NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 18; CZECHOSLOVAKIA; ARMED FORCES

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• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200110009-4
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J
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14TE Y 6 DQ1 t'
This chapter mpenedes the armed forces coverage
in the Centre! Suracp dated December 1971.
A. Defenw establishment 1
1. Military history 1
2. Command structure 2
3. Military manpower and morale 4
a. Manpower 4
b. Morale 5
4. Strength trends 5
5. 'Training 6
9. Economic support and military budget 6
a. Economic support 6
b. Military budget 7
7. Logistics 7
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FIGURES
Page
ge
Page
8. Uniforms and insignia
8
C. Air and air defense forces
16
a. Uniforms
b. Insignia
8
13
1. Operations
16
B. Ground forces
13
2. Strength, composition, and disposition
17
1. Organization
13
3. Training
18
2. Strength, composition, and disposition
14
4. Logistics
18
3. Training
14
11
Fig. 6
4. Logistics
15
D. Militarized security force
i9
FIGURES
Page
Fig. 7 Ground forces training with howitzer
(Photo) 15
Fig. 8 Ground forces training with recoilless
rifle photo) 16
Fig. 9 Czechoslovak produced MAYA jet
trainer photo) 17
Fig. 10 FITTER aircraft assigned to tactical
air force photo) 17
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ge
Fig. 1
Armed forces high command (chart)
3
Fig. 2
Armed forces personnel strengths
(table)
6
Fig. 3
Defense budgets table)
8
Fig. 4
Officers' uniforms and insignia
illustration)
9
Fig. 5
Warrant officers' and enlisted men's
uniforms and insignia (illustration)
11
Fig. 6
Surface -to- surface (Scup) missile
(Photo)
15
Page
Fig. 7 Ground forces training with howitzer
(Photo) 15
Fig. 8 Ground forces training with recoilless
rifle photo) 16
Fig. 9 Czechoslovak produced MAYA jet
trainer photo) 17
Fig. 10 FITTER aircraft assigned to tactical
air force photo) 17
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Armed Forces
A. Defense establishment
The armed forces, known as the Czechoslovak
Peoples Army. consist of ground and air elements
under the federal Ministry of National Defense. A
militarized security force, the Frontier Guard, is also
administered and contro d by the federal Ministry of
National Defense. There i.; ao navy in the usual sense.
(C)
Total personnel strength of the armed forces as of
January 197 1 was ?10,3(X), including 143.00 in the
ground forces and 57,8(x) in the air and air defense
forces. Major combat ele ments included 10 ground
forces divisions (five motorized rifle and five tank) and
about 3(H) combat aircraft. There were in addition
some 9,W) in the 'r rontierGuard (including 5(X) in the
quasi -naval Danube Defense Guatd). This force,
although organized primarily fur border security, is
equipped and trained to augment the ground forces in
wartime. (.i)
Because Czechoslovakia is it participant in the
Warsaw Pact. the Czechoslovak armed forces are
expected to play a role that is consistent with Soviet
war aims. Prior to the 1968 invasion, Soviet influence
over the arme forces was exercised through a small
Soviet military mission in Prague and through the
Warsaw Pact unified conmand in Moscow. Now,
however, since Soviet tactical units are stationed in
Czechoslovakia, the armed forces are subject to more
direct Soviet influence; i't wartime, the\. would he
tinder Soviet control. (S)
The Czechoslovak preoccupation with the
maintenance of its independence and territorial
integrity against any resurgence of German aggression
was a major factor favoring continued close relations
\%ith the U.S.S. R. Fear of German incursions, coupled
with Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe, suppressed
Czechoslovakia's desire to regain its prewar eastern
territo:v of Ruthenia, ceded to the Soviet Union in
1945. Because of this, but mainly because of the
Warsaw Pact invasion of the country. there is
considerable bitterness toward the Soviet Union
throughout the country. (C)
In wartime, Soviet leaders would determine the
scope and nature of the Czechoslovak contribution to
the total Warsaw Pact effort. Strategic objectives
planned for the Czechoslovak forces against NATO
probably remain the same as they were prior to the
1968 intervention. (C)
The armed forces are deployed mostly in the west,
where the terrain lends itself to defense. At the same
time this western position bordering on Austria and
West Germany provides a natural staging area for
launching offensive operations against NATO forces
in Europe. (S)
The position of Poland, astride the main routes of
travel from the U.S.S.R. to Western Europe, and the
positions of East Germany and Czechoslovakia,
confronting West Germany, have caused the
combined forces of these three countries to have
close relationship with the U.S.S.R. Any changes in
NATO, and particularly any substantial increase in
the role of West Germany, would also give impetus to
it strengthened relationship among Czechoslovakia,
East Germany, Poland, and the U.S.S.R. (C)
The armed forces are organized, trained, and
equipped largely along Soviet lines. The ground and
air forces are the third largest among the Warsaw Pact
nations, ranking behind those of the Soviet Union and
Poland. The ground forces rank with those of East
Germany and Poland as the most effectively organized
Warsaw Pact forces outside the Soviet Union. In
training and equipment, the armed forces are
generally on it par with or superior 'o those of other
European countries of comparable size. (S)
1. Military history (C)
The first Czechoslovak armed forces were formed in
1919 froa personnel of the former Amtro Hungarian
Army. The nucleus of the armed forces was the
Czechoslovak Legion formed during World War I
from men captured by the Russians on the eastern
front. The legion was created to fight against the
(ventral Powers but attained its greatest fame against
the Bolsheviks in Siberia.
The French Army maintained a training mission in
Czechoslovakia, which was a member of the French-
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sponsored Little Entente, from shortly after World
War I until 1926. Dominant French military influence
%was apparent in the construction of Maginot Line -like
fortifications near Czechoslovak froniiers. Bw 19:36 the
arnn�d forces ere regarded as among the hest
prepared in Europe. At the time of the Sudeten crises
in September 19:35 the Czechoslovaks rapidl%
mobilized over it million men. However, as it result of
t1w Munich Pact, the Czechoslovaks were compelled
to abandon permanent fortifications in the Sudeten
lands in October of 1935. German oc�c�npation of the
rest of Bohemia and Moravia followed in March 1939.
Poland and fhuegary were ceded Czechoslovak
territory. Dismemberment of Czechoslovakia %wits
complete aith the creation of it pro German
antononatus Slovak state. The armed forces were not
ordered into action in conintiction with these events
and %were suhse(Inently dishand Im Hitler.
In Xlorld War 1L Czechoslovak units %were formed
outside the country by both the Western Allies and the
Soviet Union. An independent armored brigade gronp
and alt units, organized, equipped, and trained along
British lines, fought on the western front in 1944 and
1943. An independent Czechoslovak battalion formed
in the Soviet Union in 194:3 Was expanded to it brigade
and finally to it corps by the end of the war. This force
entered Czechoslovakia with thy� Soviet troops and
participated in the liberation of the eastern part of the
country from the Germans.
After World War II the orna�d forces were
reestablished essentially on the prewar basis around
the nnc�leus of United Kingdom- and Soviet- sponsored
forces. Before the c��tnp in 1948 an efficient arm% had
been developed a: (I one of the first European
postwar armies to e onduct corps- level maneuvers.
TlW influence of the forces trained in the U.S.S.11.
its predominant in the postwar period. "Their
contmat,de. hec�an e the first postwar Minister of
National Defense it td was instrnntcntal in keeping the
army frwu takin: effective action during the
Corttntnnist coup Snbsegnenlly, direct Soviet
influence dominated all phases of the military
program. Officers and enlisted men considered
politically iinwhable %were purged, and the
elh-Okeness of the armed forces %wits ullovwed to
deteriorate.
Since ,omit 1950, %with extensive Soviet direction
and support, the armed forces have been steadily
mboilt "('he Czechoslovak Peoples Army has been
reorganized and ree(luipped, has regained its pre -19 -I8
level of training, and has increased its c;pabilitics.
The Sovietization of the armed forces is complete, and
2
troops c�ontinne to receive intensive Conununi!t
political indoctrination.
Military traditions in Czec�hoslowakia date from the
Hussite movement of the first half of the 13th century,
%when the Czechs %won de facto independence from
their German overlords. Present military installations
and units often hear the name of it hero from this
golden age in Czechoslovak history. Exploits of the
Czechoslovak Legion against the Bolsheviks formed
the basis for forth: r military traditions during the
inter %war period. Ho%%ever. once the military
establishment became Sovietized, traditions founded
by the Legion were replaced b% those based on
military victories %won fix Czechoslovak units under
Soviet control during World War 11. World War If
battles at Dnkla Pass and Jaslo in %whiCI) Soviet and
Czechoslovak troops participated together have been
idealized, and the role of the U. S. S. B. and
Czechoslovak Communists in the Slovak uprising
against the Germans in 1944 has been magnified in
the development of Communist military traditions.
2. Command structure (S)
Under law. the President of Czec�hcslovakia is the
Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. With the
support of the legislature, he can declare %w,tr,
proclaim a national emergency, and institute partial
or general mobilization. fie is advised on military
matters by it small personal staff, known its the
Military Office of the President. Despite the
constitutional provisions, the real authority over
military affairs is wielded by the Communist Part\
leadership in the form of policy gnidance and overall
direction. Bootine decisions affecting normal military
developments arc� made h'\ the Connell of Ministers
(cabinet). The federal Minister of National Defense
(MOND), it prominent member of the council,
exercises hill and direct operational and r.dtninistra-
tive c�outrol over all military hcad(tuarters, unite, and
installations (F ignre 1). Fie is assisted by it General
Staff, four main directorates, and yarions directorates
for the arras and services and specialized functions.
There are seven Deputy Ministers for National
Defense, two of whom are designated First Deputies.
One of these is apparently a general depute and the
other is the (thief of the General Staff. The chiefs of
the four main directorates are also Deputy Ministers.
The functions of the remaining Deputy have not been
ascertained, although it is possihie that the (thief of
Artiller\ and Rocket Forces has this title. Command
authority, however. is vested in the kfinistcr of
National Defense or the (thief of the General Staff in
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MINIS fER OF j
i NATiONA! DEFENSE
G, @NIERYLi STAFF
D I
I '�I''
i
FIGURE 1 !'.rmed Forces Nigh Command (S)
7TH AIR,.YWAN9
ARASi!
sKxItaoR
RADMR
im! rac
Aq,A*,y'
DMECMR4TES/
AMUNWIt47I0NS
MISSILE'
ENGWE'$ jds`
5KfNU1E- EQRIf.
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MAIN
DR MAIN il
kv41Ni
MAIN
0IRECI tORATE
fOR C,FXfMBwF
POWICAL
DMECTORATE
FOR AN I) AIR
i E!+i DNiESS
DiRE04DRATE
REAR
AIR.DEF6NegE
DEF11FfY
caEPUrr)
PUty)
F011M
{DEPUM
w
D I
I '�I''
i
FIGURE 1 !'.rmed Forces Nigh Command (S)
7TH AIR,.YWAN9
ARASi!
sKxItaoR
RADMR
im! rac
Aq,A*,y'
DMECMR4TES/
AMUNWIt47I0NS
MISSILE'
ENGWE'$ jds`
5KfNU1E- EQRIf.
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his c�apacit\ as it First Ucpuh The Depot\ Ministers
c\crcise� onl\ ad lilt nistrati\e control o\er those
cicnu�Its subordinate to their direc�toratcs. The
Minister of \itional Defense cmcrc�ises his cotnnaand
authorit\ o\cr most tactical ground units throus;h the
ntiIi tit r\ (listricts and or field aria\ headquarters. He
nw\ .also cxcrciu this atithorit\ o\er air and air
defense units thranagh his Deputy for Air and Air
Defense Forces. "fhc \1inistr\ direc�tl\ commands
sonar combat and st units that constitute genvral
In :c(hpiarters eleml�nts.
TllC (:zec�hoshI\AConuni nist Pit rt\ cont rol(if the
armed forces is maintained b\ the Main PoIiti(.�al
I)irectorate, \\hic�h extends its influence to all Ic\elsIif
command indcpcndeut of norn tit l ce1n1I11Laml c I tit nncls.
TIIis (I ircc�tor:ate s subordination to the \linister of
National Do 4( \\as nonlitaal onl\ until late Jul\
1965. l ntiI that tune, its subordination \\as to the
I'art\ (:e'lltraI (:ommittee %bicll em its direct
control o\e�r militar\ affairs through the Office of the
State- Administrati\c Section of the (ventral C. ..antit-
tee. This State- A(Indi istnati%e Section had been
created during the No\otn\ regime� :n it tneatts to
cxcrc�i Nc tit,htcr political control occr the armed forces.
Thi, section \\as abolished \\hen Lieutenant General
Prchlik \\as relie\ed as its head in Jul\ 1965asa result
of the '�liberalization program. Since that time the
\Iinistcr of National I)efI IIse pro )it hl\ has c\crc�ised
more dirce control o\er this directorate.
:3. MilitarN manpower and morale (S)
a. Manpower
As .af I Januar\ 19 1 there ere appro\intatel\
:'),660,000 zechoslo%ak nudes bet\%cen tit(- ages of 15
and 49. Of these, aimut 2.520,000 \\ere fit for militan
seer\ ice. \n estimated a\vnige of about 1. 30,000 males
,annuall\ ill rcuc h militar\ age IS) (luring the period
1971 5. of hoar 110.000 probabl\ ill inert
cc�hoslo\;ak fitness standards.
The follo\\ing tabulation is it breakd(mn b\ 5 -\ear
age groups of Czechoslo% ak ntanpo\\er as of I Jannar\
197 1
flit armed force, are supported b\ it c�ompulsor\
militated seniee s\stem similar to that of other \Varna\\
Pact countries. The 1960 constitution states that "the
defense of the c�ountr\ and its socialist s\stent is the
supreme (lilt\ and it ntat!cr of honor for e\er\ citizen."
Conscription is accomplished under the pnt\isions of
tit(. 1919 defense act, as amended in 1955 ,utd 1965.
All moth� citizens mist rekister ill the sprint; of the \ear
in \\hick the\ reach the age of 15. Under normal
c�irc�untstances the hulk o1. the Wren \\ould be inducted
in the auhunn of the same \car. Since the invasion.
ho\\e\er, the Minister of National Defense has
announced it change from an annual to it semianinial
induction s\stent. The round forcers rec�cive
approxitnatel\ 56,000 men per \car, the air force
about 3.80). and the militarized sec�urih forces some
3.600- �I'he basic terns of s.-r\ice is 2 \ears� althout,h
the terns for certain in,li\iduals is extended. on it
\oluntim basis, for 1 or more scars.
Volunteers are accepted onl\ in special b:anc�hes
such as the airborne and armored troops and the air
force. Both conscripts anti nua\ e\tend their
terms of ser\icc if the\ meet the required ntilitar\,
politic�nl, moral, and Pft\sical requirements.
After release from acti\r dot\ conscripts pass into
the mser\e. Rased on their usefulness to the armed
h rtes, reservists are divided into the foll(ming
categories:
Emergency Technical Reserve Consisting of all
officers and enlisted men with special military or
civilian skills. This group has an unlimited term of
service and receives special pay when o, a active duty;
men are called to active duty when their skills are
required.
First Reservo� Consisting of all officers and en-
listed men physically capable of active duty but who
have no special military or civilian skills. Personnel in
this group are generally released at the age of 35 to
the Second Reserve. Personnel in the First Resen e
are called to active duty for short periods every 2 years.
Second Reserve �Consisting of all officers and en-
listed men who have been released from the First Re-
serve duty; there appears to be no training obligation
for this group.
Third Reserve� Includes all men over age 50 and
men with severe physical deficiencies; acts as an
emergency replacement poo! for the Second Reserve.
"Trained ground forces reser\es are estimated at 1.5
million. Of this number, approximutcl\ 400.000 have
completed active ntililar\ service since 1965. The total
comprises conscripts diu�hamed from the t,rotntd
forces since 1951, most of \\host hioc since recei\ed
periodic refresher training.
Mobilization proc�lantations are distributed
tIt rot agbout the counts b\ all available means.
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TOTAL
MAXYMUM
NUMBER
NUMBER FIT FOR
ACE
OF MALES
MILITARY SERVICE
15 -19
618,000
525,000
20 -24
648,000
533,000
25 -29
599,000
490,000
30 -34
483,000
383,.130
35 -39
407,000
303,000
40 -44
452,000
307,000
45 -49
453,000
274,000
Total, 5 -49
3,660,000
2,820,000
flit armed force, are supported b\ it c�ompulsor\
militated seniee s\stem similar to that of other \Varna\\
Pact countries. The 1960 constitution states that "the
defense of the c�ountr\ and its socialist s\stent is the
supreme (lilt\ and it ntat!cr of honor for e\er\ citizen."
Conscription is accomplished under the pnt\isions of
tit(. 1919 defense act, as amended in 1955 ,utd 1965.
All moth� citizens mist rekister ill the sprint; of the \ear
in \\hick the\ reach the age of 15. Under normal
c�irc�untstances the hulk o1. the Wren \\ould be inducted
in the auhunn of the same \car. Since the invasion.
ho\\e\er, the Minister of National Defense has
announced it change from an annual to it semianinial
induction s\stent. The round forcers rec�cive
approxitnatel\ 56,000 men per \car, the air force
about 3.80). and the militarized sec�urih forces some
3.600- �I'he basic terns of s.-r\ice is 2 \ears� althout,h
the terns for certain in,li\iduals is extended. on it
\oluntim basis, for 1 or more scars.
Volunteers are accepted onl\ in special b:anc�hes
such as the airborne and armored troops and the air
force. Both conscripts anti nua\ e\tend their
terms of ser\icc if the\ meet the required ntilitar\,
politic�nl, moral, and Pft\sical requirements.
After release from acti\r dot\ conscripts pass into
the mser\e. Rased on their usefulness to the armed
h rtes, reservists are divided into the foll(ming
categories:
Emergency Technical Reserve Consisting of all
officers and enlisted men with special military or
civilian skills. This group has an unlimited term of
service and receives special pay when o, a active duty;
men are called to active duty when their skills are
required.
First Reservo� Consisting of all officers and en-
listed men physically capable of active duty but who
have no special military or civilian skills. Personnel in
this group are generally released at the age of 35 to
the Second Reserve. Personnel in the First Resen e
are called to active duty for short periods every 2 years.
Second Reserve �Consisting of all officers and en-
listed men who have been released from the First Re-
serve duty; there appears to be no training obligation
for this group.
Third Reserve� Includes all men over age 50 and
men with severe physical deficiencies; acts as an
emergency replacement poo! for the Second Reserve.
"Trained ground forces reser\es are estimated at 1.5
million. Of this number, approximutcl\ 400.000 have
completed active ntililar\ service since 1965. The total
comprises conscripts diu�hamed from the t,rotntd
forces since 1951, most of \\host hioc since recei\ed
periodic refresher training.
Mobilization proc�lantations are distributed
tIt rot agbout the counts b\ all available means.
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Explicit orders are sent by cable or radio to all
headeluarters and administrative offices concerned.
These orders specify the date and type of mobilization
(total or partial., the indiyidu tls who roust report for
dub, propert% that is to be diverted to military use,
and special !aws and regulati-w, that are to be used
during the rnotlii:1zation period. Once the reservist
hecov'.es aware o. the mobilization proclamation, he
proceeds according to instructions contained in his
service hook to the -mobilization point indicated.
Because of high physical and educational standards
and t!he prevalent technical aptitudes of the people,
the Czechoslovaks provide basically excellent military
manpower. The Czechoslovak soldier does not
normally exhibit a martial spirit comparable to that of
most other Fast Et ropean soldiers, though he respond,
well to discipline. The Czechs and, to a lesser degree,
the Slovaks, are relatively passive in temperament and
generally nthmtt to authorit} without active
resistance, although there is a strong tradition cf
Sc�hweikism or passive cesistanc�e. In gen ral, personnel
of ii:" iir force and he security `orc�es are of a higher
caliber �with better education and greater political
reliability �than those of the ground forces.
b. Morale
The Communist regime is constantly striving to
make nilitan life more attractive to the youth of the
country. Dining the period from 1948 to 1956 many
officers were brought into the armed forces more f.rr
their politic..) reliability than their military
profic�iencv. and they have since been replaced bY
competent officers trained in the improved military
school ,,stem. Better food and living quartets, more
recreational facilities. and a more liberal pass pt)iic%
'have been provided. In addition, the law on service
conditions in the armed forces, passed and made
effective in 1960, provides for annual leave for all
members of the armed forces and overhauls the
noncommissioned offic�cr grade structure; these
changes are designed to provide more incentive for
qualified NCO's to remain in service. Recent changes
have eliminated most of the Soviet characteristics in
rnilitan apparel, and the uniform is now more in the
Czech tradition. Although these measures helped to
create pride in the service and have had some impact
on raising morale of the troops, there has been a
definite lack of leadership during the postinvasion
period, partic�ularl, among junior officers and NCO's.
In an attempt to overcome this weakness, a system of
incentives was initiated in 1970 for reservists and
vonng vol,utteers who would enter the career service.
%lorale ranges from good in the air force to fair for
men in their basic 2 -%ear term of ser,ic�e in the ground
.orgies; militar, service never has beer p with
the Czechoslovaks.
Building morale within the armed forces is
complicated b% the multinational composition of the
country. :Nationalism, which is usually considered it
c�ohe -,ke force within other Ei!stern European
countries, tends to be divisive in Czec�hosloyakia. For
the most part the Slovak minority ,%ithin the armed
forces does not react with fervor to Czech s,mhols and
objectives. Instead there is some Slovak resentment of
Czech preeminence, bawd largel% on liktoric�al and
socioeconomic factors. Political concessions and
economic development in Slovakia ...ppear to have
reduced Siovak resentment, and the Soviet invasion
and occupation of !heir lands has tended to have a
unifying effe:�t on the armed forces. There is no
apparent organized resistance to the present regime
arnong the military. The troops have lived under
communism most of their lives and continue to receive
intensive indoctrination. Although the armed forces
are politically reliable v ith regard to the Czechoslovak
regime, the 1968 inyaswn casts snrne doubts on their
reliability as a Warsack Pict f The armed forces
are capable, however, of effective military action.
4, Strength trends (S)
In the initial permed following "tw Cornmuvisi
seizure of power in February 1948 the ,vround and air
forces were a:llos:ed to deteriorate. Niany of the more
efficient officers and noncommissioned officers were
purged and replaced by less skilled but more
politically reliable individual. By 1950. however.
emphasis was being placed on reconstructing a fair!}
sizable and militarily effective force. A strength of
23.10X) w�as reached in mid -1953 after a buildup
because of the strained world situation and the Korean
conflict. The ground forces strength leveled off by
1951 and retrained fairly constant at vu estimated
1700N) men until 1961 Figure 2). Br the end of 1961
the ground forces were expanded to 2200)0 in
response to the Berlin crisis. This strength was
maintained by increased reserve induction and early
Gallup of some conscripts. By mid-1962 the ground
forces strength was reduced to 200,000, and, after
1965, estimates indicated ground forces strength to be
approximately 1750N). In January 1974 these forces
were estimated to number 14,10110.
The strength of the air force has continued to grow
since 1955. Only the period following the invasion of
Czechoslovakia in 1968 showed a decline of air force
personnel. "Total air farce personnel in the air and air
defense system now stands at about 32,11x).
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FIGURE 2. Armed forces personnel strengths (S)
YEAR
GROUND
AM
SECURITY
(I JAN!'ARY)
FORCES
FORCE
TOTALS
FORCES
1955...........
170,000
18,000
188,000
45,000
1956...........
170,000
22,000
192,000
45,000
1957- 59........
170,000
23,000
193,000
45.000
1961...........
155,000
24,000
179,000
45,000
1963...........
200,000
26,000
226,000
47,500
1965...........
175,000
28,000
203,000
40,000
1966- 67........
175,000
30,000
205,006
30,000
1968...........
175,000
32,000
207,000
20,000
1969...........
146,500
31,000
177,500
13,000
1970- 71........
154,000
34,000
188,000
13,500
1972...........
155,000
36,000
191,000
9,500
1973...........
155,000
38,000
193,000
9,500
1974...........
143,000
"57.'90
210,300
9,500
�LTntil 1970 there were 500 quasi -ns vat river personnel in the
regular ground forces. Since 1970 those personnel have been in
the Frontier Guard.
"Includes 32,100 air force and 25,700 air defense force
personnel. Prior to 1974 the latter were included in the ground
force total.
The Frontier Guard has reduced its strength from
30,0(x) to about 9,W) since 1965. Reductions were
predicated on basic realignment and the deactivation
of several border brigades formerly responsible for
areas along the East Cerman and Polish borders. These
border responsibilities were turned over to Czecho-
slovak Customs Police.
5. Training (S)
Training in the armed forces is patterned generally
on that of the Soviet Armed Forces. Nearly all recruits
receive some form of preinduction training in various
state controlled paramilitary organizations known
collectively as SVAZARM (Svaz pro Spolupraci s
Armadou -Union for Cooperation with the Army).
This preinduction training is especially important to
inen interested in the airborne units and the air farce;
it constitutes an almost mandatory requirement.
All military training is supervised by the military
district headquarters under the direction of the
General Staff at the federal Ministry of National
Defense. Guidance in shaping the military training
program is provided by the Soviet Military Mission,
and the Czechoslovak training schedule is coordinated
with the overall Warsaw Pact plan for combined
training of the Eastern European Warsaw Pact forces.
Schools for officers, officer candidates, reservists,
and specialists are maintained by the various
branches. In addition to a number of specialized
branch schools for officer candidates, instruction for
field -grade officers of -ill services is provided by a
6
command and staff college, the Zapotocky Military
Academy in Brno. The train training facilities for the
air fo.c� are located at the air academy in Kos;ce.' In
addition to training at these in- country fac;!itiezi.
selected officers from the ground and air forces are sent
to I �h- level military schools in the Soviet Union.
joint air ground training exercises, in which ground
units are provided tactical air support, are frequently
conducted. Helicopters are employed in limited air
assault roles and reconnaissance. Air defense exercises,
aimed at perfecting the coordination of surface -to -air
and conventional antiaircraft element with fighter
aircraft, continually test the effectiveness of the air
defense system.
The armed forces have participated in major
Warsaw Pact exercises, including the most recent
exercise, "Shield," in 1972. Combined Czechoslovak
air defense exercises provide practice in the operation
of the integrated air defense system of the Warsaw
Pact. Within 3 months after the 1968 invasion, the
Czechoslovak armed forces were training oil a large
unit scale after having been at a full operational and
training standdown.
Czechoslovak participation in the training of
foreign military students is apparent both at in-
country facilities and abroad. Students from
Afro -Asian countries as well as from Cuba have been
reported to he training at Czechoslovak ground and
air forces installations. Civilian technicians usually
sent abroad in conjunction with arms shipments have
in some instances been accompanied by Czechoslovak
military officers. In at least one Asian country
Czechoslovak military officers are known to have
served as advisers on nearly every facet of military
science and tactics. Occasional visits by high ranking
Czechoslovak military officers to Afro -Asian nations
and Cuba serve to maintain ties with these countries.
Among Warsaw Pact nations, C zechosloakia's
participat'.; :::n trainingr of foreign military students
and in military advisory programs is exceeded only by
the Soviet Union.
6. Economic support and military budget (S)
a. Economic support
The Czechoslovak economy is able to supply the
armed forces with food, quartermaster items, most
ground forces equipment, and trainer aircraft. It is the
most nearly self sufficient of the Eastern European
Communist countries in armaments production, but
'For diacritics on place names see the i:st of manes on the apron
of the Sunllnan Map and the map itself in the Countn Profile
cl apter.
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fighter aircraft, missiles, and a variety of electronic
equipment are imported.
Czechoslovakia has the most important army
:materiel production industry among the Eastern
European Communist countries, based on significant
native design capability and it highly industrialized
economy. It manufactures the largest quantity and
variety of military equipment among the Warsaw Pact
countries, except for the Soviet Union. Although much
of its plant capacky was converted to civilian
production after its peak military output was reaches!
in 1957, the variety of army materiel produced has not
been substantially altered. Production of ground forces
materiel includes pistols, assault rifles, recoilless guns,
antiaircraft artillery, multiple- rocket launchers,
medium tanks, and tracked and wheeled armored
personnel carriers. Ammunition of all types and
enough explosives and propellants are produced to
meet indigenous requirements and to provide modest
quantities for export.
A range of other types of materiel is produced,
including signal, quartermaster, engineering. fire
control, optical, and photographic equipment. Assault
guns, mortars, and a variety of medium artillery are no
longer in production, but replacement parts and
ammuni:'on continue to be made for this obsolescent
equipment. Chemical warfare materiel production
includes small quantities of toxic agents, tear gas,
smoke munitions, flamethrowers, protective masks
and canisters, protective clothing, and decontamina-
tion and detection equipment. An excellent capability
exists for large -scale production of biological warfare
(BW) agents, but the current output consists of only
small amounts for research and testing. Production of
BW defense related antibiotics and pharmaceuticals is
more than adequate for domestic consumption and
easily could support a BW defensive program.
SeCend only to the Soviet Union as a Communist
exporter of military materiel, Czechoslovakia was the
first Communist country to supply arms to some of the
Arab countries under agreements concluded in 1956. A
major export ;tem in recent years has been the OT -62
TOPAZ tracked armored personnel carrier. From 1955
through 1972, Czechoslovakia provided $1,790
million in military assistance to other Communist
countries and $920 million to non Communist
countries.
Czechoslovakia has no naval force in the ordinary
sense but maintains it small Danube Defense Guard.
Adequate facilities exist for the construction and repair
of the river patrol craft used by this command.
The aircraft industry is the leading one among the
Eastern European Communist nations. 'There are
three significani airframe plants, two Large aircraft
engine plants, and a large and well- equipped aircraft
research and development complex. Military jet
trainers are produced in quantity, as well as several
types of light civil aircraft. The industry can and has
produced jet fighters in quantity and has the
capability to develop and produce virtually all types
of light aircraft. Most of the aircraft rot produced
domesUcadv are obtained from the U.S.S.R.
Czechoslovakia has established, with Soviet
assistance, a production capability for small missiles
(air -to -air and antitank). The Czechoslevaks have
produced under license from the Soviets a version of
the AA -2 (ATOLL) air -to -air missile and are now
producing the AT -3 (SAGGER) wire- guided antitank
missile. With the exception of the current production
programs, Czechoslovakia has been dependent on the
Soviet Union to supply other missiles. Plans exist for
Czechoslovakia to produce a follow -on antitank
system, and there is a possibility that Czechoslovakia
will move on into the production of larger, more
sophisticated systems, e.g., surface -to -air and short
range, surface -to- surface ballistic missiles in the
future.
b. Military budget
The military budget is prepared by the Minister of
National Defense on the basis of recommendations of
the General Staff and other defense ministry elements.
It is coordinated with the federal Ministry of Finance
and included in the overall national budget for
approval by the Council of Ministers and the
parliament. As in other Communist countries, the
announced military budget figures are not believed to
include all actual military expenditures. Sonic
expenditures, particularly those for military research
and development, are no doubt concealed among
other budget categories. Research and development
funds, however, are believed to account for a relatively
small proportion of total military expenditures. The
announced budgets for 1968 -72 are shown in Figure 3.
The budget for 1973 has not been announced but it is
described as having grown more slowly than the
national income.
7. Logistics (S)
The general classification of materiel is simil"r to
that of the Soviet Armed Forces. Items of materiel in
common use among various branches of service, such
as individual clothing and equipment, POL, and
transport vehicles, are considered general supplies.
Items unique to a specific arm of service are each
Id
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FIGURE 3. Defense budgets (U /OU)
ANNOUNCED 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972
Defense budget (billions of
korunas) 13.2 14.3 14.9 15.9 17.1
Defense as a perce t of na-
tional budget........... 8.y 8.1 7.7 7.2 6.6
Defense as a percent of esti-
mated GNP............ 4.1 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.2
identified, such as artillery, armor, signal, engineer, or
chemical.
The Main Directorate for Rear Services, the primary
authority over logistic matters within the anned forces,
is directly responsible for the procurement, storage.
and distribution of all common -use items of supply
and equipment. Although counterpart logistic
agencies in arms and services are responsible for
handling matters unique to their particular
organizations, their activities are closely coordinated
by the Main Directorate for Rear Services. Rear
Services officers are assigned it) every level of
command (]own through regiment. They employ a
special channel of communication for supply matters,
separate from normal command channels.
The technical administration of the general staff
also has the basic responsibility for research and
development of new equipment within the armed
forces, in coordination with nonmilitary government
agencies. This function is under a deputy for
technology on the general staff. Czechoslovakia is the
only Eastern European Warsa Pact country that
conducts a significant amount of independent
research and development for military equipment.
The Czechoslovak Government and Communist
Party are the final authorities on types and quantities
of materiel issued to the armed forces. The military
procurement program, based on requirements of the
,.rmed services, is considered part of the national
program at the ministry level. The placing of orders is
the duty of the chiefs of the branch commands at the
Ministry of National Defense Each arm and service
operates its own supply system.
Each agency in the high command that has it
responsibility for procurement also maintains its own
systems of storage and distribution. The system of
depots, which extends from military district level to
the small tactical units, is controlled at every echelon
by the rear services apparatus at that particular level
of command.
Wartime supply requirements and movements are
to he coordinated at lower levels by the Chief for Rear
Services in ace- )rdance with the plans of Cie area
commander. The Chief for Rear Services is cha.4ed
with the movement of all supplies except those carried
by air. The rear services system provides a direct
channel for supply platters from the lower tactical
units directly to the high command.
Rail and road networks, especially those in western
Czechoslovakia, and large quantities of motor
transport provide excellent bases for supporting the
movement of rilitary. supplies.
S. Uniforms and insignia (U /UU)
a. C/niforma
The Czechoslovak armed forces include ground and
air eleme only; there are no naval forces as such.
Uniforms of the ground and air forces are identical in
color and style. Officers and warrant officers have
three basic uniforms: dress, service, and field; enlisted
men have two: service -dress and field. All uniforms are
designed for year -round wear. Dress and service -dress
uniforms are illustrated in Figures 4 and 7.
The dress uniform for officers and warrant officers
consists of an olive -drab, single- breasted, four button
coat with two lower pockets, matching trousers, khaki
shirt and tie, or white shirt and black tie, and service
cap.
The service uniform for officers and warrant officers
consists of an olive -drab, single- breasted, four button
coat with four pockets, matching trousers, and khaki
shirt and tic. The buttons are gold for officers and
silver for warrant officers. Headgear worn with the
uniform include garrison. or service caps and a pile cap
for wear in winter. Either brown shoes or black combai
hoots may be worn with the uniform.
The service -dress uniform for enlisted personnel is
similar in style and color to the officers' and warrant
officers' service uniform, except that the buttons are
brass, and the tailoring and material from which it is
made are of lesser quality. It is worn with a khaki shirt
and tie or a white shirt and black tie. For summer
wear, all personnel, i- eluding officers and warrant
officers, are authorized an optional service uniform
which includes a gray open- collar jacket with
waistband, and olive -drab trousers.
The field uniform worn by all personnel consists of a
light -green coat and trousers that are patterned with
short, narrow, dark -brown vertical stripes. It also
serves as a camouflage uniform and is chemically
treated to be anti infrared. Rank insignia are
(.;splayed on a loop of cloth above the upper right
hand pocket of the coat. Headgear worn with the
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GROUND FORCES
ARMY COLONEL LIEUTENANT MAJOR COLONEL LIEUTENANT
GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL COLONEL
CAPTAIN SENIOR LIEUTENANT JUNIOR CAP INSIGNIA
LIEUTENANT LIEUTENANT
AIR FORCES
LIEUTENANT MAJOR
GENERAL GENERAL
CAPTAIN SENIOR
LIEUTENANT
FIGURE 4. Officers' uniforms and insigK 7U)
a I
COLONEL LIEUTENANT
COLONEL
1
LIEUTENANT JUNIOR
LIEUTENANT
MAJOR
MAJOR
CAP INSIGNIA COLLAR
INSIGNIA
9
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DRESS
UNIFORM
DRESS
UNIFORM

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GROUND FORCES
111
SENIOR WARRANT
WARRANT OFFICER
OFFICER
SERGEANT CORPORAL
JUNIOR MASTER SERGEANT STAFF
WARRANT SERGEANT ',ST CLASS SERGEANT
OFFICER
PRIVATE PRIVATE CAP INSIGNIA
1ST CLASS
AIR FORCES
SENIOR WARRANT JUNIOR MASTER SERGEANT STAFF
WARRANT OFFICER WARRANT SERGEANT 1ST CLASS SERGEANT
OFFICER OFFICER
SERGEANT CORPORAL PRIVATE PRIVATE CAP INSIGNIA COLLAR
?ST CLASS INSIGNIA
FIGURE 5. Warrant officers' and enlisted men's uniforms and insignia (U /OU)
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SERVICE DRFSS
UNIFORM
SERVICE -DRESS
UNIFORM

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uniform include a field cap of the same material as the
uniform, steel helmet, and it pile cap for wear in
winter. S;:mrner and winter field uniforms are similar
in style and differ only in that the winter version has it
warm inner lining.
In winter, all personnel wear a double breasted
belted overcoat, made of it light weight fabric, that
has a warm snap -in lining and detachable fur collar.
Officers', warrant officers', and enlisted men's
overcoats differ primarily in the quality of the material
.end tailoring.
Branch distinctions as reflected in uniforms apply to
three: types of organizations. Armored troops wear
dark -blue coveralls and a black beret; airborne troops
wear a gray -green uniform which includes it single
breasted coat with four regular pockets and small,
narrow sleeve pockets, and it red beret. Border guards
are recognized by it bright -green hand on the service
cap or by a bright -green garrison cap.
b. Insignia
The ranks of ground and air forces' personnel are
indicated by varying numbers and sires of stars or
metallic buttons worn on shoulderloops of the same
material as the uniform. General officers displa% large
gold stars; field arid company -grade officers smaller
gold star. Warrant officers and senior noncommis-
sioned officers are identified by small silver stars and
junior noncommissioned officers by silver buttons.
Insignia of rank are ill� trated in Figures 4 and i.
Branches of service are indicated by distinctive
metallic devices, displayed on the shoulderllops by
,enends (other than four -star) and on the coat collars
by all other ranks. General officer; are additionally
identified by it metallic ornamentation (lime leaves)
worn on the collars of coats and overcoats. In general,
insignia of the arnns are gold; those of the support
troops or services are silver, except for the Medical
Service which is gold.
A -eplica of the national emblem (a rampant lion) is
displayed on headgear, belt buckles, and incorporated
in the design of various awards and decorations. The
cap device worn by officers, warrant officers, and
nonco III nlissioned officers clown to the rank of
sergeant, has a silver emblem on it reel background;
that worn by corporals and privates is all brass. Air
force officer also display a winged aviation emblem
with it star above the cap device on the service cap.
B. Ground forces (S)
The 1 13,000 -nuan ground forces are well organized,
well trained� and well- equipped. The ground forces
could give it k;oocl account of themseles, at least in the
initial stage of conflict, and could make it significant
contribution to the overall Warsaw Pact capabilities.
'Chic probable initial wartime mission would he to
commit at least eight motorized rifle and tank
divisions against NATO forces in Bavaria. The force,
consisting of the two existing field armies, probably
would be under Soviet fro nt'-cootrol.
Czechoslovak troops along the Austrian border are a
valuable adjunct to the Warsaw Pact m.litary posture,
for they serve as an immediate influence on Austrian
neutrality. Should Soviet plans call for the
violation of this neutrality, an additional strategic
mission for Czechoslovak troops could he a
diversionary action or flanking movement through
Austria aimed at NATO troops in the southern part of
West Germany.
1. Organization
'rhe federal Minister of National Defense controls
the high command and exercises operational control
over the ground forces units ;trough military districts
and /or field armies. An airborne brig-ale, it probable
surface -to- surface missile brigade, and engineer and
signal units are GIIQ elements directly under the
Ministry of National Defense.
For the purpose of military administration
Czechoslovakia is divided into two military districts:
Western Military District, with headquarters in
Tabor, and Eastern Military District, with hcadquar-
ters in "rrencin. The role of the district headquarters is
to perform administrative arid logistical functions aril
supervise all military activities within their respective
territories, including conscription and mobilizations.
Exact military district boundaries are nai known;
however, the Western Military District, which
contains two field armies, controls and supports the
ground forces elements in Bohemia and most of
Moravia. The Eastern Military District Headquarters
controls ground forces elements located in Slovakia
and northern Moravia. Although the Eastern Military
District does not contain an active field army
headquarters, one could he activated rapid,v in
wartime.
Organization of Czechoslovak line divisions, i.e.,
motorized rifle and tank, generally follows that of
their Soviet counterparts.
2 :1 tactical and administratke unit consktint; of seser.d i;roond
armies, one or more air armies, airbo ne elcnuents, and supporling
combat and ser'ice units.
13
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2. Strength, composition, and disposition`
The sty: ngth of the ground forces is estimated at
1 -130H) officers and enlisted men. Of these. about
3Wi are officers and noncommissioned officers who
make up the regular cadre. The remainder are
conscripts, most of whom serve on active duty for 2
years and then are transferred to the reserves. In
addition to the active force, there is it trained ground
forces reserve estimated at 1.5 million men. Of these,
282,000 have completed active service in the last i
years. Dive motorized rifle divisions, five tank
divisions, one airborne brigade, one artillery and one
antitank artillery brigade, and one artillery and one
antitank artillery regiment constitute the basic combat
strength of the ground forces. In addition, there are
various service and support units ranging in size from
company to brigade.
Five motorized rifle divisions and three tank
divisions are in the �extern Military District and two
tank divisions are in the Eastern Military District.
The greater density of units is in Bohemia, where
better logistic and administrative facilities are located.
These units are considered combat reach and could be
rapidly deployed against NA'T'O forces. The txvo tank
divisions in the Eastern Military District and one
motorized rifle division in the eastern part of the
Western Military District are held at relatively low
strength, although they are believed to have the
required c�onubat equipment on hand and lack only
general- purpose vehicles.
The eight divisions in the Western Military District
each have it surface -to- surface (FROG �free rocket
over ground) battalion, and one division maintains an
extra FROG battalion which will he organic to it
newly activated division upon mobilization. Three
surface -to- surface (Sean) missile (Figure 6) brigades
art available for field army support.
:3. Training
Ground forces training has irnproved during the last
several years, and present standards are high by Soviet
;urd other European country standards. Division-level
maneuvers have been held regularly for many years,
with the possible exception of 1969, and army -level
exercises have been conducted periodically. Regular
participation in Warsaw Pact command post exercises
and maneuvers, particularly in the last few years, has
aimed at developing and perfecting command and
control procedures in combined operations.
`For current information we Order of Rattle Summary, Foreign
Crnuud Force,. M- 220 -1 -1 eerie,, published h% the Defense
Int(Ahitenc�e atenc%
Regular active duty training follows the comprehen-
R.ive and well tested Soviet training program which
emphasizes the year -round readiness of the ground
forces. Training, therefore, no longer begins with small
unit exercises in early winter, progressing to division
or army -level maneuvers in the autumn. Small unit
traini ig is conducted throughout the year at close -in
training areas when units are at home station, with
battalion- and regiment -size units rotating to larger
training areas. Large -scale exercises may be held at
am' time throughout the year and during various
weather conditions. In such exercises, regiments
frequently represent divisions in simulated combat
operations. In this way the readiness of the basic
tactical maneuver element is maintained. Frequent
command -post exercises and communications
exercises are held, and Czechoslovak forces participate
in combined training with the Soviet Central Group of
Forces as well as in major Warsaw Pact exercises.
Reserve training is mandatory for conscripts who
have completed their national service requirement,
and for those who have participated in ROTC -type
programs in the higher schools and colleges. This
training can take the form of periodic, short active
duty tours, during which reservists are usually
integrated with regular army units. Another m ^thud
for reserve refresher training became effective I July
1964; reserve noncommissioned officers and other
enlisted men may fulfill reserve training requirements
and avoid a call to active duty by participating after
working hours in military training in paramilitar.
organizations. Almost all reserve officers, however,
remain subject to active -duty refresher training.
Political indoctrination constitutes as nuch as 15%
of troop training. This training is conducted by
political officers attached to tactical units. Its impact
on the overall training program is difficult to assess
because� although it takes time that might otherwise
he devoted to military training �it also serves to
inform the conscript of the regimes policies, give%
direction to training, and augme :its military
discipline. Physical training, in the form of regular
calisthenics, running of confidence acid -obstacle
courses, and participation in various off -duty sports
activities, is also integrated into the field training
program.
In close adherence to Soviet doctrine, tactical
training stresses offensive c�onbined -arms combat.
Emphasis is placed on rapid rates of advance, frequent
river crossings, and various aspects of chemical,
biological, and radiological training. Training is
conducted under varied environmental and climatic
conditions, and at least one -third is at night. Special
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F7 1 W
attention is focused on deep reconnaissance and target
acquisition, using mockups of NATO rockets and
missiles for target recognition. Engineer combat
support, especially during river crossing exercises, is in
evidence in most large -scale training activities.
Tactical communications and staff procedures are
tested periodically by command -post exercises. The
comprehensive and repetitive nature of the training,
especially with crew- served w�tpons (Figures 7 and 8),
permits the units and their leadership cadres to
develop familiarity and skill in tactical employment
under various conditions and in varying combat
situations.
The military !.chool system is hased largely on that
of the U.S.S.R. Translated Soviet instructional
material is used and Soviet methods of instruction are
applied. The school system includes training facilities
for all arms and services, and instruction is given at ali
levels academic, enlisted specialist, noncommis-
sioned officer, officer candidate, branch specialty, and
command and staff. Combat units of regimental and
larger size also maintain unit noncommissioned officer
schools where promising recruits are trained as NCO*s,
technicians, and specialists. Politically reliable and
promising field -grade officers may he sent to the
U.S.S.R. for additional training in Soviet higher
military schools and academies.
4. Logistics
On;anization of the ground forces logistic system is
similar to that of other elements in the armed forces
with the Main Directorate for Rear Services having
primary authority in logistic matters. The Chief of the
Main Directorate for Rear Services is represented by
rear service officers at all levels of command down
through regiment. The rear service system maintains
supply depots throughout the country to f tcilitate the
issue of rations, fuel, clothing, medical and veterinary
supplies, and other general -issue items. Requisitions
are usually initiated by the lower units and are then
routed through regiment to the division rear service
officer who places the regairement on the depot.
Procurement of specialized equipment peculiar to any
one branch of service is handled by technical and
s elements within the branch. Branch technical
representatives are assigned down through division
level to assist the unit rear service officers. Branch
15
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FIGURE 3. SCUD (A) in launch position (U /OU)
FIGURE 7. Training on a 122-mm M1938 howitzer (U /OU)

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supplies are requisitioned through separate channels.
Depots for general and special supplies are located
throughout the country, with it greater density in
western Czechoslovakia. Equipment is usually stored
near each major unit to augment the unit or, in some
cases, to supple new units in the event of mobilization.
Maintenance is performed at various organizational
levels and is excellent in quality. At the individual
level the responsihility of the soldier for proper care of
his equipment is stressed, and because the
Czechoslovaks have high mechanical aptitude �the
standards of individual use and care of equipment
generally are better than those of other Warsaw Pact
ground forces.
C. Air and air defense forces (S)
The mission of air defense of the country and
tactical air support of the ground forces are the
responsibility of the Directorate for Air an -1 Air
Defense Forces (referred to in open sources as Air Force
and Forces of Air Defense� INI'VOS). This
directorate is on a command level with the
Czechoslovakian ground forces. The commander of
the INPVOS is it Deputy Minister of National Defense
and is directly subordinate tot lie Minister of Defense.
The LVP'1'OS is divided into two operational
commands �the 7th Air Defense Army (7th ADA) and
the loth Air Army (loth AA). The 7th ADA is
comprised of fighter interceptors, surface -to -air
missiles, antiaircraft artillery, and aircraft control and
warning (ACW) radars. The mission of this command
is to defend Czechoslovakia's territorial airspace
against penetration by hostile aircraft and cruise
missiles. Czechoslovakia is also charged with the
defense of the air approaches to the U.S.S.R. under the
overall supervision of Soviet Air Defense of the
Ilomelmid (P\'O Struny). The primary mission of the
loth AA is to provide air support to Czechoslovakian
ground forces through air superiority� interdiction, and
close air support operations. In wartiniv this air army
would operate as an extension of Soviet tactical
aviation in a southwest front. The loth AA probahly
also has the responsibility to support all :sir force
operational units in training, administrative, and
personnel matters. In addition, logistical, transpor-
tation, meteorological, and other air force support
services are under the supervision of this Air Army.
Overall, the air defense of Czechoslovakia is good at
intdium to high altitudes. As the altitudes of
penetrating aircraft are decreased, the problems of
detection, tracking, and iza- rc�eption become greater.
The reason for this weakness at low altitudes is the lack
16
of effective low- altitude detection radars, surface -to-
air missiles, air intercept radars, and air -to -air missiles.
The ground support capability of the Czecho-
slovakian Air Force (CAF) is good. Within the CAF,
priority for aircraft modernization has gone to air
superiority, fighter bomber, and reconnaissance
regiments. As a result, Czechoslovakia has the most
modern tactical air force of the non Sovict Warsaw
Pact countries, although it is numerically smaller than
the Polish tactical air force.
1. Operations
For the purpose of air defense, Czechoslovakia
equates to a Soviet air defense district and is a part of
the overall Warsaw Pact air defense system. The
country (district) is divided into two air defense
divisions, the 2d Air Defense Division headquartered
at Brno, and the 3d Air Defense Divisior itb
headquarters at Zatec. These divisions are arhitr::u,y
designated the Eastern and Western Air Defense
Zones, respectively. The Eastern ADZ encompasses the
provinces of Moravia and Slovakia, and the Western
ADZ covers the proviixe of Bohemia. Subordinate to
each /mie are fighter and SAM regiments. The zonal
headquarters coordinates all defense operations in its
zone and provi s communications facilities and
warning information. The decision whether to utilize
x 6 1
FIGURE 8. Training on 82 -mm M59 recoilless rifle (U /OU)
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A
FIGURE 9. Czechoslovakia produced MAYA (L -29)
trainer jet (U /OU)
fighter interceptors, SAM's, conventional AAA, or it
cornbinatiotr of the three is usually delegated by the
district headquarters to zonal authorities.
Tactical air elements are organized into tactical
fighter, fighter bomber, reconnaissance, transport,
and helicopter regiments. While the tactical fighter
regiments of the 10th AA have it secondary mission of
air defense. their primary role, and the role of all
tactical elements, is to provide support for the ground
forces. This tactical force would be expected to move
forward with its supported ground forces under the
direction of the front commander. The aircraft
assigned give the tactical air force it capability to
support a ground force commander with strikes in the
immediate forward edge of the battle area (FEBA), as
well as relatively longer range attacks againsi targets
which have an effect on the ground battle.
2. Strength, composition, and disposition
The total aircraft strength of the air forces is slightly
more than 7051. Included are sonic 486 combat
aircraft, 3.1 transports, and 187 helicopters. Personnel
strength of the air and air defense forces is about
57,800 i .cluding 1,200 pilots. About 32,100 of this
total are air force personnel assigned to nonair defense
functions; the other 25,700 are in the air defense f(irce.
Air defense elements consist of three jet fighter
regiments. A little more than Wi of th.� 152 aircraft in
thrse regiments are the all- weather Fismwi)1) and F.
The remaining aircraft include I-ismteo C: and F,
'Fur curn�ni information see European Cornmani.st Aircraft Order
(f Rattle (DI-210-IC-7: series), puh1ishc(1 i� the ovfinse
Intelligence :\genes. Information on Czechoslovak airfields is
pr()%ided in this General Surcey, under rransportatinn and
"tclecon III unication,.
FIGURE 10. FITTER aircraft deploying chute on
landing (U /OU)
(MiG -21), FAGOT (MiG-15), and MAYA (L- 29)(Figure
9). The tactical air elements are the best equipped.
There are three tactical fighter regiments with a total
of 132 aircraft, the majority of which are the FISHBEDJ
Export. The four fighter bomber units are equipped
with nearly equal numbers of FnrrEit A (Figure 10)
a n) FA(:or �a total of 144 aircraft. In addition, there
are two reconnaissance regiments and one transport
regiment in the tactical force. The reconnaissance
regiments are equipped with FISIMED H (MiG -21R;,
MAVA (L -29), BEAGLE (11 -28), and CRATE (11 -14).
Support aircraft include Cm s COKE (An-
24),and C HArEtransports, HARE (Mi -I), Hoc'Na(Mi-
4), and I (Mi -8) helicopters.
There are four SA -2 surface- to -ai- (SAM) brigades
and one separate SA -2 SAM regiment. consisting of 24
firing battalions. "These SAM units are deployed to
provide a vital area defense of the principal cities of
Prague. Brno, Ostrava, and Bratislava, and one
regiment provides area coverage for the country's
western border arei Additionally, the nation:d air
defense forces have one SA -3 regiment deployed to
provide low altitude defense of the western
approaches to Prague The integrated i.ir defense
system has conventional antiaircraft artillerN 62 early
warning radar cites. and 1 aircraft control radar sites.
The total personnel strength of the air defense force is
estimated to be 25,700 �of which approximrtel
10.700 an(] 13,000, respectively, are air force vrill
ground forces personnel assigned to air defense
functions.
CAA' combat units are located at the following
airfields: Pardubice, Dobranv, Ilradec Kralove,
Prerov, Bcchyne, Caslav /Chotusice, Nattiest nad
Oslavou, Mosnov, Zatec, ,in(] Ceske Budejovice.
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Transport units are based at airfields near Mosnov and
Prague (Kbely). There are helicopter units at
numerous :airfields which support the ground forces. In
addition, there are 39 .irfields capab!o of supporting
jet fighter deployment /dispersal activities. Hardened
hangarettes have been constructed at seven jet fighter
airfields of the CAF.
3. Training
The Union for Cooperation with the Army
(SVAZARM) is the most important single organization
for the dissemination of military- associated technical
skills to the nations youth. SN'AZARM is a civilian
organization formed in 1952 under the direct control
of the federal Ministry of National Defense with the
aim of attracting arid educating young people in
military skills. Although there has been renewed
emphasis in premilitary training in recent years, the
typical conscript enters upon his tour of military duty
with less training and with less service- oriented
physical conditioning than is usual in the Eastern
European Communist countries.
Formal flying training is conducted at the
Kosice /Barca Air Force Higher School, upgraded in
1971 to a four -year degree granting institution. The
first phase of pilot training includes rr.ilitary studies,
gene,crl education, and theory of flight. The second
phase, begun toward the end of the second year,
involves flying training on the L -29 basic jet trainer,
the MIDGET (U- MiG -15), arid the FAGOT. The last
phase is conducted at Prerov with the supersonic
MONGOL (U- MiG -21) and FISHBED. After completion
of this training, the candidate is graduated with an
engineering degree and a Third Class Pilot rating, and
is assigned to an operational unit. Conversion to newer
or different jet fighter aircraft is normally undertaken
at operational units.
The requirements for Second Class Pilot consist of a
demonstrated ability to handle an operationally
configured aircraft under all weather conditions in
daytime arid clear weather conditions at night. The
pilot must also he able to perform detailed preflight
planning for cross country and operational training
flights and then to execute them satisfactorily.
A First Class Pilot must have demonstrated
proficiency in all weather conditions, both day and
night, with visibility minimums at 1 kilometer and
ceiling of 50 meters. Certification in any one of these
three proficr racy classes is not contingent upon the
number of i ours flown nor the time spent in the lower
catevary, but upon actual tested abilities. To maintain
this proficiency rating, each pilot roust undergo a
Is
series of tests twice a year. with the exception of First
Class Pilots who are examined only once a year.
Operational training has increased in scope since
the air force was reorganized into the ground support
and air defense units. Training includes all phases
relative to ground support and air defense missions
with the capabilities of the aircraft assigned.
Intracountry mobility a �ercises are numerous and
include deployment to grass fields as well as to other
operational airfields. Mobility flights to other non
Soviet Warsaw Pact countries have become more
prevalent in the past few years.
Pilots average about 70 to 80 hours of flying per
year, as do most of the Warsaw Pact pilots. By Western
standards this is not adequate; however, their
extensive preflight preparations may help to offset this
limitation.
Czechoslovakia has been providing flight and
parachute training for some years to personnel from
less- developed nations. Students from Cuba, Ghana,
Guinea, and Indonesia have undergone both primary
and advanced training with the air force. Air force
personnel, including pilots and aircraft mechanics,
have instructed Syrian and UAR air force pilots and
technicians in their home countries since 19,35. These
programs can probably he expected to continue and
possibly even expand as a result of the overseas sales of
the L-29 jet trainer system.
4. Logistics
The logistic system is outstanding among the
Eastern European Communist countries because it is
supported by a high level of manufacturing and
.Ignificant zrmament industries, including a civil
aircraft industry. Nevertheless, the countrv's
capability to support its air force logistically has been
gradually decreasing since the production of combat
aircraft was stopped. The air force no%% imports all
newer type fighters from the U.S.S.R. In terms of
producing arid repairing parts, as well as overhauling
complete aircraft, the logistic system is capable of
effectively supporting only the older, domestically
produced aircraft. Czechoslovakia retains, however,
an excellent capability to supply its air force with
ground equipment, general spare parts, common -use
items, vehicles, and ammunition. The supply of
aviation fuel is adequate for peacetime but depends
upon Soviet controlled sources for crude oil.
Aircraft maintenance is among the hest of the
Eastern European Communist countries i "cause
adequate repair facilities are available at the plants of
the aircraft industry. The supply of engineers arid
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technicians is also satisfactory, and serviceability rates
are equal to those of the Soviet Air Forces.
Reliance un Soyiet- produced combat aircraft in the
future v ill make Czechoslovakia increasingly
dependent on the Soviet Union for replacement
aircraft and spare parts. This dependence would
become clearly e%ident in the event of prolonged
hostilities.
D. Militarized security force (S)
The only Czechoslovak militarized security force is
the Frontier Guard, consisting of approximately 9,500
officers and enlisted men.
This force, though not large in number, is reliable
and well trained. It is subject to military discipline and
wears milit uniforms. Weapons and much of their
training are comparable to those of infantry troops. In
addition to the function of preventing illegal entry
into or exit from Czechoslovakia, the miPtarized
security force c�onstitites, in effect, specialized
auxiliary ground troops. Organized units c�onld be
attached to army field commands to perform certain
speualized functions in wartime. These would include
rear -area security, traffic control, c�oturterintelligenc�e,
and military government. Should the sitnation
reeluire�. Frontier Guard units could also he used as
combat troops.
>Ec�RF :T
SECRET
Seven Frontier Guard brigades with an average
strength of approximately 1,0(x) men, though varying
in composition, usually contain 10 to S companies
each. Each company has a strength of approximately
100 men. On the West German border, a brigade is
responsible for patrolling 25 to 50 miles, depending
upon the terrain and the number of crossi.g points
within the sector. The sectors of responsibility for
brigades stationed along the Austrian border are
somewhat greater than 50 miles because the threat of
penetration from that country is assumed to be less.
Ground patrols along the Austrian border are assisted
.o it considerable degree by river patrols on the
Danube.
Subordinate to the Frontier Guard is the 5M -man
Dannhe Defense Guard which operates 50 river patrol
craft of post -World War fI construction. It is
responsible for patrolling the Czechoslovak Danube
River border and for escorting foreign commercial
craft passim; through that stretch of the r,er. The
headquarters and main operating tease are at
Bratislava. The craft and personnel are divided about
e(Itially between subunits at Bratislava and Komarno,
each responsible for half of the river frontier.
Substations used by patrolling craft exist at
Medved'ov, Sturovo, the Morava estuary, and on
Velky Ostrov. 'rhe Danube Defense Guard cooperates
Closely with the river police and probably with
bridging engineers of the ground forces.
191
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