G. A. Svechnikov (deceased) and Professor V. S. Gott, whose talks
clarified many questions that were not clear to me.
V. S. Barashenkov
REFERENCES
l. A. M. Mostepanenko, M. V. Mostepanenko, "Chetyrekhmernost' prostranstva
i vremeni" [Four-Dimensionality of Space and Time], Moscow-Leningrad,
"Nauka," 1966.
2. A. M. Mostepanenko, "Problema universal'nosti osnovnykh svoystv pro-
stranstva i vremeni" [The Problem of Universality of the Fundamental
Properties of Space and TimeJ, Leningrad, "Nauka," 1969.
3. E. P. Andreyev, "Prostranstvo mikromira" [Space of the Microcosm],
Moscow, "Nauka," 1969.
4. 1). I. Blokhintsev, "Prostranstvo i vremya v milcromire" [Space and Time
:in the Microcosm], Moscow, "Nauka," 1970.
5. V. S. Luk'yanets, "Fiziko-matematicheskiye prostranstva i real'nost"'
[Physi.comathematical Spaces and RealityJ, Kiev, "Naukova dumka," 1971.
6. M. D. Akhundov, "Problema preryvnosti i nepreryvnosti prostranstva~i
vremeni" [The Problem of Continuitv and Discontinuity of Space and
Time), Moscow, "Nauka," 1974.
CONTENTS
Preface 3
References 7
Introduction 8
References 15
Chal~ter 1. Emp_~_rical principles of space-time representations 16
1. 1'hysical limits of space-time description 17
_ 2. Region of. molecular-atomic phenomena 24
3. Region of quantum�-electrodynamic processes 32
4. Subatomic space-time relations 39
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5. Propert:ies of space and time in the region of ultrasmall scales
~ x< 10'" 16 cm and 0 t S 10' Z 6 s S 3
6. On the concept of "macroscopic space-time" 55
References 62
Chapter 2. Causal relations of microphenomena 66
7. Causality and its relation to space and time 68
8. Formulation of causality in classical (non-quantum) physics 72
9. Quantum-mechanical treatment of causality 78
10. Causality in quantum field theory gl
11. Macro- and microcausality 84
12. Dispersion relations and their experimental verification 91
13. Asymptotic relations . 102
14. The problem of time irreversibility 104
References 108
Chapter 3. Space-time symmetry and conservatton laws 111
15. Properties of syimnetry and conservation laws 113
16. "General" and "special" conservation laws 1~8
17. Is energy a quantity that characterizes motion on any level of
matter? 122
18. The law of conservation of energy and its region of applicability 125
19. The law of conservation of energy for quantum phenomena. Virtual
processes 130
20. In what sense should we understand "nonconservation" of proper-
ties and "violation" of conservation laws 138
21. Experimental verification of conservation laws . 140
References 141
Chapter 4. Theoretical models and generalizations 144
22. Tachyons 14;
23. Nonlocal, nonlinear and unrenormalized theories. Quantization of
space-time 150
24. Macroscopic phenomena in the microcosm 165
25. Geometrodynamics 174
26. On the possibility of "extraspatial" and "extratemporal" modes
of. existence of matter 186
References 192
Conr_lusion 196
Ref.erences 198
COP'IRIGHT: Atomizdat, 1979
661O
CSO: 1862
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PiJT3T ICATTONS -
UDC 539.293
SEMICONDUC'POR PLASMA
Moscow PLAZMA POLUPROVODNIKOV in Russian 1979 signed to press 13 Feb 79
pp 2-4, 253-254
[Annotation, preface and table of contents from book by Vadim Vladimirovich
Vladimirov, Antoniy Fedorovich Volkov and Yevgeniy Zalmanovich Meylikhov,
Atomizdat, 2800 copies, 256 pages]
[Text] This is the first book in Soviet literature to be devoted to expo-
sition of the fundamentals of semiconductor plasma physics. An examination
is made of the major types of waves and instabilities in a solid state plasma
(helicons, Alfven waves, screw instability, pinch effect and instabilities
due to negative differential conductivity). All theoretical results are ,
illustrated by appropriate experimental materials. The book reflects the
latest advances in this area of research. Practical possibilities are
pointed.out for application of the investigated phenomena.
The book is intended for graduate and undergraduate physics students who are
specializing in the area of physics of solid state and gas plasma, and also
for scientific workers in this field.
Preface
This book is devoted to exposition of the .fundamentals of semiconductor
plasma phy;~ics. Several ~onographs have already dealt with similar subject
matter. However, I:he book by Glicksman jRef. 1] is principally a reference
work, and besides, many new and important resu~ts came to light after its
. publication. The book by Stil and Vyural' [Ref. 2] examines primarily flux
instabilities, :~ahich have been almost uninvestigated experimentally even to
this very day, whereas too little consideration is given to magnetohydro-
dynamic instabilities and instabilities under conditions of negative differ-
ential conductivity that are important from a practical standpoint. The
, book by Plattsman and Vol'f jRef. 3] deals chiefly with metals. The mono- -
graph by V. L. Bonch-Bruyevich et al. [Ref. 4] considers the important but
_ narrow problem of domain instabilities in semiconductors. The recently
published monograph by Yu. K. pazhela jRef. 5] may serve as an introduction
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to t:he problem and does not Contain any detailed description of studies of
major plasma eff.cts.
In t:his book the authors have aimed at organic unification of theoretical
and experimentsi results. Emphasis is placed on the relations between gas
and solid state plasma, possible applications are pointed out and prospects
for juture r.esearch are indicated.
Chai>ter 1 examines problems associated with the dynamics of an electron-hole
plasma in external electric and magnetic fields. Such basic concepts are
intr.oduced as carrier mobility and diffusion, quasineutrality, charge
~ screening in a plasma, cirift motion of carriers. A detailed investigation
of t:ransfer processes in plasma is made within the framework of the hydro-
dynamic model. A suimnary is given of the results of the kinetic theory
relating to the Hall effect and magnetoresistance. An examination is made
of ~he particulars of statistics and kinetics of electron gas in a quantizinR
magnetic field. The chapter concludes with an examinati~n of the properties
of semiconductors in a quasisteady alternating electric i:ield (cyclotron and
magnetoplasma resonances).
Chapter 2 considers waves and oscillations in an electron-hole plasma. Dis-
persion relations for different wave modes in a plasma ar.e derived in the
hydrodynamic approximation by using a wave equation and effective permit-
tivity tensor. Effects involving the thermal motion of carriers are quali-
tatively considered and described. An examination is made of the peculiari-
ties of waves (chiefly helicons) in a quantizing magnetic field. Different
cases of wave interaction in a solid state plasma are investigated.
Chapter 3 is devoted to exposition of fundamental experimental.and theoretical
results on investigation of body and surface helical waves in weak and strong .
magr~etic fields. Threshold and frequency characteristics of these waves are
given, and the authors discuss the influence that semiconductor band struc-
ture has on the criterion of excitation and the frequencq of a screw insta-
bility. An examination is made of nonlinear effects that accompany the
development of a screw instability: hysteresis of threshold conditions of
cxcitation, anomalous plasma resistance and so on. The possibilities for
app].ied developments are discussed.
Chapter 4 contains an analysis of experimental and theoretical results on
investigation of the pinch effect in semiconductors. The principal methods
of observing the pinch effect are presented, as well as techniques for `
initiating this effect and problems of stability. An examination is made
of pinch dynamics, its principal characteristics are cal~ulated: the radius
of the pinch channel, pinching times and so forth. The specifics of this
effect are discussed under conditions of lattice heating and strong degener-
ation of an electron-hole plasma. An analysis is made ot pulse methods of
strong plasma compression in a magnetic field that increases with time
(fl-pinch).
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Chapter 5 examines semiconductors with negative dif.ferential conductivity.
An analysis is made of inechanisms of development of N and S current-voltage -
characteristics in semiconductors. It is shown that the homogeneous state .
of t:he semicondi?ctor corresponding to the fallin~ section of the current-
volt:age curve is unstahle. The authors present a theory of linear and
non:Cinear instabilities in semiconductors with negative differential conduc-
tiv~.ty. In particular the velocity and shape of moving c~omains (solitons)
are found in semiconductors with N-shaped current-voltage characteristics,
and also the shapes of current pinches in semiconductors with S-shaped
current-voltage characteristics. Information on the uses of semiconductors
with negative differential conducr_ivity is given at the end of the chapter.
Thus the book does not deal with all the problems of semiconductor plasma .
physics. No consideration is given to effects that have had little ex- '
peri.mental investigation, or to effects with a mechanism that has not yet
been completely explained.
Chapters 1 and 2 were written by Ye. Z. Meylikhov, chapters 3 and 4 by
V. G'. Vladimirov, and chapter 5 by A. F. Volkov.
REFERENCES
1. M. Glicksman, "Solid Physics," V. 26, New York-London, Academy Press, 1971.
2. M. Stil, B. Vyural', "Vzaimodeystviye voln v plazme tverdogo tela"
[Wave Interaction in a Solid State Plasma), Moscow, Atomizdat, 1973.
(Translated from English).
3. F. Plattsman, P. Vol'f, "Volny i vzaimodeystviya v plazme tverdogo tela"
[Waves ~ind Interactions in a Solid State Plasma], Moscow, "Mir," 1975.
(Translated from English).
4. V. L. Bonch-Bruyevich, I. P. Zvyagin, A. G. Mironov, "Domennaya neustoy-
chivost' v poluprovodnikakh" [Domain Instability in Semiconductors],
Moscow, "Nauka," 1972.
4. Yu. K. Pozhela, "Plazma i tokovyye neustoychivosti v poluprovodnikakh"
[Plasma and Current Instabilities in Semiconductors], Moscow, "Nauka,"
1977.
CONTENTS
Preface 3
Chapter l. Electron-hole plasma dynamics 5
l.l.. Transport processes in a plasma without a magnetic f.ield 5
1.2. Transport processes in a plasma with a magnetic field 12
1.3. Galvanomagnetic phenomena in semiconductors (hydrodynamic model) 22
1.4. Galvanomagnetic phenomena in semiconductors (results of kinetic
examination) 25
1.5. The Ha'l1 effect and transverse magnetoresistance with consider-
ation of geometric effects 28
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r'UK Ur'r'1(;lAL USN; UNLY
1.6. Particulars of st:atistics and kinetics of electrons in a quan-
tizin~ electric field 30
1.7. Semiconduct_ors in a quasisteady alternating electrir.: field 36
Ref~~rences 43
Cha1~ter 2. Wavev and oscillations in an electron-hole pl~tsma 45
2.1. The skin effect 45
2.2. The wave equation 48
2.3. Waves without a magnetic field 52
2.4. Waves in a magnetic field (cold plasma) 54
2.5. Effects associated with thermal motion of charges 60
2.6. Observation of waves in semi~onductors 65
2.7. Helicons in semiconductors in a quantizing magnetic field 72
2.8. [Jave interaction in a solid state plasma gl
References 93
Chapter 3. Screw instability in an electron-hole semiconductor plasma 95
3.1. The discovery of Ivanov and Ryvkin. Experiments by Larrabee and
Steele. The oscillator 95
3.2. The Kadomtsev-Nedospasov screw instability. Body and surface
helical waves 9~
3.3. Basic results of Glicksman's theory on investigation of body
helical waves. Ambip~~lar drift. Absolute and conveci:ive insta-
bilities 100
3.4. Development of research on studying the screw instability ~ 108
3.5. Hurwitz and McWhorter surface helical waves. Spatial amplifi-
cation of helical. waves 116
3.6. 5crew instability in strong magnetic waves (w~r > 1) 125
3.7. Screw instability in semiconductors with many-valley structure of
the conduction band 130
3.8. Nonlinear effects 138
Refc:rences 142
Chapter 4. The l~inch effect in an electron-hole plasma 144
4.1.. Pec~iliarities of the pinch effect in a solid state plasma. The
i3ennet criterion 1.44
4.2. Discovery of the pinch effect in an electron-hole plasma. The
pinch effect in Bil_XShX semiconductor alloys 148
4.3. Methods of observing the pinch effect in a solid state plasma 153
4.4. Dynamics of a Z-pinch in a nonequilibrium electron-hole plasma 157
4.5. The magnetothermal pinch in semiconductors 173
4.6. Destruction of a pinch in a longitudinal magnetic field 177
4.7. The pinch effect under conditions of strong plasma degeneration 183
4.8. The ~-~;inch in semiconductors. Theory of "skinned" and "unskinned"
E~-pinches 188
References 197
Chapter 5. Current instability in semiconductors with negative differential
conductivity 200
5.1. Basic experimental facts 200
5.2. Hot electrons in semiconductors 207
5.3. Mechanisms of negative differential conductivity 212
5.4. Inatability of the homogeneous state of semiconductors with
negative differential conductivity 22p
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5.5. Steady-staCe waves of finite amplitude in semicondur.tors with
N-shaped ciirrent-voltage characteristic 226
5.6. Stability of stationary waves 234
5.7.. Stationary distributions of current in semiconductors with
S-shaped current-voltage characteristic 240
5.8,. Use of.~semiconductors with N and S current-voltage ct-iaracter-
istics
References 249
Sub,ject index 252
COPYRIGHT: Atomizdat, 1979
661U
CSO: 1862
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Acoustics
USSR I1DC 534.86
EXCITATION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS EY THE ELECTROMAGNETIC ACOUSTIC METHOD
AT ELEVATED T~MPERATURES
Minsk FIZICHESKIYE SVOYSTVA METALLOV I PROBLEMY NERAZRUSHAYUSHCHEGO KONTROL'YA
[Physical Properties of Metals and Problems of Non-Destriictive Testing] in
Russian 1~78 pp 114-118
TRI~;UBOVICH, B. V, and BORODICH, A. K.
[Fr~~m REFERATIVNYY ZHURNAL, FIZIKA No 3, 1979 Abstract No 3Zh783 by the
authorsJ
[Te;Yt] Based oii Landau's theory, a theoretical interpretation is given of
the nature of the change in magnetostrictive forces at e~evated temperatures.
It is demonstrated that the increase in the amplitude of ultrasonic vibrations
at elevated temperatures is caused by an increase in magnetostrictive forces.
References 7.
[139-8831]
USSIt UDC 534-8
INVI?STIGATION OF ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES OF ISOVISCOUS SUBSTANCES IN THE n-
PARAFFIN GROUP
Tom;;k ISSLEDOVANIYE AKUSTICHESKIKH SVOYSTV IZOVYAZKOSTNYKH VESHCHESTJ V GRUPPE
i-PARIIFINOV in Russian manuscript deposited at VINITI 13 Nov 78 No 3468-78
Dep. 1978 12 pp
CHOI,PAN, P. F., SPERKACH, V. S., SINILO, V. N. and GARKUSHA, L. N., editorial
board of IZVESTIYA VUZOV, FIZIKA
[From REFERATIVNYY ZHURNAL, FIZIKA No 3, 1979 Abstract No 3Zh684 DEP, by the
authors)
(Text] A study is made of density, coefficient of shear viscosity and of the
abr-:~~rption and rate of propagation of ultrasound in isoviscous solutions of
the system n-hexane - n-tridecane. It is demonstrated that in the isoviscous
pairs studied the excess absorption of ultrasound is caused by vibrational,
rotational-isomeric and structural relaxation. The absorption mechanism as-
sociated with fluctuations in concentration makes an insignificant contribu-
tion for these solutions. References 6.
[ 139-8831;
91
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI,Y
USSR UDC 534-8
RATE OF PROPAGATION OF SOUND IN EKHB-4 ELECTROCHEMICAL PAPER
' L'vov 0 SKOROSTI RASPROSTRANENIYA ZVUKA V ELEKTROKHIMICHESKOY BUMAGE EKHB-4
in Russian manuscript ~eposited at UkrNIINTI [Ukrainian 5cientific Research
Institute of Scientific and Technical Information] 21 Dec 78, No 1259 5 pp
YAKaVENKO, M. G., L'vov Polytechnical Institute
[From REFERATIVNYY ZHURNAL, FIZIKA No 3, 1979 Abstract No 3Zh688 DEP. by the
author]
[TextJ A determination is made of the values of the speed of sound (elastic
wave) in EKhB-4 electrochemical paper for the longitudinal and transverse
directions. An investigation is made of the influence ttiat stress in uniaxi-
al tensile testing, microstructure of f ibers, anisotropy and moisture content
have on the speed of sound. References 2.
[139-8831J
USSR UDC 534
INTRASHIP ACOUSTICS P.ESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT SUNIMt~RY
Leningrad SPRAVOCHNIK PO SUDOVOY AKUSTIKE [Marine Acoustics Handbaok] in
Russian Sudostroyeniye 1978 50? pp
KLYtIKIN, I. I. and BOGOLEPOV, I. I. ~
[From REFERATIVNYY 7HURNAL, FIZIKA No 3, 1979 Abstract Na 37h606 K hy the
authors]
[Text] In this handbook the results are generalized, of scientific research
and development on intraship acoustics. Noise sources on ships are discussed.
The key data, methods and information are given, needed in designing, making
and testing equipment for combating noise and acoustic vibration at the source
or their origin, along paths of propagation and in ship areas. Discussed in
detail are questions relating to sound insulation, sound absorption, vibration
insulation and vibration absorption, as well as to the combined use of equip-
ment for combating noise. An indication is given of advanced Snviet know-how
relating to acoustic developments undertaken for the purpose of improving the
habitability of ships and conditions for performing duties on them, as well
as of the results of non-Soviet practices.
[139-8831?
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. ' ~

9 OCTOeER i9T9 CFOUO 3~T9) 2 OF 2
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Fo~i or c Lclnt. USE ONLY
t1SSR iJDC 534-1'~; 534-].43; 551.596
INFLUE;~!:G OF THE PROPAGATIOiv MEDIUM IN PARAMF.TERS OP BROADBANll ACOUSTIC
SIGVALS It~ TEiF. SHORT-RANGE ZONE
Leningrad TRJDY LENINGRADSKOGO INSTITUTA AVIATSIONNOGO PRIBCROSTRUYENIYA
[Transactions of Leningrad Institute of A~~iation Instrument Making] in Russian =
No 124, 1978 pp 134-138 ~ -
~'IP7TONOV , V . A .
~From REFERATIVNYY ZHURNAL, FIZIKA No 3, 1979 Abstract No 37.h765 summary]
[Text] The results are given of an invest.igation of the influence of rever-
~ beration interference on the parameters of broadband signals with a spaced -
tra;~smitter and receiver,
[139-8831]
i;SSR UDC 534.86
F.~iPI.OYrIENT OF REACTIVE TIATCHING CIRCUITS FOR RADIATING A SHORT ACOUSTIC
PiiI.SF.
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