NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 24; GREECE; THE SOCIETY

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• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200110029-2
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 56
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241GS/5
4
Greece
Marcie 1974
NATIONAL INTELLICENCE SURVEY
FA
o OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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WARNING
The NIS is National Intelligence and may not be re-
leased or shown to representatives of any foreign govern-
ment or international body except by specific authorization
of the Director of Central Intelligence in accordance with
the provisions of National Secu Council Intelligence Di-
rective No. 1.
For NIS containing unclassified material, however, the
portions so marked may be made available for official pt-r-
poses to foreign nationals and nongovernment personnel
provided no attribution is made to National Intelligence or
the National Intelligence Survey.
Subsections and graphics are ;ndividually classified
according to content. Classification /control designa-
tions are:
(U /OU) Unclassified /For Official Use Only
(C) Confidnritial
(S) Secret
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42 r c e
ec
CONTENTS
Thrs changer ssipersedes the sociolopiral eouer-
age in 111r CcWMI SurLCU dared hart IM9.
A. General
1
B. Structure and characteristics of society
8
C. Population
12
1. Population growth
12
2. Age -sex strt]eturC
14
3. Distribution and density
14
D. Societal aspects of labor
45
E. living conditions and social problems
23
A. Housing
24
2. Social insurance
26
3. Social problems and welfare programs
27
F. Health
M
Fon OFFICIAL USE ONMY
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Page Page
G. Religion 32 j. Public information 46
it Education 37 K. Selected bibliography 30
I. Artistic and cultural expression 42 Giossary 51
FIGURES
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Page
Page
Fig. 1
The Acropolis, viewed from the
Fig. 21
Women harvesting wheat in Thessaly
northwest photo)
1
photo)
21
Fig. 2
A corner of the palace of Kaosos
Fig. 22
Representative housing photos)
25
photo)
2
Fig. 23
Stone walled baking oven photo)
26
Fig. 3
Mistras and Rhodes photos)
3
Fig. 24
Housing construction table)
26
Fig. 4
Tenitorial expansion of Greece,
Fig. 25
Government projects providing safe
1832 -1947 (map)
4
water photos)
29
Fig. 5
Population, by mother tongue and
Fig. 26
Athens meat market photo)
30
religion, 1951 table)
6
Fig. 27
Average daily per capita food
Fig. 6
Vlach shepherd outside his thatched
consumption (table)
3!
but photo)
7
Fig, 28
Medical facilities and personnel, by
Fig. 7
Ethnically distinctive minority groups
region, 1970 table)
32
(photos)
7
Fig. 29
General Hospital at Patrai photo)
32
Fig. 8
Sarakatsan women in traditional dress
Fig. 30
Data on Orthodox communities, 1971
photo)
8
table)
33
Fig. 9
Coffeehouse in the village of Malaxa
Fig. 31
lconostasis of the Vlatadon Monastery
photo)
10
photo)
34
Fig. 10
Population, selected censuses table)
12
Fig, 32
Religious procession on Tinos photo)
34
Fig. 11
Vital rates (chart)
13
Fig, 33
Faster, the holiest .season of the year
Fig. 12
Greek emigration, 1955-71 chart)
14
(photos)
.i5
Fig. 13
Age -sex structure, 1971 chart)
15
Fig. 34
Orthodox priest (photo)
37
Fig, 14
Population, by broad age group,
Fig. 35
Educational attainment of population
selected census years chart)
15
sge 10 and over chart)
38
Fig. 15
Population, area, and population
Fig. 36
Enrollment by type of school table)
39
dens;ty, by region and monarchy,
Fig. 37
All levels of education have benefited
1971 (table)
16
(photaq)
40
Fig. 16
Movement of population, by region
Fig. 38
An evening concert in the Odeum
and monarchy, 1961 -71 (map)
18
of Herodes Atticus photo)
43
'fig. 17
Population by urban, semiurban, and
Fig, 39
Scene from Karaghiozis shadow -play
rural areas, selected census years
(photo)
44
(chart)
19
Fig, 40
Cretan musicians with traditional
Fig. 18
Growth of urban agglomerations
instruments (photo)
45
Fig. 19
table)
Fishermen repairing their nets
19
Fig 41
View of Hydra by Ghika photo)
45
(photo)
19
Fig. 42
g
Mosaic, a work of Tsarouhis (photo)
46
Fig. 20
Examples of small independent
Fig. 43
'Typical Athens kiosk photo)
47
business enterprise (photos)
20
Fig. 44
Principal daily newspapers table)
48
ii
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The Society
A. General
Although expose(I to modernizing influences as
early as the advcmi of national independence a
cenFtrry and a half ago. Greck society has faced
sweeping challenges to its traditional institutions vod
valcres only iu the periml since World War 11, when
Greece adopted p alicies of accelerated ewtiomic
development and of progrtw5ive econoric integration
with Western Europe. Major factors behind the
delayed onset of MOIleroirrtion inclucdc formidable
physical disabilities, such as pioverty of material
resourees and pronounced territorial fragnieniation.
and of no le,. imliorluncr, the nations romantic
attachment to its past. specifically to two idealized
historical epochs --the liellenic and tl:r iiyi...rttirie.
From these elxrchs the Creeks derivc their miJor
symbols of collective identity --the Greek langnage
and its :rSSrxiatcd cultmral legacy fmAur the I-pelleuic
and the Eastern Orthodox religion from the Byrantiue.
The ideal of "Ifcllenic- Chrislian civilization' has long
formed the nonnative basis for contemporan� Greek
development, acid its common aceLptaucc has leru
exploited by certain governments, including the
military- backed regime that carne to power in April
1967, to further u suppxned need Fur national
regeneration,
One crucial ..spect of this emotional cnmmitmerit to
the Hellenic and Byzantine heritages concerns its
dualistic nature. These heritages are seen as
representing two opposing forces, which the Greek-;
have struggled to resolve ever since the founding of
their modern nation- state. Often the duality is
expressed in terms of an internal east -west conflict,
with an impulse toward eastern mysticism being
related to Byzantium and an impulse toward western
rationalism, to t {VIlenisin. The tension generated by
these anlitho-tical forces. according to some observers,
is an essential chr�ricteristic of Creekness, present in
W NOTE �The entire content of this chapter is UNCLASSIFIED
C
rr but is FOR OFFICIAL USF ONLY.
racy individual as well as in national life. An
inlpxrrlarst practical conseduenc� of Greek devotion to
the past is that it sunciions tln crsnsen aiic holes of the
flellenic- Christian ideal on national institutions (for
example. on the educational system), therel)v
alistructing reall7alion of rapid social acid economic
moderniratiou.
The ancient legaev which nevly independent
Greece of the early 19th century carne to claim as its
rightful inherilancle was oJinost exclusively concemed
with the Allicnian performance (Figure I of the fifth
.end f4,urth rersluries B.C.. as y:orified in traitsrnission
FIGURE 1. The Acropolis viewed from Nte norMtwest.
These nronunNrMs ertetnplify the "Waftndws outburst
of aeaNVlq that deraeterited ow n ape of
classical Greioe. Adorrsnent of the Acroepolis, sodoed by
Persian farce: in 480 IS-C, was urrdwhei n by Perkles
after Mee final defeat of Perda. Mast bs "ri1e11nBs were
reduosd b rites In A.D. 1687, whm Moe Verrettons hied
to wrest AMterK from Nee Turks, WAIng Jews forbid Mte
erecom of any eemral structure "t might OtNUre a
view of the Acropolis.
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FIGURE 2. A corner of the palace of Knows, principal ceroer of the Minoan civilization
of the second m Winn om R.C., to called after its !egendary ruler Mbtgs. With its
colorful frescoes, spacious state roans, and elaborate dralnoge system, the palace at
Knows reflected on advanced stole of cultural development. Through their Influence on
the Myemoeans, the Mkmarn contributed substantially to the flowering of classical
Oreeoe.
down tine age through llellcnistic, Iltirrlarl. and
WN crrn European channels. The micietit Greeks
themselves had nliuked the start of their era from the
Olympic Games of 7 76 B.C.. and almost everything;
now krmewn alnait Creek development llefiere that
date. apart front lire Iforneric evitiribiitiom has mrite
to light through the archeological discoverivs of the
past erretury. Am- ordingt to these discoveries, Greek�
speaking; peoples first eitleud Greece al the leg,imning;
of lire sec-mid millennium li.C., arriving; freers; fist-
north. These Ae:havalls. as Ihey were Called ire the
ifameric epics, gradually t-xpulided suutiiW:esd into
like PC- loponnestes, alisorbiregq earlier settlers ref Near
Eastern origtilt and eveietelally craning; muter the
influence of :en advariwd civiiiVatioln. the milloam.
;Jourishimg{ ill Crete (Figgnn 21. After it Ix�riod of
commercial prosperity and artistic flowering. the
Mycenaean civilization (so calked niter the dominant
Achaean site at Myuenav).:dong wilh life ,41ino: ll.
W;IS abruptly tcrminaled aliturt I IM B. C.. apparently
by :a WItileinatiutt of mutural d isu sle�r slid foreign
invasiom. As part of die lame -scale populalion
displacement that followed, colonies of Ionian
speaking; Greeks were- settled tin the Asia 1 toad,
2
u here Ieggimrting; in the sixth cenlor B.C. like world's
first scie rilists cud philosophers laiel it foundation for
lite work of Platte and Aristotle.
Om the Greek mandamrl, m anwhile, several
cenluries of slow mcoven eventually paiduced it imw
Ixeliti �al system of intiepe�utent city- states. Most
prominent of Ihesc were Alht-ns. title of the few
Mymiaeall She's ter have escalled devastation, alid
Sparta, imhabiled b% the Doriuees, lilt� Greek- speaking;
arrivals (abtimt 1 100 It J. whose mite, if ;ley, in vile
desiretelion of Mycetiaean culture is still imimMain.
Bitter rivalry between Athens and Sparla divided the
Flelleuie world ittlo Mro opposing; calrtps and Ind
finally to the prolmeled and exhausling; Pehtpon-
nesimi War (4314W B.C. in which Alhrns sus
defeated. 'Thereafter, :dlhuug;h Alhcros remaiiied
etilteira lly dolninam for many centuries, the Ixllilieal
importance of [lie Greek city slates undenvt-ni a
sicady timbite, Power vas yielded to Philip of
Mamlem. whose sun and suec"sor, Alexander the
Great. minpiered almost all lite known world. 'Thanks
in large part to like network of flelleitislic cities
fourided by Alexander, Creek influence its Ilie eastern
.le dilerranean flourisituA. even after the area was
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absorbed kito the fionear I:nlpire. Greek iief'lueucr was
to l'\e'reise it vital roll' in file fiy zarillete 1Snlhire over
the tuillcriniltnl of its exislence �from A.U. 310, the
cstablixlunent of Coll+lanlilluple (ailcienl I;N �ranlirrnl>
its the eastern capital of the Ijnnrin i:rt)pirc, to 1453.
lire fall of Coustautinuple to the Ottornaul Turks.
As the B yYauttiue capilal rose to o li sitiou of
preerlimence in the� civiliic -ri world. owitlland Grvevv
fell into o6vie ity and imlwverishnteid. Conlribe ling
to the decline of Athens it this tinge were such factors
cis the aultagonisin of Christianih to llcllenic Thought
and culture and the gravilalion of Greet: tulenl to the
new ernte'r. of Icarising and comittercc. in the east.
Vulnerable to foreign hwaesion, the Greek lx'uirimila
was for severil arutorie's pe'rittelicall% Tri'n'omial by
snc v- 'Six'e waves of Visigoths, Vandals, Ustrogoills.
flurls, Avars. Slays. and Noruniens. Then in the earl}
13th cenhln, when the fourth Crivade divedc(I
:etleution from the liheratioet of Muslim held
lenis ,deep to the cotuluesl of 011181 an tinople, the
Gwok mainland and islands were divided top by _the
Latin conqueror-, nod lon ied into subject pri it-
cilkdities. The subsexlueett curse of d"viopme tit for
these 1whicilmliliec varied (Figure 31, soiree behig
recovered by the R yzalnlitle's and other rem aining in
Latin hands. In the 1ith rrntury Gree lands, with the
Palo of the Coond Moslen on Illssodes, are of reennroes buildMfgs
Me during the rule of tie Kee *ft of Se MM of Jerosokm This
cinoritoble order of W90% prim% once serrtwp bro*wa begun
oowirtion of dte bland in 1909, c er it hod bowl woonsivey held
since 1204 by a Leek nobleman ofd lioHs+ advatioums, in 1322
OW Krfighis of St John COPWe MW a the 0eeaae iwiis and lkkew
to Mattes. ltestaraflan of the rnediewet aide cum curried as dwinp the
period of holion control from 1912 a 1945.
AGURE 3. Mistress and Rhodes liketrate the diverse
devetopmee f of Greek lands after the fragmentation of
the Byzantine Empire In 1204
notable exception of cerlaia islands under Vviletiari
control. I1r ogressive k suceutlibed fo Ottoman
expansion, as did the re'ct of the Sty %kntillr t illpire.
Fullr ccoluries of Ottoin m1 ride Droved to lic art era of
opporlari1% for soma Gr'eks �fur those wilk
consrnercial ildt-M.0% 111141 for 11111W wilh the'
admiuistrtli a talent to serve the Orthodox Patriarch
in cavrrwing out his ne role as civil. as well as religillim
head of the Selltatu*s Christian snbiects. For mainlalud
Greeks. however. it was a lx�riod of ctppn'ssiou and
slagliation, With the Orthodox (:hurCh alone
f elnrtioninL As a Sourcc of cimurlatiuu. To priests and
monks belongs the credil of preserving the {;reek
lealional clousciousness and fivall. in 1821. ref raisin
the flag of rebellion thal IX-gall the War Of
ndepelidence.
The sociocconumic re'tn"hiliem and the narked
Ixelili"d inslahilit that haVC c63ricterheed Greek
developrneut over the last cetilur and a half app citr,
in retrosprel, to have been forecast by [lie
circumstances attemblig the co uldr% Founding.
Despite their own efforts at armed uprising, in the Ceti]
the Creeks owed thAr independence to the
intervention of the United Kingdom, Frincv, and
Russia. In disregard of ItwA needs avJ Iraditioafs. these
self-proclaimed Proles -Wig Powers induced the new
nation to adopt their own institutions o monarchy. of
Centralized administrative control. and later. of
Ixlrliaincutarw de Fven the coneupt of a
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Port of tore neeetieval mmioim of Mhttar% whkh iexlvde deferred rouses.
a f*W*%s and polooe, and numerous chwdees and nwnosreries_ A
stronghold ohw 1205 of the Franklin priodpoliry of Admio under the
Wliolmrdouln family. Mlsnas was restored to iy:onnle rune In 1262
and wbsequensty becaerle a censer of byzaiiihe aeltufe swe c En
importaroe orgy to thessalwAl in molniond Cxeece.

EMU :Z61T /:IM191:Jll:01 File N11 11TiQliftly /:lIehYhZfibDY:b
Greek natirtu -state w,is at fo import. our that
wilfurtticd neither to the city -stale 111044-1 Of aneienl
limes nilr to !lie multinational Ixiltcru of (Fie
Kviantinc Empire, JA x l k ilig back on the intrusion of
"a foreign way of thinking into each wid every
ilia nifcstatiorl of the young s0unrtry's evolving lift,"
one p resen t day Greek weller asserts that as a
cnnsvipience. "all roads I were I laid out on it mistaken
plan." 'l'11at the Gmeks tolerated foreign interference
in their donnrstic affairs was attributable in their
ecn11outir� weakelvs aucl, more significantly, to their
lived of foreig11 steplxnt in "rcilceining" Creek lands
ecludvd from the new nation- state. As Lviistilided in
IK*32, Grcece was a small cciu111n whose population
includrd Only a fraction of the Creeks uihabiting
011a11ian territories. and its boundaries conlaiucd
none of the economic awl religin11s centers of (lie
Creel; world.
111, Creat Idea --the dre of reeovediig the lust
Byr11it'ne E111pir- with its capital ill C ollslantinople
Istanbul) was lu dominate Greek foreign and
donieslic Ixllicies for nearly it cr11tury. rifler Iftti4 the
Ionian Iclautls, Tlltwk aly. Macedunui. C rete. Epirus.
and O ther territori es vvre sur_-ssively added to tlw
original Greek kingdom Figure 4 Cn'ek atternpb
:liter W orld War I io aciluire by forte the whole of
r ACh
sr1
A 1ba N t� sx
;ut Isvu out of five risen and one
oall of eight waster work Ix �yond the relirerneut age;
mrst of these are proba engaged in agriculture�, for
woniru elf all ages agricolture is lit� dominant
economic activity (Figure 21), accuunling for two
thirds of total female employment. lit urban areas the
propoirtion of active wowco drops to half that in rural
areas. Whereas most wonacn in agriculture work us
nnpald f:unily rucnrlxrti, most svorneu in (It 11(-r pursuits
are classified as s:llary and wage eearnen. Although
w olnell have legal entry into :almost all occ upations,
them is widespread custom diserintinatimL against
them in apliointment and pmenotion :and also in
remunentlion. Outside of the civil service and certain
institutions and enterprises, where the principle of
equal pay for equal work is applied, the rnininlurla
Wage fo; woolen app"nimates two thirds 111.11 for
men. and the nlirrirnurn solar� for %vomen equals
about half that for anon. Au effort to narrow lite gap in
coonpensation was begun in the 1961) s but vas not
sustained.
5obstantiai changes in the distribution and
covolmoilian of the work furor and also in the
conditions of labor have been propwsed as at means of
1 rAME 21. Wowwn 1M V691 wheat In 7b"2 llr, the
grancwy of dw* MWOVI tlrrves D1*gM!e Nee
lowoduellan of wadwillmd karnvirq, hanre"k with
the hww drill@ It so wadkwd.
21
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easing; oily manpower shortage. ludiestri:al reprz-
sentalives have n4-- emended, among other things.
the inereasrd participation of women in minontic
activilies. lite transfer of underemployed agricultural
workers to the industrial force, and the importation of
African ,workers. The last of these prolxosals has been
opposed bw labor interestsas heing "harmful for malty
masons." Labor I:- :tiers have also injected industry's
suggestion thal Ix -sous entitled to uncntployeneml
caompens;atioet lx requintil to accept ernployntent.
iaguinr. that stint persons should not have to atislallle
work foreign to their experienc-e ne Im -mcath their soxial
gxMitiom. Industry and labor, along; with government.
agree that one solution to the rnanpl.wer shortage lies
in the re�palriation of Greek workers he West Germany
and other Western European counted(. Propeucd
incentives to lure these emigrants back learn,- and also
to attract surplus agricultural ntanp ovver into industry
include the upgrading of domestic pay scales, which
are alxont nac-fourtFr those offend in West Germany-
a prolwsal empleasizen by laboeor, rathe than
industrial, itttere-ts; the p,ovisiort of holrsing; and the
guarantee of steady employment through work
camracts of I or 2 years duration.
C: indil= is of labor arc regulated by it sizable laxly
of legislation, mooch of it based on the CA0.11 nlions of
the I lite mational Lalxor Organization (11.0). Labor
Legislation is designed to protect wage eamers ill
industry, commerce, the hotel industry, and other
urban adivities, and it applies to enterprises of any
size; agricultural workers are not generally coveml.
Workers are supposed to be engaged through local
lalxlr exchanpc offices, at which all unemployed
persons arc. required to register; in practice, employers
hire whomever they want, complying with a few
essetttial formalities. The maximum workweek in
industry is 48 hour~ in 6 days of s hours each, but
special regulations provide shorter houo for clerical
personnel in curpurations tend for bank employees.
Since 1969 industrial establishments leave had the
option of adopting it 5-day workweek with a 95h -hour
workday. Overtime work requires the appmvul of a
labor inspector. A paid annual vacation is granted
after at least 12 months of continuous employment
with the same emprlayer, the length of vacation
depending on the employee's position ae years of
service and on the nature oaf Cite enterprise. Legislation
on maternity leave provides that no womap may work
6 Necks before and 6 weeks after child %alrth. The
employment of women and minors in nigfhtwork and
in unhealthful or hazardous 4wetrpations is subject to
strict "milatiun. Ugsai minimum wage rates art: set by
lite govemntent, but more favorable rates may he
determined for individual trades through collective
hargaaining. Actual wage and fringe imnefits pail are
sl:bstantially ah ovr glee legal rninimlun retpeiremetll.
Differentials for wages arr payable at the rates of 25
for nig letwwork. 30% for overbite work for the fiat 60
clays Ice iartnuno. and 75% for Sunda) allot 11011day
work. The principal supplclrrenlal Alovtencrs include
Christmas and Eastrr leonuses. a vacation allowiarce.
faluil alloWUHL'I"s, :11141 Alowane11 for unheallhfIll
working condilions.
Respousibilitw for emForciag labor legislation
belongs to the lalxlr impectioro sender of lire Nlinistrw
of National Ecxinoa.ry (inter which the Nfinistn of
Laimir was merged in 1971). Prot.lenls of inspection
and enfurm -mvi t are ctntplicated b the frargrnenta-
tion of industry into nurtleroots srniail emvrprises and
establishments. lit 1971 the media poirted otal that
than were only about 190 labor inspectors In check nit
lhousands of enterprises Al over the country --a set of
data which was seen its deraonstratiog [lit
impossibility of adequate inspection. Nevertheless.
scveral thous:ind violations of labeer legislation are
uncovered each year, the most cornnaan abuses
involving pyaylnent of wages, overtime work. Sunday
and iohday work. and safety and health regulations.
The development of trade unionism has been
h -.ndr nipped by the composition of the labor force,
with its preponderance of self employed parsons :end
unpaid family rncinlxars; by the absence among
Greeks of a dispxositiun for collective action; and by lite
lxelicy of successive governments in excluding trade
onions from any role in preWical life and Front any
Significant voice in ecan omic affairs. Orwmi7afion-
ally, the lalxlr movement is fragmented into nornerous
small unions which have longs resisted steps toward
consolidation. Most unions are organized according to
trades or professions (in art area rather than on all
enterprise haws. Unions of the same trade or profession
combine to foren a national federation, while unions in
the same locality cv)mbine to form u labor (-enter.
Naitional federations and labor c enter% are brought
together in one national confederation, the General
Confederation of Grcck Labor (GSEE); a total of 11Q
national federations and labor centers were
represented at the 17th General Congress of the GSEf
in May 1973. from the officials of both the national
federations and the labor centers, the general congress
elms a 35 -enan administrative council, which from its
own membership chooses an 11-man executive
committee, with it president and a secretary general as
the top officers. Greek trade unions Have been isolated
from the Intentational labor movement since 1967,
when, as an expression of displeasure with the
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Pp
military backed regime, the International C on-
fcderation of Free 'Prude Unions (ICFTU) 5topended
GSEE affiliation. and several International Trade
Secretariats ousted their affiliated Creek federations.
Although the government has publicly embraced
the principle of a fee(- and deineLra;-c trade union
movement, the practical effect of offici;.l policy
toward organized labor has been to restrict its
independence. In 1969 the government enactcd
comprehensive labor legislation aimed at the
"cleansi.rg and rejuvenation" of the labor u. C ment.
One target of this legislation was the elimination of
the existing trade union leadership. which the
government regarded as both corrupt and politically
unreliable, Under a provision requiring that any union
official lead to be employed as a worker for u
minimum number of days annually, some 100 top
leaders were reiroved from office. On the rccom-
mendation of an ILO investigating commission, this
provision was discarded( im 1971 labor legislation. but
most leaders purged in 1969 continaual to he bared
from office under a new provision disqualifying any
.leader who had in the meanwhile collected a pension.
Existing legislation regulating trade union finances
continues t o make the unions dependent upon the
government for operating funds. Prior to 1969 the
trade unions were Financed through aompul
contributions made by workers and employers to a
state-controlled fund called the Workers Hearth;
monthly subsidies were made to individual unions on
ti:e basis of their numerical strength. With a view to
strengthening the financial independence of unions,
legislation in 1969 ppovided for a type of checkoff
system, to be included in collective barwaining
agreements, that enabled all funds collected by the
Workers Hearth from union members to be turned
over to their unions. Its a move sonic observers
regardeu as a backward step, the checkoff system was
abolished in 1971, and a now organiv ation, supposedly
free of government control, was created to administer
revenues from the Workees Hearth earmarked for
trade union financing. The shale of Workers Hearth
Funds assigned to the trade unions, 25% of annua!
revenue, wgs for below the share_ allocated before
1969.
Collective bargaining is regulated by ba. -ic
legislation passed, in 1933 and subsequently amended.
Collective agreements rega eding terms of employment
and general conditions oi' work ap negotiant$ by
r4pre natives of tooth employ" acid �employers; the
most important employers'- organiation being'-the
Association of Grcck. Industrialists: In the: event of
failure to reach: direement, _the dispute is re:crred
either to the Section on Employment of Labor
Manpower (of the Ministry of National Economy) for
mediation or to an arbitration tribunal for
adjudication. The terms reached either by collective
agreement or by arbitration decision are legally and
automatically binding. In 1971 labor and manage-
ment negotiated 46 collective agreements, while
another 55 agreements 'resulted from arbitration
decisions: 67 dispute were referrer` "ar mediation to
the Section on Employment of Labor Manpower.
There have been no work stoppages of any
significance since the April 1967 change of
government. Although the government has recognized
in nrinciple the right of workers to stri ke for economic
reasons. it has in practice se verely curtailed that right.
Prior to 1967 strikes occurred with considerable
frequency but seldom lasted long because of the
inability of unions to provide strike relief.
E. Living conditions and social problems
Creek levels of living, although still among the
lowest in Europe, have improved substantially in the
past two decades of acmicruled economic growth. In
the laic 1946, us the country Ixgan recovering from
the devastuting effects of World War II and 'he
ensuing civil war, average per capila income
amounted to the equivalent of US $125, less than half
the prewar level; by the end:sof 1972, the figure has
risen to $1,42t. Initially in the period of recovery,
efforts to raise consumption lcvels av to improve
social services were subordinated to economic
devcn but this order or priority was reversal
undee the premiership ol'George Papandreou, who
p;.amised Greeks a better life thmugle the expansion of
education, health, and welrure benefits. In like
fashion, the military- backed government early
pledged itself to removing "those social conditions
poverty, deprivation, insecurity, substandard
housing- -which tend to dehumanize the individual."
Moreover, the present government, life the
Papund'reou government, has emphasize.,) the
importance of redusing the marked disparities in levels
of diving between the various regions and between the
various social groups. In pursuing its Uhiectives, the
government' has shunned innovation in preference to
expanding certain existing social programs and
reforming others. As evidence of the 'government's
concern for the disadvantagej, social groups,
spokesmen point to svbstanti* increased'spending
for social. services and*. social welfare. to 1 total
outlsays far suciai: p:uiectiun.anaamtcd'te 13 796 of. the
%8 M product (GNF); asrnmpared with 8% in!
24
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1960 and I (_tiro in 1966. Wheucas the GNP liter -axed
by 759, between 1966 and 1972, spending For soci,il
protection rase by I(Mr.
Although :in expanded economy appears to have
done nothing to remove inequalities in lire distribution
Of wealth, ii has brought some material benefit to moss
of the population. Both in urban and rural areas
people are better housed. lhctt� fed, and better dressed
than ever before. This general impression of improvc4
living conditions frequently noted by foreign observers
6 clearly supported by statistical data. In the period
from ICAQ through 1970, average per capita consumer
expend4tires rise by srrrne 805b in teens of constant
-)urelwsing ixswer. Moreover, there was a significant
shitt in expenditure pallems, the rule of increase in
expendi'ures having risen more rapidly for nonessen-
tial than for essential needs. Per capita six-tiding in
drachmas (IMO �USgI) as follows:
In the same period, particularly since IMs. wages and
salaries showed a marked upward trend, although
some of the gain was offset by the rising cost of living.
;neome levels during the 19Ws continued to vary
significantly from one region to another, with lowest
leveb occurring in Epirus and Thracc and highest
levels in Athens. Per thapiia income was two to three
'imes greater in urrban than in rural areas. Under the
military-backed administration, however, the rural
areas benefited considerably from a cancellation of
farmers' debts and from public works' progrum s. Rural
familiex, furthermore, were the chief'beneficiuries of
emigrants remittances (totalling US$M2A r0lion in
1970 atone), much of which was spent for consumer
goods and services.
I. Homing
Housing conditions have long been unsatisfactory
for low income groups in urban areas and for much of
the rural population. Investment in housing
construction has traditionally absorbed a sizable
24
proportion of the national income and of total
investment, but a major. part of housing investment
has gone into dwellings for middle- and rapper income
groups. Along with nomial housing rsiluimrhsents, tine
xauntry has lien burdened in the last half- reniury
with extraordinary needs arising from .the influx of
Asia Minor refugees under terms of the Treaty of
I -Ahusanne, from the destruction during W4sdd War it
and Cite civil war of approximately one -fifth of the
prewar housing stock. and faint the recurrent kits of
dwellings through earthquakes and other natural
disasteos. in the 1961 census, roughly one fourth of all
dwellings throughout the oountry a erc found to be
overcrowded or to he substandard for other rani -ions.
This figure undewstimates the ponrqualityof housing
by Western standards, however, as almost one -half of
all dwellings were without el ricity and aimost
three fourths lacked running .per.
In style and in certain of .r respects dwellings show
considerali,le regional ,and rural -urimn variation
(Figure 22). fire traditional rural house is typically a
one or two storied structure made of hxvl stone or
mud brick, with .a roof of clay or thatch; common
features in two storied units include a balcony and all
outside stairway. Ideally, the dwelling is supple-
mented by a shed for livestock, a storehouse, and an
outdo or oven (Figur- 23) ---all enclosed by a high stone
wall. Among low income families in rural and
sembirlwn areas, a usual practice is to erect a one-
storied structure for immediate occupancy and
suhsequently add a second or third story as resourecs
permit. High -rise apartments have long 1wen
fashionable in Athens and Thessaloniki, and a
demand for them is rapidly growing in other urban
areas, although the traditional single- family home still
predominates. One signifivatht trend in newly
constructed dwellings everywhere is an increase in the
number of rooms; roughly cane -third of all units
constricted in 1%8 -70 had only one or two rooms, as
compared with aboal one -half of all units occupied in
1961.
Critical of the mm d of previous administrations in
doaling with the-housing shortage, the government has
pledgt -d itself: "To satisfy as completely as bible
both actual and future housing requirements, and to
pay special attention to the satisfuction of the nm& of
the weaker income classes." In the first 3 years of
military bucked rule, the number of new housing tseuits
rose by some 40% over levels achieved] in the previous
3-> ar period (Figure 24), with rural areas receiving a
much larger share of new units. Rural housing has also
benefited from the extensive electrification and seater
supply projects plashed since. 1967. In urban areas,
especially in Athens, the governmeeht has given special
attention to completing the eradication of refugee
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200110029 -2
Phaucts`T
19W
t970
u
Food
3 Mg
5,707
46
Tobacco
334
544
63
Clothinn and foatwear
1,118
2,3M
lcall
housing and water supply
1,UZ
21113
73
Furniture and household utrnrils 288
1,072
281
Heating and- lighting
280
t188
117
Howehold maintenaraoe
304
543
79
Health and personal care
339
63
87
Travel and traenportsition
516
1,247
142
Tekcornonunicatioru
55
161
193
Reuention
571
1,285
123
Education
173
204
18
Total
9,07$
18,4117
s1
In the same period, particularly since IMs. wages and
salaries showed a marked upward trend, although
some of the gain was offset by the rising cost of living.
;neome levels during the 19Ws continued to vary
significantly from one region to another, with lowest
leveb occurring in Epirus and Thracc and highest
levels in Athens. Per thapiia income was two to three
'imes greater in urrban than in rural areas. Under the
military-backed administration, however, the rural
areas benefited considerably from a cancellation of
farmers' debts and from public works' progrum s. Rural
familiex, furthermore, were the chief'beneficiuries of
emigrants remittances (totalling US$M2A r0lion in
1970 atone), much of which was spent for consumer
goods and services.
I. Homing
Housing conditions have long been unsatisfactory
for low income groups in urban areas and for much of
the rural population. Investment in housing
construction has traditionally absorbed a sizable
24
proportion of the national income and of total
investment, but a major. part of housing investment
has gone into dwellings for middle- and rapper income
groups. Along with nomial housing rsiluimrhsents, tine
xauntry has lien burdened in the last half- reniury
with extraordinary needs arising from .the influx of
Asia Minor refugees under terms of the Treaty of
I -Ahusanne, from the destruction during W4sdd War it
and Cite civil war of approximately one -fifth of the
prewar housing stock. and faint the recurrent kits of
dwellings through earthquakes and other natural
disasteos. in the 1961 census, roughly one fourth of all
dwellings throughout the oountry a erc found to be
overcrowded or to he substandard for other rani -ions.
This figure undewstimates the ponrqualityof housing
by Western standards, however, as almost one -half of
all dwellings were without el ricity and aimost
three fourths lacked running .per.
In style and in certain of .r respects dwellings show
considerali,le regional ,and rural -urimn variation
(Figure 22). fire traditional rural house is typically a
one or two storied structure made of hxvl stone or
mud brick, with .a roof of clay or thatch; common
features in two storied units include a balcony and all
outside stairway. Ideally, the dwelling is supple-
mented by a shed for livestock, a storehouse, and an
outdo or oven (Figur- 23) ---all enclosed by a high stone
wall. Among low income families in rural and
sembirlwn areas, a usual practice is to erect a one-
storied structure for immediate occupancy and
suhsequently add a second or third story as resourecs
permit. High -rise apartments have long 1wen
fashionable in Athens and Thessaloniki, and a
demand for them is rapidly growing in other urban
areas, although the traditional single- family home still
predominates. One signifivatht trend in newly
constructed dwellings everywhere is an increase in the
number of rooms; roughly cane -third of all units
constricted in 1%8 -70 had only one or two rooms, as
compared with aboal one -half of all units occupied in
1961.
Critical of the mm d of previous administrations in
doaling with the-housing shortage, the government has
pledgt -d itself: "To satisfy as completely as bible
both actual and future housing requirements, and to
pay special attention to the satisfuction of the nm& of
the weaker income classes." In the first 3 years of
military bucked rule, the number of new housing tseuits
rose by some 40% over levels achieved] in the previous
3-> ar period (Figure 24), with rural areas receiving a
much larger share of new units. Rural housing has also
benefited from the extensive electrification and seater
supply projects plashed since. 1967. In urban areas,
especially in Athens, the governmeeht has given special
attention to completing the eradication of refugee
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Row of homes on Sifnos, orw of ow Cyalades Wads. Homes of this
rypa, a fahiUor fight in Ow Aegeay are froOdy wMewodred olnroif
doily.
FIGURE 22. Ifeprewmflvo howing
slumm some cif which dalt4l from tlic Asia Mio �s
influx. Of ull housescYmslructed irl the 196 1 -72 perim].
according to official elainf5� one oud of 10 was built
thraugh slate sponsored progralTU under the
jurisdictions of the Ministry of %ocial SeMlcrs and the
Workers' Housing Organization. With agencies assist
qualified persons nrecdiafK acr`pilals in
tht� comilrt (those %with mare [hall 300 heels). althou
oatly one-foorllt of ;all hospitals and clinics. Soon :liter
assuming power. the military backed guverunent
began :art extensive building pmgrtm aimed not anl>
at reliewiatgt lhr overall shurlag t' of facilities hilt also at
providing a more bal anced regional distribution of
inudkal can�. The heart of th(� prograin is the
c�omstructiora of at least toile large general hospital in
e ach of the sever.. dininistralive regions (Figure 29).
This prograin is expected to bring altturl a satin even
t;(4tt;naphical distribution of rncdical per, onnel, loot;
heavil voricentratrd in Greater Atlivos, and, to a
lesser t�xlent. an Greater Thessalooiki. In 1970, there
.s tiara phy iciaaa for ercr} 33S inhabitants in Greater
Athens, ire cisotrast to a ratio of I:1.290 in Central
Greece and Eulxwa and a ratio of 1:1,2413 in Thrace.
In Greece the ratio of p hysicians to total population.
1:61 was more favorable than in several inure
developed F umpeart weal triw. DurinX the &9W's the
medical sehools of the Universities of Athens and
Thessaloniki prahaced approximately 3,300 new
physicians, .nil Foreign medical schools trained an
atlditiunal 400 to 30(1 Creek physicians. The number
of general practitioners appears to he sufficient, but
there is a shortage of slxcialisis in certain fields. (A
other categories of me die(il personnel. nurses in
particular arc ire Short supply, although an expansion
of twining facilities for them is intended to remedy
this deficiency.
Health care vaaricw in reality from lxxor in the nrral
areas to generally satisfactory in he majorcitics. Most
existing provincial hospitals (pending the avmpletion
of the planned network of regiarril hoslAtals) have
neither the vtluipment nor the tniined personnel to
provide modern me dical treatment Provincial
patients needing specialised care are normally
transferred to Athetis for hospit:alizlktion while Greeks
who can afford it seek ntedical attention abroad.
30
I
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APPROVED FOR RELEASE 2009/06/16: CI DPO 0707R000200110029-
M
r
a
k at
_e
$1.
APPROVED FOR RELEASE 2009/06/16 CI DPO1- 0707R000200110029-
}22a
c
1 2 6
2 a04
2
|$2
2
|e�
2
$1.
APPROVED FOR RELEASE 2009/06/16 CI DPO1- 0707R000200110029-

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F1WRE A Mediral facilities and persotmel, by region, 1974
FIGURE 29. General Hospital at
Patrol, trader constiuctlon. This 400
bed facility forms part of the
government program to upgrade
provirtcial medical services by
providing each adn*6trative
region with a large modern hospital.
Greek physicians are generally well qualifies!, and
although the country bus very limited research
facilities of its awn. Specialists attempt to keep abreast
of the latest international developments in their fields.
The government. through the Ministry of Social
Services, has sought to improve the health cure
provided under the social insuranc-c system, often a
target of public complaint Among otrier measures; the
government has intmdueed a system enabling those
insured with IKA to have their own family physician,
and it has ruiscd hospMul fees to encourage the
provision of better service.
G. Religion
The Eastern Orthodoot C'6awk ist u raw ntiA past of
Hellenism, as its status as the �-ptbgshcd: religion
acknowledges; yet its mle dWXk1* society is
tt
problematical. Al mt all: t..- are nrmtnally
Orthodox. but nett a senall' Frrctim practices its faith
will) any sense. of d acatkw. the rniespslrad lack of
32
religious interest and commitment being tn)ceable in
part to the church's failure to lapt ikself to the needs
of contemporary life. r6e church, nevertheless.
remains a cohesive force of unmatched importance--
partly because the Orthodox heritage pem)cates the
Greek way of life and partly txoiuse church and
nation are one and inseparable in the popular mind. It
was the church, as every Greek learns in childhood,
that nursed and sustained national consciousness
during four centuries of Turkish domination, and that
initially la the struggle for national independence.
But after ocntudes of isolation from outside influence,
the church projected in independent Greece the image
of an essentially backward and obscurantist
institution. Self complacrricy engendered by a
protected status in society has worked to foreclose the
possibility of self examination and change, as'has
prcoceupation with a struggle to gain independence
from state control.
Since the military coup of April 1967, state
intervention in citurch affairs has kept the Hierarchy
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REDS
YNT
DH!4719178
NUMAr:n ov
Peraaaa
Persona per
Persons per
Rrolor
ACILM"
Number
per bed
number
physician
Number
dentist
Greater Athens..............
217
27.262
93
7,507
338
1,780
1,427
Central Greece and Euboea.......
88
2,386
416
769
1,290
1,145
866
Peloponnesus
121
3,502
282
977
1,010
2.18
3,9.'9
Ionian Islands
17
1,004
169
157
1,173
26
7,094
Epirus.
38
952
328
278
1,116
65
4,774
Themaly
74
21323
284
561
1,176
172
3,837
Macedonia.....................
154
9,847
192
2,815
072
053
2,895
Thrace
27
741
445
251
1,2[3
65
5.070
Aegean Islands
44
4,018
104
476
878
135
't,095
Crete
72
2,508
182
462
M
100
4.308
Totnt
852
54,633
101
14,263
615
4,395
1,995
FIGURE 29. General Hospital at
Patrol, trader constiuctlon. This 400
bed facility forms part of the
government program to upgrade
provirtcial medical services by
providing each adn*6trative
region with a large modern hospital.
Greek physicians are generally well qualifies!, and
although the country bus very limited research
facilities of its awn. Specialists attempt to keep abreast
of the latest international developments in their fields.
The government. through the Ministry of Social
Services, has sought to improve the health cure
provided under the social insuranc-c system, often a
target of public complaint Among otrier measures; the
government has intmdueed a system enabling those
insured with IKA to have their own family physician,
and it has ruiscd hospMul fees to encourage the
provision of better service.
G. Religion
The Eastern Orthodoot C'6awk ist u raw ntiA past of
Hellenism, as its status as the �-ptbgshcd: religion
acknowledges; yet its mle dWXk1* society is
tt
problematical. Al mt all: t..- are nrmtnally
Orthodox. but nett a senall' Frrctim practices its faith
will) any sense. of d acatkw. the rniespslrad lack of
32
religious interest and commitment being tn)ceable in
part to the church's failure to lapt ikself to the needs
of contemporary life. r6e church, nevertheless.
remains a cohesive force of unmatched importance--
partly because the Orthodox heritage pem)cates the
Greek way of life and partly txoiuse church and
nation are one and inseparable in the popular mind. It
was the church, as every Greek learns in childhood,
that nursed and sustained national consciousness
during four centuries of Turkish domination, and that
initially la the struggle for national independence.
But after ocntudes of isolation from outside influence,
the church projected in independent Greece the image
of an essentially backward and obscurantist
institution. Self complacrricy engendered by a
protected status in society has worked to foreclose the
possibility of self examination and change, as'has
prcoceupation with a struggle to gain independence
from state control.
Since the military coup of April 1967, state
intervention in citurch affairs has kept the Hierarchy
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.i
{ail the hishotn in a Ix)ly} ire an almost constant state
of turmoil. A venal hiKher ciergy. an uneduca4ed tower
clergy. and an attitude of indifference toward sm:ial
ccu :cents, arming other shoriconiietgs, made the church
a primary larget of the relorns- minded regime. 'rhe
task of *'revitalizing a moriburld institIitiolt" fell to a
forward locking and respected clergyman, leroayemos
Kotsomis, who because Archbishop of Athens and All
Greece is a direct consequence of governrneml action.
Proc- ceding in a highly aulocratic manner foreign to
Orthodox traditions of demrxralic rule, the new
archbishop purged the higher clergy, centralived
church administration, anti inslituted oilier reforms.
arousing by his deeds the intense atiolo4ity of massy
bishops. As of mid -1973, after a crisis of confidence
had induced an ailing and embittered archbishop to
submit his resignation (which was duly rejected), the
only possibility for rewitoring harmon both in intrl-
chtrrch and in church -state relations appeared to Ix
sonic crintpntcnise in posteoup reforms.
Tile Constitution of M8, while revognizing the
Eastern Ortlttxdox Church as the cstablished religion,
declares that freedom of religious conscience is
inviolable. "Every known religion" may practice its
form of worship without hindrance, hill proselytism or
"any other form of interference" against the
established religion is prohibited. Under Creak law.
narriage and divorce are ceclesiastical rather than
civil mtatten; however. marriage perforened according
to the rites of a church lacking rrfficial recognition may
not he registered its the Vital StalistiLs Office, ani
children horn of tier unregistered marriage are
illegitimate in status. Relations between the Orthodox
majority and the religions minorities, which make up
an estimatcd 2% of the total population (Figure 5), are
generally harmonious, although religious friction is
clot entirely absent. The Jehovah's Witnesses, which
the government mfuwes to recognize as a "known
religion," has been unable to have its marriages
registered, and some followers of this church have
been arrested for attempting to proselytize Orthodox
believers. Isolated imstancTs of anti- sentitism have also
Iccurre d. Although the Greeks in general appear to
have a high degree of religious tolerance, a few
fanatical Orlhoclox clergymen have preached against
Freemasons. Jehovah's Witnesses, and Zionists. The
Jewish and Muslim minorities, moreover, have felt
route disquiet over the slogan of the military- backed
regime: "Greece of Christian Greeks."
Eastern Ortltucloxy is principally represented in
Greece by the Orthodox Church of Grrec -e (figure 30),
an autexcpls:tlous body that exercises its sovereignty
independentl of tine Ecumenical Patriarch ill
Istanhul, the highest spiritual authorily of Ortltcttloxy.
The Creek Church has no juristlietion over the
Orthodox Church of Crete. the Orthodox dioceses its
the Midecaltese, or the monastic rnmmunity of
Mount Athos �all of which fall directly under the
Ecumenical Patriarch, Also within ate Orthodox fold
is a discidew element, the Old Calendarisls� so- callej
liecattse they still follow tite Julian calendar. which the
Greek Goverrmtcnt and ate Greek Church abandoned
in 19 4 in favor of kite Gregorian calendar. Leaders of
the seel place its ntemltership at !.i million, while
another source sets the figure at 200,(100. The Old
CulClIdalkh recr)gnixc no formal connimlions with
either lite Eetumcnical Patriarchate or the Greek
Church, aptl they have fiercely resist(A the latter's
efforts to subjugate them. At the center of this
Orthelcioic Schism is the conviction of the Old
Calendarists, who have a famatic:Id llostility toward
Roman Catholicism, that lite Greek Church is subject
to Vatican influence. In reality, most prelates of the
Greek Church have a deeply ingrained antipathy
toward Catholicism, and the church leadership voiced
strong opposition in the mid 1960', to the efforts of the
Ecumenical Patriash and the Pope to set aside
historical differencxcs. A more positive attitude toward
ecumenism, however, has levels expressed by
Archbishop leronymos.
WPM 30. Dc" on Orowd" oo wn wrtllify 1471
PEACE?" or
ralmt Wrta
tARt4m
IKADMIQUAT!
Mussuptitr
ARCKp1UC98C
0I0CL888
CKUBCKM
rallAm
ZDUCATktlt
Church of Greece............
1
48
7.189
7,405
63.3
Church of Grebe...........
1
7
721
756
31.7
t)ioc of the DodeCLem old
the Paf.lil" patrier"
l:xarchy
0
4
137
162
80.8
Told
2
it
7.M
8.373
61.0
33
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F1GtXE 31. konastasis of the vkoadon monastery in
Theuakxhiki. The 49;A canoe of Nhea ioprastasis. which
stands between the coVregatbo in Ow main body of
Ifie dhurch and the sonclupry, which is aooessibte only
to the priett, is doe division between Mae world of flee
flesh, in which thq congregation dwell, and o world
of the spirit, which belahos k God. The rows of icons
supported by Moe samm offer to the foitlafaal a
symbolic tuldoe between >he two.
In matters of doctrine. all Orthodox.cinurni pities in
Creece am united with the Fxtunenical Patriarchate as
well as with other Orthodox autrocephalous churches
and patriarchates. The Scriptums are interpreted ire
aoxxirdanee with the decisions of the first seven
ecumcuical councils and Cite teachings of the early
church fathers. As in the Roman Catholic Church,
seven sacrainents are recognized: naptism with
threefold immersion, Christniation (cYonfirination),
comrnunion for all ni inhers, ,jxanante (confessions).
holy orders, inairimony, and the anointing of the sick
(halt' unction). Cohnmarnion is taken four or five tunes
a year, and confession is inadc with sianihar
infrequeaicy. The Liturgy (Mass) is not celebrated
daily as in the Latin rite, said it is always chanted, The
ctoagrcgation stands throughout the service; worship-
pers move alxhut and come and go as they please.
Church structures, patterned after the sixth century
Byzantine Hagia Sophia (Church of the Holy
Wisdoni) ire Istanbul, are in the shape of a Greek cross,
with the ends terminating in apses. There is a donee
over file center representing heaven, and the union of
dome awl cross symbolizes the union of heaven and
earth. The ,altar, at the eastern end of tine church, is
scparsaed from the nave by the icon screen, or
ic�tostatis (Figure 31). Churches rare usually richly
decorated, not only with icons but also with frescoes
and mnsaics depicting teligioras subjects.
Tile church culendar plays an important part in the
fives of the devout and even affects the routine of
nominal adl ierenis who seldom attend regular church
34
services. Thera arc altogether 20I} meatless days ill the
year. taut fusting is corranuonly nes0ected, although less
so during the four principal fasting locriods of the
church year �IA-0, Assumption. Christmas, and the
Fast of the Alxrxties. livery Creek is feted on his
ruuneday �that is, the da of the saint for whore he
was nained �and every village celebrutes the
uariaeday of its major church. Epiphany Da Fo
jatu.rarw) is observed in Thessaloniki, Piraievs.::nd
other scalwrts with a iessing of the Waters
ceremony_ The Annunciation of the Virgin Man (25
March) and '.he Dormition of the Virgin Mary 05
August) are iniixotant frast clays throughout Greece.
1m1 esix:cially on ill(- Cycladic island of 'linos (Figure
32), where a "miraculous' icon of the Virgin was
discovered ill 18? Holy ti'cwk, the coilminatiuo of the
l.enteu sca+on proxxding Easter, is known as Great
Week. and Easter, celebrating the Resurrection. is the
must ino,Fkortant festival ill the church c:alcndar (Figure
33). I o Greeks Easter day represents the height of
joy --t. hrist and nature are alive again.
Facial and evangelical activities have largely been
the functions of religious brotherhoods and their
associated lay organizations. The most influential of
the brrotherhr,Kods are Im (Life), founded in 1907, and
OW (Savior), a gn>aip of consurv:ativv older .merasbers
that hroi;e away from 'Lae its 1960 because of the
lattcr's progressive views. Fsseatiafly a militant reforin
FIGURE 32. Relioioahs procamino ap Ttno:, where Treat
crowds 90"r on the feat days of 25 March and 13
Aaaorast in expede ft of help and NO Moo from the
eh 'MICA loo of the Vhjk Mory
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S,
The traditiorsoI roosting of paschal lambs in
On vploge square at Easter Sunday marks
the ead of iaog reek{ of NOM9
Worshipers with Th k lighted candies rafter the midnight service on
Easter Sunday. Upon carpietian of the LUurgy, ag candies are
extinguished, and the priest sights a fresh taper, from whkh warshipers
with Ovir candies get a "New Ught" A finci service Is held outdoors
before worshipers depart fo hohme with drek lighted candles. It is
camsidered bad Ivdh to have the candle go our before reaching home_
FIGURE 33. Easier is holiest season of the pear; the period of
mourning ends at mi4.1491ft Saturday, and Sunday Is devoted to
popular reioldng
35
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nit)yennenl, 7,tx� has aimed primarily at making
re a personal spiritual experience rather theca a
fortnaliti. It advocates, among other things, Ix-nt)nal
siudv of the Scripinres, exle�ml+rrr,uu�ous prayer, and
frcqucml comrnuuion. Zoe follower alscr favor
increased lay participation in formulating church
ix+licie�r and active church involvcmeul ill u+cial and
ccomemic prohlems. The brotherhood derives i[� chief
support from young peteple, the� priman� larget of its
activities, and from urhan middle -class groups. flee
influence of 7oe has heen conesidcr-thl enhanct-d
under [lie rniblan�- backed wgirrie, which shares much
the same ideas, as the broth er hooid on church reform
and revitalization. Since the 1967 amp active
mennbers of Zoe have been elevated to the
Arr ilh ishnpric of Athens and to man� of the hishoprics
w hich aged and discredited incumbents were forced to
vacate.
Largely the work of the new archbishop, the revised
Charier of tiro Church of Greet* (issued as I.e�gislative
Degree No. 126 of February ISM, and sulrsequenl
implementing dcKislatiou inlrwiuccA several innova-
tion into church adliinistration, seine of w
tree.. me highly controversial. Although the Holy
Synod of Cite Hierarchy (the assembly of all bishops)
renaaitaed the supreme ecclesiastical authority, real
1x+wer was coneentiated to an unprecedented del we
in the Archbishop of Admits, and All Grx-mv, who
presided over all central administrative and executive
Ixedies. The administrative authority of the Holy
Synod of the Hierarchy was delegated it) the Standing
Holy S ,,nd, whose 12 memlaers were to inchuic the
chairmen of 10 permanent synodical corru nittees.
Thew committees, which had functional pursubility
for diverse ecclesiastical matters, along sviih the
General Ecclesiaslicaf Assembly, which provided for
lay participation in church administration, repre-
sented new additions to the administrative structure.
Within the Hierarchy particularly strong criticism was
directed against the revised system for naming the
Standing o1v Synod, whereby new members were to
he jartposed by the outgoing land and appawed by
the Holy Synod. Traditionally. :as provided for in a
1928 :agreement with tiie Ecumenical 'Patriarchate,
'cation was on the basis of rolation agtd seniority,
with half the bishops coming from �'old" (pre4913)
Greece and the other half from "new" Greece. (thme
1 portions added after 1913). The strong opposition to(
the Hierarchy to change in system� which had also
aroused the displeasure of the Ecumenical Patriarch,
I was one of the factors leading to the archbishop's
attempt to resign in early d9i3. Subsequently, in May
1973, in ail act tantamollell to a rep"diation of the
archbishor, .;ic Holy Synod used the ofd system to
BLIII
cleci a new Standing Healy Symad, after a previous
election of that lwdv. nnade on the hasis of the revised
system. was declared ve +id by flit� Currncil of State, the�
highest Greek administrative tribunal.
The effect Of Ix+strerop reforms ate church state�
relations cuustituies another area of controversy. Some
4RIes criticize the 19119 charter for supixisexlly
gaining the church a degree of indeix�ndena� front
llte steals that violates G tradition. Other circles
contend that although the church tray h ave actinired
an enlarged degree of freexloin, the slate rc+tairis a
considerable influence in church affairs. The charter
allows the Minister of Education ai.d Religion to
attend rnetings of [l ie Holy Synexl ;end the Standing
holy Svnnd when adnainisttaliye matters are
discussed. the� minister's presence, however, is tit)
longer mandatory as in tine past_ Of more imtxertaucr,
lice government still participates in naming the
archhishop and the in the case of
tine archbishop, front three candidates submitted by
tike Holy Synod of the Hierarch%. and in the case of
bishops, from three candidate, submitted In the
Standing Holy S%'110 d. Moreover. under the IN%
C..onstiiution, the govenrncul retains the right to
legislate on matt� -r- pertaining to church organization
and administration.
While dissension racks the higher clergy, religious
life al the parish level suffers from a shortage of priests
and from a lack of .yell twined priests. Fe��rer lhan
half o f all priests in the country (Figure 30) have
received appropriate training, ,that 6, training at such
instilutiuns as the 1'6ee100va) Schexls of the
Universities of Athens and Thessaloniki, the Halki
Tht- Ilogieal Schad (in Wanhul), and the higher
ecclesiastical institutes ar-d seminaries. A low
educational standard has long 1weea c of
the village priest, who lxcausc he is alrno+.st always a
married man, is barred from advancing in the church
hierarchy. Higher education and theological training
are reserved for celibate priests (who usually lxcon+e
monks), for they alone cpealify for high office. In
conlemrsmary times the priestluooel holds little appeal
for W,h"ed yeeutlt, 1 n I t survey coliducted in the early
!076's� lhnAngicul scbr_wl graduates who had rejected
Ordination included arming their reaxo+ns for sal doing
doubts regarding their faiih. the despotic behavior of
hishops. low clerical pay, the clergy's lack of social
esteem, and the outrum cal apiwarence of sdergymen
(Figure 34). Faced a a decline in the number of
trained candidates fo; the pricsikood, the church has
adopted extraordinary measures to fill vacancies in
small villages. permitting the ordination of I al
schoolteachers and of persons with Only a primary
school diploma.
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H. Education
Educational development has Imen a recurrent
funs of cntraversy since the late 1980'x, as successive
governments with differing ideas sought to h�.armorrizc
a humanistic educational tradition with tale type of
sehaxtling and training appropriate to au industrial-
izing society. The humanistic spirit which had infused
the educational systern since its inception early in the
19th M111iry was defiiied in terms of the Hellenic
Christian ideal. Oriented to the past, the presedbed
curriculum emphasi7i41 claxaical Greek, Orthodox
religion. and Greek history and mm justified on
ilitclleetuaai, religious, and ImIrintic grounds. But with
the gnawing; awart:ness after World War II of the
relationship between ecanornic productivity and
scientific and technologival skllls, it became obvious to
many that the traditional a datcational system ill served
file Greek ambition to compete economic:dly with
Western Europe. Educational reform was undertaken
in turn by each government singe 1950. Despite
important differenchs concerning volume of spending
;anti other particulars (such as the I;ang lllge issue), the
basic objective of each govenunent was essentially the
%anic �to relate tfie system to co nlemporary needs
without, hourever, discarding its Hellenic- Christian
basis. Whatever its merits in terms of stational
interests. cash measure of change inet with stulilorn
resistance hollt from the vilticalional ustablishnient
and from a general publi^ devoted to traditional
education vulatw. Actvpt:utce of cancalional reform
under the military- hacked government, inoreover. has
!teen additionally hampered by Cite amfusion of
reforrn with tine imposition of Imlitical controls ansr
education
Partly as a result of reform measures calling for
expanded educational oplmrtunitics, the natioma;
level of educational achievement improved sig-
nifiewitly between the INI and 1911 censuses. The
oveaail illiteracy rate for persons age W anal over
droppLA durlUg file decade from 18% to 14%, with the
rate for persons ages 10 to 29 failing from 6% to 2
and the nice for persons age 30 and over declining;
fmnr 26% to 21%. Percentage of illiteracy rates for
males and fernaics changed as follows:
lltbl !toll
ilfalei< 8 8
Feu%Jm 27 22
Of all tsons ;age la: anti over, ab mi orae -third in
1971, as compared witls almost one -half in 15161, had
not conipleied the full 6 -year primary cycac (Figure
35) anti were therefore presumed to lack functional
Iiler:leV. There was tin increase between 1961 :told 1971
in tine prop onion of persons With full nrimary
education. with secondary education, and with higher
education. Educational advancenicni was relatively
greater for females than for males, :although irna;alcs
continued to hag well behind males in Icvel of
,attainment.
The educational reforrnc also had a marked effect
on school enrollment (Figum 36). From the 1516.3/64
sellool year Ibraug;h live 1969/70 schaod year, total
e0rullnoent increased by about 1 r Mist or the gain
occ mil in the 19&.3 /64- 1966/67 period, under the
impact of -lie Papandreou ,ref(inits; after the 1967
military coup, the rate of enaollrneat expansion
declined substantially. Only at trite preprimary level
did curtAlment grow at at faster rate after 1966/64 than
before. This noncornpulsory level Of see ooling, to
which tine government attaches considerable
importance, enrolls u little more titan one- fourth of all
cuildren ages 3vfa to 5 The dreline in 'xirnary
school enrullnient 1966/67 probably represents a
change in seltoul -age Impulation (age 6 -11) rather
than a cutback in educational opportunity. A 6
37
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FIGURE 34. The Orthodott priest is easay req*ozable
by hh f"ft bhKk fobe% flat topped cyllradrtaal hat,
fall board, and WV hoar twisend lift a knot at the
bock of dw laud

primary cycle has been LomPulsory for all children
since 1926, although enforcement of this regulation
w4% often lax in the past. During the 19Ws all but
about 2% of children in the relevant age group
attended primary school, and all but a fraction of the
Pupils fully completed the cycle. The difference in
enrollment growth rites before and after 1966/67 loth
in the secondary and in the tedmical- vocational
schools is explained by changes in the compulsory
education siquirement. Under Papandreou, com-
pulsory attendance was extended from 6 years to 9
years, the 3 additional years to he spent either in a
gyre mWum (secondary school) or in a technical
vocmtional school. The military backed govemuient
eliminated the 3 -year extension, although indicating
an intention to restore it at some futuro time. Before
1963/64 fewer than 50% of all Priwry school
graduates began the next level of education, This
R31
figure has since risen to almost 90%. but fewer than
half of lh�;e entering gymnasisona complete the full 6-
year cycle. The annual number of new entranis into
instildiuns of higher learning. although rising
substantially, has represented no more roan from oru--
quarter to one -third of all gymnrasiam .graduates,
Technical vocational schools and forciget universities
have absorbed a portion of the unsuccessful
candidates for higher education slots, but about half
of all gynsnastuns graduates :lave teen obliged to
discontinue stadv.
The programs for exlktndin'g and improving the
educational system have involved heavy government
expenditures. Fiom 1964 through 1470 current
expenditures of the Ministry of Education and
Religion almost doubled in voFwne (at current pricks),
well execAug the rite of growth of total current
government expenditures for the same period. After
the 1967 coup, however, educational expenditures
increased at a much slower rate than before and at a
rate below that for total government expenditures.
Expenditure's of the Ministry of National Edt.cation
and Religion, as a percent of total government
expenditures, fluctuated as follow:_
103
INS
1907
11.7
190!
11.7
1W
11.9
190P
12.4
190D
11
8.9
1900
12,3
1970
10.3
Much of the increased spending has been connected
with measures to bnir,-;len educational opportunity.
The Papandreon government introduced the principle
of free education at all levels, and military- backed
government extended the principle to providing free
textbooks for all students and financial assistance for
ti \e needy. lAige sums have also been spent on
constructing new educational facilities (Figure 37) and
ern hiring additional teaching personnel. It would
appear, however, that the financial resources devoted
to education huve been insufficient to carpe with
expanded student enrollments. As its the, past.
instruction at all levels of learning is handicapped by
overCM� 4 -d classrooms (especially in urban areas),
unsatisfattory teacher strident ratios, and shortages of
hooks and teaching aids.
For more significant than inadequacies of this kind,
in the opinion of many commentators, are
shortcomings in the conterst and orientation of
education. The curriculum at the primary level,
geared for the most part toward pr"ration for-the
gyffmwWam, has not been a major target of reform.
Some educators have recommenced that it be
reorganized to include practical as well as academic,
courses, but attempts, for example, to introduce
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FIGURE 35. Educotlorrol attainment of populadon cgs
10 and over

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A
F
IN
-FIGAM 36. Eerabww, by hypo of salad
ROTE- Mwlwb n16kt meiaol siudeNta at primary and mcoedwy kveia. In 1969170, tbere were
10,751 dw3ents in night primary seboole abd W314 in eight secondary wboola. A minus sign
denotes a decrease.
fuming as a course in rural schools have encountered
popular resistance. At the secondary level, the first
reform effort after World War 11 was undertaken by
the Katamanlis government. Along 6th restructuring
technical vocational education, Kan,manlis sought to
modernize the classical gymmsfum by instituting a 3-
year junior Cycle, which offered a standard curriculum
with a classical. apd vocational orientation, and a 3-
year senior cycle, which allowed a student to select a
major field of study (e.g.. mAtural se;tntxs,
economics). The gymttadum continues to be
orgunimd more or less alontr these lines, although in
practice a. c orientation predominates.
Meanwhile, Papandreou- had. introduced sweeping
language reforms, placing the emphasis in' language
study on modern, rather than ancient, Greek a fid
designating Aft m lei rather than lot lrlcaaa9: as the
opera,tiorlal lsr*U21te foi k for al! schwh. After
Paaprrndr ou's. klf .faoalt po+ive the emphasis: oa
aneknt nfiel was' storied A red w as_
arinstated as thae medium of. itsst rat :iot1 exeept ;the
first 4 years of awry'eltiool
Technical- vomtineal rducation was overhauled,by
the ,iCaramanlis government with the ction of
extending it to the labor force "on the widest possible
scale," an expectation that has thus fur gone
unrealized: The military- backed regime, powever, has
expressed strung support for this type of education and
has taken practical steps to overcome a shortage of
facilities and a lack of qualified reaching personnel.
Among the most intractable problems concerning
technical vocational training, however, has been tyre
lack of intent on the part of young people, almost all
of wham have a decided preference for academic
studies. Enrollment in technical and vocational
schools =amounts to only about one- fourth of that in
the gymnasium and is made up to it consideraMe
extent of students who failed to gain adndision into
the gymnadurn. Technical- vocalional education,
moreover, has long suffered from the absence of Lt
coordinated program of development. This is
attributable partly to the diffusion of administrative
auth o-dty `among a number of cabinet ministries,
aithlu of the schools fall under the jurisdiction
of "the Miiistcr of Motional: Edttcaticn and Religion,
and: partly id the predominant of private interests in
this. branch of education-, private schools accounting
far ularittst three- fourths of total enrollment.
39
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rRacarrr txcaa &asluae ICASt
1963
1966167
IM164-
t or acNOOL
1 963104
1966!67
1769170
1966!67
1969170
1969170
Preprimary:
Public
40,870
50,972
71,842
18.8
41.6
74.6
Private
9,896
8,861
It;b42
-6.7
30.1
0.8
Total............
50,994
59,235
82,884
17.8
59.9
6 4.9
Primary:
Public
844,0W
903,077
872,608
7.1
-S.6
5.5
Private
",773
63,816
65,288
4 4
Tow............
911,736
9",893
997,841
6.1
-s.8
8.9
secondary:
Public
230,113
376,789
334,968
30.6
8.6
41.9
!'rivate
44,037
37
45,33s
18.9
19.5
2. 9
TOW........
244 ,900
364,725
400,303
l4.0
9.8
de.1
Tsakski t-YOeatletWc
Pubhe
70,*u
25,476
28,91
24 .6
13.7
41.
Private
43,218
61,795
74,;319
40.9
1.1.7
71.9
TeW............
63,638
90,711
103,107
41.8
1 4.4
62.2
tligreredueation......
43,411
14,591
76,181
48.8
17.9
75.6
OrmW total...........
1,365,243
1,547,656
1,W8,414
1315
3 .4
17.4
ROTE- Mwlwb n16kt meiaol siudeNta at primary and mcoedwy kveia. In 1969170, tbere were
10,751 dw3ents in night primary seboole abd W314 in eight secondary wboola. A minus sign
denotes a decrease.
fuming as a course in rural schools have encountered
popular resistance. At the secondary level, the first
reform effort after World War 11 was undertaken by
the Katamanlis government. Along 6th restructuring
technical vocational education, Kan,manlis sought to
modernize the classical gymmsfum by instituting a 3-
year junior Cycle, which offered a standard curriculum
with a classical. apd vocational orientation, and a 3-
year senior cycle, which allowed a student to select a
major field of study (e.g.. mAtural se;tntxs,
economics). The gymttadum continues to be
orgunimd more or less alontr these lines, although in
practice a. c orientation predominates.
Meanwhile, Papandreou- had. introduced sweeping
language reforms, placing the emphasis in' language
study on modern, rather than ancient, Greek a fid
designating Aft m lei rather than lot lrlcaaa9: as the
opera,tiorlal lsr*U21te foi k for al! schwh. After
Paaprrndr ou's. klf .faoalt po+ive the emphasis: oa
aneknt nfiel was' storied A red w as_
arinstated as thae medium of. itsst rat :iot1 exeept ;the
first 4 years of awry'eltiool
Technical- vomtineal rducation was overhauled,by
the ,iCaramanlis government with the ction of
extending it to the labor force "on the widest possible
scale," an expectation that has thus fur gone
unrealized: The military- backed regime, powever, has
expressed strung support for this type of education and
has taken practical steps to overcome a shortage of
facilities and a lack of qualified reaching personnel.
Among the most intractable problems concerning
technical vocational training, however, has been tyre
lack of intent on the part of young people, almost all
of wham have a decided preference for academic
studies. Enrollment in technical and vocational
schools =amounts to only about one- fourth of that in
the gymnasium and is made up to it consideraMe
extent of students who failed to gain adndision into
the gymnadurn. Technical- vocalional education,
moreover, has long suffered from the absence of Lt
coordinated program of development. This is
attributable partly to the diffusion of administrative
auth o-dty `among a number of cabinet ministries,
aithlu of the schools fall under the jurisdiction
of "the Miiistcr of Motional: Edttcaticn and Religion,
and: partly id the predominant of private interests in
this. branch of education-, private schools accounting
far ularittst three- fourths of total enrollment.
39
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Gymnasium for gie. in Nea Smimi
Library of the Univauty of ThessolasA d
Primary schoe' in Trikala
T
PubMe swdsnicsl W of in Trkk
FIGURE 37. AM levels of education hove benefited from the goveinineWs consfrueKon
program
40
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L.-V
The existing structure of technical vocational
education, essentially devised' by the Karamundis
government, provides for three grades of schools;
lower, secondary, and higher. Courses vary from 2 to �t
years at the lower level, and front 3 Ica 4 yeatrs ul lite
secondary and higher levels. A program of special
interest to the prescnt Kovernment is the construction
of five higher technical training centers in the cities cif
Athens, Thessaloniki, Pulrai, IArisa, and Iraklion.
Designed to House some 22 schools. these centers arc
being partly financtA through a US$13.8 million loan
from the International Bank for Rccnmtruetion and
Development. The hank is also helping finance the
construction of a network of lower level apprenticeship
schools whic:, ciperlte under the jurisdiction of the
Labor Force Employment Organization. Another
program to which Ilse government has attached
particular importance is the development outside
Mhens of the School for Teachers in Trades and
Tcchnicul Education (SELETE). Organized with llte
assistance of UNESCO, SELEwE serves as the
atdmihistrative and teacher training center for the
entire national network of technical and vocational
schools.
Instruction throughout the educational sywlem is
typically governed by the concept that knowledge is
the accumulation of facts. Emphasis is on rote
learning and memorization rather than on the exercise
of reason and judgment. Teachers tend to be strict
disciplinarians and authoritarian figures, for whom
the idea of the clussnxim as a forum fur the free
exchange of ideas would he unthinkable. The end
product of this outmoded concept of learning, as well
as of the many overcrowded classrooms and the high
teacher -pupil rati% is an education of inferior quality.
Exceptionally, certain private schmis, including four
U.S. sponsored institutions, have a reputation for high
standards. Although not all priviatc schools ore Better
than public schools, they are generally preferred by
parents who can afford them. Because of the
deficiencies of the regular scimis, many students
enroll in private tutorial schools tto prepuce themselves
for the entrance examination at the next level of
learning. Education officials have sevetaly criticiml.
these schools far offering "canned knowledge," but
defenders of the schools have pointed out that this is
precisely the type of knowledge on ::Mich entrance
examinations are based.
The policies of the military- hacked gwmmment in
the field of higher education, which had escaped
reform under earlier administrations, have had the
effect of alienating much J the academic comm unity.
Along with four universities (trot Athens, Thessaloniki,
Patmi, and 'Ioannina) and a number, oUspecialimd
schools institutions at the higher education level
i�irlk'sie teacher training colleges and a few other types
of schools that do not, in fact, provide liigher
education. Although heavily subsidived by the slate
and subject to the supervision of the Ministry of
Nadonal Education and Religion, the higher
I- AIML6011 institutions traditionally enjoyed c'onmplete
academic fmcdont and virtual autonomy in managing
their own affuirs. They Were, however. vulnerable to
criticism on numerous ammunts, including antiquated
curriculums, inefficient administrations, and v orrup-
linit iu professional uplwintmetiis. lei legislation
designed to "cleanse," tejuvenale, and modernive the
field of higher education, the government, among
other things, lowered the mandatory retirement age of
professors to 65; created additional professors hilts :n d
new assistant professorships (to improve faculty
student ratins); morKaniaed the procedure for ciecting
professors (it) eliminate neixotism and long delays in
filling vacancies); provided for the publication of
professorial lectures and their free distribution to
students (to prevent professors from profiting at
student expense); and assigned to each institution u
govermnenl commissioner (usually a military officer)
with broad suirervisory powers. These and other
measures, in the view of university administrators and
professors, constitute blatant interference in academic
matters. Even in circles sympathetiv to reform, the
regime's tyl ;ically heavy handed behavior has stroused
msentenerLI and resistance.
Student dissatisfaction with regime policies
produced serious campus disorders, especially in
Athens, in the first rnomths of 1973. A primary cause of
unrest involved the leadership of student organiza-
tions. Under slildent pressure, the government for the
first time since 1967 allowed supptosedly free student
clec -ions in November M2, but both students and
press charged that intimidation and frstud had been
used to obtain proregime returns. In a wave of class
boycotts and campers demonstrations that broke out
early in 1973, the students demanded nut only new
elections for student bodies but also guarantees of
academic freedom, greater student participation in
developing a new charter for higher education, the
elimination of government commissioners from
goveming bodies, and the removal of police inforneers
from campuses. The government's initial reaction was
to issue a new degree that ended military deferment
for dissident activists �a measure. which stimulated
further protest. C.tivernment spokesmen played down
the unrest as the work of a mere handful of
"agitators," but the bloodly student riots and
subsequent response by the army in November 1973
proved to be the downfxfl of Papadopoultes,
41
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I. Artistic and cultural expression
Contemporary caaltura) expressFin reprrwnts a
fusion of elements �the foreign with the indigenous,
the past with the present. and the cultivated with the
popular. This mergh of opposite elements has been
cLaracleristic of creacive udivity singe the curly 19th
century, when the first writers and artists of
independent Greece sought to deal with the hiatus in
cultund development caused by centnries of Turkish
subjugation. Turning to Western E urope for guidance.
Creek intellectuals not only acquired familiarity with
c cultural movements but also recovered
their own ancient cultural heritage, which had earlier.
in romanticized version, inspired the European
Renaissance. Initial artistic endeavors were often
blindly imitative of the achievements both o. Western
Europe and classical Greece, but writers and artists
evenenully were able to absorb these examples and to
use them creatively, along with aspects of By7antinc
and popular culture, to producx work that at its hest
reaches a. high degree of originality and sophistication.
Although the heavy hand of Westem influence on
contemporary Greek expression is often deplored,
several factors have worked to sustain it. Because
Greece constitutes a very limited cultural market, the
creative artist has had to rely on Western patronage
and, concomitantly, to adapt his work to Westem
males. For the innovative artist. Western patronage
has been particularly important bcrauee foreign
rmognitinn of his work assures its greater pm-5tige at
home. Many creative Greeks work and reside in
Western countries, some because of the intellectual
stimulation the Western environment offers, others
bectnse of financial or political factors. The number
of political emigmes has risen appreciably since tire
advent of the military hocked regime.
The most notable cultural achievements of modem
Greece lie in the literary field. literature had to
evolve, however, amid continuous dissension over the
language issue, and even today its development is
handicapped by this issor ---the pact and -novelist
writing in dimettki for a readership educated in
katharevottto. Of all literary forms poetry was the
mmt favored in the early period of the modern epoch,
partly because the country had inherited an' etratmnus
poefic' tradition. In additioii to the renowned classical
legacy, there was a wealth of Byzantine rcdigious
poetry and a,slom of popular- halls and�fodk poetry
that had accumulated dud*g- the Turkish axt Lion.
The foundatkno of modem poetry were laid in the
Ionian Islands, where three ceniuries of Venetian rule
had produced an Italianate culture among the iota!
42
aristocracy. Them, the first great modern ;xJc(.
Dio, ysios Solomkas (17.W I8574), fallowing Usante's
example, struggled to establish the language of folk
literature as the country's literary language. With one
exception, every major poet since Solomos nas used
dlntuliki rather than katharevousa. The one exception
is the Alexandrine Constantin Cavafy 0863- 1933).
whose dramatic mixture of the two language forms,
along with his departure from co>nvenri:mal themes (in
celebrating homosexual love, forexample), established
him as the most original Greek pent of tier 20th
century. 'fliose that followed Sulamos in adopting
dirnoliki, however. differed from him in their
pervasive use of classical material and myths. Apart
from Cavafy, rutstanding 20th century poets include
Kostis palamas (1869- 1913), Angelus Sikelianos (18W
195r George Seferis (1900 -71), Odysseus Ehtis
(1911- and Ni kos Catsos (1916- Seferis. who wics
strongly infliienced by T.S. Eliot, received the Kobe)
Priyx in literature in 1963. lire citation noting "tile
unique thought and style and beauty of his
language."
Lacking any indigenous roots, the novel lagged well
behind poetry in becoming established as a imijor
literary genre. The early prose writers, unlike Solomos
and has followers, favored the use of katharemusa, and
it was only after john Psycharis (18,34 took up
the defense of dimatlki in My joan.ey (published in
1888) that novelists adapted this language; form. Untit
well into lire 20th century, short stories anti novels
were largely concerned ivith traditional village life,
forming what was known as the ethnographic genre.
The development of urban life, :among other factors,
gradually produced new literary trends that became
marked in the 19Ws. one Greek critic has written of
the new generation of writers as follows:
they went able to roe beyowd the pietaareagete pm-
vhww1inn that had agaeirar d earlier Iiwmy effmh
and partreiyed Gwk IBe w as i rlepal part of Eum-
peau, and even wiwend. Wo. Tim wain d r main tok
of the sovddi b. Pox. alt ow* .poetry cloimed sane
wwatant new voiea aad the short Nary, play,
and eara mddndy caaeo alive. the wyM became tae
pwdwninm Hlerary Witte of the datrtba and dw main
outlet far expeak ow new trM h
Along with historicsat subjects, the main themes were
the homms of war, the trials of the Asia Minor
refugees, and tine problems. of the tnWem fsamily.
Distinguished mpm "tatives of the new trends
included, Genrgc T11e616kas 19t1B) and ,Angelus
Tercakis (1907� ),As a rxivelist, the:famous and highly
contruversiaiwwriter N kbs KstznlzaZas ..(16$519Sf),
bettmgs tb a latter period, acne of dais noyek rippesiring
until sifter World War h, 'iih6migh week in oUier
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;r
genres (notably th epic ixnrta The Odyssey. A
Modern Segos;[) were published earlier. lorim the
Greek, which was ma into a successful motion
picture in 1%4, is Kai antvakis" hest known novel.
Military- backed rule has had a decidedly adverse
impact on literary development. After the coup,
several writers chose exile, notable among them
Nassilis Vassiliko (1033 considered the most
promising writer of his generation. Some writers have
undergone imprisonment or other forms of h ara si-
ment. 'These include the distinguished leftwing poet
Yannis Ritsos (1909- and Antonis Samanikis (1919-
author of the internationally acclaimed The Haw.
Initially, creative writers react to th regime with a
Protest of silcrbc -e, refuyirag to submit work for
publication. As Greece's first and only Nobel Prize
winner, Seferis was expected to serve as the voice of
opposition, a mle he rejected until March 1969, when
he issued a dramatic statement denouncing the rc;i'lie
for muzzling freedom cold for imposin% "a state of
enforced torpor in which all values are being
submerges! in stagnant waters." In 1970, after the
lifting of pmveralive censorship, a gnbup of writers
bnbke their silence in a (best- selling valurnc of veiled
opim sition called Eighteen Texrs. This was followed
by the more outspoken New Texts and New Texts 2,
both collections of contributions from inlelleettlals,
almost all of wham had suffered at one time or
another for political nonconformity.
Tlie performing arts flourish on both a serious and a
popular level, be ne fiting fain like encouragement and
financial support of the state and from the putronage
o' foreign tourists. Ilighlighting the tourist season is
,'le annual Athens Festiva) of Music and Drama, held
from )ulv to 5epterndx-r in the Odeum of Ilerudes
Atticus Figure 38). A major attraction of the festival is
the cycle of ancient Greek tragedies and comedies
performed by the National 'Theater. Other annual
festivals of classical drama take place in the ancient
theaters of Epidaerrzos, Dodoni, and Philippi, the
festival at Philippi being presented by the Stare
Theater of Northern Greece. The interpretation of
classical drama has received international acclairn on
the one hand and ridicule orb the other, one critic
describing the productions as "Gothic tearjerkers." A
popular form of entertainment falling between the
classical and the contemporary theater is the
Karaghiozis shadow theater (Figure S9), which is
believed to have lbeen iutrexluced into Piraievs from
Istanb in 1860. Although originally a Tusk, the
protagonist Karbghiuxis came le emlxuly the Greek
spirit struggling for survival under Turkish domina-
lion, deviously oia%itting the o ppressor in one bawdy
and farcical predicament after moodier, often
receiving assistance from Alexander the Great. The
shadow theater is no longer performed in small towns
and villagers, where it was onLe immensely popular,
but there arc nightly presentations of it in Athens
FIGUIE 38. M awarring emece t in
flab Qdown of Meroders Attlim at
rlr foal of *a Acropok Inoupv-
robd in 1953, tM Atiwm Fes1Iva1
of Music and Draw kxkWa
syre 0m y =na wh and parlor
arras of opera, bails, and doo kol
and eradorn drama, pi sa by
Csnmk and fornipe C. Ilia In
E
r
43
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during the tourist stason. and more important. it is
shown regid: rly on leleyisium.
Ap arl from p irescuthig classical dr nia. both the
stale -elm National Theater in Athens and the State
'l'healer of Nurdivni Creree i 'Thessaloniki .ire
engaged in modern prWhICtions, as are a fuirls larks
rulrnber of private theatrical coininmics performing
niainly in Athens. In I970 the National Theater and
Site State Theater a Nortlteni Greece. together with
the National lyric Stage, were merged to form tlae
State 'Theater Organization. while remaining q.paar:ity
Ilicalric d units, they he e.ime subject to t same s tate-
a ppo in ted dire ctor and 1 p t11C Sillile :eftlStic Cu
w�h[rw lue ni hers are mimed bV the Minister of
National 1'r'.duwlion and 1leligiori. in addition to a
main lroigte, each enterprise has all experimental
theater, and each has to tr a veling co mpany that
performs in provincial ccntcrs, usually to large and
enthusiastic ;Itidiencti -i. rhe relaertoire of the state run
theaters, and cds[i of the private theaters, is dominated
by foreign playa (those of Shakespeare, Ibsen. aetid
lonesc�e) are represeutative? and by established Creek
plays of an earlier period. In cootrlst to contemporary
Creck plays. these arc considered "safe" platys, from
the financial Ixiint of view as well a s the political,
although on asiun Ilse military- lacked regime has
even hanned the performance of classiad dramas that
audiences relay he inclined to relate to the current
political scene. The standard of performimee and
production in the Creek theater is retarded as high.
Two distinguished dramatic actresses familiar to
foreign audiences ltccause of their wile s in U.S. filers
are the late Katitia Paxinou, who had i!.cr own
theatrical con-ipany, and Irene Pupas, curre.ritly u
political exile. For his direction of the Art Theater in
Athens. a private company. Karolos Koun is
celebrated truth at home .11Id ahrnad. Film directors
44
FIGURE 39. Scene from a
Koroghioils shadow -ploy; the
protagonist retches wHh his watering
can so help Alexander the Great
I i subdue a fire breathing draw.
In this theatrical art fom trans
I i parent silhouettes mach of camel
hide are manipulated on long poles
1'1': s against a lighted screen.
who luive achieved iule�ruatiorial prominence include
Cyprus -Iwrn Mielae�I GxOyunuis, known rspxciallt
for Etectru and %orba IN Greek. acid \ikns
Koitodouris. whuse The Yutn g Aphrodues s
munl[�mus awards.
In c nteinp, ran imisic there alre two priluary
eurrents� serious music that exploits Greek themes bill
e %scutially follows birolx�an traditions amt indigenous
popttlar music. Outstanding eontlxisers of the
FAlropx�:ln tradition iriclucle the late ue:lmt- gaidisl
Y'.1111li5 Chrltitrnl. Theodore A11toniou. and Y- minis
\enakis( l4)?- ).:1 pre -Iigii political exile in Paris who
h as attracted utterilion for his concerts of electronic
music. The work of Iliese. men is well known in seriuns
music :ircics at honiE� :Ind abroad. but theirs is nut the
music that is played 110111' after hour on the pxtplllar
Second Program of the Greek radio and that
international audiences of such films its Never on
Stinday and 7Wrba the Greek have come to regard as
Greek music. That ounic, which even foreigners
identify by tl+e Greek designations rebelika or Mike
rtivrratsike (Imipular music), had a disrelnitablc past,
having apturently originated shortly after World War
11 in the Avtcrfr0ltt dives of Piraicvs. The lyrics dwelt
on nam --lies and other sordid themes, and the music
itself had clemeats of tritd'itiunal folk songs, Byzantine
hymns. and orientA rhythms prAxibly intmducrd by
the Asia Minor refugees. The special sound of tehvliko
songs came from the bouzouki, a type of mandolin
that produces a "grass -like eeho."
Gridijully adapted to broader public taste, rebelike
eventually mashed the fashionable entertainment
centers of Athens It beearnc priptslur abroad hugely
through the work cif two cornp[iscts. Wits of whom
have also contributed to seri mus ic: Munas
Hitdjidakis (1421 who compt"tA the musical scYom
for Netter om Sunday, and Mikis Thpalorakis (1925- y,
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Fr.p E 41. View of t1 *ay an oil
an canvas axeaAed by CAAG le
193 IL The artist uses a am"
te"gge 1n orgonliirto a ltindscape
crowded wain khan, birds, horses,
waft dotal fie Nies realrram
Own" s In his Idols early poh INIOs
of the Island of Hydra. On anise
was In Oblita's work "a tt0 110ee
of power and.** that vRlrant
syn0lesis whkh has always dtar-
adedzed Iba Greek genius."
who wrote the scnne for baba the Greek. Theadoraakis,
wlxlse music has licen lumned since HA hecattse of
his leftist plllitical orientatlon, has made highly
stwcIM 4111: tttrpulur sings (101111 the prlcmti of Seferis,
f lv6s, C:atsos, and Itilsos. A growing tendency on Ihe�
part of the yomray et IllMical gencndinn to dt-parl frorn
reLr..likrt L4111 crilioil's is appumill in the rllmsle of
Stavro. Xarhakos, who allaches nlmch more
imporlanev to orchestral than to lyrical values, Two
masters of tilt- bvca,ara d renowned for their virtuosity
are Valssilis Tsilsaanis and Crorge %uralxtas. Gdgons
githikotsis arul Nana 41ou.kouri rank high among tilt-
umirKrous vocal init-q)reters enjoying an international
fe11h1Wlllg.
Folk erlusie, although imlxlrlarlt as a sourer of
inspiration for cerlltemporary cornlxners and as a
tourist attractimi. is rapidly losing its. traditional
significance in rural life, as are other fomis of folk art.
Each province li.:_ its own eal:aracterictic wings, damers.
:and Innsical cQmplsitioms, which toget her expnstittilt a
national heritage described by one Wvstcrrl writer :is
nrlsurpas%vd for richness, variety, complexity.
subtlety. and gruldcur." On festive octi.rsions, village
sgmartw are still enlivened by folk siligitag and dancing.
aveollip:tnied by lruditionaal insirtamenis (Migmre 40).
This traditional form of recreation and artistic
expremion, however, is thrcalened with exiiuelion by
the 1wildraltitln of television :aucl (Biller %Vestern
influcnces. Of several prefessional groups cosim- ked
Willi the preservatioll alyd promotion -alf folk dancing.
Ike tltsrt prominent is Ihe Mora Stratou dancwrs, Who
iwrfornl rlighthv in Athens during the tourist seasem.
Cake music, folk arts and crafts exhibit considerable
wgicmal variation. Certain localities are known for
excellence in particular crafts Rhodes in lnitterv, for
example. Collections of national costumes and
45
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FIGURE 40. Craton mwicM* with Iradhiairal irwm-
morn- -a tyro an the Mft and a WoOo an On right

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MOON 42. 6ttl Mowk, deis
work of TsorooM In gloss, aroeeeie,
MW stair* was *Xecoed for oho
courtyard of flea DaRk dos Tech
rwlo0lcaf Ins1MRe ti A1llism His
ossipeewrnt was uw deal! an
hania of arod@n% now, aetd Mhaaion
ar+deilactura.! 1h. wiU d boy
etswsurkp do wai l non nett the
:Greek Plod ErC4 who olds ardoibcb
in atlokekeg Prow preporlis>reL
Tmrouhis' work has iK foundation
in floc coternonplaoeo.
handicrafts are on display in the Benaki Museum and
the Museum of Decorative Art. both in Athens.
In the fine arts, contemporary expression has
ACliieye 1 recognition in international art circles,
although it is less well known to It general public than
the Creek contribution in literature and music. Until
far into the 20111 eentury, there was little original work
of distinction in painting, sculpture, or Architecture.
partly because the immensity of the relevant classical
and gy7antiue heritages, and the conflicts between tine
two tended to inhibit creativity. Prominent modern
painters include Theophilos 19.34), who
left u treasure of viodem "primitives on the island of
l..esbo%. where he raided; Yannis S f yropouhos, who
has a nonrepresentational style; Minos Argyrakis,-;vho
enjoys a popular following in Athens as a caricaturist;
Nikon HadAkyriakos Chika (Figure 41), who is
especially known for his landscapes of the island of
llydn (Idhra); and Yannis Tsuruuhis (Figure 42).
Both Ghika and Tsamuhis have engaged in hook
illustrating and in designing sets and costumetx for the
theater, ballet: and mciioa pictures. The praliferation
of Athenian su+ galleries in the past decade or so has
done much to stimulate cumlive activity, as has the
hiennial mounting of the Panhelledic Exhibition of
Irainting and sculpture. In architecture and city
Planning. Greece boasts of one of the outstanding
world figures, Constantine A. Doxiadis, foonder of
ekistics." the scietwe of human settlement. Doxiadis
M
Associates of Athens has executed projects in dozens of
countries throughout the world. One of its current
undertakings is the construction of a model tettlement,
the Apollonian, Porto Rafti, about 25 mile's from
Athens. Described as a community far ahead of its
times, the Apolloniau is to retain u "'cat Greek color
and character while pi'm ding all the modern
umenities. �minus the automobile.
46
J. Public information
Modern eomenunications media are well developed.
but their effectiveness in public enlightenment tends
to W weakencd by restrictive govemment policies. in
a nation of avid newspaper readers, the press.
par.icularly the Athens dailies, has truditionally been
the most important instrument in the fornati m of
public opinion. The general newsworthiness of the
press. however, has continuously been compromised
in the past by its extreme degree of partisanship and its
irresponsible chUoraetet and since IM7 by the
subjection of its content to government control. As a
means of conveying news, radio is faster than the
printed word and has a more comprehensive reach,
but state ownership of Cite radio network makes nc%i
broadcasts even mote vulnerable than newspapers to
govemment dictation. The same disability applies to
television, although this medium is tgot ,vet established
as a major channel of mass communivaCl:on, having
acquired a nationwide range only in IK2. Fully
mgnirant of the value of 'radio and television as
vehicles for disseminating its policies, the government
has spent considerable sums in expanding and
strenfithening these media. Government spokesmen
have emphasized that, along with providing
entertainment, radio and television are to play an
important role in the prods of modernization and in
the promotion of nationalism. In pursuing these
objectives, the two media are to contribute to an
intellectual developriuent "based on the principles and
values of classical Creek a Christian education."
The public is generally suspicious of the reliability of
domestic media in provAna inforrtration about
national devehopments, especially in periods of stress.
When in doubt; the Greeks readily turn to foreign
sources Athenian intellectuals to easily available
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FIGURE 43. The typical Athms
Ialosk nk 09 prindpol newspapers
and ntopforirres of We"M coun-
tries. Man0 whir Greelr pnbi Noon.
Gonnnunist papers ore proscribed,
W the wAltbry- badred regime has
net ol4erwise IrMerfered whb the
inaportatl w and dlstributlon of the
foreign press except for an
occasional edition deemed to
be undesirobM.
a
Western newspaper and perimlicals (Figure -13) and
lire general public to shortwave radio broadcasts from
Wesicru countries. Given the public's unst rrrst of the
domestic muss media, word -of -mouth cnnmunica-
lion, the principal means of circulating ncvs of
local interest in the small community. has presumably
acx1isired a role of e:.haum, I irnluort:amcr.
The loeriodival press consists of almost 1110 daily
nVw4pal /eFS and several hundred nestspap err,
ntagavines, and journals that appear weekly, monthly.
cl(rarterly, or at some other interval. All publicatiowrx
are in the Greek language except for five Turkish
lanpaage weeklies published in Thrace :lord a small
Amwnian- language daily published in Athens; in
addition, a few small Athetas dailies um published in
English. Frerach. and German for the benefit of
tourists. Most dailies and weeklies arc small provincial
papers cancrmed almost exclusively with local news.
Only the newspapers and maplax'snes published ill
Athens :rod, to a lesser degree. is Thessaloniki. are of
national significance (Figure 44). Athens dailies have
a countrywide readership. about 35% of all copic:
circulating outside the Greater Athens area.
Thessaloniki dailies, with a total circulation
amounting to only a sixth of that of Athens dailies, are
read mainly in northern Greece. After :reasing
steadily in the early 1960'x, the total circulation of
Athens dailies declined from a hiyh of 220 million in
1966 to 176 million in 1370. The 20% drop was in
ex"isepuence of official measures designed to curh the
influence of large circulation palwrs, most of which
have tended to be critical of the military backed
regime. By cantrust. Athens published periodic-,ds
other than newspapers rose by siorne 3051 in circulation
in the l,%6-70 period. More than half the total
circulation of such periodicals was outside the Greater
Athens area. Reflecting a variety of interests, the
periodicals ranged from academic, literary. and
professional journals to magavines devoted to women,
youth, and sports enthusiasts; few provided any
political viewpoint.
Book publishing is the least developed of the various
publishing branches. In tlae pu.s? .a rather high rate of
functional illiteracv, coupled will! u level of economic
development that made lxxoks a luxun item, served to
U 4it the Immk- reading; and book buying public.
During the 1960's, however, there was increased
activity in hook publishing, paralleling an expansion
of edueatiansd opportunity and a growth in the
economy. In 1969 a total of 1,822 titles was issued,
47
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FIGURE 44 Prktdpd doily nowspopon
TCAR TIME Or
21AMa AND PLACa Or PUILICATIOK POUnosp PUBLICATION
PUBLISHER
CPM a t:?i'r
Athens:
AaadroLts (Acropolis) 1851 A.M........ N. and S. obtain..........
ArooxvltATpn (Th- .`.hernoon).
1462
P. M........
....do......
ATasns PAp.T Ppr............
INS
A.M........
George Skoural