JPRS ID: 9247 TRANSLATION PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF LABOR BY SERGEY ALEKSANDROVICH KOSILEV

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JPRS L/92.47
12 August 1980
~ Transia~ion
- PSYCH4PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES
- OF SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZ~TION OF LABOR =
~y
. Sergey Aleksandrov~ch Kosilev
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' JPRS L/9247
12 August 1980
PS~~CHOPHYSIGLOGICAL BASES OF SCIENTIFiC ORGNNIZATION OF LABOR
- Complete translation of the Russian-language book by Sergey
Aleksandrovich Kosilov: "Psikhofiziologicheskiye osnovy
nauchnoy organizatsii truda," published in Mo~cow by
Izdatel'stvo "Ekanomika"
CONTENTS
_ Annotation 1
Introduction 2
Chapter l. The Psychophysiological Aspect ~f Scientific
Organization of Labor 5
Chapter 2. Biomechanical Conditions of Organi~ation of Labor 17
The Biomechanical Approach to the Study of Worn. Movements 17
Fundamentals of Rationalization of the Working Position 19
Physiological Bases of Optimization of the Work Place 20 -
' Problem~ of Optimization and Normaliaation of Work Movements 24
Standards of Work Movements 29
Chapter 3. Self-Regulation of Physiological Processes in
Working Man 35
Active Adaptation to Work 35
, Functional Se1L-Regulating Systems of Work Behavior 38 -
Chapter 4. Physiological Laws of Active Adaptation to Work, and
Methods of Controlling the Development of Man!s -
Natural Inclinations 58
- ' a - [I - USSR - C FOUO] .
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rvi~ VPl'lVl[1L uot: VriLL
CONTENTS (continued)
Chapter 5. Psychophysiological Features of Manual and Mechanized
Labor 79
Key Physiological Functions In Different Forms of Work 79
Key Cycle of Self-Regulation During Physical Labor 80 _
~ Adaptation of t2espiratory and Circulatory Functions to Physical
Labor 81
Motc~r Activity as a Need of the Healthy Body 85
Key Cycle of Self-Regulation During Work Requiring Numerous
Repetitions of Light, Simple and Monotonous Movements (Work -
- on Conveyers and Assembly Lines) 86
~:ey Cycle of Self-Regulation of Physiological Functions During
Mechanized Labor 95
Chapter 6. Psychophysiological Bases of Mental Work 100
Key Cycle cf Self-Regulation of Work Requiring Close Attention
and Solution of Mental Problems 100
Psychophysiological Conditions of Creative Activity 112
Psychophysiological Methods of Studying Efficiency of Mental Work 116
Chapter 7. Development of Work and Rest Schedules 122
Footnotes 128
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PUBLICATION DATA r
English title . Psychophysiological Bases of
_ Scientific Organization of Labor
Russian title . Psikhofiziologicheskiye osnovy
- nauchnoy organizatsii truda -
Author . S. A. Kosilov
Editor . L. Ye. Shchennikova
Publishing house . "Ekonomika"
Place of publication . Moscow
S
Signed to press . 12 March 1979 ~
Copies . 21,000
COPYRIGHT: . Izdatel~stvo "Ekonomika", 1979
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j
ANNOTATION
This monograph deals with problems of ensuring aptimum participation of .
the worker in a"man-machine" system and consideration of distinctions
of physiological functions and mental processes in organization of labor.
The author describes the substance of physiological laws of adjustment
to labor, use thereof in designing rational variants of work movements,
optimum work and rest schedules, etc. A mathematical interpretation of
the dynamics of work fitness makes it possible to make a strictly
scientific evaluation of the difficulty and tension of work for
specific production sections.
The practicgl reco~endations offered in the book were tested un~er
laboratory and production conditions. ~
- Tbis monograph is intended for workers in NOT [~cientific organization
of labor] services, students and instructors at W2's and faculties of
economics.
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7
.
INTRODUCTION
The Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics states that
the government sets as its goal the expansion of existing ~pportunities
- for citizens to apply their creativity, capabilities and talents, for com-
prehensive development of the personality. The state is concerned about
improvir~g working conditions and labor safety, scientific organization of
labor, reduction of heavy phsyical labor and ultimate complete elimination
thereof on the basis of complex mechanization and automation of production
processes in all sectors of the national economy.
- To provide good working conditions and comprehensive development of the
personality, as well as creative capabilities of man, it is imperative to
take into consideration the specific laws of adjustment of the human body
- to u~~rk and, oii this basis, to elaborate measures that would permit
optimization of use of inental and physiological human functions in labor.
The task of industrial psychophysiology is to study the physiological bases
of different forms of physical and mental labor, to make comprehensive .
use of the laws of physiology and psychology in refining work processes.
In ergonomics and engineering psychol~gy, the "man--work to~l--object of
labor--industrial environment" or "man-machine" system (MMS) is studied as
a.singl.e functional whole (analogously to the study of other cybernetic
systems). Recogniti~n of man's leadiiig role in this system does not
_ detract fro~a the fact that coordination of the features of a human operator
with those of machines occurs primariiy on the basis of cybernetics, proba-
bility theory, mathematical statistics, information theory, queueing
- theory, network planning, reliability theory, etc. The digression inherent
in ergonomics and engineering psyciiology from complex integration in labor
of reflexes that occur on different levels of the nervous system, with the
involvement of various functions and various analyzers, results in a simpli-
- fied equal-component approach to design and analysis of MMS. When
one designs and analyzes an MMS, man and machine are viewed as separate _
elements of the system, analysis and description of whi~h are made from
the same positions, with .the use of the same ratjng criteria.i1
i'he increased attention given to and demands made of working man do not
coniorm with such an equal-component appraach, and puts to econ~mists,
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labor and industry organizers the task of studying working man as a .
complex and independent system governed by specific natural and social
_ laws. Describing the human system from the positions of physiology,
I. P. Pavlov indicated that "our system is highly self-regulating,
self-supporting, self-restoring, self-repairing and self-improving."2
In order to make rational and full use of the reserves for increa~ing
labor productivity, which are to be found in the very nature of man,
it is obviously not enough nerely to enumerate the operations that a -
working man must perform and to define the "input" and "output" charac-
teristics of the human element in the man-machine system. It is
_ imperative ~o investigate the dynamics of functional states of working
man and to analyze formation of his work goal and image of necessary
work movements, interaction between physiological functions that deter-
mine the active forms of his work behavtor.
In elaborating me~sures for scientific organization of la~,or, comprehen- -
sive consideration of physiological and psychological patterns i~ the
most important factor in increasing the efricacy of these measures.
- At the present time, the recommendations of industrial psychophysiology
are being used with success to solve a number of important national
- economic problems. In particular, experience with the use of the
methods and recommendations of industrial physiology at different enter-
prises of our country in order to substantiate a rational work schedule
and define difficulty of labor was applied to elaboration of universal -
theory and methods of integral evaluation of fitness for work referable -
to mental and physical labor3 and to work out standard intrashift -
work and rest schedules for industrial workers.4
However, the homocentric approach to scientific orgariization of labor
does not amount merely to solving these problems alone. Of first and
- foreraost importance is to deploy scientific research on the psychophysio-
logical capabilities uf man in order to disclose the reserves for growth
of labor productivity. For this purpose, one should investigate the
- development of man's work capabilities, physiolagical processes involved
in changing the very nature of working man. According to a well-known
thesis of Marxism, by exerting his influence on the environment
and chan~ing it...." working man at the same time alters his own
- nature."
In order to control, purposeft~lly and with sc9.entifi,c substantiation,
these changes in human nature, development througti work uf processes in
- the body and consciousness of w~rking man, one needs to examine how the
_ skills, work movements, ability to plan one's work, craftsmanship and
sophistication of labor are formed through working. Such complex stiudies
_ of man are pursued by industrial physiology and psycholof;y, which develop
in close interaction with one another.
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. In this book, we submit the results of contem~orary psyehophysiological
studies of diverse forms of work for the purpose of disclosing the
_ patterns of increased fitness for work and refinement of organization
of labor.
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CHAPTER 1. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGI~CAL ASPECT OF SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF LABOR
It is very important to practice a complex scientif ic approach to solve
prablems of organization of labor and production. The complex approach
permits m,aking the most efficient use of new opportunities, which have
appeared with the development of productive forces, science and technology,
progressive forms of separation and cooperation of labor. At the 25th
Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, it was stated that
it is necessary to "take into comprehensive consideration the requirements
of scientific organization of labor in designing new enterprises and
remodeling existing ones, and in developing technological processes and -
equipment.j6
The complex approach ~o organization of labor implies that it is necessary
to pay serious attention to physiological processes in the human body,
to the processes that permit gerformance of work movements, maintain
accuracy and optimum e.fficiency.
It was noted in the recommendations of the All-Union Conference on ' '
- Organization of Labor (26-28 June 1967) that "under modern conditions,
to be considered scientific organiza*.ion of labor must be based on
scientific advances and progressive knowhow that are being systematically
introduced into industry, which permits the optimum combination of
equipment and people in a single production process, assures the most
efficient use of materials and manpower, continuous increase in labor
productivity, aids in preserving human health and gradual transformatio~
of labor into a prime vital need."~
It is possible to find effective solutions to protlems of scientific
organization of labor [NOT] on the basis of the set of engineering, economic,
medical and biological sciences. At the present time, it is important to
ma�l~e use of the advances in industrial psychophysio logy in research on
NOT.
The recommendations of the All-Union Conference on Organization of Labor -
state that "special attention must be devoted to intensification of scienti-
fic research in industrial physiology, psychology and hygiene...."
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It is of exceptional importance to elaborate criteria to assess the
influence of various industrial factors on the human body, recommendatiens
- on rational work and rest schedules, vocational screening and orienta-
tion, regulation of labor performed by women and adolescents."8
There are a number of distinctiuns to physiological processes that take
place in the human body when working. They are attributable to the fact
that they occur in the living human body and they are subject to the
influence of social conditions and work goal. By virtue of a work goal,
human behavior acquires direction. Man's behavior may not be affected
by stimuli outside i:he work situation, but at the same time stimuli that
are neutral outside of his work may become important when he is working. -
The subordination of man's actions to a work goal leads to distinctive
manifestation of more general physical and biochemical processes and laws
during work, for example, the law of preserving energy, laws of thermo-
dynamics, etc. While working, physicochemical processes are subordinated
_ by the special laws of work activity, the specific laws of industrial
physiology. Industrial physiology, by applying special laws, discloses
new avenues for refine~;ent of work and improving man's efficiency.
Efficiency ["fitness for work"] is man's capacity to form and maintain
his body in a working state, i.e., to alter the course of physiological
functions (functions of the muscular and nervous systems, respiration,
circulation, metabolism, etc.) in order to provide for a high level of
labor productivity.
Diverse changes and camplication of physiological processes take place
during formation of the working state. I. P. Pavlov said that many "new
processes, new respiration, new heart rate, new secretion, etc.," must
begin to perform muscular work. "Time is needed for the new.set.i9
Man solves each specif ic work problem by means of a special system of
reflexes, which is formed in the course of occupational tr.aining, renewed =
and refined in the work process. When work-related reflex systems function
they undergo consistent deve]opment. This is manifested by complication
of structure of the systems and reflection of some elements of these sys-
tems in the worker's consciousness. Reflection in consciousnes~ of
tangible objects and processes is the content of psychological experiences
of man, the basis of logical thinking and accumul~tion of knowledge, as
well as planning of activity. For a tangible process occurring outside
the body or within it ~o be reflected in cons.ciousness, it must have a
certain intensity and the body must be ssnsitive to this process as a
nervous system stimulus. It is known that mild physical stimuli delivered -
to the body surface induce only a local reaction (rednes~ of the skin, _
change in its temperature, etc.). S+:ronger stimuli could lead to
stimulatian of nerve endings which, as it spreads, reaches motor cells
and induces a motor reflex, of which man is not yet aware. Upon further
increase in intensity of a stimulus, there may be a sensation that is
the most elementary form of consciousness.
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Stimuli occurring in the realm of work and industrial relations have a
particularly great effect on man. They cause a widely changing range of
sensations capable of altering significantly physiological processes; in
some cases they are the cause of strong Emotions and profound shock of
the stress type.
F
The numerous data obtained by psychologists are indicative of tt:e decisive �
significance of work in the genesis of inental activ~ty. They conf irm the
opinion that man's mental processes and traits, ranging from the most
elementary ones (for example, sensibility) to the most complex, develop
under the influence of his work activity. Work is the main candition
of formation of the personality. ~
Industrial psychology is concerned with changes in mental processes in
man's work activity.
~ In ordpr to provide comprehensive scientific substantiation for organiza-
- tion of labor, it is important to consider the combined occurrence of
mental and physiological processes in the worker. The study of relevant
theoretical problems and practical tasks from the standpaint of industrial
_ psychology and physiology aids in refinement of organizatian of labor,
� since "new opportunities for fruitful research, both general theoretic, ~
basic, and ap~lied, are disclosed on the b~undaries between different
disciplines." �
In this book, the term "psychophysiology" is used in the sense of combina- -
tion of psychological and physiological factors. I. P. Pavlov wrote:
"The natural and inevitable approximation of psychological and physiologi-
cal elements is occurring and will continue, until f.inally they will
merge.i11 Such a combination or_curs in the course of work activity. More-
over, without approximation of work activity proper to formation of a
conscious goal, work behavior and creation of use values that would
meet public demand would be impossible.
. Qn the basis of research in industry and laboratories, industrlal physio-
logists and psychologists are derelopi~~g suggestions to ref ine work and
n?-oduction processes, and they also offer explanations for funetional
chan~es occurring during per.formance of wqrk actions. Zndustrial physio- -
logists and psycfiologists apply the appropriate theory and methods to
solve practical problems of NOT.
Knowledge of izdustrial psychophysiology makes it pussible to find scienti-
fically substantiated solutions for the problems of organization of labor
that are directed toward providing beneficial conditions for the fullest -
development and use of man's innate abilities, which is the main element
of the production system. The most important of these problems are:
developmeat, on the basis of physiology of the motor system, of optimum
conditions for forming professional work movements, harmonious inclusion
~ in movements of different parts of the body, assimilation of normals of
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the most rational variants of performance of work movements and maintaining
the correct work position; design of rational work ~laces and optimum -
- interaction of man and machine on the basis of data on structure and -
functions of the motor system; specificatiori of requirements made of
machines and control thereof, from the standpoint of conformity of the
machine iaith the capabilities of man, as well as development of a `
= rational design of machine contro 1 elements, location of levPrs and
control buttons in the worker's field of vi~ion and csithin the permissible _
range of movements, Ptc.; psychophysiological substan~~iation of advance-
- ment of workers' qualifications and effectiveness of industrial training;
detection of innate abilities required to acquire work skills, and
. el.aboration of inethods for purpos eful developmeut of these abilities; �
provide aid for creative lab~r of J,eading workers; development of rational _
- work and rest schedules. . -
~ To successfully resolve each of these problems, one must take into consider-
ation a set of factors, the most important one being the factor of psycho-
physiology of work processes. It is acquiring increasing importance in
view of the fact that a mode?-n worker, by virtue of his high professional
- skill, continuous advanced training, growth of level of general education, _
not o n:ty assimilates the normals of work actions, but finds new and =
better variants of solutions for ~roduction problems, thereby aiding in .
further development of production.
Comprehension of the goal of a prouuction operation aids in augmenting
elements of creativity of workers, as well as their introduction of the
- latest achievements of scientif ic and technological progress at the work
places. The psychophysiological bases of labor creativity constitute the
labor dominant as a socially determined behavioral trend and assimilation
o= higher paces of work as a result of accumulation in the nervous system
_ of traces of stimulation and reinforcement of new work procedures by
the achievement of a useful result.
As we know, a man workin~ in industry is exposed to various environmental
_ f actors (noise, vibration, lights, temperaturz, humidity and velocity of
_ air, diff erent impurities in air, etc.). The presence and intensity
of these factors are determined on the basis of data in industrial
physiology and hygiene, and steps are being elaborated to eliminate them. _
A change in dynamics of physiological functions (especially the functions
of the central nervous system), c3emonstrable by the methods of industrial
physiology, is the earliest sign of the adverse effect of deleterious
environmental factors. This circumstance is very important, in view
of the fact that the effect of ameliorative measures depends on the
- severity o� adverse changes in the U~dy. The sooner these steps are .
taken, the greater thPir effect. -
A consistent change in the functional state of the body and, first of all,
the central nervous system is an important distinction of physiological _
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processes that take place in the human body during work. Under certain
- conditions, labor has a beneficial effect on the body: muscular activity
- st~engtE~ens the muscles, mental work develops apprehension�
- If organization nf labor is not rational, there may be depletion of the
nervous system, overfatigue, muscular atrophy, etc. In particular,
unrhythmic work, when there are alternate periods of idleness and
intensive work, is very detrimental. to health and leads to diminished
- efficiency due to stress.
_ ~
It is known that efficiency.and productivity of labor gr~dually increase
_ at the beginning of a work shift and reach a maximum in the middle of the
first half of the work day. This increase in efficiency~~related to repe-
tition of work actions is called "getting into the swing or being
_ warmed up ["getting into the work"]. Repetition of wark actions during
a 6-8-h shift leads to the opposite effect, diminished efficiency or
production fatigue. Numerous repetition of work actions and prolonged
work activity elicits different results: getting into the swing or -
fatigue. Tf we were to describe tne efficiency level as a function of
time (hours in the work shift), this function would have a low value
- at the start of the work cycle (shift, week) and gradually ~ncrease;
at the end it would gradually decrease and come close to the minimum.
Consequently, the function has a maximum value at the middle of the cycZe.
The conditions under which efficiency reaches and retains a maximum
are between the lowest and highest values of the independent var.iable
(time, work load, pace, etc.), i.e., in the range of its optimum values.
In order to determine the optimum values of independent variables--
working conditions, one has to know the main processes and interdependences ~
in work activity, including psychophysiological processes in the human
body during work.
When designing and refining production processes, it is imperative to
take into consideration not only the economic results of experiments, but
criteria for optimizing working conditions and psychophysiological processes.
- In the 1920's and 1930's, etforts were made to solve prob~.ems of industrial
psychophysiology by direct application of general laws of natural sciences
to working man. We have disclos ed the invalidity of such attempts in ~
historical surveys of problems of industrial phy.siology.12 ,Concurrently
with disclosure of the flaws of these simplistic approaches to the pr.oblem
~ of altering the nature of man in labor which was worked on by the founders
of materialistic theory, studies were conducted in the laboratori~:s of
_ industrial physiology under our supervision of the physiological bases
of work activity in industry, and special specific laws.were dlscovered
of socially determined formation of skil?s in work actions, development
of muscular, respiratory and cardiovascular systems, as well as higher
forms of conscious work activity.
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The theoretical theses we expounded were discussed at conferences and
congresses of physiologists and in the press. Concurrently our recommenda-
tions were tested in industry, and there was confirmation of their social
and economic effects.13 `
Since the demonstrated patterns had a richer content than general physiolo-
= gical patterns, while the area of their application is limited to man's
work activity, there are grounds to consider them as the theoretical
basis for an independent direction in industrial physiology and psycho-
= physiology. This direction of research and transformation of work processes
enables us to solve a number of concrete problems, which ensue from the
theoretical premises of psychology, which strived to learn how "new 'units'
are formed in brain systems under the influence of socially historic prac- -
tice, how new functional systems, new 'functional organs' are formed,
thanks to which more and more new constellations appear in the human
brain, which does not undergo substantial anatomical change.i1`` This di-
rection was instrumental in elaboration of modern philosophical theory of -
_ interaction between social and biological elements in the development of
man.ls
This direction includes work on physiological problems of NOT: the
dynamic working stereotype (DWS) and~integral image of work actions.
The DWS is a complex system of reflexes that are formed in the course
of industrial training and exercise, which are maintained by achievement
of a production result, and it improves as a result of optimum summ~tion -
- of traces of nervous stimulation (S. A. Kosilov, 1953, 1957, 1965). In
. this system, programming and correction of activity take place on the basis
of the integral image of the proper work actions.
I. P. Pavlov maintained that the physiological basis of developing habits
~ is conditioned reflexes. But he warned that it would be a mistake to
extrapolate directly to man the general laws of conditioned reflex activity _
demonstrated in animal experiments.16 This warning is also very important
to the latest theories being expounded by physiologists on the basis of
experimentation on animals and studies that are pursued apart from the
problems of work activity.
A. R. Luriya, the prominent theoretician of modern psychophysiology, ,
skressed the great importance of physiological theories based on facts
obtained beyond the realm of labor and industrial relations to formulation
_ of general theses "on construction of the main units of brain work." How-
ever, even he observed that it would be wrong to believe that the
"physiology of activity" of N. A. Bernshteyn (1966) and "functional system
theory" of P. K. Anokhin (1968) "have already created a finished physio-
logical system that conforms entirely with the main task, that of des-
cribin~ the physiological bases of higher forms of conscious life." Both
thaories "merely laid the foundation for solving this problem, but by _
_ no means solved it. Upon further work on fihis problem, it must be borne -
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in mir.d that higher forms of social life are the product of the most -
complex sociohistorical grocesses, the result of soci~l labor, usP of
tools for communication of people w:ith one another by means of codes of
la.nguage formed in sucial history.i17
- The physiological functions under industrial conditions, which have been
_ studied on experimental models, become elements of the DWS and are
governed by reflexes in response to social stimuli (reflexes that are
at the basis of the work goal and work motivation). In every occupation
there are specific work operations, elements of operations, different
work actions and movements. None of them alone can begin without special
conditioned stimulation. But if the conditioned reflex, upon which a
specific work element, action and movement are based, is contained in
the integral system of the DWS, the entire work operation can be performed -
in response to a single initial conditioned stimulus and receive a single
reinforcement in the form of a planned production result. Some cortico-
_ motor-visceral reflexes in the stereotype acquire increased intensity
and efficiency, while others weaken or are entirely excluded(for example,
exclusion of superfluous movements, concentration of attention on a
limited group of objects and signals, etc.).
_ In view of the fact that occupations make diverse demands of a worker,
representatives of different occupations develop DWS differing in structure,
with different correlations between reflexes and, consequently; with differ-
ent interaction of body functions. Thus, if a~ worker has to perform
mechanical work, all functions of his body are mobilized to provide
energy to muscles, substances rich in energy and oxygen. Here, of decisi~ve
significance to successful work, other conditions being equal, are the
functions of movement, resp~ration and circulation. But if, however, a -
monitor [controller] must discern fine details through vision, all func-
tions of the body are mobiliz~d to implement precise visual perception, for
which purpose sensibility and functional lability ~f the visual analyzer
are increased. When a designer searches for solutions to new problems,
all of his physiological functions cooperate in a single, most active
function, that of developing new time relationsh~.ps, which are very close to
"what psychologists call assocation, whether this is formation of connec-
tions of all sorts of actior.s, impressions or letters, words and thoughts."le
The quality of a specific DWS of a specific occupation depends largely on
_ the extent to which energy and influx of the necessary nervous impulses
are provided for the most active physiological function, which is closely
related to actions that aid in performing the proper production operation.
From the standpoint of industrial physiology, these are physiological
functions that are subordinated to the DWS of the occupat3.on in question.
- The most active of these functions is called the key phys3ological ~unction.
Analysis of the content and structure of specific DWS inherent in different
o~cu~,ations permits development of a psychophysiological classification of
occupations and foxms of labor, and definition of the key physiologi~cal -
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function-for each of them. Depending on the nature of the key function,
measures are developed to refine work processes with due consideration
of psychophysiological data. `
The complexity of the reflex system of the DWS refers not only to the fact
that 3.ts.structure contains a large number of differenL- reflexes--systera
components, but that a unique link is established between these components
with typical subordination to one another.
We can explain ~this reciprocal subordination and integration in the
historical aspect of development of the human body and personality.
The neonate reacts to stimuli perceived by the body surface and internal
- organs; his motor system is governed by nervous impulses that arise from
receptUrs of the skin and viscera. These are predominantly visceromotor
reflexes. At a later stage of development of the child, there is formation
of motor reflexes, which make up the physiological basis of playing and
locomotion (crawling, walking, running). Internal processes (respir ation,
circulation, metabolism) are subordinated to the task of providing energy
for the child's body. In this regard, visceromotor reflexes acquire
great and even predominant significance. As the child and adolescent
_ become exposed to work activity, motor reflexes are combined into a system
of a DWS and are governed by the conscious goal of work, which reflects
the instructions of the teacher, educator, example of comrades and frag-
ments of industr~al relations. Since the higher branches of the brain
are the material substrate of this reflective activi~y, this type of
iztegration of reflexes can be called corticovisceromotor integration.
During work, integration of psychaphysiological processes becomes more
,
complex, more refined and defined, in accordance with advancement of
skill and accumulation of professional experience. In particular, processes
of adjustment of respiratory and circulatory functions to work may occur
before man starts performing motor activity, and this is typical of the
prework state, as well as the emotions of a worker which are related to
beginning of work. -
. In view of the complexity of the DWS, studies of its structure and analysis
~ of development, disruption and resto.ration under changing conditions are
performed with the use of models that reproduce the different properties of ~
the DWS. One of these models is a neuromuscular preparation, in which
- the frog's gastrocnemius, under the infiuence of electric discharges,
contracts and can lift weights, thus performing mechanical work.
- The laboratory model of labor used in psychc~physiological studies must
reflect changes in condition of the nervous system. Work on a digital or ~
manual ergograph, with recording of action currents of muscles and cerebral
cortex, is one of the laboratory models that can be used to study changes
in functional state of the nervous system. Work at a control console is
- simulated in laboratories using experimental consoles, which permit
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changing tY?e location and composition of control signals, knobs and
buttons and, concurrently, recording ghysiological processes related to
, percpetion and processing of information.
As applied to the DWS, the term "dynamism" means that changes in functional
state of a system should be 5tudied in relation to time and nature of
active factors, which stimulate first of all the nerve endings in sense
organs and the motor system and thus are stimuli of the nervous system.
Stimuli of a rather high intens~ty (above the critical, i.e., threshol3, -
level) induce a response (reaction) by excited nerve centers, from which
nervous excitatory impulses flow over nerves to muscles and compel the
muscles to contract in such a combination that a given purposeful movement
is performed. After termination of the reaction in the nervous system
(neurons), excitation remains for some time in the form of a slowly
receding trace. If the next work action or next reaction of nerve centers _
(reflex) occur before the trace of excitation from the prior accion or -
prior reflex is equalized, trace excitation and excitation arising
~ because of formation of a new reflex interact, and there is summation of
traces of excitation. Functional mobility or lability of nerve centers
change as a result of prolonged summation of excitatory t~aces, at
first concentration and then deconcentration of nervous excitation. The _
lability of nerve centers is measured by the maximism number of stimuli
to which nerve centers can respond without distortion of rhythm, as ~
well as by fihe size of the interval between these stimuli. Concentration
of nervous excitation in time is characterized by reduction of the inter-
val within whic~ there is a reaction (for example, muscular tremor); the ~
concentration of nervous excitation in space is manifested by exclusion of
superfluous movements.
The integral image of work actions is a system of traces of e~citat~.on, on
the basis of which work actions are programmed. A work action i~ directed
toward achievement of a specific goal, of which the worker is aware. At
the same time, working man forms a conception of the means of reaching
this goal, i.e., a plan of work actions. Along with the conscious plan,
traces of excitation from prior activity, which are below the level of
_ consciousness, are also important. Together with the traces of excitation,
which are at the physiological basis of conceptions, they form an image
= to which all special actions and their ultimate result are compared. For
example, having a visual image of letters, we recognize them when
written in different ways. In work processes, along with formation of
conceptions and verbal symbols, there is perception of stimuli by different
analyzers (mainly visual and motor); the corresponding traces of excitation
are as~ociated and make up the integral itnage of a work action. ~
Tn the course of work, not only each work action is checked by comparing
the end result to the planned one, but so is each intermediate stage of
_ action, fine elements of work movements, by comparing the3n to the integral
image of work actions. This constant comparison of image to action is _
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_ ~
? v~~ va a L~tcui V~L ~a~L~
performed by the feecaback principle. Feedback in machines consists of
- the fact that the controlled object informs the contr~lling device about
_ its status. The following is observed in interaction betkeen the two
main elements of the closed system of the work process, man and machine:
man's perception of information (for exa~ple, by observing the readings -
of monitoring and measuring instruments); processing of the obtained
_ informat~on in the central nervous system and decision making; implementa- -
tion of decision by handling control elements of the machine; perception -
via feedback channels of information about the altered state of the
machine. When driving a car, the driver controls the actuating mechanism
(engine); the driver receives information about the changes in speed
as a result of this action via feedback at the output of the car, i.e.,
- the speeda~eter dial in this case. The obtained information is processed -
- by tlie driver's nervous system and he makes a decision that conforms with
the task of maintaining a specific speed. Depending on his decision, the
driver exerts different actions on the car engine. Thus, there is a
continuous, cyclic movement of information in the closed cybernetic system.
While man performs work actions, the direct route of information in his
nervous system starts in motor cells of the central nervous system, and
information travels over this route to actuating organs, i.e., muscles; the
reverse route is from nerve endings to sense organs, including endings
in the motor system (muscles, joints, tendons), to sensory cells of the
central nervous system. The neural conductors over which information, in
_ the form of impulses of nervous excitation, passes to sensory cells are
. called sensory nerves (or afferent, or centripetal nerves). The conductors
over which,nerve impulses travel from motor centers to muscles are called
motor, or efferent, or centrifugal nerves.
While performing work actions, the exa~t achievement of the planned result
is obtained as a result of the fact that, by means of constant comparison
of continuous work actions, work movements, to the corresponding elements
of the integral image, there is detection of disc~repancies between work
processes and the program of activity. A flow of impulses of a corrective
' nature is the reaction to this discrepancy. Thanks ~o correction, the
tra~ectory, speed, acceleration, force and other elements of work activity
are held within the range specified by the program. This activity, which
is called regulation, provides for stability and reliability of function
of the DWS. Stability is characterized by the degree of random deviations
of work (under relatively constant conditions) from the program, variation
of parameters of physiological functions about a mean level that is
established in accordance with the program. Reliability reflects assured
function of the system under the influence of unusual, disruptive factors.
The above concepts, terms and new methodological approaches, which have
been introduced into theory and practice of industrial physiology, made
- it possible to undertake work for systematic solution of the pressing
problems of physiological substantiation of NOT, many of which were
previously considered insolvable. -
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At the present t~me, the ch~ice and use of various means that transform
lal~or in accordance with industrial conditions and scientific requirements .
are~ based on detailed and comprehensive studies of the dynamics of
physiological processes during work and changes in physiological condition
' of the worker.
_ Any attempt to improve work processes would be incomplete without considera-
tion of changes in physiological processes and physiological state of the
body that take place during work (as well as in connection with inter-
ventian ia its organization). This thesis ensues from the fact that,
according to the general definition, labor is a function of the body from
the physiological point of view. This circumstance is also indicated by
~ the criticism by Soviet scientists of the efforts of bourgeois rationalizers
- to overlook physiological processes that develop in connection with labor,
and recognition in Soviet economic science of the fact that the efficiency
of the process of interaction of man and machine in labor depends on the
practical application, not only of data referable to engineering sciences,
but laws of economics, organization, physiology, psychology and aesthetics
- of labor.
Concurrently with development of basic sciences dealing with physiological
and psychological processes that occur during performance of work actions,
there was development of applied sciences that deal with problems of
refining processes and working conditions on the basis of data referable
to industrial physiology and psychology, as well a.s other sciences dealing
with man and work processes.
Engineering psychology is 3.nvclved iii normalization of operator work and
rational adaptation of complex technology to man's capabilities.
One of the tasks for engineering psychology is to alter machines and
- industrial technology as to have them conform with the mental properties of
man as much as possible. However, this cannot be done solely on the basis _
of results of psychological studies. In order to study organization of
labor and determine the limit of intensification of labor, in addition to
psychological dat~: we also need data of physiology, anthropometry, toxi-
cology, medicine, biology, engineering and other disciplines. In 1957,
the Society for the Study of the Human Factor was founded in the United -
States for the purpose of using all these disciplines to achieve an
increase in intensity, productivity, profitability and safety of labor.
The work of this society acquired predominantly engineering psychological
orientation.
- Somewhat earlier (in 1949), the Society of Ergonomists or International
Association of Ergonomic Research was founded in European countries (at
first in those where the English language is used). The ergonomic -
direction differs from engineering psychology in that physiological
studies are represented to a greater extent in the former. Both directions
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I
~ pursue t~ the same goal, to optimize operating conditions of a system
formed by man, by the industrial technalogy which is subordinated to him
and the environment.
In the Soviet Union, firm ties are being established between these branches `
- of science and industrial psychophysiology. They are manifested, first of
all, by the speeches of researchers in the field of ergonomics, engineer-
~ ing psychology, industrial aesthetics at conferences dealing with industrial
_ physiology, participation of physiologists and psychologists in confer-
ences on engineering psychology and aesthetics in engineering, as well as
in the complex work on amelioration of working conditions and increasing -
labor productivity performed by representatives of different directions
in the system ~L disciplines dealing with labor. In the Soviet Union,
there are some profound and basic grounds for the close, organic inferaction
between scientific organization of labor and psychophysiology.
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CHAPTER 2. BIOMECHANICAL CONDITIONS OF ORGANIZATION OF LABOR -
~ The Biomechanical Approach to the Study of Work Movements
Observations of performance of work operations by workers with different
qualifications reveal that the movements~of the better qualified worker
3iffer from those of an un.skilled worker not only with regard to resulta,
but structure and nature of performance in time, i.e., their biomechanical _
features. Biomechanics is the branch of human physiology that deals with
the conditions of movements of parts of the body, displacements of the -
entire body (locomotion), equilibrium and maintenance'of a work position.
To solve problems of biomechanics, one uses the methods of mathematics -
and mechanics, data in physiology and anatomy of the motor system, and
laws of reflex regulation of motor activity.
Biomechanics and its methods are used in NOT to assess the rationality of
work movements and develop standards for them. Labor organizers and
- industrial training methodologists, who are armed with the snecifications
~ and classification of scientif ically substantiated standards of work move-
ments, are able to indicate the only correct means of performing a
standard work movement in each specific case and for each work operation.
When designing and rationalizing work operations, the problem does not
consist of automatically combining elementary work movements into arbitrary
comhinations determined solely by the desire t~ reduce the time for
performing an operation, but of organic merging thereof into a single
system in accordance with the laws of industrial expediency and reflex
self-regulation (conditioned reinforcement of the dynamic working stereotype,
integral image of work actions, etc.).
Biomechanics expands significantly the opportunities for studying and
rationalizing work and organizing labor, as compared to the widely used
- methods of determining their duration. According to the criterion of
= duration of work operations, elements and movements, the work processes
for~the performance of which the least amount of time is required are
considered rational.
- With all the simplicity and accessibi.lity of this criterion, which was
introduced into organization of labor by Taylor, modern scientific organiza-
tion of labor cannot be satisfied with it alone, without taking into
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~ ~a� ~ tv~.aW VJL Va~LL
- consideration such distinctions of work movements as length and complexity -
of work trajectories, distribution of effo.rt over different segments of
the trajectory, use of gravity and inertia, development of excitation in
motor n~:rve centers, etc.
~ In designing and refining different industrial systems, modern NOT cannot
confine itself solely to selection of ineans of communication between man
and machine that occur at random under industria]. condi.tions. A worker
who is left to his own resources and encouraged by a raise can find a
variant of performance of some work movement that is acceptable for him
without thinkiag too much about whether this is the optimum variant, i.e.,
the best of possible ones.
For scientific organization of work movements, it is necessary to take
into consideration, in addition to the time factor, coordination of the
worker's movements according to parameters of length and forms of work
trajectories, pr.oper use of muscular force, application of the laws of _
control of purposeful movements.
When solving biomechanical problems, the researcher uses the methods of
~ mathematics and mechanics, but biomechanics does not become a branch of
mathematics or physics. When studying the movements of man, the methods
of geometry and mechanics are used under special conditions, which do not
- exist in other areas of application of these disciplines. When using
biomechanics, the labor organizers must bear in mind that, in this case,
mathematics and mechanics are applied to the distinctive element of the
human body, which is included in the industrial system. While mechanics
of solids acquires specific elements in water or air, mechanics of the -
- motor ~ystem, which functions for the purpose of acting on the object
of labor, constitutes a special technique for solving problems that
are limited to the distinctions of relationship between human organs
and technological devices in "man-machine" systems. If this thesis is
overlooked, it could lead to gross errors and false conclusions. Excessive
adherence to the laws of geometry when reducing the distance of work
trajectories is an example of such errors.
In addition to numerous examples of increasing labor productivity by
shortening work trajectors (shortening the distance of carrying material,
tools, etc.), in the history of industrial physiology there are also
_ examples of increasing labor productivity after replacing short tra~ec- _
tories of work movements with longer ones. Thus, G. P. Konradi, A. D.
Slonim and V. S. Farfel' (1935) report on rationalization of work move-
ments at a confectionery factory, where the women workers used simplz, ~
straight and short movements. When these movements were replaced with
longer curvilinear movements, labor productivity increased by about 27%. -
M. I. Vinogradov (1966) analyzed two methods of performing operations of
spreading adhesive over a large rubber part in assembling galoshes- on a
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cQn~,*eyer. With one of the methods, the woman worker perfnrmed several,
straight strokes to apply the glue and with the other, one circular
movement that covered the entire surface to be treated. Industrial
physiologists recommended the second method, which turned out to be more
_ convenient and effective. The advantages of circular movements over
linear ones are determined, in the first place, by the shape of the
articular surfaces of the extremity (hand), since radial movements
with displacement of parts of the body correspond to the structure of the
joints; in the second place, this is attributable t~ the possibility of
. making smooth changes from one movement to another, and there is no need
to make abrupt movements when stopping on the last stage of the operation
or to apply increased force to give momentum to the next movement.
These examples confirm the need to take into consideration the distinctions
involved in applying the laws of geometry and mechanics to work movements.
~
Fundamentals of Rationa?~ization of the Working Position -
= Physiologists consider the working position as a manifestation of operational
rest (A. A. Ukhtomskiy, 1951). Operational rest refers to the constancy
and stability of position, which are not related to zero activity of the
body, but to its readiness for immediate, effective and preplanned action. -
Since this rules out other forms of activity, operational rest expressed
in the working position is a variant of the dominant. In industrial prac-
= tice, optimum working positions have been evolved for the mass occupations.
When designing the positions for new occupations, one must take into con-
sideration the following most important physiological criteria of rationality
of working positions: convenience for development of muscular force required
for work; convenience of performance of accurate and rapid hand movements;
minimal expenditure of energy to hold the position; maximum production
result of work movements.
Accurate and effective movements are obtained when the hands are displaced
within the hemisphere circumscribed by the arm that is bent half way in
the elbow. In "seated" position, this increases the accuracy of work
movements, decreases expenditure of energy and prevents the danger of
development of such pathological processes as flat feet and varicose veins.
When working in seated position, the body should be kept erect, since
this provides beneficial conditions for respiration and circulation and
- relieves passive tissues of the locomotor system, distension of which
could become irreversible and cause curvature of the spine.
These criteria of work positions are simple, and they could appear obvious;
nevertheless they are often underestimated in practice. In a number of
_ industries machines a.r_e used, operation of which requires much static force
in the absence ~f support for the arms (for example, in the shoe ;tndustry).
Signific�nt s'.-atic Exertion with the body in an uncomf.ortable position
and repeated ov~r a long period of time leads to loss of elasticity of
muscle tissue and ultimately to development of muscle pathology.
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Some foreign authors (Lemann, 1953) believe that the straight "sitting"
position is wrong, and that it is more correct and natural to "sit" _
with the trunk and head Uer.t forward. In their opinion, the chair seat
should be slightly tilted backward, to prevent slipping forward when _
- leaning back in the chair. There should be r~o borders on the front
side of the seat. The burden of the body weight should be carried by
the skin above the tuber of the ischium, since only it can withstand the
corresponding pressure. For this reason, there must be no load on the
- thigh surface near the popliteal fossa. For this purpose, the height of ~
the seat should be such that the anterior part of the thigh barely
touches the seat surface with the leg in vertical position. When working
sitting down, a slight tilt forward, with negligible kyphotic bending in
the lumbar spine, should be considered the normal position. The opinion
that there is difficulty of abdominal and thoracic breathing with
the body in bent position is not without grounds. Lemann and other physio-
logists b elieve that this cannot play a substantial role, in the first place,
because of the low intensity of respiration in seated position and, in the
second place, because there is an opportunity for deep breathing during
breaks.
The studies of Lundervolt (1951) revealed that with the body erect the
muscles of the shoulder girdle and back are subject to a large static
load, which is demonstrable when recording the bioelectrical action currents -
of these muscles, which is not observed with the body in a tilted position. -
The reduced muscle tension in bent position of the body can ba attributed
to the fac t that part of the tension that balances the bent position
develops in passive tissues, in parti~ular, in the ligament system of the ~
neck and thoracic spine. Exposure of the ligament system to prolonged
mechanical factors could lead to irreversible deformity, for example, to
developmen t of round shoulders.
The sugges tion to use chairs with adjustable seat tilt merits attention.19
- When designing the work position, one must take iato consideration the
fact that it must be instrumental in helping maintain attention, interest
and concen tration. These psychophysiological features of the worker's
personality are based on the existence in the nervous system of foci of
heightened activ~ty, the excitation of which increases in response to
the effects of incidental, disrupting factors and which preclude (inhibit)
any possib le reactions that are superfluous at a given time.
Physiological Bases of Optimization of the Work Place
One of the important directions of scientific organization of labor is
rational o rganization of the work place. Optimum organization of the work
place can be achieved by different means, depending on technical condi-
tions, degree of inechanization and automation of production processes.
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In the case of manual laboz, economy of energy expended by workers, reduc- �
_ tion of work tra,jectories and of muscular exertion are very important.
All this can be achieved when the dimensions and location of equipment, `
- instruments [or tools] and ob~ects of work should conform with the
dimension and location of different parts of the worker's body. The -
work zone, in which a worker can pick up the necessary tool or ob~ect
of labor without bending the trunk and without moving, is determined with -
this anthropometric approach. _
If the wo~k does not involve great muscular exertion, it is recommended -
that manual labor be performed in "seated" position. Let us recall that
better biomechanical conditions for the use of support reaction and most
efficient use of muscular force are created when wa-rking in "standing"
position if a given form of manual labor requires cor.siderable muscular
exertion (10-20 kg). ~
Let us discuss the biomechanical conditions of performing an efficient
work movement with horizontal displacement of a tool, when one has to
overcome the si gnificant resistance of the material being treated.
Filing metal, sawing metal and wood, etc., are examples of such wark.
The work movement consists oL simultaneous flexing of the arm at the
shoulder joint and extension at the elbow. The muscular force applied
to the tool is directed forward, at an angle of about 30� in relation
to the horizontal surface. There is a reaction by the surface being
worked on, the force of which~i~ equal in magnitud~ and opposite in
direction, to push the worker back. This force must be damped by the -
force of the support reac~ion of the 1egs.
- If a man is in strictly vertical position, the support reaction is di-
rected vertically and cannot equilibrate the forcp of the reaction of
_ the treated surface. In order to use the force of the support reaction.to
_ retain the correct position and efficiently apply muscular force, one
should direct the support reaction at an angle of less than 90� from
the horizontal plane. The leg can be fixed at an angle of about 6~�
by using the force of friction.of shoes against the surface of the floor.
Then, in.a region close to the center of the shoulder joint, there will
be balancing of the reaction force R directed at an angle of 60� to the -
horizontal plane, force of gravity of the head and upper part of the
trunk P, and force of reaction of treated ob~ect T. The problem is to
countarbalance the force of the reaction of the treated surface by
means of the correctly chosen magnitude and direction of force of support
reaction.
One can calculate the force, with which the legs should extend in the knee
and hip joints from the specif ied positions of parts of the body and magni-
tude of force developed by the working group of muscles. With a 10 kg -
. force of reaction of the treated ob~ect, 20 kg weight of the head and
upper part of the trunk, the force of muscles that extend the leg should
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constitute about 17 kg. In "seated" position, it is difficult to develop
the force of support reaction equal in magnitude and direction to the
force required to counterbalance the reaction of the treated object,
since the area of support is relatively small (limited to the area
between the ischial tuberosities of the pelvic bone) and cannot change in
seated position.
Rational arrangement of tools in the work place is an important condition
for a proper work position: objects that are handled with the right hand
must be to the right of the worker and those picked up with the left hand,
to the left. If the work involves development and prolonged maintenance
of significant static exertions, the worker gets tired rapidly. To counter- _
_ balance static moments of parts of the body with the force of the support
reaction, special arm res~s and supports are provided in the work place.
Determination of moments of f~rce of gravity counterbalanced by statically
tensed muscles is made by means of biomechanical analysis of work posi-
tions.
Special measuring systems and methods of design developed by somatography
are used for spatial arrangement of the work place~and all its elements,
including all so~rrs oF devices that the worker needs for the work process.
The task of somatography is to provide a foundation for the design and
rendition of the human outline in working on a design of a work place, _
to be used by engineers, designers, planners, researchers, etc. Various
� methods of simplification and schematization are used in designing work
places. For example, the use of flat models of the human figure (with
line of vision and maximum angle of vision), executed on the same scale
- as the genera~ view of the equipment, is recommended. .
. An optimum work position elicits fatigue when it has to be maintained for
a long time. Prolonged and continuous tension of muscle groups is the
cause of development of fatigue. In addition, when a position is held
unchanged for a long time, it causes changes in circulation and impairs
visceral functions. These deleterious factors could become the cause of
occupational diseases: A worker who works standing up may develop varicose
veins.
Prolonged work in seated position is also tiring, and it could have an
adverse effect on health. When working in seated position, the functions
of respiratory and circulatory organs are ~ore labored, particular,
abdominal circulation. When working constantly in a bent seated position, ~
there could be development of curvature of the spine.
Alternation of seated and standing positions is recommended to prevent the
adverse consequences of holding one work position. There should be chairs -
of the appropriate height at the work places, with a foot rest and back
for support of the lumbar and scapular region. _
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When designing tables and chairs for working in seated and standing posi-
_ tiuns, one must adhere to the fol~owing rules: the position of the worker
in relation to the work plane must remain unchanged when switching from
_ work in standing positior. ro work in seated position, and vice versa;
the angle of vision, at which the worker looks at the object of labor -
must be constant; the posl.tion of the elbow should be 4-5 cm above
the table ~~rface; the seat should not make it difficult to change from
working in seated position to working in standing position, ar_d vice versa -
(folding seat, chair that moves in and oixt from under the work plane).
Nomograms have been plotted to conform the height of the work surface _
with the height of tiie worker.20
Organization of the work place referable to centralized control of equipment
i~ a complex task. The arrangement of siglaling instruments, design of
dials, intensity of signals, their diversity and designations on a mnemonic
diagram22 are very important to efficient operator work and ~afety prac-
tices. According to the data of A. A. Krylov, the length of a dial
affects the readability of monitoring and measuring instruments. If the
, length of the dial constitutes less than 8-9� in angular units, a hori-
zontxl dial is recommended, but if the angular dimensions are greater than
8-9� readings are taken more rapidly and accurately from round diais.22
It is recommended to govern oneself by the following theses when designing
control panels: the number and length of work trajectories must be reduced
to a minimum; ;:he number of control elements and actions performed with~
_ them must be minimal; control elements should be located in accordance with
their functional importance, .the ones that are the most important and most
frequently used should be in zones of greatest accessibility; control ~
elements should be arranged with due consideration of the order in which
they are used during work; each action on the control console must be per-
formed in one manner (with the exception of back-up emergency actions);
the direction of movement of controls should correspond to the direction
of the work effect (direction of movement of work element [or.ganJ); the
operator's movement should be curved, with smooth transition from one
movement to another, preferably in the horizontal plane, which provides
more accuracy; when working with both hands, movements must be synchronous
and symmetrical. ~
Typical examples of planning work places are given in the following books:
"Physiological Human Factors Determining Arrangement of a Machine Control
Station," by 0. L. Sidorov, Moscow, 1962; "Manual of Engineering Psychology
for Engineers and Designers," by W. Woodson and D. Conover, translated
from English, Moscow, Mir, 1968.
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Problems of Optimization and Normalization of Work Movements
Experience in rationalization of labor confirms the need for optimization
and normalization of work movements. The American rationalizer [efficiency _
expert], R. M. Barnes (1946) developed the principles of economy of move- :
a~ents which are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Principles of Economy of Movements, after R. Barnes* (abbreviated) _
Use of physical force Organization of Proper use of tools
work place and equipment
Simultaneous work with Tools should be in a If the work can be done
both hands specific place with the legs or -
machines, the hands must
- be free
The hands must not be Too1s should be in
idle (with the excep- front of the worker ~
tion of breaks)
Hand movements must be Containers for finished Ztao or more tools should ~
in opposite directions, products should be be combined
simultaneous and ~ filled with the use Load on fingers should
- symmetrical of slanted planes and conform with their
J force of gravity force
Simplification of
movements
Use of passive force Material and tools Prompt preparation of .
should be siL-uated in tools and materials is
Continuous movement accordance with order important
in an arc of elementary artions
Handles should be de-
(therbligs) signed to provide
maxia~um grasp surface
Ballistic, free move- Good illumination and Controls should be ~
ments are better than good visibility in arranged with consider-
fixed ones worker's field of ation of movements;~
vision (without changing liody
Comfortable seat position) and maximum
Adherence to rhythmic Comfortable h2ight mechanical effect
of movements and location of work
table
*Barnes, R. M. "Motion and Time Study," New York, 1946.
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The principles of economic movements l;sted in Table 1 refer to economy
of muscular exertion and time as a desirable result of controlling move-
ments. For example, the table mentions problems of simplifying movements,
using passive force (gravity, inertia, flexibility, reaction), performance
of free mQVements, etc. However, it does not show the means of solving
these problems. Practice has shown that some workers achieve high -
labor productivity as a result of ineeting the conditions listed in -
Table 1. But this is their individual praperty, since we do not know
how the most important requirements listed in this ~able are met and,
first of all, the means of "using physical force."
~ Industrial physiology has its own theory and methods of objective descrip-
tion, study and planning oi work movements as self-regulating and
controllable physiological processes governed by the laws of formation,
refinement and maintenance of working motor stereotypes. With this theory
and methodology it is possible to make an objectiv~, quantitative evalua-
- tion of the quality of coordinat:ion of a specific moven.ent, to descrf.be
the optimum variant of work movement, which can be considered as the
- standard, as well as to meet a number of requirements of a work movement,
_ such as smoothness, use of passive force, rhythm, continuity and simpli-
city of trajectory, on the basis of the more general physiological mechan-
ism of control and self-regulation of muscular activity, concentration of
nervous excitation and muscular force. . _
Cyclographic studies are pursued to refine analysis of work movements.
- In our studies, motor activity was viewed as, a physiological process
that develops in the course of exercise [practice]. We had to find a
= law, on the basis of which we could predict the attainment of the end
result by performing this exercise. The~law of concentratior~ of muscular
force is such a law (S. A. Kosilov, 1938, 1954, 1959, 1965). Concentra-
tion of muscular force consists of the fact that,as exercise progresses,
performance of most of the work of this movement is concentrated on -
an increasingly reduced segment of time and space, which corresponds to
the concept of adopting a rhythm. -
In the parameters of cyclographic studies of movements, concentration of
muscular force is manifested by an increase in rate of development and
completion of maximums on curves of movements, velocity, acceleration,
force and moments (reduction of tim~ and segments of the work trajec-
tory, in which there is complete development of velocity waves and
acceleration of deter.minant points), increased maximums of velocity and
accelerations, increased duration of the interval between adjacent phases
of movements. With electrophysiological techniques,.the concentration of
muscular force is manifesred by an increase in rate of development and
completion of a group of action currents corresponding to development of
a single tetanic seizure. Concentration of muscular force is also charac-
terized by more accurate localization in time and over the trajectories
of lrovement of maximums of velocities and accelerations. This more
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accurate afferent correction is, in this case, one of the consequences of
assimilating the rhythm an.d concentrating muscula�r force, since it is
based on an increase in velocities in the receptor part of the reflex
cycle.
T'or further analysis of concentration of muscular force, we must consfder
in greater detail the correlations between velocities, accelerations and -
route traveled by the moving points studied. This task is performed on
the basis of the law of kinetic energy. It is known that the energy
expended to overcome resistance over a certain route (without accelera-
ting) is defined as the product of resistance to moveatent multiplied
by the route traveled. Since muving force (but one that does not elicit
acceleration) equals the resistance to be overcome, work T performed
by force P, which overcomes without acceleration a certain resistance
on the route S, is calculated as the product of multiplying force P by
trajectory S(Poncelet, Coriolis, middle of the 19th century). But we
also know that work is needed to impart velocity to a body. On the other
~iand, a mo~?ing body (for example, tne wind, water) t~as a certain effi-
ciency. Let us make the following calculation. When force P is exerted ~
on free mass m, force imparts acceleration to the latter:
W = p
m
By virtue of acceleration the mass acquires a velocity of V= Wt in
time t and travels over a route of W/2 t2. Consequently: `
PS = 2 Wt2�mW ~ 2 mW2t2 = 2 mV2 (1)
One half of the product of mass multiplied by the square of velocity
is called kinetic energy, or living force, of a moving body. The left
part of equation (1) the product of multiplying force by the route
traveled, is called work power P performed by force over traject~ry S. ~
Thus, equation (1) c~ald be read as follows: kinetic energy acquired
by a~rree body when passing over a certain route equals the work performed
by the force exerted on free mass over this route.
When a weight is lifted with the arms extended, muscular force is expended,
in the first place, to overcome gravity and, in the second place, to
generate kinetic energy in moving elements. Total n~sscular work involved -
in lifting a weight was determined from the results of numerous experi-
ments at the moment that the center of gravity of. the arm reached
maximum velocity. Overall work of muscles equals:
Ph + m22 + I 2 , _
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i.e., it equals the sum of the following: work to raise center of gravity
Fh, where P is the weight of the arm and weight and h is the height of
elevation of the center of gravity above the initial position at the
- time it reaches maximum velocity; kinetic energy of the arm and weight
at the time of achievement of maximum linear velocity. Kinetic energy
equals the sum of products of mass of moving elements of the arm and
weight mult~plied by half the square of velocity of their centers of -
gravity (kinetic energy in forward motion); magnitude of kinetic energy in
rotating motion of elements of the arm and weight in relation to centers
of gravity of the elements. The kinetic energy of a solid of revolution
includes the kinetic energy of all particles making up the solid. Tf one
of these particles moves at a distance r from the axis of rotatioii at -
linear velocity V, the kinetic energy of tltis particle is 1/2(mV2).
Let us introduce an angular (in radians) velocity w= r that is the same
for all particles, aitd we shall obtain 2 mV2 = 2 mw2r2. .
By adding the kinetic energy of all particles, we shall obtain the kinetic
energy of the entire solid in its revolving movement:
m2 1
' 2 2 ~J m'w2r1, -
~m1rl: is the moment of inertia in kinetic energy which plays the same
role in revolving motion as mass does in forward motion. From the stand- -
point of physics, the moment of inertia is a gage of resistance of a
given solid to rotation, just as mass can serve as a gage of resistance
of the solid to forces that strive to impart forward motion to it. Thus,
with rotating motion, one can indicate angular velocity w instead of
linear velocity V and moment of inertia l instead of mass m in the
formula for kinetic energy.
The angular velocity of movement of parts of the body c~ (in radians) is ,
calculated in the following manner: Determination~is made of angles (in
degrees) traversed by elements within a specific time segment (t) from �
the graphs of forward motions. Then calculation is made of the number -
of degrees that could be traveled in 1 s if the velocity were constant
during a second, i.e., velocity of motion is related to 1 s. The ob-
tained value, expressed in degrees, is multiplied by ~r and divided by 180.
The moment of inertia of a single element is calculated as follows:
I = Mp2
where M is the mass of the entire system, p is the radius or arm of ~
inertia.
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By the definition of Fisher, the radius of inertia of long elements of the
human body equals 0.3 Z, where Z is the length of the element from the
praximal to the distal end.
r
After the square of angular velocities in radians and moments of inertia
of elements are determined, half the product of these parameters will
constitute the sought kinetic energy of elements in rotating motion.
The sum of kinetic energy of elements of the arm and weight in forward and
rotating motion is the entire kinetic energy of the system of the arm
and weight at the time that the center of gravity of the system reaches -
maximum velocity. If, during further elevation of the arm with the weight
the velocity of movement diminishes so that elevation of the arm will
equal zero at the end of the movement, the a~cumulated kinetic energy at
- this time is expended to maintain upward movement. Thus, in the top
part of the trajector of lifting the weight, muscular work is alleviated
by the fact that kinetic energy is involvad in upward motion. The higher
the maximum velocity attained by the moving system, the greater the role _
of kinetic energy. In the segment of the trajectory, in which movement
is performed with deceleration, part of the movement of raising the arm
is performed at the expense of accumulated kinetic energy. On the basis
of data obtained in numerous experiments that we conducted, we determined.
the share of work performed at the end of arm raising at the expense of
kinetic energy. It was established that this share can increase by 20-60% -
in the course of exerc~se. �
The trajector in its upper part becomes easier for muscles due to in-
crease in maximum velocities and kinetic energy in the course of
practicing weight lifting. This is related to development of high
velocity at the start of the weight-lifting trajectory and; consequently,
to concentration of muscular work on a short segment of trajectory and
time. Such a change becomes possible because of the capacity of the
receptor and effector part of the reflex cycle of the motor system to
increase the corresponding velocities of function and assimilate the
- new mode of activity. The change in function of the motor system in
the course of exercise aids in economy of muscular activity. At the
end of the motion of weight lifting, the conditions for muscular con-
traction become unfavorable for two reasons: because of the increase in ,
moment of force of gravity, and because of reduction in length of
functioning muscles. Thus, the use of kinetic energy instead of energy
of muscular contract is extremely advantageous in this segment of the
trajectory.
An analogous study of biodynamics of movements in specific forms of work
revealed that the principle of concentration of muscular force is a
consistent pattern in inception of motion during exercise.
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- The principle of conr.entration of powcr has been confirmed in studies under
both laboratory and production conditions. The parameters of concentra-
tion of muscular force--duration of development of waves of velocity and
acceleraCion--can be used as quantitative indicators of the degree of
perfection of coordination.
When describing coordination of movements, such properties oF work movements
are mentioned as rational use of passive force (R. Wagner, 1927; K.
Vakk~khol'der, 1928; M. I. Vinogradov, 1958), smaothness and rhythmicity
of movements. These properties, as well as exclusion of superfluous move-
ments, are derivatives of the main property of movement, the concentration
of muscular exertion.
While one observes rather complete and purposeful use of force of inertia,
the weight-lifting motion with relief of muscles, which continues with
expenditure of kinetic energy, is performed, to a significant extent, under
- the influence of force of inertia, while lowering the weight is more
rational when there is prompt tension of muscles that inhibit the effect
of gravity. Prompt nuscular contractions are also involved in smoothness
of movement. The rhythm of muscular contractions, which is characterized
by the proper alternation of periods of activity and relative relaxation
of muscles, is also one.~of the e~:ternal expressions of concentration of
muscular force.
Thus, the study of work movements makes it possible tu answer a number of
questions that are v~ry important in assessing efficiency and developing =
measures to improve the work process.
The data pertaining to biomechanics of work movements, which describe the
shape and dimensions of work trajectories, can be used to compare the
movements under study to standards that were set empirically and found
by progressive workers, or developed as a result of planned scientific -
research. Analysis of the curves of velocities and accelerations de-
veloped while performing concrete work movements also helps determ3ne
and evaluate accuracy and skill of these movements. The study of mnve-
ment by the methods of biomechanics makes it possible,to provide an ob-
jective quar~titative description of accuracy, coordination and skill of
work movements. Quantitative characteristics refer not only to exogenous
mechanical processes, but to the reflex system that implements self-
regulation of work movements, i.e., the dynamic work stereotype.
~he distribution in time of velocities and accelerations of different
parts of the body, development and completion of exertion in different
muscle groups in accbrdance with the existing.standards for work move- -
ments enable us to evalu3te correctly, from the standpoint of ptiysiology,
coordination of work movements on the basis of two biomechanical criteria:
exclusion of superfluous degrees of freedom and concentration of muscular
exertion in the appropriate time interval.
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Standards*of Work Movements
A comprehensive study of different work movements using the above-described
methods of biomechanics makes it possible to conclud e that movements that
aid in more productive labor and which are notable for co?-rect, economical
and accurate concentration (high parameters of concentration of muscular
force and nervous processes) can be used as standards. The question
arises: How should these standards be set? The labo r organizer can use
the methods described helow, depending on how ~raphi c and complete a
descripti~n is needed to introduce a given standard f or a work movement.
Platting graphs of successive positions is one of the graphic and simple
methods of representing the standard for a work movement. For this
purpose, successive arm movements (with the tool or object of labor)
over specific short (up to 0.1 s) intervals are plot t ed on millimeter
graph paper in a rectangular system of coordinates. On this graph, the
elements of the arm are represented in the form of s e gments of lines
limited by the characteristic [determinant] points of the upper limb: the axis
of the upper arm islimited by points b(center of shoulder ,joint) and a
(center of elbow joint); the axis of the forearm is 1 imited by points
a and m(center of radiocarpal joint); the axis of the hand is limited
by points m and gm (center of gravity of the hand).
To plot graphs of successive positiotis of work movements, one uses the
values of coordinates obtained from reading cyclograms and kymocyclograms.
From them, one determines the position of the determinant points on the
biomechanical diagram of the arm at each moment, at specific intervals of
time. Then the points corresponding to a given time are connected by
straight lines. Figures la and lb illustrate the graphs of successive~
positions of normal work movements when cutting metal and sawing a block
_ of wood.
Another method of illustrating standards of work movements is to plot
parametric curves expressing coordinates of articula t ion angles and
components of velocity and acceleration of determinan t points an the
biomechanical diagram of the arm as a function of time (frame number)
while performing a given movement. The time in frac t ions of a second is
plotted oz~ the x-axis and the values of the coordina t e making up the
velocity and accelerations of each determinant point s on the biomechanical
diagram of the human body are plotted on the y-axis. Figure 2 illustrates
examples of parametric curves.
From these curves, one can determine how displacemen t of each point of the
biomechanical diagram develops and should develop wi th normal movement, in
different directions, when o*_ie phase ends and another begins (raising,
_ lowering weight and arms, pause in upper or ~o~;~er po s ition, etc.), how
velocity and acceleration develop, when they reach a maximum and to what
level these parameters rise.
*Normals ~
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- - Figure la.
~~~o : Successive positions of axes
, of arm elements and hammer
~ ~ in hacking metal
,~,u ~ '0 a) center of elbow ~oint "
~ d� � b) center of shoulder ~oint
es ~a " m) center of radiocarpal
�00 ~ " ~oint
~~A~ � p�os. 70 gm) center of gravity of_ hand
~oo ~ � ml ) center of gravity of
" hammer
61
~ 6po ra ~s m ~a ~
ts
eo ~1 m f 'y
~t
p
S00 61 ~ Q1 ~ �
a~ ~s
ao ~
,u sn ~
~S
400 a !3 '
. w J0
- a~ y"'
J00
- ~ .
. ~
I
I ~ _ ~ ~
~ l00 100 J00 600 300 600 700NN
_ _
~ ~ .b
i
00 ~
_ ~ / D
;au
. Figure lb.
t,.,,_ 9m Successive positions of axes
�r of arm elements while sawing
~ block of wood
~ - , s
6
7
C ~ y
W,~ ro~ o f(x) = ao+(al cos x+b.lsinx)
. ~ w ~ �
cv ~ o 0 0 ~ ~ (a2 cos 2x + b2 sin~2x)' , . . _
N N b0 Gl ~O �C ~''1 '
~ o o ~ For the function to have the simplest
H x~~ ~ ~,b appearance (for example, as shown above),
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P'igure 3.
Curves of an~les of shoulder (a~) -
~ and elbow (b ) ~oints when =
~ hacking metal as a function of time;
w�
- y= 125 frames/s; x-axis, time
in fractions of cycle of movement
- o_ azs s a;s s
0 ~t IX
b� ~
-JO�
_ _ . . _
-
_ _ . _ .
Table 3. Approximated formulas of articular angles in worc~ `
mc?~tements as a function of time expressed in fractions of cycle
.n
- _ \x - nJ ~ 1
Formulas
Lifting weight on Angle of flexion in b�=66,5-40,8 cus"x-
extended arms shoulder joint -4,5 r.os 2x-0,5 cos 3x
Free weight- Angle of fle:~ion in b� ~ 3~ - 3~,G cos x-~-
lifting shoulder .~�.I,3 cos 2x
Angle of flexion in elbow a� = 17~1,1 8,3 cos x+
0, GG cus 2z - cos 3x
- Angle of flexion in b� = 27,5 - G cos x-
shoulder - 2,1 cos 3x + 11,3 sin x-
-5,1 sin 2z-{-1,8 sin3x
Striking motions Angle of flexion in i a� = 60,8-7,8 cos z-{-
_ (when chopping shoulder -E- 4,1 c:os 2x - 6,6 cos 3x -
metal) - 43,3 sin x-}- O,G6 sin 2x-
-2,6 sir~ 3x
Pushing motions Angle of flexion in 6� 45 - 3~~ cos x-}-
(sawing block of shoulder -1- 5,1 cos 2x - 0,16 cos 3x
. wood) -
Angle of flexion in elbow a� = 8~,4 30,8 cos x+
5,8 cos 2x 0,16 cos 3x
Forward motion Angle of flexion in m�-147-4,lcosx-
radiocarpal j oint - 0,1 cos 2x - 0,1 cos 3x
one must choose the unit of ineasurement of the independent variable. This ~
will be obtained provided that one full c}~cle of the function studied
develops from beginning to end in the interval from x= 0 to x= 2~r. Coeffi-
- cients ao, al, a2i etc., are deternained by the Euler method. Table 3 lists 4
�approxima.ted formulas, which express the values o,f articular angles in a -
series of work movements as a function of time expressed in fractions of
- the period (fractions of ~t) .
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' CHAPTER 3. SELF-REGULATION OF PHYSIOLdGTCAL PROCESSES IN WORKING MAN
Active Adaptation to Work
In the preceding chapter, we discussed objectively set standards �or work
positions and movements. These standards were developed on the basis of
physiological and biomechanical laws. In setting these standards, the
physiological method was used for analysis of specific work positions and
movements. The appropriate methods and algorithm make it possible to
_ set new standards of work positions and movements under any industrial con-
ditions where it is necessary to perform new motor actions. A physiolo-
gically substantiated method of setting standards of work positions and
= motions can also be used to design the work movements of robots. In parti-
cular, the mathematical formulas that express the values of articular
angles as a function of length of motion at a given time in the cycle were
~ used for ob~ective description of the proper and actual movements of
artificial elements of the upper ex~remity (S. A. Kosilov, 1951); formulas
expressing muscular force as a function of sample of traction and displace-
- ment of points on the biomechanical diagram of man were used to design.the
mechanism of an artificial arm after amputation of the upper extremity at
the shoulder joint (F. S. Vorontsov, 1969). ~
Rational work places, on which it is planned to perform work actions that
are industrially purposeful and physiologically optimal can and must he
designed on the basis of the standards for work positions and movements.
In the special literature there are examples of rational organization of
work places referable to a number of occupations (M. R. Zhuravlev, 1954;
0. A. Sidorov, 1962; W. Woodson and D. Conover, 1968, and others).
In most cases, the recommendations on organizing the work place are
based on production expediency with due consideration of anthropometric .
data, and they pertain to only a few typical work processes in modern
industry. One cannot demonstrate the diversity of existing work processes
on these examples, let alone the uteans of rational organization of new
work places. This is a task that can be successfully performed by indus-
_ trial physiology, wfiich uses, in addition to t~he anthropometric approach,
the physiological and biomechanical ones, designing new standards of
motor actions in accordance with the laws of physiology and biomechanics.
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Thus, industrial physiology is instrumental.in implementing rational -
- organization af work positions and movements and, consequently, achieving
stable efficiency, both with the existing level of development of ~
technology and with new forms of organization of labor and industry.
The use of standards [normalsl of wack positions and movements, and of
- standard work place desii~gs is one of t11e grerequisites for increasing
_ labor productivity and profitability of industry. However, having the
- necessar~ standards for motor activity, the labor and 3ndustry organizer
- can introduce these standards only if the correct means are found for
developing in workers the approtriate work skills and abilities.
As shown by the many years of experience in traditional pedagogics, a
~ purely empirical sez.rch~ for these means has not and will not resuZt in
_ finding the optimum method of teaching ability and'skills. This method
must take into consiueration the physiological.processes inherent in
- the human body that aid in adaptation to work activity.
, In systems theory, adaptat~ton, or adjustment to changing interaction with -
new ob~ ects, is related to solving the identification problem. In order
, to study the laws of adaptation of a given controlled cybernetic system,
a model of the system is cons'rructed and reactions to a number of input
' factors are studied. Thus, a study is made of passive adaptation of
, technical systems designed to simulate, to some extent, some of the func-
tions of a worker. Unlike technical systems,~active adaptation is inherent
in man, and it has a numb er of distinctive features, such~as the capacity
y of the nervous system to summate. and store traces of excitation that
appeared in the nervous sys tem during the work process and, spr~ading over _
nerves, ~ed to activation of a muscle.. Accumulation in nerve centers of
residual, nonspreading ~xc i tation alters their functional state, i.e.,
increases excitability and functional lability, as well as the.intensity
of excitatory volleys. Con current reduction of intervals, during which
- there is development of sep arate. excitatory volleys, and increased intensity -
- of each volley determine the cuncentration of muscular exertion in time and,
consequently, increased ac curacy of movements.
The performance of complex and precise movements is governed by a specific
program. In technical sys t ems, the appropriate program is established by
a programmer. The worker's work program is formed in the course of summa-
tion of traces of excitation in a group of active nerve centers. �
_ The distribution of excita tory traces in the nervous system forms an
optimal mosaic or constellatior, r;f nerve centers that are notable for
_ heightened activity. The lat'.er becomes the material basis of the -
~ functional reflex system af tne dynamic worlcstereotype with an integral
image, which is the most impi:~rtant element of the dynamic work stereotype.
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The task for industrial physiology, with respect to substantiation of
_ scientific organization of labor, is not limited to an explanation of how
abilities and skills must be acquired; it must include determination of ~
the really~existing physiological processes that implement i~dt~stxial -
' training. All this is needed to elaborate measures in industry and
vocational technical-schools, directed toward steady developm~nt o~
~ key (i.e., those important to master an occupation) physiological functions
in the traiaee.
When sea~Lc~ing for thp most effective methods of optimum assimilation of -
vocational abilities and skills, it is very important to take into consider-
ation the distinctions of each young worker who wishes to learn a given
occupation. Each individual who has selected a given occupation differs
i.n traits required to work in this occupation. .
K. Marx, in an analysis of separatipn of labor in factories, observed
_ that the most efficient separation of labor is�achieved when workers are
~ grouped according to their prevalent capabilitiea. "Different operations
that are performed alternately by :a produeer and me~g3ng into a single
whole in the course of his work make different demands of him. In one
case, he must develop more force, in another case more skill, in ano~her
more attention, etc., but an individual never has these traits to equal
_ extents. After separation, isolating and setting apart different ~ -
- operations, the workers are divided classified and grouped in accordance
, with their predomina~t ab3li~ies."2~ Abilities refer to the individual
distinctions of a man, which are the subjective prerequisites for
_ successful performance of a specific form of activity. Ability does not
reflect some specific material .(physiological) process. Psychologists
- believe that "ability determines what man is capable of doing.r25 Ability
is manifested by skill and the results of a specific activity. In the
definition of R. Seashore, ability implies a certain hypothetical essence
that assures success of a specific activity. Ability does not only .
determine skill, knowledge and capacity, but itself is based on the
. influence and mutual determination of inherited traits of the organism, on
the one hand, and social living conditions, on the other.
Development of abilities is related to the existence of inclinations in an
indi~iidual, i.e., specific physiological functions, from which abilities
- manifested by skill and knowhow under favorable social conditions. Optimum
interaction between inclinations and stimuli determined by the influence
on the org,anism of.natural and social environment can become the basis ~
for predicting development ot ~nacks and skills required to learn an
_ occupation. Consequently, a certain level of development of appropriate
physiological functions, inclinations for abilities, is req~ired to
successfully learn a given occupation. The physiological functions,
upon which depends the development of skills and knacks that are specific
~ to a given occupation, ure the key functions, which permit optimum
adap*_ation to an occupation if they are developed.
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The key functions include functions of the analyzers, analytical and
synthetic functions of the nerv~ous system, interaction between signaling
systems and reality, as well as functions that constitute the basis of
attention, memory, motivation, etc., required for work.
Depending on the ],evel of development of these functions, there is more
or less intensive and diverse interac*_ion between man and the social envi-~
ronment, manifested by formatir~n of professional interests, accumulation of
knowledge and involvement in social life. l~ccording to Marxist theory,
"the process of such dialectical interaction of the individual, who has
certain inclinations and abilities, with the social environment--other
people, products of spiritual cu lture, public institutions and means of
labor--is a process of formation of the personality.i26
In a socialist society, the pedagogic influences of family and school,
participation in work of a team, worksh~p, institution and public work
not onlq aids in acquiri~g and advancing the qualifications of a worker,
but in his comprehensive development and achievement in work. In order to
_ create favorable conditions for comprehensive development of each worker,
one must J.earn about the structure and functions of the nervous system
and psychophysiological processes that occur during work and man's assimila-
tion of vocational abilities and skills. Sucfi information can be found in
textbooks of human anatomy and physiology. As~one becomes acquainted with
such material, one must bear in mind that, unlike animals, people react
_ differently to exogenous stimuli, depending on the experience in social
life they have accumulated.
Conditioned reflexes, which are the basis of.human work skills, differ
substantially from the conditioned reflexes~of animals. Conditioned re-
flexes of man are complex systems of reflexes of the first and second
signaling systems in response to stimuli from the social environment,
to which man has developed a special reaction. It is not the unconditioned
reflex that serves as reinforcement of the ref lex system of the dynamic
work stereotype inresponse to such factors as presentation of food or -
re,jected substance, but achievement of a conscious work goal.
Functional Self-Regulating Systems of Work Behavior
The main physiological mechanism of controlling vital functions of man, the
reflex, can be manifested in different forms, depending on the complexity
and distinctions of physiological and mental processes involved in work
activitq. Let us consider some examples of reflexes. . �
The simplest reflex is the patellar reflex. If one strikes with a mallet
the tendon of the femoral quadriceps, this muscle extends, which~leads to
stimulation of receptors. Excitation passes from receptors to a sensory
cell, then to motor cells of the spinal cord and from them to the muscle
that extends the leg at the knee.
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_ The route of excitation is the reflex cycle of the patellar reflex. Many
motor reflexes have reflex cycles consisting of many neurons, since inter-
mediate (intercalary) neurons are contained between sensory and effector
neurons. In the patellar reflex, excitation passes from a sensory neuron
to an effector neuron within the same segnent of the spinal cord (without `
involving segments of the cord that are higher and lower). As a rule,
excitation reaches different segments of the spinal cord and differetit
- branches of the central nervous system through intercalary neurons.
_ The patellar reflex is associated with relaxation of antagonist muscles
(muscles with the opposite action) and change in muscula~ tension of the _
other leg. Each motor act corresponds to a reactio.n of the cardiovascular
- and respiratory systems. .
The flow of neural impulses from the actual receptors of contracting
muscles to the central nervous system elicits a reaction in the nerve
centers, which aids ir~ stoppi.ng.leg~movement af,cer completion of the~
reflex.
Siraple defense reflexes occur in a similar manner, for example, pulling
the hand away from a pin prick or upon touching a hot ob3ect, etc.
Reflexes directed toward regulation of physiological processes are more. ~
comple~ than the patellar and defense reflexes and have more marked feed-
back. The pupillary reflex, where the pupils constrictin bright light and
thereby prevent damage to sensory nerve endings by the bright light and
dilate in poor light to increase the force of the stimulus to the retina,
- is an example of such reflexes. This reflex takes place in the following
manner.
Excitation that appears in retinal cells (in rods and cones) under the
influence of light spreads over the fib ers of a sensory nerve and reaches
nerve centers in the anterior part of the brain stem, then it is trans-
� mitted to efferent ce~ls, from which impulses travel to muscles of the
~ iris, which regulate the degree of dilation of the pupil in accordance
with a specific, optimum light flux. Thus, in the pupillary reflex, as
in any machine, information about a certain physical paramet~r (intensity
of illumination) serves to control i~he:motar mechanism.that regulates ~
- this param~eter, bringing it to a specific, close to optimal.value. ~
Another example of regulation is heat regulation. It is known that ex-
- cessive heat, which ac~umulates as a result of biochemical processes in
- _ .
the human body and become stronger during intensive physical work, is
elimi:nated by means of evaporation of perspiration and increased heat
transfer from the body surface upon dilatation of blood vessels in the
skin. The center of heat transfer is in the hypothalamus, which is in
the anterior part of the brain stem. A change in temp~rature of blood
passing through the hypothalamus induces dilatation of skin vessels and
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incr.eases perspiration. Thus, a constant skin temperature of 37�C is
maintained.
In all of the examples of functional reflex systems discussed, there ~
- is regulation (with the use of direct association and feedback) of different~ -
functions in order to keep the constant parameters set by nature. Such
regulation leads us to assume tYeat there is a special apparatus in the
central nervous system that evaluates information from the periphery ,
(about intensity of light flux, body temperature, smoothness of movements,
adequacy of pulmonary ventilation, etc.) and determines the magYZitude of
necessary adjustment of regulated functions. This apparatus is called
the acceptor of action (P. K. Anokhin, 1962). P..K. Anokhin, who conducted
special experiments on animals, proved that "the respiratory center reacts
immed~,ately to feedback concerning an inadequate peripheral result by
intensifying significantly its efferent impulsations.t27 ~
In our examples, reflexes represent reactions of nerue centers that develop
in man (and animals) through heredity, and.they are called unconditioned.
They have the distinction that they appear at a~time when some environmental
factor that stimulates receptors has already begun to be active. For
optimum adaptation of the body to environmental conditions, which change
constantly~ unconditioned reflexes alone are not sufficient.
The organism requires reactions that would prevent the effects of some
environmental factors and that would appearin response to stimuli that
are signals of possible appearance of such factors. It is very important
for man to be able to avoid a present danger, by means of knowing about it
in advance through signals. Reflexes that develop in man.and highly '
developed animals in the course of individual development are such signals.
Since these reflexes are formed only under specific conditions, I. P.
Pavlov called them conditioned. For a conditioned reflex to form, the
effect of some previously neutral stimulus must precede the effect of
a stimulus that elicits an unconditioned reflex. Formation of new con-
ditioned reflexes,. specification, stabilization and refinement thereof -
~ccur in the cerebral cortex. As stated by I: P. Pavlov, there is
bridging of a temporary eonnectiA~ between�cortical centers in formation
of a conditioned reflex, for example, the hand can be pulled away not
only after exposure to a specific stimulus, but sooner, ~a~ready at the
- sight of it. In the conditioned refl.ex, excitation that spreads over
the nervous system reaches the cerebral cortex, where a temporary connec-
tion is made between cortical centers of different analy~ers and motor
centers. This means that if excitation arises in the nerve centers of
analyzers (in the cortical representation of a given analyzer), it arises
simultaneously in the cortical motor centers (cortica.l representation of
the motor system). From them, exciCation travels to the motor centers of
the spinal cord. .
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Periodic reinforcement, i.e., renewal of action of the unconditioned reflex,
on the basis of which a given cflnditioned reflex was formed, is an important
prerequisite for retaining and defining this new conditioned reflex. If
there is no reinforcement for a long time, the conditioned reflex will
become extinct under the influence of inhibition. ~
There are also reflex actions in work behavior. When a lathe operator
turns a part on a lathe and changes from one operation to another, from -
one movement to another, he executes a series of reflexes. For example, ~
when the cutter comes close to the notch on the part, the operator ~
turns off the power feed, then turns the lathe off also. After the
- lathe stops, he moves the cutter away, takes a measuring instrument,
makes a measurement, etc. In this sequence of actions, each successive
action starts in response to specific changes that occur in the techno-
logical process, and each properly performed action receives conditioned
_ reinforcement in the form of a change in state of the ob~ect of labor
stipulated in the work instructions.
On the basis of the outward similarity of human actions and.reflexeses ob-
served in animals, some foreign scientists believe that one should study
human behavior as purely conditioned reflex activity, without consideratinn
of processes of consciousness and its psychophysiological basis. For
example, John Watsan suggested th~t one consider man as an organism that
lives and moves without realizing what it does. According to his theory
of behaviorism, the nature of reflection by the brain of reality,
indivisibility and differentfation of perception, interpretation of
associations and relations, etc., are not important to an explanation of
human behavior. In the opin~on of J. Watson, the human body performs .
different movements haphazardly, with many trials and errors, and solves
the motor problem before it as a result of selection of movements that
are reinforced by achievement cf a result. Such simplistic determinism
in the study of human be.havior rules out determination of the role af
mental phenomena in behavior of the personality. The latter is virtually
entirely equated with animal behavior. If a psychologist wants to
retain a scientific position," writes Watson, "he should not describe
human behavior in terms other than the ones he would have used to describe
a bull that he has led to slaughter."28
- Logical development of these views results in negation of ideology and
morals in human behavior, as well as other traits of the human personality
and its social nature. '
It should be noted that I. P.~Pavlov, the founder of the teaching on ~ -
conditioned reflexes and higher nervous activity, foreseeing the possi-
bility of such narrow interpretation of his discoveries, dissociated him-
self from such extreme, biologizational simplifications of tY~e problem of =
human behavior. Insisting that "our upbringing, edu:.atfon, discipline of
all sorta.and all sorts of habits constitute long series of conditioned
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reflexes," he warned that "one should wait patiently until precise and
full knowledge about our supreme organ, the brain, will become our
real possession, and with it the main foundation for durable human
happiness.j29 I. P. Pavlov stressed: "It would be extremely foolhardy to
consider the first steps in physiology of the cerebral hemispheres,
complete in program only but not, of course, in content, as the solu-
tion to the tremendous problem of higher mechanism of human nature. For _
this reason, any narrow regulation of work on this subject at the
present time would merely be an indication of extreme narrow~indedness.i3o
Industrial physiologists and psychologists are faced with the task of
defining the specific patterns of higher nervous activity of man. Labor `
' is the basic distinction of man, as compared to animals. In labor, as a
- collective form of activity, there is development of communication between
people, mutual understanding on the basis of common work goals. For this
reason, accuracy, fullness, meaningfulness and ob~ectivity of reflection in -
consciousness of man's own activity and the collective work proceas acquire
decisive significance.
- Stimuli that appear in group work activity constitute a unique categery ~ -
of stimuli. There exceptionally high intensity is manifested by the fact
that they not only elicit a specific reaction, but alter the state an~d
course of human vital processes, and at the same time elicit sensations
and conceptions reflecting the properties of the natural and social
environment. ~ _
The data obtained by industrial physiologists from studies conducted under
prcdui:tion conditions are indicative of the physiological significance of -
socially determined stimuli. In~a study of physiological processes in
workers engaged in mechanized accounting, T. N. Pavlova (1956) measured
the critical frequency of disappearance of phosphene (sensation of fliclcering
light induced by delivery of weak, intermitte~tt current to the optic nerve).
It was found that, in an ordinary production aituation, man ceases to
notice phosphene when the frequency of electire stimulation is increased
to 40 Hz. During the experiment, the sub~ect was told that there is a
telephone call for him. He.asks who is calling. He learns that a
friend is calling. This is associated with an increase to 45 Hz in critical
phosphene frequency. When the subject is called in by the shop supervisor,
the critical phosphene frequency constituted 80 Hz and when called in by
the director it was 120 Hz. Thus, there is a change in functional lability
of the human nervous system under the influence of socially determined ~ �
stimuli.31 .
Motor reactions to stimuli while performing work operations differ from
other reactions in that they are directed toward creating use values. As a _
means of producing use values, they may be significant, not in the form of
separate movements, but necessari2y in a combination of various motor and. _
mental actions constituting the dynamic work stereotype, i.e., a system of
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reflexes that solves a specific work problem and receives reinforcement in
the form of a useful result that is meaningful to satisfaction of society's
needs (S. A. Kosilov, 1957).
The capacity to form reflex systems is inherent, to some extent, in higher
animals,. Such associations of elementary conditioned reflexes were ob-
tained ~in research conducted on dogs by I. P. Pavlov and his coworkers.
Conditioned salivation reflexes in response to various stimuli (for
. example, metronom~ beat, lamp lighting up, "kasalka" [tappe~]) were -
developed in experimental animals. Then these conditioned stimuli were
always used in the same order. The animals responded to a series of -
such stimuli with a series of reflexes in the same order. A specific amount
of saliva was produced in response to each conditioned stimulus. The series
of reflexes occurred in the original order with change in order of stimuli.
I. P. Pavlov called such a combination of r~flexes into a single system
the dynamic stereotype.
There is a basic difference between the dynamic work stereotype and the
dynamic stereotype inherent in animala. Verbal stimuli, or stimuli.of
the second signaling system, in the form of instructions by an instructor,
foreman, written instructions and blueprints, are among the stimuli to ~
which man reacts as he performs work operations. There is a large number~
of components in the dynamic work stereotype, whereas'there can be no
more than four components in the stereotype of animals. The dynamic
stereotype of animals is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, which
elicits some natural reaction (for example, salivation, defensive move-
ments, etc.), while the dynamic work stereotype ~s reinforced by achieve-
ment of a socially useful result from the motor reaction, which consists
of competent movements, formulation of verbal reports, execution'of
blueprints, diagrams, tables, etc.. ~
The social nature of labor deter_mines man's ability to form very complex
reflex systems in the course of work, and to use.as reinforcement and
maintenance thereof signals about effective attainment of the result of
labor. This distinction of man is inherent in him as a social being, ~
the behavior and vital functions of which are governed by social laws. -
For this reason, simpler and more common biological laws, which are in
effect under the special conditions of social relations, become more
_ complicated, enriched with new content, and they are transformed into _
more complex special (effective in a narrower area of application)
sociobiological and psychological laws.
The dynamic work stereotype is the unit of human behavior as a social
being. The patterns of formation, maintenance and refineffient of the
dynamic work stereotype constitute the typical distinction of man from
all other living things. Knowledge of these laws [patterns] makes it
possible to find adequate means of controlling vital functions, man's
work and social activi~y, as well as the means for rational organization
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of industrial training, job placement, vocational guidance and development
of work creativity. One explains how,in the presence of the second signal-
ing system, man plans his actions in accordance with verbal instructions
he receives, on the basis of the laws of formation of the dynamic work
stereotype. Verbal Stimuli are forceful and meaningful because they
help man to experience again prior states inherent in previously performed
work processes, to receive the corresponding sensations, to form concep-
tions about prior and future work activity.
Words that a man hears or reads help him in forming a conception of the
goal of a work action and means of reaching it. By means of verbal _
instructions, man acquires the physiological basis for planning and regulat-
ing work actions. In response to audible or visible combinations of the
appropriate words, a man becomes mure animated and there is intensification
of stimulation which had remained, in the form of slight traces, in his
central nervous system from prior activity, which is the physiological
basis of the conception of the goal of work, plan and means of reaching .
_ this goal.
The system of traces of nervous excitation, which are revived with the =
appropriate verbal stimuli, constitutes the basis of programming of
specific work behavior, and it is made up (depending on the content
of the 'industrial work task) of processes that include the function of
different parts and points in the central nervous system. There can be
traces here of excitation of different sense organs, excitation of diverse
quantitative nuances, combinations and sequences.
Since sensations and reflexes that recur with revival of traces o.f
excitation are elicited by previously perceived ob~ects which are not
present in the immediate vicinity at the present time, we are dealing
with the image of these objects, events and actions. An image that
is made up of many trace elementary work processes is called the integr al
image of work acti~ns.
Neurology has helped determine approximately the regions of the central ~
_ nervous sgstem where processes occur that make up the material basis of -
the integral image of work actions. Observations of patients with
injuries in the frontal region of the brain merit attention. Such
- patients have difficulty in performing relatively complex programs of
motor activity. It is difficult for them to place.checkers in a specific
order (for example, a row Qf two white and one black checker, etc.), or
to draw figures in some order (for example, a row of two crosses and
one circle, etc.). Observations of such patients revealed that the main
difficulty in executing a program of actions is referable to self-monitor-
ing, evaluation of their own actions and detection of their own mistakes.
Patient~ repeat correctly the instructions they are given and can readilS
_ detect mistakes made by someone else in executing the same program,
Neurologists and psychiatrists believe t.hat the inability to execute
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relatively complex programs, which is associated with massive lesions
to frontal lobes of the brain, is related to impaired formation of
preliminary syntheses and defects ref erable to signaling and regulatory
function of speech, as well as impairment of the mechanism of comparing
the effect of one's own action to the initial one.32
A fuller idea about the localization of excitatory sites in the cerebral
cortex during.formation of an integral image of work actions was obtained
from studies of movements in simulation of work activity. ~
We have tracked the involvement of higher branches of the nervous system
in formation of the integral image of work actions (S. A. KosiZov, A. I.
Vasyutina, A. A. Rigina, 1970) on the model of accuracy of depressing a
lever (Figure 4),33
_ Figure 4.
~ n' Simplified diagram of recording bio-
~ Q~ ~~~p electrical activity of muscles and
~ ~ cerebral cortex during performance of
I r ~ 1_ recision movements
c, ~-c, P
~ I~ amplifiers and recording devices of
; I r' ns4o jr-ru ` B"' electroencephalogra~ah, on which
.1__. .
~ BN~ action currents of muscles and dif-
Lo g~, ferent regions of the cerebral cor-
6 ~i 1 RJ ~ tex are recorded .
B,~ Rs_ a) resistance bridge, one ~ ar~a o~ .which
l a~ is�a~sensor of muvements in radio-
- �""f carpal j oint
3I'-10) sound generator whose signal~ are
delivered to one r~f the EEG circuits _
over bridge R5_e (the amplitude of
these signals changes in accordance
with bridge imbalance) ~
Bk) swit ch H340) automatic recorder tracing movements
A) sensor on a larger ~cale
C) adder I') mirror galvanometer for visual
B) batt ery j?] monitoring of movement~ in radio- '
c~.rpal ~oint
JI3) lamp with lens directing beams to
mirror ~nd screen
The subjec t*.,ra~. asked to bend the arm in the radiocarpal joint to move the
kinesthesicrmer,ex ~.ever so tt~at the control line on the oscilloscope s~reen
would reach a specified level.
~efore sta~ ti.ng ~his te$t, electrodes were attached to the subject's head
for deriva~~.~n of bioelectrical potentials from different garts of the
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cerebral cortex. While the subject performed specified movements, the
electroencephalograph recorded the mechanogram of precision movement,
biopotentials of muscles (extensors and flexors of the radiocarpal ~oint),
bioelectric potentials derived from points on the skull over the frontal,
temporal, parietal and occipital regions of the cortex. Electrodes
fixed over the frontal region transmitted potentials of nerve centers
related to programming of activity. The instrument recorded the action
, potentials related to formation of motor impulses, perception and analysis
of stimuli of nerve endings in muscles,'joints and tendons (kinesthetic
stimuli) by means of electrodes placed over the central region (over the
sensorimotor and motor regions.of the brain, where the anterior and pos-
terior central gyri of the cerebral cortex are located). Electrodes
' fixed over the ~emporal region trar.smitted information about bioelectrical
potentals related to tension of the auditory analyzer; electrodes fixed
over the occipital region transmitted potentials r.elated to tension of
the visual analyzer.
- We had to determine how the accuracy of a specified movement would change
in relation to organization of monitoring of these movements and involve-
menr. of various analyzers and various regions of the cerebral cortex.
It was assa.med that under diverse conditions of additional monitoring
[or control] in the cerebral cortex, a different integral image will be
formed and, accordingly, different distribution of activity of nerve
centers that constitute the physiological basis of behavior in accordance
- with the integral image. ~
Students 16-17 years of age participated in the experiment. We conducted
four experiments on monitoring of performance of precision movements. In
the first experiment, we used kinesthetic analysis of motor activity .
without additional signals from other analyzers. At first, the subject
performed three movements with a specified amplitude, in accordance with
movement of a?ight signal on the oscillogcope screen; then (after the
integral visual-motor image of action was formed) he performed zhe three
movements without a.light signal. The actions of the subject were based
_ on an already formed image and corresponding traces of nervous excita-
tion in the cortex.
In the second experiment, there was constant visual monitoring of movements.
In the third, the subject was infornied of mistakes.made after performing ~
a movement without additional monitoring. In the fourth experiment, there
was concurrent visual and verbal monitoring [control].
Figure 5 illustrates tracings of inechanical and bioelectrical processes.
In our analysis of the findings in each experiment, we took into considera-
_ tion several parameters, including precision of movements. Precision of
movements was characterized by the magnitude of deviation of motion from
specified amplitude. The corresponding values were determined from
entries on a separate chart. We determined the duration of the latency
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period of motor reaction, i.e., the time from deli,very of signal about _
start of movement to start of performance of movement. On the combined EEG
tracing, this parameter is shown on the top line. Then we determined the
duration of the desynchronization (increased rhythm of oscillations with
cuncurrent decrease in their amplitude) latency period. This period
begins at the time of delivery of the signal and lasts to the time of -
r~dical change in EEG rhythm. -
. ~ S ~
- ~s
2 11h~1h'4M,~,nMn,v4~n~+w'~~~.~.~.~~~,~t~M+~h~ly~,.'1~V~UW'V
3 '
4 VI~'IV'tM~~,~MhNw~,iV11M(1~'tiw~,r,~.~,~,~,,n,,~n�~IVl~lr~/~l~'~'
5 ~(V~~~N~NNII~I~,~(~,N~`~r~~,'~'~M~~~
50 'y'l_ !C
_ 6 ~"~,~y,~
~ ~
so~v I
8 M~e~y~l~~~q~'''"'`~""'...."~.~"",~~~.."
Figure 5. Tracings of bioelectric potentals of muscles and cerebral
cortex during performance of precision movements
~
1) mechanogram of movement (S--mark of signal to start movement)
2) bio~lectric potentials of le.ft frontal cortex -
3) bioelectric potentials of left temporal region
4) bioelectric potentials of left central region
~ 5) bioelectric potentials of right central region
6) bioelectric potentials of left occipital region
7) bioelectric potentials of muscles that bend the arm 3n the radio-
carpal joint
_ 8) bioelectric p~tentials of m.uscles that extend the arm in the radio-
carpal ~oint -
- The scale of amplitude of bioelectric potentials ~(uV) and time (s)
is indicated on the oscillogram.
It is generally believed in neurophysiology that an increase in frequency of
bioelectrical oscillations on the EEG with reduction of their amplitude is
47
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indicative of an arousal reaction, increased excitability and interest in
stimuli from the surrounding environment. ~
The effect of the arousal [awakening] reaction is indicative of complex
interrelations an3 feedback between neurons of the cbrtex and subcortical `
structures. When there is limited delivery of afferent impulses to the
cerebral cortex (when the eyes are closed, when in a state of rest in a
quiefi and dark room), slow, high-amplitude waves (alpha waves at a fre-
quency of 8-13/s, delta and theta waves at a frequency of O.S-0.8/s) are
observed on the EEG.. But if afferent impulses are delivered to the
cerebral cortex and a man is in a waking state, the electroencephalograph
records high-frequency, low-amplitude waves (oscillations of the beta
wave type with frequency in excess of 13/s)o Special studies have astab- -
lished that in a waking state impulses are delivered to the cerebral
cortex from those regions of the mesencephalon where cells with a special
structure are localized, which form the reticular iormation. Tn order to
perceive stimuli from sense organs, nervous impulses travel to the cortex
over special sensory nerves; in addition, the cells of the reticular forma-
tion send nonspecif ic impulses to the cortex, which determine the
arousal effect. The duration of the latency per3.od of bioelectrical
- activity of muscles is noted on tracings of bioelectric potent3als of the
muscles.
The described group of bioelectrical parameters characterized the develop-
ment in time of preliminary preparation for movements. A movement is
prepared, according to data on duration of latency periods, first in the
cerebral cortex (where the system of traces of excitation corresponding
~ to the integral image of actions is apparently formed or renewed). Some-
what later, there is preparation for the reaction of muscular contraction
and, finally, movement begins.
- A comparison of the degree of precision of performance by the sub~ects of
a specified movement with the different variants of additional monitoring
revealed that maximum accuracy (minimum error) was achieved with combined
verbai and visual monito.ring, it was somewhat lower with visual monitoring
and lowest with verbal monitoring (Table 4). Data on accuracy of the
mechanical effect in the absence of additional monitoring by kinesthetic
analysis were characterized by lowest accuracy and wide scatter of numerical
- va.lues. The group of subjects who worked without additional monitoring
was divided into two subgroups,.according to accuracy of results (subgroup
A, subjects presenting greater accuracy of results and subgroup B with
_ lesser accuracy). We fuund that, in subgroup A, the latency period of
the motor reaction was longer on the average, while the latency period of ~
desynchronization of bioelectrical processes in frontal and central regions
was shorter than in subgroup B. This indicates that prolonged preparation
for movement (formation and renewal of traces of excitation) in those -
cortical regions where the programming centers (frontal region) and centers
used for kinesthetic analysis (central region) are located is instrumental
in increasing accuracy of movement.
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A man with ~~ell-conditioned respiratory muscles and large vital capacity
presents an increase in pulmonary ventilation with significant physical
loads, the inc.rease being referable chiefly to depth of inspiration and
expiration with relatively minor involvement of respiration. An uncondi-
tioned individua~i increases pulmonary qentilation chiefly by means of ~
faster respiratory excursions.
_ However, the influx of oxygen to muscles is not restricted by pulmonary
ventilation, but by the physiological mechanism cf transmission of oxygen
- from the lungs to muscle tissue. This transfer occurs through blood which, ~
because of heart function, is in continuous movement in the systemic and
pulmonary circulation. -In the pulmonary circulation system, the blood that
passes through capillaries of the lungs comes in cont~:ct with air that~is
in the small alveoli of which the lungs ,are made. There is exchat.~a of
gaseous components between the blood of capillaries and alveolar air. In
accordance with the law of diffusion, carbon dioxide passes from blood
in the direction of lower concentration in the alveoli, while oxygen,
passes from the alveoli into blood, in accordance with the same law.
Oxygenated blood, free of excessive carbon dioxide, travels over the
pulmonary veins to the heart, enters the left atrium, where the pulmonary
circulatary system ends. Then the blood goes to the le~t ventricle, from
which its new cycle begins, i.e., movement in systemic circulation. Blood
brings nutrients and oxygen over the systemic circulation to muscles and
other tissues, and removes metabolic products, including carbon dioxide.
Adaptation of the circulatory system to physical labor consists of an
increase in blood follow corresponding to intensity of work and, accordingly,
to the requirements of tissues with regard to oxygen and nutrients. ~
_ Minute blood volume is the quantitative gage of blood flow, i.e., the
amount of blood that passes through the cross section of the circulatory
system in 1 minute. According to the physical laws of movement of fluid
in a closed system, an increase in minute volume can be obtained, in the
first place, by creating a greater pressure gradient under which blood flows
in arteries at tlie start of the cycle and in~ veins at the end; in the
second place, this can be obtained by reducing resistance in muscular
capillaries. The first candition is met by intensification of heart
function, higher heart rate, and the second by dilatation of capillaries.
Motor Activity as a Need of the Healthy Body .
Motor activity is one of the important prerequisites for normal existence
and development of man. A decrease in motor activity below a specific
minimum has an adverse effect on human health, and the same applies to
excessive increase in intp.nsity of physical labor: The latter causes
depletion of the store of energy-containing substances in the body, due
to impossibility of total compensation of excessive expenditure of energy
received with the food taken daily. _
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During physical labor, with optimum graduation of the work load, a working
man develops some positive traits: muscular force and endurance, speed
and rhyChm of movements, dexterity. In addition, in the case of a
regular optimum physical load, there is an increase in the body's resistance
to various deleterious factors, in particular, diverse infections. Animal
experiments have proven that an optimum physical load increases resistance
to hypoxia (shortage of oxygen), toxic agents, penetrating radiation,
overheating~and overcooling.
While an optimum physical load is a factor in strengthening and preserving
health, as well as increasing efficiency, when the physical load decreases
_ ~elow the average level (hypodynamia) it must be considered as a factor that
is deleterious to human work and vital functions.
Referring to statistical and experimental data, phyaiologists indicate
that "the amount of energy expended directly on muscular work should
constiti:te a mean of at least 1200-1300 kcal per day for normal function
of the body. For this reason, individuals who are not engaged in physical
labor and who expend less energy on muscular activity must exercise.~~63
Key Cycle of Self-Regulation During Work Requiring Numerous Repetitions of
Light, Simple and Monotonous Movements (Work on Conveyers and Assembly
Lines)
An increase in labor.productivity on conveyers and assembly lines occurs
as a result of profound separation of labor, continuity of the production
process and rhythmic work actions. Separation of labor makes it possible
to achieve a high degree of perfection of individual, relatively simple
work actions, into which the production process is broken down. The
continuity of the production process (parts pass from one operation to
the next without accumulation and without waiting.for collection of a
batch, as is the case when parts are transferred from one shop to another)
- leads to a substantial saving of time. Rhythmic work actions cause a
change in physiological processes in workers and development of a special
reflex, which was named the "time reflex." The time ref~ex during moto.r
activity of man is manifested when movements required of him are performed
at a specific pace. For example, one can organize work on a manual
ergometer in such a manner as to have the sub,ject lift and drop a weight
in time witlZ a metronome. At the start of this work, the subject waits
for the signal, the metronome beat. He starts to lift the weight only
after hearing the metronome. Having lifted and dropped the weight, before
making the next movement the worker again waits for the metronome beat.
He continues to work in this fashion until he develops a time reflex,
i.e., the subject begins the next movement without any signal, at an inter-
val that equals the period between two signals. Thanks to the time reflex,
he is able to perform the work actians without fixing his attention on
numerous extraneous signals, and this facilitates the work considerably.
86
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Work is alleviated and productivity increases in the case of a rhythmic
production process as a result al~so of rationally organized summation of
excitatory traces. It has been proven experimentally that the trace of
excitation from a single exertion persists for 45 min when performing '
considerable muscular. work and occasionally longer; but in the case of
light movements, for example, depressing a button, it lasts about 8 s.
A distinction is made between several stages of ext~.nction of a trace and
equalization of excitation. The first, short stage is called the absolute
refractory stage, or refractory period. The absolute refractory period ~
is characterized by a very high level of excitation, because of which any
additional stimula~tion at this time does not elicit a reaction, since
_ the sum of existing excitation and newly delivered stimulation produces
excessive excitation (pessimum), to which the excited living substrate
does not response with its inherent physiolovical reaction.
The period following the absolute relative refractory one is characterized
by the �act that mild stimuli can elicit a mild reaction in living tissue,
while intensive onc~ lead to the pessimum. ' -
Then follows the exaltation phase, which begins about 20 s after the first
J exertion in the case of great muscular exertions. It is manifested by ~
appearance of heightened excitation, as compared to its initial level, in
response to a stimulus of the same force. With this reaction, along with
development of activity inherent in a given living tissue, there are some
changes in functional state of tissue, an increase in excitability and
lability, or functional mobility. Let us recall that lability, or func- -
tional mobility, is characterized by the rate of appearance, development
and termination of excitatory processes, i.e., the time during which
tissues or cells are capable of the excitatory process (wave of excitation). -
Lability is determined by the maximum number of excitatory waves that
living tissue can reproduce per unit time. ~
- The reaction of excitable tissue is negligible to stimuli of moderate force
- and fr~quency.6`' With increase in force and frequency of a stimulus (elec-
tricity is used in special experiments), the reaction gradually increases '
to the optimum level. Further increase in force and frequency of stimuli
leads to a pessimum, and there is a decrease in excitability and lability
of tissue. With stimuli of excessive force and frequency, as well as �
very long summation of traces of nervous excitation ~ihi'efi; as it accumu-
lates under the influence of stimuli delivered to tissue, changes into
inhibit.~~:~ of the parabiotic type. The change from excitation to inhibitian
under the influence of excessively strong and frequent stimuli is the
general law of vital functions of excitable cells and tissues, the law of
parabiosis.
When working on assembly lines and conveyers, development of the time reflex, ~
_ law of parabiosis, summation of traces of excitation, increase and decrease
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in excitability and lability are manifested by changes in functional state ~
of analyzers and man's motor system.
A rationally formed time reflex helps establish a stable work rhythm, i.e.,
it reduces variab ility of work operation time and intervals between opera-
tions.
Rationally organized summation of traces of nervous excitation consists
of the fact that each successive stimulus at the start of a work operation
or work action occurs at the phase of exaltation of the excitatory trace
remaining from the preceding operation or preceding work action, or element
of action (if the operation is complex). There must be a stable level of
trace excitation at the time of a new stimulus throughout the work shift.
This is associated with achievement and prolonged mai:~tenance of a high -
level of lability of the nervous system, which is needed for the per- �
formance of work operations at the speed set by the conveyer.
Unrationally organized summation of traces of nervous excitation leads to
development of a pessimum state, impairment of the reflex system of the
dynamic work stereotype,~ diminished efficiency and labor productivity.
The pessimum state that is induced by summation of traces of excitation
from monotonous activity develops ~radually. The individual usually con-
tinues to work against the background of diminished efficiency, using
compensatory measures. One of these measures is intensification of
stimuli delivered to working muscles from nerve centers. More intensive -
stimulation reaches the working muscles and extends (irradiates) over the
the entire muscular system, involving muscles and muscle groups that
not related to a given activity in this work. Irradiating stimulation
influences the vis cera and heart, as a result of which one observes an _
increase in the heart rate. SupPSfluous movements and a rapid heart rate
are indicative of difficulties of working, which are overcome by increas-
ing the intensity of nervous acti~*ity. Such excessive tension is danger-
ous to cells of the cerebral cortex, since it can elicit irreversible
exhaustion in them. There is a physiological mechanism in the cerebral
cortex that protects its cells from exhaustion and stress, protective
inhibition. It is triggered as the last defense against impending stress.
The sensation of monotony, boredom, sleepiness and lack of interest..in
- the work are the external manifestations of protective inhibition..
The steps instituted to refine organization of work on conveyers, which
took into consideration the physiological distinctions of man, have
yielded a beneficial effect. For example, on those sections of prod~tc-
tion whe~-e an optimum work rhythm was introduced and adhered to in
organizing work on a conveyer, for proper use of key physiological func- -
tions--time reflex and summation of traces of nervous excitation--the
workers spent less time and energy on performing oper.~tions, there was
improved accuracy of movements and visual perception.6s
. ~
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It is imperative to make a precise quantitative evaluation of key physiolo-
gical functions of workers in order to develop measures to refine work
processes on conveyers and assembly lines. At the present time, industrial
physiologists have developed the appropriate methods and equipment, whi:.h
is used to test key functions of workers, and this p ermits purposeful
change in these functions.
In order to determine the accuracy of manifestation of the time reflex, one
can use the statistical parameters of rhythm of work operations (coefficient
of variation V of duration of operations), mean duration of work operations
for every 30 min of work during the work shift (1�i) and skandard devtation
(a). These parameters are calculated on the basis of results of time _
studies, during which the time of start and end of work operations is.
recorded (using a stopwatch).
During the first hour of work and at the start of the second hour one ob-
- serves a decrease in values of M and V, while a gradual increase thereof
is nsually-~observed in the f~urth hour of the work shift. A decrease of M
= signifies faster perception of stimuli and performance of actions corres-
ponding to the system of reflexes of the dynamic work stereotype. A de- _
crease of V is indicative of a more accurate rhythm of performance of ~
successi~re work operations.
M. A. Gritsevskiy established that the decrease of V constitutes about 40%
(frum 22 to 12%) after introduction of a rational work and rest schedule,
from the physiological point of view, during work on conveyers requiring
significant tension of the muscular system (performance of actions: to
re~move ob,ject of work from conveyer, move it, place it on the conveyer,
_ with a part weighing ~.5 kg). When work involves less muscular exertion,
coefficient V underwent analogous changes.while "getting into the swing"
(from 20% in the first 30 min of working to 10% in the fourtb half-hour) .
In the case of negligible muscular exertion, the coefficient also dropped
by 20-40% in the first two hours of work.66 For this reason, we can
arbitrarily consider that the rhythm should change within expressly this
range (accuracy of manifestation of time reflex), in the case of a physio-
logically normal schedule, when working on a conveyer and performing rela-
" tively simple and .brief work. operations.
The variability of parameters of adaptation of ke~ physiological functions
reflects the accuracy of regulation and self-regulat ion of the dynamic work
stereotype. It is known that, in developing self-regulating systems, much
- attention is given to achievement of as little as possible deviation of
the regulated parameter from the set value. With regard to this parameter,
a distinction is made between stable and unstable, self-regulating systems.
Thanks to the time ref.lex and summation of excitatory traces, a self-
regulating system of the dynamic work stereotype may change to a state of _
high stability, which is typical of optimum adaptation of the body to
work activity. _
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The rationality of organization of summation of traces of nervous excita-
tion is determined by means of parameters of bioelectric potentials
(action currents of functional muscles), physiological lability or
functional mpbility, of the motor and visual analyzers, and speed of
- sensorimotor reactions. Each of these parameters reflects certain
aspects of complex physiological processes that occur in the work
process.
Analysis of bioelectric activity of muscles yields the most valuable
information about the physiological mechanism of man's adaptation to work
and maintenance of the dynamic work stereotype. Bioelectrical activity
is the most important material process in the complex physiological
reaction of excitation, without which it is impossible to develop excita-
_ tion in muscle and nerve tissue. One can assess the magnitude of nervous
impulses traveling from the spinal cord and brain to muscles, which
are the effector systems of motor activity, from the nature of bio-
electrical activity. Nervous impulses come to muscles in groups, the
frequency and duration of imp:~lses may vary. Analysis of bioelectrical
activity of muscles demonstrates the most accurately the presence of
summation of excitatory traces, concentration of muscular force and
nervous processes.
It is desirable to record action currents of muscles throughout the work
shift in order to study changes in physiological processes and functional
state of the human body while working on a conveyer. .Because of the
existing methodological difficulties, few such length studies on the ~ob
have been conducted thus far; but they are very important to definition af
theory of formation of the dynamic work stereotype and neurogenic theory of
dynamics of eff iciency.
In order to record muscular action currents, electrodes are attached to
the tested muscles with a bandage or collodium. They have the appearance
~f plastic cups (1.5 cm in diameter), wb.ich have a metal protrusion on ~
- their internal surface through which electric contact is made. Several
- layers of gauze saturated in saline (0.9-1% NaCl) are placed between the
- protrusion and skin surface (after rubbing it with pumice tr~ remove the
top layer of epidermis and swabbing the surface with alcohol to remove
fat). The electrodes are attached to the muscle (skin surface over the
muscle) in pairs, at distances of 1-2 cm from one another. The action
currents that appear during muscular contract travel from the electrodes,
over wires, to an amplifier, then an oscillograph, where they are =
recorded on moving paper photographically or by means of an ink-writing -
instrument. _
Valuable information about the dynamics of efficiency during moderately -
heavy labor and with a load on limited muscle groups can be obtained by
recording muscular action currents during work. Particularly valuable:
ir.formation is obtained from recording the action currents togethez wic~h
.
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a synchronous tracing of bioelectric potentials of the I~eart (electro- -
cardiogram). From these data, one can assess the level of nervous and -
muscular tensi_on, extent of dissemination of excitation to vegetative
organs, level of refinement of regulation of muscular activity and
_ assimilatio~Yi of optimum work rh,ythm during the hours of "getting into
the swing" of work. Assimilation of optimum work pace, which is faster
' than the first operations, and appropriate n.ervn~ss regulation are charac- -
terized by the following on electromyograms (tape with tracing of
aCtion currents of muscles): duration of periods filled with groups of
large oscillation; duration of periods of relatively weak oscillations
and "noise," mean amplitude of action currents during periods of groups
of large oscillations. From these data one can determine overall bioelec- _
trical activity and its magnitude per uc~it time. -
- A decrease in duration oftetanus means that there i3 concentration of
physiologic~~l activity of muscles and nerve centers in a shorter period
of time. Such a change in t~nction of the motor system enables a worker
to select more accurately ihe time and point of the work trajectory, at _
which to apply maximum force and reach the most useful effect of the
- operation.
An increase in mean amplitude of action currents indicates that, with
optimum adaptation to working conditions, there are rapid and accurate
muscular contractions, which are insignificantly corrected by additional,
small groups of nervous impulses. These changes in regulation and self-
regulation of physiological processes are a unique form of increase in
functional mobility, or lability, of man's muscular system, as a result of
summation of excitatory traces and reinforcement of the dynamic work
stereotype by achievement of a result. Tncreased lability is manifested
by a redu:.tion of periods of development and termination of excitation
corresponding to a single muscular contraction, or tetanus.
N. Ye. Vvedenskiy proposed that the maximum number of stimuli that a _
myoneural preparation could perceive per second and to which it could
- react adequately without distorting the rhythm as a gage of lability in
the living model he studied, a myoneural preparation (surviving muscle
and n.erve of a frog) .
A method has been developed in industrial physiology to determine lability
in man, in which this methodological principle of N. Ye. Vvedenskiy is
applied. For example, determination is made of level of lability of the
human visual system. Intermittent~square wave current not exceeding
- 7-8 V is passed in the stimulating circuit by means of an electric
st-imulator, an instrument that permits delivery to a tested organ of -
rhythmic stimuli (pulsating electric current). Nonpolarizing electrodes
are applied to the skin in the region of the temporal fossa, near the _
optic nerve. At first, current of the lowest frequency (no more than 1 Hz)
and lowest voltage (about 1.5-2 V) is delivered through the electrodes. -
Determination is made of the threshold of stimulation of the optic nerve
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~ _ ~
~F I~~T I F I~ O~hGRI~ I~flT I~~ ~F LA~Qt~
~iUGU~T 3.~~~ ~ ~E~~E'~ f~LE1~~Pl~i~i~t~'~ I ~H 1~~~ I LE'~ ~ ~F ~

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~
_ witt~ minimum frequency of pulsatino square-wave current. Then the ~~ltage
- is gradual.ly raised, leaving the frequency unchanged. When the stimulating "
_ current reaches threshold voltage, the subject experiences the sansation ~
! of a light flash (phasphene) with each pulse of current. _
After the voltage reaches the threshold level (which is determined from
the verbal report of the subject), it is increa s ed by 1.5 times, and
- frequency of current pulsation is gradually inc r eased. At a certain f~e-
= quency, the sub~ect no longer has the sensation of phosphene. The fre-
quency of stimulating current reached at this time is the gage of lability
_ of the visual system. In a normally proceeding work process, there is 10-
15% increase in lability of the visual system in the second hour of the -
shif t of a worker on conveyer assembly or other simple work. -
_ Electrostimulators are used to determine the lab ility of the motor system of
_ man, which deliver rhythmic stimuli at frequenc i es of 1 to 500 Hz, the
voltage changing from threshold level to 10 V. The stimulating electrodes
~ are applied to a motor ~oint, i.e., where a nerve enters the muscle. As
_ the current frequency increases (at voltage tha t is 1.5 times the threshold
level), the mech~nical reaction of the stimulat~:.i muscle is recorded on
the surface of a revo].ving drum (kymograph) . As the frequency increases,
- at this voltage, at first notched tetanus is r e corded then complete
- tetanus; with further increase in frequency, an optimum is reached, at
which the conLraction presents maximum amplitud e; with increase in.fre-
quency beyond the optimum level, muscular contr a ction diminishe~ and
- coul_d reach a minimum, which is inherent in the pessimum state. There `
_ are qualitative features inherent in each of the se functional states,
which develop successively with increase in frequF:ncy of stimulation.
In the second hour of w~rk (by the time the worker is completely "~n the
swing"), the quantitative parameters of functional state of the tested
~ -
muscZe rise.
In studies of the effect of increased frequency of stimulating current, it
~ is imperative to bear in mind that the duration of each pulse of current
_ should not exceed half the entire period of del ivery of the stimulus. For
example, at a frequency of 500 Hz, the complete duration of stimulation
_ is 0.002 s. Consequently, the duration of a pul se should not exceed
0.001 s in this case.
Changes in functional state of excitable tissue s and cells are also re- _
flected by the speed of sensorimotor reactions. While the level of labi- -
lity is indicative of the lPngth of the time period during which excitation
arises and has time to go through the stage of extinction of the trace,
after which the next complete excitation is poss ible, the speed of the
sensorimotor reaction gives us the length of time from the moment of
stimulation to the ~tart o~ the motor response.
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A reflexometer is used to determiae the speed of tY:e visual-motor reaction.
This instrument incZudes a screen, from which light signals are delivered,
_ a console with buttons to turn on the ligh~g on the screen, a button or -
key that the subject uses to turn off the stopwatch that measures the -
time, in thousandths or hundredths of a second, between delivery of a -
signal and the subject's reaction. The experiment~r depresses a key =
Co simultaneously deliver the light signal and start the stopwatch, while
the sub3ect depresses his key upon seeing the li~ht and turns off both
the signal and stopwatch. The time recorded on the reflexometer corres-
ponds to the period of developm~nt of successive physiological processes ~
(perception of stimuli by retinal nerve ce11~, dissemfnation of excita-
tion from retinal cells to cortical cells, passage of excitation from
cells in the visual cortex to cells in the motor cortex, pas,sage of
excitation from cortical motor cells to spinal cord motor cells, passage
of excitation from spinal cord motor cells to muscles, performance of
specified movement) in different parts of the.reflex system of man.
The time in which all these processes occur ref?ects reaction speed. A
change in ?.atency period of the reaction is largely determined by the
speed of transition of excition from one neuron to another at the sites
of contact;. between nerve endings of one cell and thos.e ~f another, 3.e.,
~n the synapses. -
Table 8 lists the rates of v~sual-motor reactions3,n the second hour of
work involving numerous repetitions of simple movements and relativeYy -
- ins3gnif icant expenditure of energy.
Table 8. Changes in rate of sensorimotor (visual-motor) reaction in ~
the second hour of work in individuals engaged in manual labor
- not rzquiring much muscular exertion .
Reac- Reaction Difference -
Type of work t~O~ ~ sPeed in
speed second h s %
~ ~efor of work,
work s
W a pin bxicks of ice cream
~c~i~ve~erl 0,35 0,27 0,08 23
Sharpeninc~ drills (work involving
use of microscope)
Buffing drills on lathe 0,32 0,?S~ 0,07 22
[bench] ' 0,22 0,22 0,00 0
Adjustment of drills (free rhythm) U,19 0,17 0,02 . 10
~
Mean values of parameters 0,27 Q,23 0,0~4 14 ~
,
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~ v.� ~.ra ~ i~i~~r~ ~~.ry v~~La
In view of the results of studies conducted witli the use of the above-
described procedures and equipment, it is possible to ~rganize the mode
of work on conveyers ~o make full use of the advantage of altering man's
physiological functions, i.e., summation of traces of nervous excitation _
' and time reflex.
- There must be a pause between the end of one work operation and start of
the next for oprimum summation of excitatory traces and, consequently, `
_ adoption of the required work rhythm. This pause should be long enough
so that the start of the next operation wo~ild coincide with the exaltation
- phase of the receding trace of excitat3on. If the pause is too short,
there is rapid development of pessimum inhibitian, decrease in speed and
- accuracy of work mover~ents. This grocess is accompanied 'by development of
sensations of monotony and fatigue in workers.
Numerous repetitions of the same actions, especially wher. thep follow one ~
anoth~r often, elicit the unique physiological effect of "hammering
into a single cell" (I. P. Pavlov), i.e., excessivQ summation of excitation
in a limited part of the cerebral cortex. In this case, the natural ,
- protective reaction of cortical neurons consists of developing inh3bition, -
that prompts the individual to stop work that could lead to exhaustion of
overloaded nerve cells.
_ Very long summation of excitatory traces after reaching the optimum
excitation leads to reduction of motor lability and labor productivity.
Short breaks are scheduled (with performance of exercises) for conveyer
workers to prevent this undesirable phenomenon, 3nd during tnese breaks
there is restoration of efficiency and, to some extent, elimination of
- the effects of monotonous work.
Work on assembly lines and conveyers narrows significantly the field of
y activity of workers and reduces the content of work operations. By means
of scientific organization of labor, this limitation and monoton~ of work
- can be overcome. For example, the experience of modern, progressive
enterprises confirms the efficacy of having conve~gr workers learn
several operations and periodically switch from one operation to another.
It should also be borne in mind that, as a result of change in funLtional
state of the bod~r duri.ng.the first hour of work, there is gradual assimila-
tion of a fast work pace, which is maintained for several hours in the
middle of the work day. By .the end of the work day, there is a dec~ease in
motor lability and some slowin~ of work actions due to excessive summation -
of traces of nervous excitation. Fo. this reason, it is necessary to
vary the speed of the conveyer belt. SpPCial mechaRisms are used to
accelerate the conveyer belt at the start of th2 work day, hold its
- speed at a relatively high level in the middle of the shift and slow it _
down a~ the end of the work day. Such regulation of the speed of the
conveyer belt in accordance with changes in functional state of the
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t~.uman body prevents excessive fatigue and makes. it possi~le to keep a ~
worker's efficiency on a h~gh lzve~.
Key Cycle of Self-Regulation of Physiological Functions During I~Iechanized
Labor
Mechaniz ed labor is characterized;by higher productivity and increased _
precision of manufacturinb pr-;sucts, since the performance of inechanical
labor is relegated essentia?.~y to machines; precision technological -
operations are performed h:v~neans of appropriately ad~usted mechanisms. _
. The work of man in a man-macliine system most often does not require con-
sider_able physical exertion, but it is related to increased attention,
accurate visual and kinesthetic monitoring of the production process,
performance of pr~;.tseiy coor~inated, rapid work movements combining
different motor functions of both hands. Depend~ng on the conditions of
interaction between man and machine, the main (technological) time, during -
which the technological process is performed in the man-machine system,
may be a machine, machine-manual or manual process. The proportion
between these types of work time.can vary with different forms of inechan-
ized labor. For example, in the case of high-speed cutting or mass produc-
tion of s imple parts on metal-cutting lathes, machine time constitutes
about 60-80% of total work time and performance of manual operations
constitut e s only 20-4Q%. As a rule, the lathe operator is in.'~standing"
~ position throughout the work shift.
Success of work on a metal-cutting 13the is achieved by means of formation
of a comp lex dynamic work stereotype in the lathe operator. The presence of
many elements (transition.s) constituting the work operation of a lathe
" operato~ is indicative of th~ complexity of this reflex system: picking
up a piece of stock, putting it in the chuck, securing the piece in the
chuck, moving up the cutter, turning the lathe on, stopping the lathe,
filing [sharpening], measuring, etc. Inaccurate performance of elements
of the operations and related lose of tim~ could reduce signif 3cantly
the productivity of labor. _
The design of modern lathes (for example, in machine-building) is such
that manual work ac*ions can be performed using different combinations of
- elementary movemen*_s, Finding variants that save the most time and
permit L~s ing both hands is a factor that increases efficiency and labor ~
productivity.
The time when traces of excitation from second-signaling system stimuli
are assoc zated with traces of direct (first-signaling) stimuli perceived
by different analyzers while pErforming work operations on a lathe is
a particularly important factor in tormation of the integral image of
. work actions in a lathe operator. The functional state that develops
with perfo rmance of each element of a complex operation on a lathe acquires _
a certair~ significance, not only for this special task, but to prepare
optimal initial conditionsfor the performance of the next elements.
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~
~ Va~ v1 a ivtlL.~ y~JL Vl\LL
In addition to formation and function of. the integral image of work ac- -
= tions, conscious planning of work elements and operations is very
i,mFortant. A distinction is made betwe~n the following stages of planning:
tentative, organized and planned execution.
_ In the presence of an integral image of work actions and conscious planning
thereof, the lathe operator chooses the appropriate work movements. Per- -
formance of these work movements in machine-manual and manual elements
- of operations by a lathe operator is governed by tY~eir own psychophysio-
_ logical laws. The most important of them is the law of concentration of
~ muscular force on a short segment of space and time. By virtue of con-
_ cer,trati~n of muscular force at the most favorable time, one can achieve
optimum adaptation to lathe work during the actual movements. -
For example, at one enterprise, outstanding lathe operators spent one-
half less time on operations tha.,;. other lathe operators. Complex cine-
cyclographic and electromyographic studies were conducted to determine
the causes that prevented assimilation of progressive work procedures
_ on a metal-cutiing latre.
Analysis of cinecyclograms and electromyograms of lathe operators differ-
_ ing in proficiency revealed that the best lathe operators showed con-
centration of waves of velocity and acceleration of movements when
performing manual and machine-nanual operations, as well as volleys of
increased bioelectrical activity caf muscles in short segments of time
and short segments of the work trajectory of movements of different parts ~
of the body, which enabled them to perform the operation the most
efficiently.67
The key cycle of self-regulation in a man-machine system is characterized
by man's constant influence, as the element of control of the machine,
processing of information from the machine to man and performance of
complex, accurate movements in accordance with a developed plan and
integral image of work actions. To improve interaction between man and
machine, one must determine not only how it is possible to reduce time
spent on different elements of the operation, but the distinctions of key
physiological functions: planning of the work operation (organizationa~
and effector), formation and maintenance of an integral image of work
actions, increased lability of afferent and efferent motor elemPnts,
- concentration of muscular force and nervous processes (excitation and
inhibition), development of a highly stable reflex system of the dynamic `
motor stereotype, muscular endurance under static and dynamic conditions.
Occasionally, in the practice of scientific organization of labor, th~
methods used for increasing labor productivity are reduced to demonstra-
tion of the best variant, accidentally discovered by a lathe operator, of
performing a specific work operation and development of instructions to
facilitate learning of this variant by other workers. Not infrequently,
the instructions combine recommendations for performance of a set of
movements, variants of rahich were found and refined by dtfferent workers.
This method of rationalization of work movements of a lathe operator,
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whieh was named the method of engineer Rovalev, directs itself to the
chance discoveries of the most productive variants of work movements and
voluntary mechanical combination thereof into ~ complex lathe operation.
Engineer F. L. Kovalev describes this method as follows: "Three of the
best women weavers, P. Kozlova, K. Anisimova and N. Chekina, who worked
on several machines, overfulfi~led their work quota considerably. But -
- what was the most typical feature in the work of each of these
Stakhar.~vites [ou~standing workers]? We compared two of the m~in work
_ procedures: changing the shuttle and repairing breaks in the sinker thread.
It was four.id that Kozlova spends 2.5 s o~ the first of these operations,
versus the standard of 2.8 s, Anisimova spends 3.2 s and Chekina spends
4 s. Consequently, only comrade Kozlova spends less time than required
by the standard. It was a diFferent matter for the second procedure, that
of repairing breaks in the sinker thread. Here, comrade Anisimova spent
- the least time. She performed this procedure in 14 s, versus the standard
of 16.5 s. The actual time spent on the samE procedure was 25 s for -
- comrade Kozlova and 30 s for comrade Chekina.... An in-depth study of the
- work process performed by the group of Stakhanovites according to different
- elements of the operation made it possible to demonstra~e the dis- _
tinctive features in the work methods of each worker, and to determine
- the most p~rogr.essive general method of performing the operation by a
weaver.j6
A. S. Tolstykh writes: in order tox'eally organize exchange of knowhow, '
one must find, study and generalize the constantly appearing progressive
work procedures covering all occupations. It is known that different
workers do not perform all procedures in the same way. One operation is
performed faster and better by one worker, another by another worker. If
we were to pick out the best procedures and Combine them, learning these
~ procedures would m,ake it possible to perform the work in the best way.~~69.
S. Tolstykh explains his idea referring to the example of analysis of
lathe work.
Planning the organization of labor by means of summation of time of
performance of elements by the best workers has also become widely prac-
ticed abroad. The system of summation of microelements of work operations _
is used �or preliminary estimation of time spent on proposed work operations. -
Some authors believe that this should replace the study of how work t3me
is spent by means of time studies, the results of which may be inaccurate ~
because of the sub~ectivity of the observer, and for this reason they are =
= not suitable for planning a new work process.~~
Such a method has alao been developed for planning�operations involved in
mental work (woricing on control consoles), where there is summation of
- elements such as "operator's reaction time to signals," "time of arithmetic
calculation," etc. (the "work factor" system). In 1966, a modular sqstem
of standards for work movements (MODAPTS) was detaeloped. In the MODAPTS
system, the module or mode is the uni"t for measuring expenditure of time,
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' a Va? VL 1 1V 1['1Li VJIi VL\LL ~ _
~ i.e., mean time of movement of a finger ~_~i a work operation that is well-
learned. The mode equals 0.129 s. With addition of 10.75% for rest,
the mode is 1/7th of a second.
All the:,e systems have a common flaw; they do not take into cansideration
the phys~ological laws of comhining rauvements and elements into an entire -
_ operation. When planning operations, it is imperative to pursue a compre- ~
~ hensive psychophysiolugical st~ay of different elements, analyze the struc-
' ture of these elements and movPments from the standpoint of most efficient
a.ttainment of the work goal. _
y~ For example, in a study of the work method of an outstanding shoemaker,
N. S. Smetanin, distinctive features were demonstrated with regard to -
rationalization of this innc+vator's wc~rk place, his procedures, separation
_ of the work operation into elenents, farm and duration of work mcvements.
Workers who wanted to learn the Snet�nin work method organized their
w~ork places like his. Reverse movEments were eliminated, whic:h r.educed,
to some extent, the time of production per unit. Howeve~, their output -
cor~tinued to lag significantly from that of N. S. Smetanin. In order to ~
help learn the Smetanin method of working, it was necessary to~determine,
by means of physiologica~ analysis, the differences in content of elem~nts
of operations performed by N. S. Smetanin and the other workers.
- Cyclographic analysis revealed that the distinctions uf the work of N. S. ,
Sme~.anin consisted of combining the movements of picking up the stock
ar.d puttin~ away the ready product, with kinesthetic analysis of the ob,ject
~f labor.~ The elements of "taking tYie stock" and �'putting away the
processed article" were performed considerably slower than the speed of
the same movements in other workers.
Many workers, lilce the standard setters, believed that one should reduce
the time required on each element of a complex operation in all cases,
without exception, in order to reduce the time spent on this operation.
Psychophysiologists explained the fallacy of the conception of a complex
work operation as the mere sum of its elements: while N. S. Smetanin
was slower in the anci'llary elements of picking up and putting away the
object of labor, he performed the main elements of the work operation
- faster than other workers thanks to combining ancillary movements of
- kinesthetic examination of the distinctions of each piece of stock and -
checking the result of the operation.
Knowledge of the key physiological functions in a maehine operator makes
it possible to effectively solve problems of refining work processes in -
lathe operations. Individuals wl~o instruct workers must, in addition to -
teaching them the most progressive work methods and procedures, aid in
the formation of proper conceptions of the goal of the work operation and
stages of attainment thereof, the integral image of the necessary work ~
actions. Written instructions, detailed instruction charts and self- ,
checking b~~ the worker are very helpful in achieving this. Lability of -
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~ the motor system, concenS_ration of nervous processes and muscular force can
_ be increased by means of syecial exercises on a simulator (see p 73).
Learning the different movements of a ski?_lea worker by means of imitation
is relatively less signi'cicant in assimi],ating progreasive work methods.
P~anning work oper~tions without conside~:atian of development of the above-
mentioned key physiolo~ic~l ft~:ictions by means of inechanical combination
of the best work grocedures adopted from various workers is even 3.ess
effective.
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_ i~ vi. vi~ i~ ia,i.na~ u.~a:. ~~i~i.,L
CHAPTER 6. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF MENTAL WORK
_ Key Cycle of Self-Regulation in Work Requiring Close Attention and
Solution of Mental Problems
At the present time, the area of application of inental labar is increaeing
signific.antly, and the number of workers engaged in mental activity is _
growing. At the same time, the nature of physical labor ~s changing; it
is saturated with elements of inental labor, and some forms of physical
labor are becoming increasingly creative. ~
For example, A. A. Vasil'yev writes: "The labor of a modern, highly
skilled worker who supervises the work of an entire brigade on the
assembly of an extremely complex machine, who has at his disposal a set
of blueprints and charts, high precision measuring and monitoring instru-
ment-s, is largely mental lal~ar....i72
- Polytechnical, gPneral and industrial education is becoming an important
means of eliminating the still remaining differences between mental anc'.
physical labor. Elimination of diff~rences between mental and physical
' labor results in approximation of qualification requirements made of a
worker and engineQring and technical perscnnel. Accordingly, there is
a gradual reduction of the gap between the level of mandatory general
education, on which is based the training of engineers at WZ's, and
the training of skilled workers in vocational schools. At the present
time, we can encounter individuals among blue-,�ollar workers who are
familiar wi.th the fundamentals of n~any physical and engineering branches �
of knowledge.
Expansion of production functions of workers and saturation of their labor
with creative elements constitute the main trend in development of industry.
However, in addition to this tendency, there is also excessive narrowing
of specialization, due to the inadequate 1~ve1 of inechanization and automa-
tion of industry. ~From the psychophysiological point of view, excessive
specialization becomes the cause of loosing interest in work, developing
a sensati',on o~ monotony and rapid fatigability.
What is t,he physiological distinct3,~.n of inental l~bor, as compared to
physical? We could only be dealing with a re'.at�i.~e, but not absolute
difference. Not infrequently work that does ric*_ require physical exertion
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or lifting heavy articles, or overcoming resistance of the ob~ect o~
labor, etc., is referred to as mental labor. Such a definition cannot be �
satis~actory, since it is necessary to know the po~itive, distinctive .
~ features of ~ental labor for rational organization thereof.
The distinction that the objects and results of inental labor are not -
tangible things, but designs, images thereof, instructions and infdrinati~n
- is an important feature of inental work.
Elements of inental labor are represented in different prop.ortions in many -
types of work, including those requiring physical exertion. Modern types
of work can be classified as follows, according to the index of increase
_ in share of actually mental activity:
Transitional form of labor: in this group of ~obs, there is a
combination af elements of inental and physical work, for example,
the work of lathe operato~~s, ad~usters on automated lines,
operators of simple contr~~l consoles.
Mental labor in which there are elements of muscular work, but
the latter does not play a decisive role. In this form of work,
use is made of previously developed skills, close attention and
analyzer functions are required, for example, the work of inspec- -
tors [checkers] on automated lines, operators of some of the
subway signal boxes. ~
Mental labor related chiefly to intensive, extensive attention,
solution of new problems and changes in work plan, for example,
the work of processors in a system of inechanized accounting,
= stereoscope specialists, editors, stenographers.
Mental labor requirin~ much knowledge, intensive and creative
activity, for example, the work of direciors at the control
- console in a television studio, railroad dispatchers (at ma3or
railroad stations).
Mental labor rlirecte~i ~oward attainment of long--term goals, for
example, work in the fields of instruction (pedagogue, foreman,
bri~ade leader), design (scientist , engineer,.designer, architect) -
and planning (director, supervisor).
Within each of these five groups, we can distinguish subgroups according to
degree of tension of physiological functions, composition of functions
carrying the main load and the specific tasks performed by the workers.
Analysis of the foregoing, which does not presume to have exhau~tively -
covered all forms of work, shows that each of the five work groups con-
tains elements, such as planning of actions, remembering technical condi-
tions of the operations perfor~ed; all of the forms of activity, ~t-!.�thotit
excepfton; require intense attent~on.
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These psychophysiological processes also occur in :eavy physical labor, -
for example, the work ot metallurgists, miners, smith forging blacksmiths,
etc.; however, they are not represented there in pui~e form, but against -
the background of intensive muscular work; but their presence is indica-�
tive of the possibility of a creative approach to tht~ work, which is
manifested, for example, by inventi�:eness and developmc~nt of rationaliza- _
tion proposals.
When a basically new solu~:ion is found for a problem, we refer tiu cr