PARAPSYCHOLOGY IN THE PEOPLE`S REPUBLIC OF CHINA:1979-1989

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Parapsychology in the People's Republic of
China: 1979-1989
LEPING ZHA1 AND TRON MCCONNELL
ABSTRACT: From 1979 to 1982, research on "exceptional functions of the human body"
(EFHB) swept through the People's Republic of China (PRC). Two protagonists emerged to
carry the resulting scientific controversy to the highest political forum. The opponent of
EFHB was a vice-chairman of the Chinese Academy of Science. The proponent was a physi-
cist regarded internationally as "the father of Chinese space technology." After an inconclu-
sive collaborative test of the country's best-known psychics, the Communist Party ruled that
both sides must cease public discussion. From 1983 to 1986, interest shifted to gifted adult
psychics. Research was conducted quietly at major universities but primarily under defense-
related auspices in Beijing, where gross PK effects were reported. Meanwhile, civilian re-
search interest in parapsychology expanded under the ancient rubrics of "qigong" and "Tra-
ditional Chinese Medicine." In 1987, a set of seminal PK experiments was reported in the
Acta Biophysica Sinica from Qinghua University. In the same year, official approval was
granted for the study of EFHB. From 1987 to 1989, interest in qigong mushroomed until,
according to news reports, there were 20 million participants, including top leaders of the
Communist Party. The favoring of parapsychology has persisted despite the Beijing events of
the spring of 1989.
Although references to the existence and application of parapsycholog-
ical phenomena are frequently found in the major books of ancient Chi-
nese history dating back 2,000 years, there is also a present-day Chinese
interest in such effects. The most recent scientific inquiries began in late
1978 when a group of scientists tested Tang Yu, a 12-year-old boy in
Sichuan Province, for his reported "Exceptional Functions of the Human
Body" (EFHB), a widely used Chinese expression for extrasensory per-
ception (ESP) and psychokinesis (PK). It was a propitious time for such a
discovery because the chaos of the Cultural Revolution had subsided,
whereas economic reform had not yet begun. The country's intellectuals
were starting to exercise some freedom of choice in selecting what to
study, and they did not yet feel under pressure from their regular work at
1 In accordance with Chinese custom, Chinese family names precede given names in this
paper except in the author's by-line, where the U.S. custom of family-name-last is followed
to facilitate indexing.
Mr. Zha is currently studying for a doctoral degree in physics at the University of Pitts-
burgh. He received a B.S. in physics from Wuhan University in PRC in 1982 and an M.S.
from the University of Pittsburgh in 1988. Between 1979 and 1986, he participated in para-
psychological research activities at Wuhan University, Beijing Teachers' College, and else-
where.
The Journal of the American Society for
Psychical Research Vol. 85, April 1991
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120 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
the universities and research institutes as they would several years later.
Likewise, for a period of several years, children, who were often the best
psi subjects, were under less pressure to devote all of their time to school
study.2
This paper provides an informal historical account of psi-related activi-
ties in China between 1979 and 1989 (inclusive). The senior author has
divided this period into three phases. The first phase covers 1979-1982,
the second covers 1983-1986, and the third covers 1987-1989. The in-
formation presented herein is drawn from public sources, from the senior
author's personal involvement in parapsychological research before
coming to the U.S., and from his continuing contacts with friends he left
behind.
PHASE 1 (1979-1982): THE RE-DISCOVERY OF ESP
Early in the 20th century, a Chinese psychical study society was formed
as a result of Western influence, but the society did not flourish. In the
1960s, reports of Western and Russian psi studies appeared in several
popular Chinese technical magazines, but shortly thereafter the topic was
criticized as being "idealistic" and symbolic of "declining capitalism"
(Hsin, 1975). From the Hsin document we may infer that interest in para-
psychology was strongly discouraged during the Cultural Revolution,
which extended from 1966 to 1976.
The first phase of present-day Chinese psychic studies (1979-1982)
was characterized by its popularity. A news film, "Do You Believe?,"
was produced by the Central Newsreel and Documentary Studio and
shown in countless cinemas and on television in 1981. As a result, many
hundreds of children claiming to have EFHB were found throughout the
nation. Groups to investigate these phenomena were formed in almost all
educational and research centers in large cities, and even in some elemen-
tary and secondary schools. According to a recent study (Yi, 1987), at
least 500 formally trained scholars from more than 100 centers joined the
effort. Papers published in Nature Journal (NJ), which had supported the
EFHB research from the beginning,' reported that 40-63% of children
around age 10 were found to have EFHB to some extent in a large-scale
ESP investigation in Beijing (Cheng et al., 1979; He et al., 1980). The
term EFHB was expanded to include PK after it was discovered that sub-
jects with ESP could sometimes also affect the state of small objects, for
example, bend a match or reset the hands of a watch. The senior author,
while still an undergraduate student, was able to repeat many of the re-
ported ESP and PK experiments successfully with his young friends.
2 "Psi" is the generic term for psychic phenomena and includes both ESP and PK.
3 Nature Journal (Ziran Zazhi) is a major Chinese scientific monthly, published in
Shanghai at a technical level comparable to that of the British journal, Nature.
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 121
These replications were performed under fairly tight conditions and
without much difficulty, usually by just telling these friends what others
had claimed to be able to do and letting them try immediately. In many of
the senior author's tests the subject was not allowed to touch the pre-
sealed envelopes.
In the early 1980s, nearly every issue of NJ reported new discoveries of
EFHB. Researchers used a variety of analytical instruments in an attempt
to detect any "radiations" that might be produced by the children's ef-
forts. In these investigations, signals ranging from infra-red emissions
modulated by low audio frequencies to gamma photons were detected,
although many of the effects were weak. Traces of exposure were found
on protected x-ray films, and various physical, chemical, and biological
detectors registered an "output." The researchers were excited, con-
vinced that their discoveries were not artifactual but were of scientific
importance, and would lead possibly to a great scientific breakthrough.
However, Dr. Qian Xuesen,4 a leading physicist, and several other top
researchers pointed out that these signals were probably only secondary
manifestations of an underlying information carrier, "qi" (which means
"air," "gas," "spirit," or "vital energy" in Chinese), and not the un-
derlying carrier itself (Qian, 1981).5 As the research continued, scientists
began to realize how weak and unstable the EFHB effects were. Having
been isolated from the rest of the world, Chinese researchers were now
independently re-discovering evidence for psychic phenomena that had
been studied in the West for 100 years. In the course of these re-discov-
eries, Chinese researchers became increasingly aware of the difficulties
and complexities of the subject.
An unofficial preliminary organization called the Chinese Human-Body
Science Association (Preparatory Committee) was formed in 1980 under
the aegis of Nature Journal.6 This preparatory committee was nationwide
in scope and sponsored two national conventions that were held in
Shanghai (1980) and Chongqing (1981). The conventions were somewhat
informal and were attended by amateur enthusiasts of differing back-
grounds as well as by serious scientists. To accommodate the large
number of papers sent to NJ's editors, publication of a monthly news-
4 Transliterated as "Tsien Hsueh-Sen" in his early publications.
5 In transliteration, the Chinese phonetic symbols q, x, and z, for example, correspond in
Mandarin to sounds that cannot be represented by a single letter in English. Expressed
without benefit of the international phonetic alphabet, when they appear at the beginning of a
syllable, these letters are approximately equivalent to English language combinations ch, sh,
and ts, respectively. Thus, the approximate pronunciation of qi is "thee." The pronunciation
of persons' names is further confused by the fact that some professionally established Chi-
nese were allowed to keep their previous English spellings after the 1950s transliteration
reform.
6 In PRC, all organizations of whatever kind must be officially approved. Once approved,
an organization is usually provided financial support for its operational activities, depending
on the general area of the subject and the size of the membership.
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122 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
letter, the EFHB Bulletin, was begun in 1981, staffed by employees from
NJ. However, most of the major research results in this phase were pub-
lished in NJ.
The invited speech by Chen Hsin and Mei Lei at the joint convention of
the Parapsychological Association and the Society for Psychical Research
held in Cambridge, England, in 1982 (Chen & Mei, 1983) provides an
authoritative summary of Chinese parapsychological activity at that time.
The presence of the PRC delegation at the convention was in itself a re-
markable event, for it indicated interest on the part of the Chinese govern-
ment.
Among the many EFH13 reports on this early phase, some seemed ex-
perimentally naive and others were too briefly written to be understood.
There was, however, a residuum of challenging or puzzling findings that
Western parapsychologists might wish to pursue (Chai & Zhao, 1981;
Chen et al., 1981; EFHB Research Group of Yunnan University, 1981;
Lin et al., 1981; Zhao et al., 1983).
The total meaning of this spontaneous nationwide quasi-public activity
is difficult to determine. It was a social phenomenon, but it was not sci-
ence. Given the circumstances, certain features of this activity might rea-
sonably be inferred. Among the many organizers and managers of EFHB
demonstrations there must have been diverse motivations and competence.
Among the recruited children there must have been wide variations in
psychic ability and social sophistication. One would expect attempted
cheating by the children if only because ESP cannot always be produced
upon demand.
On the other hand, very few of these young people would have learned
7 When word of this parapsychological activity reached the U.S., psychologist S. Krippner
of Saybrook Institute arranged an investigative tour of PRC in 1981. His entourage included
physicist H. E. Puthoff of SRI International and sociologist M. Truzzi of Eastern Michigan
University. Independent descriptions of this trip were published by Krippner (pp. 206-209 in
Dong, 1984), Puthoff (1983), and Truzzi (1985). Participation in three ESP experiments with
children in Hefei and Beijing was reported by C. K. Jen (1983) of Johns Hopkins Applied
Physics Laboratory as a visiting professor to PRC in 1980-1981. Dr. L. C. Teng, an Asso-
ciate Director of the Fermi National Laboratory at Batavia, Illinois, participated in a strik-
ingly successful ESP experiment with a child subject while making a lecture stop at the
Institute of Modern Physics in Lanchou in 1980 (Teng, 1981). A detailed account of Chinese
parapsychological activity in the years 1979-1982 will be found in Dong (1984), a Chinese-
American lecturer and writer who studied Chinese occult practice for several years and vis-
ited PRC for 6 weeks in 1981. More recently, a group of American skeptics made a lecture
and "preliminary testing" tour in the PRC under newspaper auspices (Kurtz et al., 1988).
Truzzi (1982, 1987) has assembled two bibliographies of English-language items on Chinese
parapsychology, including many non-archival publications.
It is worth noting that Western visitors to the PRC, whether or not they have strong
credentials, will probably be disappointed by the amount and quality of the information they
can gather in a limited time of stay. Without an official invitation to an institution doing this
research, they are likely to meet only casual experimenters (who abound there as they do in
the U.S.). In any case, visitors to PRC are unlikely to be dealt with frankly because there is
pressure against informal communication to foreigners on sensitive topics-which parapsy-
chology remains to this day.
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 123
the professional skills of the magician. Consequently, in those cases where
children were tested for EFHB singly or in small groups in the immediate
presence of intelligent and worldly-wise observers using previously pre-
pared and sealed targets, the only real danger of malobservation would
seem to lie in a lapse of attention by the observers if the testing period
were prolonged.
It is interesting in this connection that the senior author gained a strong
impression, both from his own experience and from experimenters known
to him, that the accuracy of ESP results (or the effectiveness of PK efforts)
varied inversely as the length of time of the trial, once the subject(s) had
reached a "favorable state." For instance, it was repeatedly observed in
multiple-observer ESP trials (typically, recognizing "by ear" Chinese
characters secretly presealed in boxes) that when the children responded
within a few minutes, perhaps 90% of their answers were correct. ("Qi is
coming," they would say.) In many cases, they were able to respond in
two or three seconds and, when this occurred, the results were nearly
always right. However, if they could give only a hesitating description
after many minutes, the results were most often wrong, as though they
were simply guessing.8
There is still another observation that may bear upon the evidentiality of
the Chinese experiments with childhood EFHB. Young girls, aged from 6
to 12 years, were considered the best ESP candidates, and a majority of
the experiments in the early phase were done with them. However, as they
grew a little older or, more accurately, usually after menstruation started,
their ESP ability ceased. This observation is consistent with ancient phe-
nomenological qigong theory, which claims that "qi" can come from two
sources: "Yuan-qi" (primary "psycho-body energy," which is acquired
at birth and disappears as one matures), and secondarily through qigong
practice.
The senior author has reason to believe that there can be interference
with psi effort and that it need not come from a hostile person. Under his
direction, four children, who were well known to him, were doing an ESP
demonstration experiment. The experiment was proceeding with a high
rate of success until a college student in the audience, who had studied
qigong for several months but was still a beginner, decided to attempt the
announced task. The ESP of the children suddenly disappeared, and they
reported a feeling of being confused and disturbed.
Two EMINENT SCIENTISTS, THE GREAT DEBATE, AND THE
PARTY'S RULING
The public interest in psi and the resulting unprecedented large-scale
inquiry by academic scholars drew criticism soon after the movement
8 The senior author accepts child-EFHB as genuine on the basis of his own experiments
and work by others with whom he is personally acquainted.
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124 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
began. The most famous attacker was Mr. Yu Guangyuan, who was
backed by many highly placed scientists. On the other hand, there were
other eminent scientists who defended the study of psi. They were repre-
sented by Dr. Qian Xuesen (the previously mentioned physicist).
Mr. Yu Guangyuan, a social scientist, held many powerful positions.
He was, among other things, a vice-chairman of the Chinese Academy of
Science, vice-director of the Academia Sinica's Science and Technology
Committee, and director of the Institute of Marxism, Leninism, and
Thoughts of Mao Zedong.
Mr. Yu's papers on psi, most of which were very long, appeared after
May, 1981 in scholarly publications such as Chinese Social Sciences (Yu,
1982a) and Chinese Philosophical Almanac (Yu, 1982b). His longest, of
book length, was scheduled for serialization in the monthly periodical
Knowledge Is Power, a popular science magazine, beginning in No-
vember, 1981. During this time, Yu visited many major cities throughout
the country, giving lectures at universities and government-called
meetings in opposition to psi and sponsoring a small, short-lived period-
ical named Investigations of the EFHB.
Interestingly enough, Mr. Yu refused to participate in any psychic
tests. He is reported to have said that his children, his secretary, and many
of his friends had gone to see EFHB demonstrations and had been con-
vinced that they were genuine. He preferred not to attend such shows lest
he, too, be deceived by stage magic.
Yu's scientific arguments were extremely weak. Checking through
Yu's papers, the senior author has found that Yu's opposition was based
upon the following two arguments:
1. The claimed parapsychological phenomena are contrary to Marxism,
Leninism, dialectical materialism, and currently known scientific laws and
therefore cannot be true.
2. There have been many cases of psi trials, both in China and in other
countries, that were found to be fraudulent. Considering the improbability
of the phenomena, common sense tells us that all such claims must be
hoaxes.
It is obvious that these two arguments are logically and methodologic-
ally incorrect. The existence of a phenomenon is not precluded by any
theory, and a part of available evidence does not necessarily represent the
whole. Indeed, Yu's arguments were so fragile that, after June, 1982,
when publication of his multi-part paper was halted by the Party's decision
(which will be discussed in detail below), the NJ editors managed to ob-
tain the unpublished portions and published them in full in their own in-
formal EFHB Bulletin.
The scientists and leaders supporting Yu were eager to halt the study of
psi. As a result, the Academia Sinica held a meeting in Beijing on Feb-
ruary 24, 1982, attended by 4,000 scholars, to criticize the psi studies and
to call for "fair but strictly controlled" trials in which both sides would
participate. The results of these trials would lead to a final judgment and
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 125
thus close the issue. This meeting was given extensive coverage by both
the Xinghua News Agency and the People's Daily newspaper, the two
most important government-authorized media. Their news dispatches ex-
pressed strong disapproval of the psi researchers.
The person leading the other side of the debate was Dr. Qian Xuesen,
the "father of Chinese space technology. " He studied at MIT in the 1930s
and completed his Ph.D. at the California Institute of Technology's Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, where he was subsequently appointed Goddard
Professor of Jet Propulsion. At one time he was director of the rocket
section of the U.S. National Defense Scientific Advisory Board. Although
the Americans granted Dr. Qian's request to return to China in 1955 in
exchange for I1 American pilots from the Korean War, it was later ru-
mored that the U.S. government regretted the decision, for they believed
that without Qian, China would not have been able to join the nuclear and
space clubs so soon (Dong, 1984, pp. 90-91).
Dr. Qian first showed his support of qigong research publicly in June,
1980, when he visited NJ. In a private conversation with the journal's
editors, Dr. Qian is reported to have said:
No one has ever undertaken to discover the ultimate capabilities of the
human body. Henceforth, we should use science and technology to study
human potential. Thus, we should study Chinese traditional medical theo-
ries, qigong, exceptional functions of the human body, and so on. In the
end, all this will result in developing the exceptional functions you have
been studying. There is much opposition to the integration of Western and
Chinese medicine, including qigong and EFHB. It is permissible to use
different approaches in research. Many natural phenomena are still not ex-
plained by science, and this is the way it has been throughout the history of
science. We need a leader who is strong enough to face critics, and that is
why I have come to visit and to show my respect for your journal. (Nature
Journal editorial report, 1980)
Dr. Qian answered Mr. Yu's challenge by emphasizing that it is impor-
tant to perform experiments rather than merely to stick with existing theo-
ries. Dr. Qian believed that anthropic science9 would become a major
branch of modem science and technology and attain the same standing that
the natural sciences, the social sciences, the behavioral sciences, mathe-
matics, systems theory, military theory, and the fine arts have today (Qian
& Chen, 1988). He also predicted that a breakthrough in anthropic science
would necessarily cause a new revolution in science and technology,
thereby changing the future of mankind completely. He believed that such
a change would be far more profound than the scientific revolution of the
early 20th century, which was brought about by the development of rela-
tivity and quantum theory (Qian, 1983).
9 The term "anthropic" was officially used in English translations in the early phases but
was later replaced by "somatic," although the Chinese term remained the same.
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126 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
These arguments were politically effective, in part because of Dr.
Qian's important position and his influence upon Chinese policy makers,
especially the military leaders. Another high ranking political and military
leader, Mr. Zhang Zhenhuan, who was at that time Chairman of the Com-
mission of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense, en-
dorsed open discussion of EFHB in response to Dr. Qian's call for support
of the field. Mr. Zhang later became the first president of the China So-
ciety of Somatic Science (CSSS).
Although he rarely performed a formal experiment himself, Dr. Qian
observed many trials by qigong masters and, on several occasions, experi-
enced in person the power of their "qigong external emission" ("qigong
waiqi" or "exterior energy"). Also convinced by what they had seen
were many highly respected senior natural scientists, who expressed their
support for the proponents of EFHB. These scientists included Wong
Gangchang, Zhao Zhongrao, Bei Shizhang, Mao Yisheng, Qian Wei-
chang, Tan Jiazheng, Yang Longsheng, Wang Dezhao, Zhu Guangya,
Tang Aoqing, a chemist who was later elected president of the Academia
Sinica, and Zhou Guangzhao, the current president, Tang's successor.
In an attempt to settle the issue fairly, a joint trial was arranged by the
Party's National Committee of Science in April, 1982. A disagreement
concerning the design of the experiments arose between the opposing fac-
tions before the trial was formally begun, and as a result, some members
of the anti-psi faction withdrew, saying that they would not acknowledge
the validity of the outcome of the trial. Nevertheless, the trial did proceed
at Beijing Teacher's College with individuals of both factions in atten-
dance. The results, by and large, were negative, with the exception of
those produced by "Z" (see later identification). On the basis of Z's re-
peated and strongly positive results, the pro-psi members of the joint com-
mittee took the offensive and published a report of the trial in the first
issue of an "internally circulating" magazine, EFHB Research (Com-
bined Committee for EFHB Tests, 1983). Meanwhile, the anti-psi faction
chose not to make any report.
As usually happens in a centrally-controlled country, when no one
wants to be on the losing end of an issue, both sides turned to the Party for
a resolution. Dr. Qian Xuesen wrote a letter to the Party's Central Propa-
ganda Department asking the Department to protect the freedom of sci-
ence, while Yu Guangyuan continued to push for a ban on psi as an ap-
proved research topic. Dr. Qian's letter was forwarded 'to the Central
Committee, and finally the leaders made a judgment. The ruling came
down on the side of Yu, but permission was granted for psi researchers to
continue on a restricted scale. The decision was announced on May 13,
1982, by Hu Yaobang, who was then the Party's General Secretary. The
Party's Propaganda Department also issued two announcements in April
and June giving basically the same instructions:
The EFHB is not [an officially accepted] subject for our scientific research.
Before proof of the phenomena is firmly established, our media should not
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 127
propagandize or make any comment about any test or experiment. These
rules are believed to be appropriate and justified, so they must be observed.
However, we may allow a minority group of scholars to continue their study
[of] the topic and let them publish an internally circulated publication for the
consideration of concerned scientists, and permit those who are interested to
read it and to continue their research efforts. (Hu, 1982)
The ruling was obeyed. Nature Journal stopped carrying papers on psi
research; Knowledge is Power ceased publication of Yu's serialized paper
as of June, 1982. Psi enthusiasts in universities and institutes were not
permitted to include their psi studies as part of their formal work load or to
freely distribute results of their psi research to the general public. Thus,
the first phase of modern Chinese parapsychological research, which had
been characterized by its large-scale effort, ended.
PHASE 11 (1983-1986): QUIET RESEARCH CONTINUES
In contrast to the earlier years, the scale of research in the second phase
was much smaller and quieter. Following the disappearance of the cov-
erage of psi by the news media, most ordinary people soon forgot about
the subject, and the rest incorrectly assumed that the psi reports were
fraudulent and had been banned by the Party.
A majority of the former investigators also gradually drifted away from
the subject, not because they doubted the genuineness of the observed
results or because they had lost interest, but for more pragmatic reasons:
The economic reform had started and, in accordance with the newly
adopted policies, promotions were no longer based on the number of years
a scholar had worked in his unit, but more and more upon. his achieve-
ments. Since EFHB study was "not a recognized research topic" and
could not be counted as formal work, it was not considered in making
promotion decisions. Also, the new open-market policy created many op-
portunities for intellectuals to make money by employing their knowledge
in support of the country's modernization. These opportunities were
highly attractive to the nation's professional thinkers, who had been in an
? inferior economic position for so long. In addition, keen competition to be
admitted to the better universities and even to the better high schools was
forcing psychic children and their worried parents to decline further invi-
tations to participate in psi testing. Such activities seemed irrelevant to the
future careers of the children.
Nevertheless, as allowed by the Party, psi groups did survive and con-
tinue their former endeavors; and the field moved in new directions
through the efforts of Dr. Qian Xuesen and his fellow military officers,
including Mr. Zhang Zhenhuan. It was no secret that in late 1981, Qian
and Zhang had successfully set up a psi study site known as the 507 Insti-
tute, or the Institute of Space Medico-Engineering (ISME). This Institute,
located in suburban Beijing, is under the defense-related Spaceflight De-
partment. It had been established earlier in the 1960s to provide medical
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128 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
support for the astronauts of the proposed Chinese space effort, but in the
early 1970s the idea of manned space flight was postponed due to more
urgent considerations relating to the nation's reconstruction. Thus, a team
with considerable relevant experience was already in place. Included were
two researchers strongly interested in EFHB, Prof. Chen Hsin, Director of
the Institute, and Prof. Mei Lei, both of whom were able to attend the
1982 joint convention of the Parapsychological Association and the So-
ciety for Psychical Research in England. Research proceeded smoothly, in
part because those who opposed psi research had almost no power within
the military system, and also because open attack on psi research was no
longer permitted due to the Party's ruling.
At the beginning, the ISME team reviewed reports from both inside and
outside the nation. In Professors Chen and Mei's 1982 address at Cam-
bridge University they reported only the results previously obtained by
Chinese researchers outside the ISME, in addition to the ideas offered by
Dr. Qian. As time progressed, the ISME team became independent and
isolated from the civilian research community. The senior author heard
complaints from university professors that they no longer had access to the
psychic subjects with whom they had previously worked and, further-
more, that they were not very well informed as to what was occurring
within the ISME. Of course, the civilian researchers were pleased to see
that there was a formally endorsed, well-supported team to continue re-
search in the subject, but they increasingly found that they had become
outsiders with almost nothing to do. They also realized that, in the de-
fense-related unit, practical applications of psi might have a higher priority
than basic scientific inquiries. Indeed, the ISME team had many advan-
tages. Psi study was their official task, and as in other top defense-related
institutes, they were well equipped and well funded. They had the money
to attract and support the country's top psychics and they actually did so.
Several famous subjects became full-time co-operators, including Zhang
Baosheng, who had been formerly reported in many papers as "Z."
Born in 1955 in Nanjing city, Jiangsu Province, Zhang Baosheng
showed his ESP abilities as early as 1976. He was tested by a group of
local psi researchers and came to Beijing in early 1982, at a time when
the skeptical pressure against the EFHB teams was at its peak. There is
little doubt that Zhang helped save the study of psi because he was the
only one able to show distinctly positive results under the scrutiny of the
skeptics in the "joint trial" described above.
In his early personal experience with Zhang Baosheng, gained over
months of close observation, the senior author found that, as with other
major psychics under loose control, Zhang was able to perform numerous
incredible feats. Most of these involved apparent PK, and many were done
in the way the senior author or others requested, with the targets seem-
ingly chosen at random. For example, Zhang caused objects, such as
someone's photo identification card or personal name stamp, to move to
another room which Zhang had not entered, or caused a torn personal
letter to be restored to a single piece.
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 129
Zhang Baosheng later did many experiments under what were said to be
tightly controlled conditions. A series of PK experiments performed with
him by a group of 19 researchers headed by Prof. Lin Shuhuang of the
Physics Department of Beijing Teacher's College, was reported in EFHB
Research (Lin et al., 1983). 10 This experimental report illustrates the typ-
ical target-selection and sealing techniques used, and is a good example of
how such experiments were conducted in China. The paper reported spe-
cial skills of this psychic, such as extracting small papers with identifying
signs, chemically active objects, and marked live insects from sealed con-
tainers. Tamper-resistant sealing methods involved concealed unexposed
photo film and envelopes impregnated with a chemical marking dye.
By 1984, Zhang Baosheng was under the control of the ISME team. He
lived within the Institute compound and, as reported by visiting friends,
was provided with an assigned car, special meal service, a color TV,
VCR, camera, etc. Many times he was called upon to demonstrate his PK
in front of highly placed Party or military leaders. (Those demonstrations
were, of course, not under tight control.) Rarely did the civilian re-
searchers who had worked with him get the chance to reach him again.
However, the ISME team did report some highly unusual experiments.
One resulted in a PK film, photographically recording at 400 frames per
second the passing of a marked medical pill through glass, including
frames showing the penetration process (Huo, 1987). It is an important
sign of the military support of the field that this film was awarded a "Sci-
entific Research Achievement Prize" of the second class by the Space-
flight Department later in 1987, a recognition which must be unique in the
history of parapsychology, especially in that it happened in an Eastern
communist country.
Some of his investigators wondered if Zhang Baosheng ever cheated in
his demonstrations. They suspected that he did so to "save face" when he
was not able to succeed honestly after extended effort in front of high-
ranking guests. His supporters believed, however, that the formally re-
ported results were genuine because they were under tight control. The
senior author feels it may never be known if Zhang used trickery since he
has never admitted, as do many present-day qigong masters, that he is
sometimes without power.
Two hypotheses, among others, present themselves. It is possible that
Zhang Baosheng (who has no appreciation of science) lives in his own
mystical world where his perhaps somewhat limited psi abilities have dis-
torted in his thinking the barrier between reality and fantasy, so that it is a
matter of indifference to him whether he uses psi or legerdemain to
achieve his immediate goal.
Alternatively, Zhang's bizarre, apparent PK abilities may reflect a
psycho-physical reality that mocks our presumptions of what is possible.
10 After the Party's 1982 ruling, the informally published EFHB Bulletin attained quasi-
official status as a restricted-circulation journal under the name EFHB Research and con-
tinued to be produced by the personnel of NJ.
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130 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
Given the facts that micro-PK involving small forces and energies has
been established in principle and that gross PK has been presumptively
established both by spontaneous cases and by experiments in the U.S. and
the USSR, the authors believe it is proper for a scientist to suspend judg-
ment when confronted by accounts such as the above.
In this period, civilian researchers throughout the nation also continued
their study of EFHB, although mostly in their off-duty hours. Psi effects
were still mentioned under the name of qigong in many papers published
in the magazines of Traditional Chinese Medicine and qigong practice,
and even sometimes in NJ, because such papers were considered to be
medically related, or descriptive of physical exercises, and thus not in
violation of the Party's ruling. Several popular qigong magazines, such as
Qigong, China Qigong, Oriental Qigong, and Qigong and Science, which
were begun in the early 1980s, were able to continue. These effectively
prepared the way for the subsequent expansion of the qigong movement.
PHASE 111 (1987-1989): THE QIGONG MOVEMENT RESURGES AND
GAINS NEW SUPPORT
As a special physical practice, qigong" (sometimes referred to as "the
internal action of psycho-body energy," breath control," or "breath exer-
cise") originated in China, where it has a rich history. Records show that
it had been systematically developed as early as 500 B.C. and that it was
widely accepted and practiced in every Chinese dynasty. There are various
schools of qigong, each emphasizing different techniques to attain its own
specific purpose. In general, qigong practice concerns concentration of
thought, rejecting external stimuli, adjusting breath, and "controlling the
movement of qi. " It is agreed by all schools that, by sending qi to certain
parts of the body through the "meridian channels" and by practicing in
certain ways, psi abilities can be attained. Although the initial purpose of
practice is to regain the qi lost while growing up, there are said to be
abilities more profound than psi that can be attained by higher level qigong
masters who can "freely control qi by the mind and cause it to flow
through the entire body." Many people in China believe that there are
quite a few such masters, who work as ordinary people and almost never
admit their secret power. They have views on matter, mind, life, and the
universe very different from ours and have no interest in fame or money.
Occasionally, they show a little of their power to respected guests such as
11 In the PRC the term "transcendental meditation" has been proposed as an English
equivalent of "gigong" (EFHB Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 8). This is inappropriate because
the way qigong is practiced (which, in many cases, is not placid) does not conform to the
impression that the word "meditation" conveys, let alone to the Transcendental Meditation
of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Qigong has nothing to do with the modem New Age movement,
nor should it be equated with Indian yoga. The practices of qigong and yoga are different,
although they undoubtedly have a fundamental relationship.
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 131
Dr. Qian, who said he was once knocked down by the "gigong external
emission" applied at a distance upon his request by an anonymous host,
but usually they do not accept a psi researcher's invitation to join a scien-
tific effort.
Maybe the mysterious effects experienced with top qigong masters will
never be available for scientific study, but there are many lower-level
masters who are active in China, practice their art, and offer help to
others. Quite a few of them are sufficiently well trained to be able to
exercise strong psi abilities. Their amazed pupils spread the word so that
more and more people are attracted. This is what happened in the late
1970s after the Cultural Revolution, when an official prohibition against
qigong was slowly removed. The movement did not fall under the Party's
ruling of May, 1982, because researchers cleverly avoided stressing the
psi aspect of qigong. A "China Qigong Science Association" was able to
gain governmental approval in December, 1985 (Zhi, 1986). A rapid ex-
pansion of interest began in 1986 after several highly successful qigong
demonstrations were widely publicized.
Whether by a placebo effect or otherwise, qigong methods have proved
useful in the treatment of diseases, especially chronic ones for which
Western medicine has no effective remedies. Qigong has also been found
valuable for strengthening one's physique. As a result, qigong training
courses were for the first time listed in many universities following a di-
rective from the Education Department in late 1987 (Qigong and Science,
1988). Qigong treatment clinics emerged by the hundreds, and existing
formal hospitals were expanded to accommodate new qigong departments.
It is estimated that at least 20 million people in the PRC, many of them
well educated, were practicing qigong in some form and at some level by
the end of 1987 (Yi, 1987). Foreign visitors were astonished to see that
the qigong learners blocked parks, courtyards, and small streets while
doing their morning or evening exercises.
It is obvious that the qigong movement and the reappearance of EFHB
news reports (usually in relation to qigong practices) could not have oc-
curred in this tightly controlled country without a decision by the Party to
change its earlier ruling. This was done informally. Instead of issuing a
new document, the instructions were given privately and gradually by
some of the Party's senior leaders.
It is widely believed that many leaders in the highest positions became
interested in qigong and convinced of the reality of EFHB. In the first
phase there were many specially arranged psi demonstrations, some pri-
vately performed, in an effort by some of the researchers to gain govern-
mental support. As time went on, it was found that a better way to obtain
support was to let qigong masters take care of the health of the leaders.
Countless healing sessions were held, and a wide variety of effects were
demonstrated. Some leaders reportedly started to practice qigong them-
selves. It was said, for instance, that Deng Xiaoping, the Party and mili-
tary head, became interested in qigong and asked to watch the videotapes
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132 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
of a qigong master's therapeutic lectures (see later). Other leaders showed
their support publicly. Hu Qiaomu, the standing member of the Party's
Central Political Bureau in charge of propaganda, said in a reported
meeting in 1987:
We should mobilize every unit in our society to study qigong science. I
believe it is a very fundamental scientific effect and absolutely not supersti-
tious fiction. This is not something about which one "should not propagan-
dize, or make any comment," but a topic that needs great efforts to publi-
cize and facilitate its development to serve the four modernizations. (Li,
1988, p. 315)
This speech is clearly contrary to the former ruling and, though not
mentioned, the inner quotation is from the previously-referred-to May 13,
1982, directive of Hu Yaobang, the former Party general secretary who
had been subsequently removed from power. Other top leaders who ex-
pressed their support of qigong and of EFHB study were Wan Li, Ye
Jianying, Wang Zhen, Pen Zeng, Pen Chong, and Wang Renzhong, al-
most all of them senior politicians. As final evidence of the acceptability
of qigong and psi research, the application presented seven years earlier
by the preliminary committee under the translated name "Chinese
Human-Body Science Association" (and "China Anthropic Science Asso-
ciation") was at last approved on May 3, 1987, under a new officially
translated name as the "Chinese Society of Somatic Science" (CSSS).
Mr. Zhang Zhenhuan was elected as the CSSS's first president to honor
his contributions, although he had retired from his military commission by
then. The NJ also resumed publishing research papers explicitly on psi
topics in 1987, though they are often qigong-related now. Thus, parapsy-
chology was officially accepted as a legitimate field of science in PRC.
An important change affecting the qigong movement occurred in 1987
when Dr. Qian Xuesen was named chair of the Chinese Science and Tech-
nology Association, the setnigovernmental commission that coordinates
the nation's scientific research. Dr. Qian, although famous, had held no
position outside the military before, but now he was granted the right to
guide the nation's science policy. He did not waste this opportunity and
soon gave instructions urging the furtherance of somatic science. He is
quoted as saying: "Chinese qigong is modern science and technology-
high technology-absolutely top technology" (Yi, 1987).
What caused Dr. Qian to offer so strong an endorsement? Aside from
the prize-winning film described in Phase II above, we do not know what
may have been achieved by defense-related teams such as ISME. It seems
certain, however, that Dr. Qian was strongly impressed by the results
more recently reported in Academia Sinica's Shengwu Wuli Xuebao (Acta
Biophysica Sinica) by Lu Zuying and colleagues (Lu et al., 1987) of the
Department of Chemistry and Biological Science at Qinghua University,
which is the nation's foremost technological school.
In a series of experiments conducted under Lu and colleagues between
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 133
December 1986 and March 1987, qigong master Yan Xin, typically
working at a distance of several kilometers, was able to create, shift, or
intensify absorption peaks in the infra-red, ultra-violet, and paramagnetic
resonance spectra of biological media. In other cases, chemical phase-
change parameters were shifted.
Concerning these results, Dr. Qian Xuesen made the following recom-
mendation to the editors of the Acta Biophysica Sinica:
The content of this paper is highly original. It has indeed indisputably
proved that man can change the molecular properties of a substance without
touching it. It is unprecedented work. Therefore, it should be published
immediately, to announce this Chinese achievement to the whole world.
(Qian Cheng & Zhou, 1988, p. 283)
Born in 1950 in Jiangyou county, Sichuan Province, Yan Xin is cur-
rently one of China's foremost qigong masters. Mr. Yan began to practice
qigong in his early childhood and was a pupil of Hi Deng Fashi, a famous
Chinese "wushu" (martial arts) and qigong master. Unlike many other
qigong students, Mr. Yan later attended school and graduated as a doctor
from Chengdu Traditional Chinese Medicine College. He became famous
in Chongqing city for his "qi-emission" healing. It was repeatedly re-
ported that patients, including those with multiple bone fractures, were
cured and able to return to work immediately as a result of Yan's treat-
ment. The cured bones were reportedly x-rayed before and after by med-
ical doctors (Ao, 1986; Pang & Chen, 1986). Yan's patients, who num-
bered in the hundreds, began to write articles telling of his achievements
(Yang et al., 1988). As a result of the spread of these stories by local news
media, Yan came to Beijing in late 1986, where he did the PK experi-
ments described above (Lu et al., 1987), and published in more detail later
in NJ (Li et al., 1988; Yan, Li, Liu et al., 1988; Yan, Li, Yang, & Lu,
1988; Yan, Li, Yu et al., 1988; Yan, Zhao et al., 1988; Yan, Zheng et al.,
1988) that excited Chairman Qian, as well as other experiments with phys-
ical effects (Yan, Lu, An et al., 1988; Yan, Lu, Zhang et al., 1988).
For the general public, Yan Xin's fame came mostly from his thera-
peutic lectures, which were referred to as "lectures carrying the qigong
effect." These lectures were usually very long, lasting 6 to 14 hours.
More than 100 were given, with audiences as large as 30,000. In some
cases, towns were nearly emptied and factories declared a holiday to allow
their workers to attend the lectures. It was reported that during the course
of these lectures many audience members were cured as "the healing qi
filled the room." Paralyzed patients in wheelchairs stood up and walked
with tears of gratitude; cripples who came in on crutches walked out on
their feet; patients' gall stones disintegrated; diabetes was mitigated;
cancers went into remission; and pains, in general, disappeared (Qiu,
1988; You & Li, 1988; Wang & Gu, 1988). While remaining on the stage,
Yan talked only about the power of qi emission treatments and taught
preliminary practice methods, meanwhile "releasing qi" as he talked. The
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134 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
claimed miracles happened by themselves without his direct individual
attention.
To verify these unbelievable effects, research groups from the Aca-
demia Sinica's Institute of Atomic Energy and other units slipped into
lecture halls without telling the master, bringing with them various radia-
tion measuring instruments. They obtained records of broad-band radia-
tions of greater magnitude than their control recordings, but perhaps the
most interesting datum gathered was the reported fact that during a 14-
hour, non-stop lecture, only 43 out of the estimated 1,400 people in the
audience left the hall even temporarily, and of these, many went directly
to pick up their children from closing kindergartens. The remainder of the
audience had water but no food and did not leave even to visit restrooms
(Qian & Zhou, 1988, p. 229; You & Li, 1988, p. 164). Evidently, their
mental concentration was so intense that some physiological functions
were largely suspended.
Yan's demonstrations may pose more questions than science can hope
to answer. It is said that several scholars in Qinghua University initially
were excited participants when Yan performed various transformations of
the physical characteristics of samples at a distance of several meters, but
they grew fearful and withdrew upon observing that the same results were
being obtained when the master was at Guangzhou city, over 2,000 kilo-
meters away from the samples being affected. (The distance would sug-
gest a teleological process rather than one governed by the inverse-square
law.) If these reports are true, the matter-mind relation must be more pro-
found than most Western parapsychologists are willing to imagine.
There are still other top qigong masters besides Yan Xin in China today:
Chen Linfong, Mong Haunzhang, Wu Huawen, Wang Baojing, Huang
Zenzhong, Wang Liping, Qiuan Guanliang, Zhang Zhixiang, to name but
a few. The whole attitude of society toward qigong has changed. Stories
of these masters appear daily in the news media, including major national
publications such as the People's Daily. An International Qigong Science
Convention was held in October, 1988, in Beijing at which 142 papers
from six Asian countries were presented, including many from members
of the newly approved CSSS (Feng, 1988).
Qigong medicine is taking on some of the roles of behavioral medicine
in the U.S. For example, a "China Qigong Cancer Treatment Research
Association" was formed as a branch of the China Cancer Research
Foundation in February, 1989. It is said to include 3 research institutes, 4
hospitals, 2 recovery centers, and 14 regional organizations (Qigong,
1989).
An example of the changing academic prospects for parapsychology in
China is the thriving civilian research group headed by Prof. Lin Shu-
huang at Beijing Teacher's College, one of the most active and productive
teams throughout the 1980s. In the middle of the decade, Prof. Lin in the
Physics Department of the College found it difficult to survive academic-
ally because his psi work was not formally accepted. Now, however, he
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 135
has been promoted to the position of head of the College's Scientific Re-
search Coordinating Office. Still spending most of his energy on psi re-
search, he and his colleagues have been able formally to establish a
"Comprehensive Technology Institute" which has gained official support
from the Chinese National Science Foundation, as well as at state, min-
istry, and commission levels, thereby allowing Lin to continue his somatic
science work.
DISCUSSION
Most Westerners will find it hard to believe that parapsychology could
gain so much momentum in a communist country where materialism is
supposedly dominant. The explanation is to be found at the level of cul-
tural philosophy. While there are, of course, personal convolutions, polit-
ical ideologies are irrelevant in this matter.
Western culture is Cartesian in that it divides reality into material and
spiritual parts and assigns to revealed religion all responsibility for the
spiritual. Western science is neo-Cartesian in that it has long regarded
consciousness as an impotent epiphenomenon. Only quite recently has any
scientist of stature asserted that consciousness must have causal efficacy
within the body (Popper & Eccles, 1977; Sperry, 1983). Because parapsy-
chology seeks to relate consciousness to the physical world at large, its
study is resisted both by theologians and by sophisticated scientists in the
West (Honorton, 1982; McConnell, 1983, pp. 49-52; McConnell, 1987,
p. 208).
Traditionally, the Chinese have much less of a dichotomy in their
thinking. While borrowing empirical scientific methodology from the
West, many Chinese have retained their own essentially unitary view of
nature and have no philosophical quarrel with parapsychology in their tra-
ditions. This may be the key to the large difference between the preva-
lence and magnitude of psi effects in China and in Western laboratories.
Western parapsychologists may be unknowing victims of their cultural
heritage.
Chinese researchers have been very successful in presenting psi through
qigong and Traditional Chinese Medicine as something with distinctive
Chinese national characteristics,12 a field of study in which China could
lead global efforts and reflect the glory of its brilliant culture. Most Party
leaders seem to believe so. Currently, researchers do not usually experi-
ence much trouble from political or ideological directions. After the
Beijing events of June, 1989, reports concerning qigong and EFHB
studies have increased to a rate of about six per month in the People's
Daily, the main official newspaper.
A second International Qigong Convention (along with "The First Na-
12 In the appendix we review studies of psi with "Chinese characteristics."
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136 Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research
tional Old People's Qigong Study Convention") was held September
10-15, 1989 in Xian, the ancient capital city of Shanxi Province. More
than 600 papers were exhibited, of which 70 percent were from universi-
ties and other scientific research units. This dual convention attracted qi-
gong enthusiasts from all over the nation and, as in the 1988 convention,
many scientifically dubious activities took place in the anterooms and on
the streets (Huang, Wang, & Wei, 1989). A "World Academic Society of
Medical Qigong" with members ranging over 20 countries was formed in
November, 1988, with Mr. Xi Zhongxun, vice-chairman of the China's
People's Congress Standing Committee, and Mr. Chui Yueli, former min-
ister of the Department of Medicine, as Honorary Chairman and
Chairman, respectively (Feng, 1989).
At this time, the "Second National Conference of the Chinese Society
of Somatic Science" was held (separately from the International Qigong
Convention) on November 14 to 17 in Beijing with an attendance of about
250. Opening remarks were given by Mr. Zhang Zhenhuan, the president
of the CSSS, whom we had mentioned earlier as a supporting military
officer. After two plenary sessions, the conference divided into separate
physical and medical sections of three sessions each. The conference re-
joined in a closing plenary session to hear an address by Professor Chen
Hsin, whom we have identified above as having represented the ISME at
the parapsychological convention at Cambridge University in 1982.
Evidently the senior leaders of China, now firmly in power, are favor-
able to the public study of qigong and related EFHB. It is ironic that Mr.
Yu Guangyuan, the one who opposed psi most strongly in 1981, is cur-
rently criticized in newspapers for his "capitalistic" economic conduct in
the reform movement in the late 1980s and for his political association
with Zhao Ziyang, Hu Yaobang's brief successor. Judging from the favor-
able publicity he has received in the People's Daily, Dr. Qian Xuesen, on
the other hand, retains his position of scientific pre-eminence (Yu & Shu,
1989).
For a Western parapsychologist, all of this Chinese activity could be
both encouraging and disturbing. Given the nature of psi, it is inevitable in
any culture that parapsychology, as it gains scientific acceptance, will be
bedeviled by runaway popular interest accompanied by commercialization
and fraud. In a field where there is, as yet, no possible certification of
ability, no limits to what can be claimed, and only a glimmering of scien-
tific understanding, it is to be expected that many persons with little or no
psychic ability will offer their wares to an eager public. Sooner or later,
this will result in an adverse reaction at a high political level unless vig-
orous steps are taken to isolate and to publicly legitimatize the scientific
approach.
Maintaining the distinction between professional parapsychology and
popular occultism is especially difficult because parapsychology is largely
dependent for its experimental data upon gifted psychics who do not often
understand the scientific method. A still further constriction is the para-
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989
137
psychologist's wish not to criticize professional psychics who choose to
use their special gifts to help other people even though their efforts are
often expressed in an envelope of superstition.
Thus, while rejoicing in the encouraging progress of parapsychological
studies in China, we hope cordially that more purely scientific and robust
achievements will come in its culturally distinctive way from this great
Oriental nation.
REFERENCES 13
Ao DALUN. (1986). Realities and the myths around us. Qigong Yu Kexue
(Qigong and Science), No. 3.
CHAI JIANYU, & ZHAO YONG. (1981). A preliminary detection of interac-
tions between the extraordinary function of the human body and matter.
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CHEN HSIN, & MEI LEI. (1983). Study of the extraordinary function of the
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CHENG, Li SHOUCHENG, Liu XINGDE, QI YUHUA, FENG CHUNFENG,
ZHANG TIANHUA, GUAN TONGLIN, WANG ZHILIANG, GAO FENG, GAO
CHUNCHENG, WANG ZHEYUE, YUE PEIZHI, & Lu FENGQIN. (1981).
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CHENG SHOULIANG, HE MUYAN, WANG CHU, ZHENG LEMIN, ZHAO
SHAOYUAN, ZHANG ZUQI, Liu ZHAOQIAN, & Wu BAOGANG. (1979).
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COMBINED COMMITTEE FOR EFHB TESTS. (1983). Report on tests of the
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DONG, P. (1984). The Four Major Mysteries of Mainland China. Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. (In English)
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13 In the PRC, authoritative statements about sensitive topics frequently appear in serial
publications of restricted circulation. Later, these statements may be quoted or paraphrased in
an unrestricted journal and, in this way, become available for quotation in writings intended
for foreign publication. In China, papers abstracted in another journal keep their original
titles unless otherwise indicated. In the present list, references are in Chinese unless notated
"(In English)." The reader will notice the absence of Chinese research papers in foreign
journals. Such papers would require official approval before submission, and, for the
present, such approval is not likely to be forthcoming.
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FENG JUNJUN. (1988, October 12), The first international qigong conven-
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born in Beijing. Renmin Ribao (People's Daily) (overseas edition),
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HE MUYAN, SHAO SHAOYUAN, ZHANG ZUQI, Luo LINER, CHEN SHOU-
LIANG, WANG CHU, Liu ZHAOQIAN, & Wu BAOGANG. (1980). Further
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human body. Ziran Zazhi (Nature Journal), 3, 683, 674.
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HsIN PING. (1975). The rampancy of parapsychology and the decline of
the superpowers. Scientia Sinica, 18(4), 573-580. (In English)
Hu YAOBANG. (1982). An instruction about the EFHB question. Renti
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HUANG HUE, WANG GUOSHEN, & WEI MING. (1989, October 29). A pro-
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Huo YAOHUA. (1.987). Qigong miracles and research developments.
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Department of Physics and Astronomy Computer Engineering Center
University of Pittsburgh Carnegie Mellon Research Institute
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260 Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
Psi Studies with "Chinese Characteristics"
Chinese leaders have often said that their goal is "modernization with
distinct Chinese characteristics." The generally favorable response to psi
research by these leaders may stem in great part from the fact that Chinese
"sornatic science" is not perceived as an adjunct to Western science but
as a peculiarly Chinese endeavor. The following ideas would seem to sup-
port this point of view.
1. Historical foundations of somatic science
As previously stated, the three disciplines, Exceptional Functions of the
Human Body, qingong, and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) are con-
sidered to have risen from a common background. The ancient Chinese
theory of qi and its systematic approaches constitute most of the founda-
tion. For instance, EFHB is thought to depend on the presence of qi in
appropriate parts of the body, and "jinluo" (the traditional "meridian
lines network") is the claimed channel for qi. Evidence for the physical
existence of meridian lines was recently reported by medical groups
(Feng, 1988; Zhu, 1986; Zhu et al., 1986). These lines are thought to be
the basis upon which TCM acts to adjust the human system to fight dis-
ease or to improve health, as in acupuncture practice. The theories of
TCM, which espouse the interaction of several basic elements such as
"qi," "xue (blood)," "yin (negative)," and "yang (positive)," can be
used to explain many diseases and symptoms at a descriptive level and to
provide guidance for treatment. The theory is somewhat idealistic, and its
various elements are not measurable. (Unfortunately, Western parapsy-
chology has no better theory to offer.) Dr. Qian Xuesen, who thinks of qi
as a kind of informational continuity of essential importance to all living
things, emphasizes the necessity for psi researchers to study TCM theory
and qigong practices.
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2. Emphasis on gross ("macro") effects
The availability of skilled EFHB practitioners as well as qigong masters
said to be able to produce gross psi effects seems to have eliminated the
need for statistical analysis in much of Chinese somatic science research.
Statistical treatment is, however, often used in healing-related studies.
Many Chinese researchers are seemingly a little reluctant to conduct
Western-style micro-PK experiments, for example, with random event
generators.
It is unfortunate from the point of view of the Western parapsychologist
that gross PK experiments are not, in fact, reproducible in the PRC fully
upon demand. Moreover, gross PK events, because of their singular and
unpredictable nature, are more difficult to document convincingly than
micro-PK events.
3. Instrumental simplicity and experimental control
Many Chinese researchers do not like to use complicated scientific in-
struments directly in front of their subjects because, reportedly, in many
cases, subjects have demonstrated their ability to act upon an instrument
itself instead of through its sensing element, so that what really happens is
never known. Therefore, in many cases the design strategy of experi-
menters has been "the simpler, the better." For example, a majority of
PK tests are done with simple targets without the involvement of any elec-
tronic apparatus to directly monitor the results. These targets, however,
must satisfy "three requirements," which have been widely adopted for
all formally conducted and reported trials:
1. Targets must, in general, be unique so as to be impossible or ex-
tremely difficult to duplicate. Double-blind procedures should be followed
when possible.
2. Targets must be sealed using tamper-proof methods-"irrevers-
ible" is the Chinese term.
3. There must be continuous, on-site, multi-angle observation by ex-
perimenters or by videotape.
These requirements have led researchers to believe that their reported
results are real, and that the effect is PK acting on the target. When the use
of modern instruments becomes unavoidable, it is believed that the experi-
mental protocol must be arranged so that the subject is away from the
instruments and without knowledge of when or how the surveillance and
analysis of targets is performed.
4. Psi as a personally developable skill
It is assumed as a matter of course in PRC that psychic ability, as well
as other benefits, can be developed through the practice of qigong. In the
West, by contrast, the serious literature largely ignores training and
stresses conditions at the time of the experiment.
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Parapsychology in China: 1979-1989 143
Although investigations of apparitions, poltergeists, hauntings, and sur-
vival of death (including mediumship, channeling, and reincarnation) are
not formally banned in PRC, these topics are often considered to be sensi-
tive, and thus are not reported as being formally studied because of con-
cern about their ideological inappropriateness under the compelling guide-
lines of Marxist materialism. Moreover, researchers are comparatively ig-
norant concerning these psychic research topics. Some experimenters
briefly investigated such areas earlier, but soon became targets for attack
by Mr. Yu Guangyuan and others. It seems that no one has mentioned
these topics openly since then.
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