NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 21; YUGOSLAVIA; SCIENCE

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• Collection: NIS
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C10209dGwa
CONTENTS
This General Survey supersedes the one dated
August 1969, copies of which should be destroyed.
A General 1
Scientific and technological objectives; strong
tendency for decentralization in all phases of
Industrial' and technical activities; fac?ors favor-
ing and hindering scientific development; inter-
national agreements for scientific and technical
cooperation; membership-- in international scion-
tific organizations.
B. Organization, punning, and financing of
research 2
Covernment Jurls;?iction over research and devel-
epment through the FEC and federal secretades,
administrations, and institutes; pivotal organiza-
tions for federal authority in, science and tccli-
nology; function of the FAISECTC.. five acade-
mies of sciences and arts; increased industilal
support of scientific research and development;
funding and expenditures.

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C. Scientific education, manpower, and fa-
cilities
Higher educational institutions offering scientific
instruction; three independent but related de-
grees; availability of scientific and technical man-
power; adequacy of research facilities and equip-
ment.
D. Major research fields
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons
Weapons development; aircraft development,
production, and marketing; aircraft propul-
sion research and development; test ranges;
Plastic explosives, ground force weapons and
equipment; naval research and development.
2. Biological and chemical warfare
No known offensive BW program; active
training Program in defense against biolog-
ical attack; modest effort in CW research and
development, emphasis on defensive CW re-
search.
3. Atomic energy
Modest nuclear energy program; nuclear re-
search facilities and equipment; nuclear
Power projects; uranium reserves.
4. Electronics
Ability limited mostly to copying or adapting
foreign equipment to domestic needs, some
original work in the computer field; comput-
ing facilities; small but important fen'oelectric
research and applications effort.
Page
R
6
B
8
9
10
5. Medical sciences, including veterinary
medicine
Areas receiving primary emphasis in bio.
medical research; efforts in neurophysiology,
epidemiology, microbiology, immunology, and
radiology; improved research in nutrition;
military medical research; veterinary medical
research.
6. Other sciences
a. Chemistry and metallurgy
A modest amount of good quality chem-
ical research; influence of foreign chem-
ical technology; efforts in organic, ana-
lytical, inorganic, and physical chemistry,
electrochemistry, and biochemistry; scope
of metallurgical research.
b. Physics and mathematics
Most attention and support for nuclear
physics; modest amount of activity in
plasma and solid -state physics; research
conducted to gain experience and train
cadres; improvement in mathematical re-
search efforts.
c. Astrogeophysical sciences
Minimal capability to conduct research
in the astrogeophysical sciences with the
exception of hydrology and hydraulics;
geodetic and astronomical research ac-
tivities; insignificant capabilities in space
research and systems development; lim-
ited meteorological effort; geomagnetic
and seismic activity; oceanographic re-
search program.
FIGURES
Page
11
12
12
13
14
ii
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Page
Page
Fig. 1
Organization of scientific and tech-
Fig. 5 Boris Kidric Institute of Nuclear
nical activities (chart)
3
Sciences (photo) 9
Fig. 2
Caleb Seagull) jet trainer photo)
7
Fig. 3
jastreb Hawk) single seat attack
Fig. 6 Moma -class auxiliary general survey
version of the Caleb photo)
7
ship (photo) 16
Fig. 4
Ship Research Institute, Zagreb
Fig. 7 Selected sites of scientific activities
(Photo)
8
(map) 17
ii
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Science
A. General (C)
Yugoslavia has a moderate scientific and technical
research capability. The country ranks ahead of
Bulgaria and well ahead of Greece in science and
technology but substantially behind Austria and
Hungary; Yugoslavia's scientific and technical
capabilities are regarded generally as lagging behind
those of the highly developed European countries. The
goals of Yugoslav science and technology have a
practical basis: The objectives are to solve the
countrv's economic and social problems, increase the
general level and diversity of industrial production,
mechanize and modernize agriculture, and maintain
an adequate defense establishment. The government
encourages science as a means of accelerating
industrialization, but the scope of the scientific
program is restricted by shortages of funds, qualified
personnel, and equipment.
Since World War 11 very substantial progress has
been made in transforming Yugoslavia from a
backward agrarian country to a moderately well
developed agrarian and industrial country. During
this same period, great efforts have been made to
modernize science and technology and, in the process,
numerous scientific institutions have been established.
Yugoslavia holds a unique position among the
countries of, eastern and central Europe as a
nonaligned nation. Even though the control of the
government rests in the hands of the Communist
party, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has
evolved its own special system; the development and
establishment of research institutes show pronounced
differences from the Soviet pattern which is in
operation in other Communist countries. Unlike many
of the Communist countries, Yugoslavia possesses
numerous autonomous scientific societies, associa-
tions, and research institutes, and their activities and
influences tend to be restricted to their particular
republics. Since the 1960's, there has been a strong
tendency for decentralization in all phases of
industrial and technical activities. The keynote of the
present national structure is "self- management" at all
levels, and this includes work in research and
development. Since the implementation of self
management, some of the institutes have had
difficulty in funding their operations, whereas others
have flourished under the system. For example, the
Mihailo Pupin Institute for Electronics and
Telecommunications is one of the country's largest
institutes and resembles most research institutes that
are entirely independent of the government. To
finance their work, the laboratories of the Mihailo'
Pupin Institute not only do research but arc active in
development and production. On the other hand
and as the government has realized �there are too
many research institutes that are unable to function
properly because they lack financial resources and
.because research efforts are uncoordinated. Frag-
mentation of the science effort also results from
nationality problems whereby the republics establish
their own organizations similar in scope to the federal
organizations for science; for instance, five of the six
republics have their own academies of sciences and
arts.
Several factors favor the development of the
countrv's scientific effort, such as the benefits of both
Western and Soviet assistance, the rising agricultural
moductivity, and the abundant mineral reserves and
hydroelectric power in some areas which provide a
potential for industrial development. In addition, the
government's attitude toward research is favorable.
The factors which hamper research, however, far
outweigh those that favor research. The country lacks
a scientific tradition, and scientific education is weak.
Decentralization and liberalization have made the
optimum use of limited funds for scientific
development more difficult, and a sluggish political
machinery hampers rapid decisionmaking. A
substantial part of the prewar scientific talent
emigrated to scientifically advanced countries, and
the continuing emigration of scientific and technical
personnel to the West is of concern to the government.
The need to solve immediate problems of importance
to the economy has compelled the Yugoslays to place
more emphasis on applied research than on
fundamental research, which is neglected in most
fields. There also has been little success in transferring
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the results of research to industrial needs. Decentrali-
zation extends not only to the institutes but even to the
separate laboratories within the institutes. Each
laboratory is governed by a small, elected council that
is in charge of establishing salaries and financing. A
large portion of the research conducted by the
institutes depends on contracts with industrial firms,
and the institutes find that they have to compete with
various organizations both within the country and
abroad. It is not unusual to find that some of the
institutes are better known abroad than they are
domestically.
Science and technology are regarded as vital parts of
the country's foreign policy and as important areas of
international cooperation. The government has stated
that it is interested in establishing scientific and
technical relations with any country as long as the self
proclaimed policy of nonalignment is not violated.
Over the years it has signed about 50 scientific and
technical cooperative agreements with other countries,
and another 30 agreements establish relations on an
institute -to- institute level. Yugoslav scientists are
active in international scientific organizations and
cooperate with scientific groups of both Communist
and non Communist countries. The academies of
sciences, universities, scientific establishments, and
scientific societies enjoy considerable freedom to
cooperate with similar organizations in other
countries, since it is assumed that they will act in the
general interest of Yugoslavia. Although there is a
substantial exchange of personnel with Eastern
European Communist countries, the Yugoslays prefer
to receive training in the West. The Scandinavian
countries, West Germany, Italy, and the United
Kingdom have special agreements with Yugoslavia to
train engineers and technicians. The United States
supports a broad research program in Yugoslavia
through the P.L. 480 program. In April 1971 a
protocol of the 25th session of the Yugoslav- Soviet
Commission for Scientific Technical Cooperation was
signed in Belgrade, calling for a continued exchange of
experts and technical documentation. In January 1971
France and Yugoslavia signed an agreement for
cooperation in scientific and technological research
involving joint studies in nuclear energy and grants for
university scientists, specialists, and technical trainees.
A new agreement on cooperation in scientific activities
with Romania went into effect in July 1970. An
agreement was signed in March 1969 with Egypt,
providing for an exchange of scientific and technical
personnel during 1969 and 1970.
Yugoslavia is an associate member of the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and
2
Development (OECD) and the Council for conomic
Mutual Assistance (CEMA), cooperating with them in
matters relating to science and science policy. It
participates in such organizations as the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), the Intema-
tional Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), the
International Association of Physical Oceanographers
(1APO), the International Council for the Scientific
Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea, and the
European Organization for Nuclear Research
(CERN). Yugoslavia was one of the original
signatories of CERN; its present status with CERN,
however, is as an observer member. The country has
been especially active in projects for the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which has provided
grants to various Yugoslav institutes for investigation
of radioactive fallout as related to human diet and for
studies of sediment movements in rivers.
B. Organization, planning, and financing of
research (U /OU)
The organization for science has undergone various
changes as a result of 1971 constitutional reforms
affecting the organization of the federal administra-
tion. A move to decentralize the government structure
is at the heart of the reforms. Since the early 1950's
there has been a strong trend toward decentralization
with emphasis un self management at all levels.
Recent moves have increased authority in the
republics to make scientific and technical policy,
while reducing financing of research. The federal
government exercises jurisdiction over research and
development through the Federal Executive Council
(FEC), the highest administrative body in Yugoslavia,
federal secretariats; federal administrations; and
federal institutes (Figure 1).
Pivotal organizations for federal authority -in science
and technology have been the Federal Council for the
Coordination of Scientific Activities and its
subordinate Federal Fund for the Financing of
Scientific Activities, The Federal Fund was abolished
by the Federal Council in late 1970, and in early 1971
the council itself was replaced by a Coordinating
Committee for Science Activities. The new organiza-
tion is made up of representatives of the republics
(three each from the six republics, two each from the
autonomous provinces, and one representative of the
army). The Coordinating Committee, a nonfederal
organization, is expected to involve scientific workers
and interested self managing agencies in developing
science policy. The FEC has a voice in the
committee's discussions.
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FIGURE 1. Organization of scientific and technical
activities, 1972 (U /OU)
The Federal Commission for Nuclear Energy was
abolished during 1971, and responsibility for the
nuclear energy effort was dispersed among the
republics. Federal funding of the nuclear energy
program has ceased. The three nuclear research
institutes were transferred some years ago to the
supervision of the nuclear energy committees of the
republic governments where thf_ are located. The
Nuclear Energy Personnel Training Center, Herceg-
novi, however, will remain an independent center.
Federal support for certain federal institutes also has
ceased, although some federal institutes continue to
receive federal funds. The federal government has
withdrawn its support of the Institute of Geological
Mining Research, the Institute for Nuclear and Other
Mineral Raw Materials, and the Institute for
Technology. Funds continue for the Geomagnetic
Institute at Grocka and the Federal Hydrometeoro-
logical Institute in Belgrade. The Federal Geodetic
Administration, in charge of land surveying matters,
remains under federal control and is subordinate to the
FEC.
In its international dealings, the government added
the responsibility for scientific, educational, and
cultural exchanges to the mission of the former F -feral
Institute for International Technical Cooperation.
The institute was abolished and its duties absorbed by
the Federal Administration for international
Scientific, Educational, Cultural, and Technical
Cooperation FAISECTC). The FAISECTC super-
vises the cooperative activities of Yugoslavia with 85
countries and has taken over the international nuclear
energy matters once under the purview of the Federal
Commission for Nuclear Energy. It also has assumed
the responsiblities for international cooperation held
by the now defunct Federal Council for Coordination
of Scientific Activities, Federal Council for Education
and Culture, and Federal Commission for Cultural
Relations with Foreign Countries. The FAISECTC
works closely with counterpart administrations in each
of the republics, as well as with the universities and the
large number of scientific institutions.
While the fragmentation of the scientific effort is in
part the result of policies followed after World War I1,
much is due to the country's historic nationality
problems. One of the unusual features of Yugoslav
science is that the country has five academies of
sciences and arts. With the exception of Montenegro
(Crna Gora), every republic has its own academy. The
Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb, was
founded in 1866 and is the oldest academy; it serves
Croatia (Hrvatska) and, despite its name, is not a
nationwide organization. The other academies are the
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade,
founded in 1886; the Slovene Academy of Sciences
and Arts, Ljubljana, founded in 1938; the Bosnia and
Hercegovina Bosna i Hercegovina) Academy of
Sciences aad Arts, Sarajevo, founded in 1966; and the
Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Skopje,
founded in 1967. Although the government has never
forced the formation of a single national academy, it
has attempted to bring some measure of coordination
among the academies. In 1959, a Council of the
Academies of Sciences and Arts was established to
coordinate research and other activities of the
academies; it is a voluntary association, with the
president chosen on a rotating basis from among the
republics. In 1969 the council organized a
Coordination Committee for Chemistry. Unlike other
Communist countries, the academies operate only a
few research institutes; many of the institutes
established by the academies have become autono-
mous. The Yugoslav academy has a smali number of
institutes which specialize in mathematical sciences
and physics, medical sciences, biology and chemistry,
3
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FIGURE 1. Organization of scientific and technical
activities, 1972 (U /OU)
The Federal Commission for Nuclear Energy was
abolished during 1971, and responsibility for the
nuclear energy effort was dispersed among the
republics. Federal funding of the nuclear energy
program has ceased. The three nuclear research
institutes were transferred some years ago to the
supervision of the nuclear energy committees of the
republic governments where thf_ are located. The
Nuclear Energy Personnel Training Center, Herceg-
novi, however, will remain an independent center.
Federal support for certain federal institutes also has
ceased, although some federal institutes continue to
receive federal funds. The federal government has
withdrawn its support of the Institute of Geological
Mining Research, the Institute for Nuclear and Other
Mineral Raw Materials, and the Institute for
Technology. Funds continue for the Geomagnetic
Institute at Grocka and the Federal Hydrometeoro-
logical Institute in Belgrade. The Federal Geodetic
Administration, in charge of land surveying matters,
remains under federal control and is subordinate to the
FEC.
In its international dealings, the government added
the responsibility for scientific, educational, and
cultural exchanges to the mission of the former F -feral
Institute for International Technical Cooperation.
The institute was abolished and its duties absorbed by
the Federal Administration for international
Scientific, Educational, Cultural, and Technical
Cooperation FAISECTC). The FAISECTC super-
vises the cooperative activities of Yugoslavia with 85
countries and has taken over the international nuclear
energy matters once under the purview of the Federal
Commission for Nuclear Energy. It also has assumed
the responsiblities for international cooperation held
by the now defunct Federal Council for Coordination
of Scientific Activities, Federal Council for Education
and Culture, and Federal Commission for Cultural
Relations with Foreign Countries. The FAISECTC
works closely with counterpart administrations in each
of the republics, as well as with the universities and the
large number of scientific institutions.
While the fragmentation of the scientific effort is in
part the result of policies followed after World War I1,
much is due to the country's historic nationality
problems. One of the unusual features of Yugoslav
science is that the country has five academies of
sciences and arts. With the exception of Montenegro
(Crna Gora), every republic has its own academy. The
Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb, was
founded in 1866 and is the oldest academy; it serves
Croatia (Hrvatska) and, despite its name, is not a
nationwide organization. The other academies are the
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade,
founded in 1886; the Slovene Academy of Sciences
and Arts, Ljubljana, founded in 1938; the Bosnia and
Hercegovina Bosna i Hercegovina) Academy of
Sciences aad Arts, Sarajevo, founded in 1966; and the
Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Skopje,
founded in 1967. Although the government has never
forced the formation of a single national academy, it
has attempted to bring some measure of coordination
among the academies. In 1959, a Council of the
Academies of Sciences and Arts was established to
coordinate research and other activities of the
academies; it is a voluntary association, with the
president chosen on a rotating basis from among the
republics. In 1969 the council organized a
Coordination Committee for Chemistry. Unlike other
Communist countries, the academies operate only a
few research institutes; many of the institutes
established by the academies have become autono-
mous. The Yugoslav academy has a smali number of
institutes which specialize in mathematical sciences
and physics, medical sciences, biology and chemistry,
3
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and social sciences, while the Slovene academy
includes institutes :for i- i geology, medicine, and
geography. The Serbiar. academy has sections for
natural sciences and mathematics, medical sciences,
and social sciences.
Research facilities of higher educational institutions
make a modest contribution to the scientific effort,
particularly in chernistry. A major weakness in the
university research program is the lack of coordination
among similar university institutes. Each university is
directly subordinate to the republic in which it is
located, and its revenue and expenditures are a part of
the budget of that republic.
In some special areas, industrial enterprises are
beginning to recognize the value of research and
development. As a result, approximately 50 industrial
laboratories, some quite small, have been established
as a part of the industrial sector. As such, these
laboratories do research primarily on particular
problems of an industrial nature, although some do
basic research as well. Large industrial concerns, in
addition to conducting their own research, provide
scholarships for promising workers to attend
unive:sities or technical colleges. in general, very little
research is undertaken by the industrial sector,
although industrial support of scientific research and
development has shown significant gains since 1958.
The nationalized industries are free to plan their own
production research without sanction of the federal
government.
Yugoslavia has never had a central body responsible
for planning and implementing research programs.
Research has been planned at various levels, ranging
from federal government agencies to business
organizations and their associations. The units which
participate in the planning of scientific research
prepare individual research plans and are expected to
provide funds for the realization of the plans. In 1968
the now defunct Federal Council for the Coordination
of Scientific Activities proposed a new approach to the
programing of science. Instead of a large number of
scientific projects, the plan called for the creation of a
much smaller number of large -scale programs, so-
called macroprojects, which would be financed by
federal funds. These projects, reduced to 19 by 1970,
included such subjects as information systems in
management, immunology, neurobiology, biosynthe-
sis, and exploration of the Adriatic Sea. The
macroproject scheme apparently has been suspended.
The government recognizes the need for adequate
financing of research but is hampered by conflicting
national social and economic demands. The
government's policy since the 1960's has been to
reduce state funding of scientific research and
technical development and to increase the contribu-
tion of the end users of research and development. The
goal is for research organizations to become self
supporting by independently earning and controlling
their income, primarily through contracts, and by
using part of the income for their own expansion and
development. During 1971 about 60% of the funds for
research were derived from the economy, including
contracts by business enterprises, and about 25% from
social funds for research, including funds from
governmental bodies, administrative agencies, and
public services. The remaining ?S% included funds
received from foreign sources, such as U.S. P.L. 480
funds, and from the research organizations' own
budgets. Funds for new obligations were sharply
curtailed ie FY72. With the dissolution of the Federal
Fund for Financing Scientific Activities, the republic
governments will have a greater part in financing
research. The theoretical justification for the
decentralization of financial responsibility is based on
eliminating etatism in the financing of research, as
well as on requiring scientific institutions to conform
to the principles of self managed socialism.
Precise figures on total expenditures for science are
not readily available. Yugoslavia is believed to be
spending about 0.8% of its national income for
research and development, exclusive of military
research expenditures. Until the recent constitutional
changes, the most stable sources of funds for providing
continuity of scientific research were the federal funds
earmarked for science by law at the rate of 0.2% of the
national product. In recent years, the relative amount
of financing of research and development from public
funds has been falling, while the amount from
production enterprises has been rising. Total
expenditures for research and development have ripen.
The total expenditure on research and development in
1968 was an estimated US$73.6 million, of which
$25.6 million were from public funds and $48 million
from industrial enterprises and other sources. The total
expenditure increased from $58.8 million in 1966 and
$64 million in 1967.
During 1969 the Federal Committee for Coordinat-
ing Scientific Activities proposed to allocate about
US$28.8 million for research activities. The greatest
portion of the funds, about 72.1 was to be used for
financing research concentrated on key projects of
high priority to the economy. Research in the nuclear
sciences and technology received about $14.15 million
in 1969. With the abolition of the Federal Fund,
federal final, ing of nuclear energy research has
ceased. The amounts budgeted by the federal
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government had been declining in recent years as
nuclear research lost importance, and the republics
assumed responsibility for the operation of the nuclear
research institutes.
C. Scientific education, manpower, and
facilities (S)
Yugoslavia has seven universities which offer
training in the sciences or engineering. The quality of
the education, however, is not generally on a par with
that of the more advanced European countries. Th,
universities are located at Belgrade, Ljubljana, Nis,'
Novi Sad, Sarajevo, Skopje, and Zagreb. Courses of
study are offered toward three independent but
related degrees. The courses leading to the first degree
are designed to qualify the individuals primarily for
jobs of a practical nature in industry; this degree
requires 2 years of study. Courses leading to the second
degree also require 2 years of study and emphasize
theory. The third degree corresponds to a U.S. master s
degree. Its curriculum is intended to train scientific
and engineering personnel with the highest
qualifications. Candidates must possess knowledge in
scientific and technical fields and do independent
scientific research to receive a degree in science at this
ieel. Many students who have acquired the first and
second degrees do not continue their studies to receive
advanced degrees. Some of the university faculties
have abolished th^ first degree and grant a single
degree at the end of 4 years.
The universities also offer courses of study leading to
a doctor's degree. Since 1966 candidates for doctor's
degrees have been required to complete the third 2-
year course and to write a thesis. Because many
students lack the qualifications to meet the
requirement, enrollments in doctoral studies have
decreased. In 1967 only 132 doctors degrees were
awarded in all fields: 40 in the exLet and natural
sciences, 36 in social sciences, 21 in medical sciences,
19 in agricultural sciences, and 16 in engineering and
technology.
Since 1961 the number of graduates has increased in
engineering sciences, but the number in natural
sciences and mathematics has decreased. The
authorities are concerned, because graduates in the
natural sciences and mathematics are important to the
advancement of research and development.
Most universities have associated research institutes,
and some of these provide advanced training in
research. For example, the Josef Stefan Institute is
'For diacritics on place nanes sce the list of name, A the end of
the chapter.
closely associated with the University of Ljubljana,
and by the end of 1969 about 60 persons had receved
doctor's degrees based on research work they had done
at the institute. Many of the teaching staffs of the
universities also engage in research at the institutes,
often to the detriment of the teaching function.
Although the supply of scientific and technical
manpower has been inadequate to meet the needs of
the country, as recently as December 1969 many
specialists and skilled workers with technical degrees
were having difficulty in finding work in Yugoslavia.
Mechanical engineers are in demand, but there are
few jobs for chemical and agricultural engineers.
Many of them leave Yugoslavia for Western countries,
especially West Germany, where opportunities are
greater. Certainly, the departure of scientific and
technical personnel has drained the country of much
needed talent. The planned increases in production
will require large increases in the numbers of
technically trained workers. Although expansions have
been made in the universities and vocational schools
to increase the supply of qualified personnel, shortages
may develop or continue in some fields. In 1966
Yugoslavia was estimated to have had about 9,000
professionals involved in research and development.
The number of personnel in scientific institutions in
1967 was about 27,000 workers, including about 6,600
scientists and engineers. In 1965, there were 25,000
scientific workers: 1,159 in natural sciences, 1,952 in
engineering sciences, 732 in medical sciences, 854 in
agricultural sciences, and 1,403 in social sciences and
humanities.
The country has over 600 research establishments
and units, about 480 of which are concerned with
natural sciences and applied research. Many of them
are very small, however, employine less than 25
people, and efforts are being made to reduce the
number of these facilities by reorganizations and
consolidations. Man) of tLe research units in the
industrial s,!etor are among the smaller facilities, either
because they attached to small industrial
enterprises or are newly established. The average
number of research workers at large institutes is about
450. The Josef Stefan Institute employs about 100
scientists and 300 technicians; the Boris Kidric
Instiiute of Nuclear Sciences has 1,150 scientists,
engineers, and other personnel, including 50 workers
with master's degrees and 80 with doctor's degrees. In
1969 the Ru cr Boskovic Institute employed
approximately 700 persons, 300 of whom were
scientific personnel; it also had 150 scientists with
doctor's degrees. The Institute for Chemistry and
Metallurgy in Belgrade, an outstanding research.
facility, was organized in 1961 with the aid of the
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federal government and the government of the
republic of Serbia (Serbija), assisted by about 20
chemical and metallurgical companies. It has a staff
of about 400 professional personnel and about 200
technicians. Its equipment, exclusive of buildings, is
valued at approximately US$1 million. Although the
laboratories of the institute are scattered throughout
Belgrade, most of the institute is located in buildings
of the University of Belgrade. Plans are underway to
construct a laboratory complex outside the city to
house the institute.
In general, research and development facilities are
inadequate. Sever universities suffer from cramped
quarters, small budgets, and poor equipment, and
some do not have adequate facilities or staff to carry
out meaningful research. The three nuclear research
institutes are well equipped Lind relatively well
finance, although the Boris Kidric Institute has had a
major budget cut. From due quality of its work, the
Rudjer Boskovic Institute appears especially
outstanding. It has published numerous papers, most
in foreign journals, and many members of its staff
h,;ve studied abroad. The Josef Stefan Institute is well
equipped with X -ray, nuclear magnetic resonance,
and high energy equipment; mass spectrometers; and
an electron microscope. The Mihailo Pupin Institute
has a fairly well- equipped solid -state laboratory for
producing and shaping crystal filters for industry.
D. Major research fields
1. Air, ground, and naval weapons (S)
Yugoslavia does not have the scientific and
technical competence to develop sophisticated and
complex air, ground, and naval weapons. Since 1969,
however, the Yugoslays have shown a growing interest
in revitalizing the country's aircraft development and
production capability. Under go ernment prodding
the major aircraft manufacturer, Preduzece Soko at
Mostar, is vigorously trying to develop new markets
for the sale of its jet trainer and fighter aircraft.
Emphasis is on the sale of aircraft to non Communist
countries, and special attention is being directed
toward establishing a clientele among the emerging
nations of Africa and the Far East.
The aircraft being marketed include a jet trainer,
Caleb (Seagull) (Figure 2), and its strike,/reconnais-
sance variant, Jastreb (Hawk) (Figure 3), and a single
seat counterinsurgency aircraft, Kraguj. The Galeb
went into development in 1957 and was first test flown
in 1961. The !atest modification was displayed at the
1971 Paris Air Show. In addition to improvements
6
being made in the aircraft's performance, the avionics
installed in the Galeb are being upgraded. Combat
configured Galebs have been sold to Tanzania and
Zambia. The Galeb and Jastreb are powered by Rolls
Royce Bristol Viper turbojet engines. Development
activity is continuing on both aircraft. The Kraguj is a
comparatively small, low wing, counterinsurgency
aircraft that was developed primarily for the Yugoslav
Air Force. Since 1960, however, sale of the aircraft to
other countries has been pushed. In addition to the
winged aircraft, Preduzeco Soko has developed and is
producing a four -place helicopter, designated the
11 -210. The firm ga ;ned helicopter experience in
fabricating the Sikorsky S -55 under a British license.
Yugoslavia and Romania have a joint program for
the development of a twin- engine jet fighter that is
intended to replace the Jastreb. The Yugoslays
apparently will undertake design and development
responsibilities of the aircraft, while Romania will
share in its manufacture.
The capability in aircraft propu:sion research and
development is improving with the experience gained
in the production of small aircraft engines and the use
of foreign engines. Research and development activity
on aircraft engines is centered at the Engine Research
Institute in Kraguievac. Most of the analysis at the
institute is performed or engines of foreign
manufacture and is directed toward modifying or
duplicating components. The Institute for Testing
Materials and Structaral Parts, Ljubljana, has the
ability to perform extensive static and dynamic tests
on various structural materials. Present research on
advanced structures and materials is confined mostly
to academic review of available literature. The
Aluminum Combine in Titograd produces aircraft
grade aluminum for domestic needs and the Military
Technical Institute in Belgrade has shown much
interest in the production 4 filaments for composite
materials.
Yugoslavia has no significant capability to design
and develop missile systems; early developmental
wok in the missile field ended in 1965. Since that
time, it has relied on imported technology and
hardware from the Soviet Union. The missile
associated activity that is underway is confined to the
manufacture of the Soviet designed antitank missile
SACCER and to the training firings of Soviet- furnished
SA -2 surface -to -air missiles.
There are two test ranges, one located in
Hercegovina and the other near Zadar. The
Hercegovina range has been used for test firing of the
Japanese Kappa rockets, and the Zadar range has been
used for Soviet �,A -2 launches. Both ranges are under
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FIGURE 2. Galeb (Seagull) jet trainer (U/OU)
FIGURE 3. Jastreb (Hawk) single seat attack
version of the Galeb (U /OU)
the control of the Institute for Space Technology
under the Federal Secretariat for National Defense.
The institute also has coordinated the meager research
and development effort on missile and space
hardware. Since the cancellation in 1965 of all
indigenous missile development activity, the
responsill: I Ries of the institute have been confined to
producin-. tudies of an academic nature.
The ugoslays excel in the development and
production of plastic explosives derived from
nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, but no known
significant advanced research programs are being
conducted which could apply directly to chemical
rocket propulsion.
There is a restricted research and development
program for ground weapons and other combat
materiel. Emphasis is on standard weapon systems
that are relatively inexpensive but adequate to fulfill
the military's requirements. Generally foreign
weapons and combat vehicle designs are copied or
adapted. Since 1960 engineering efforts have been
directed toward developing improved infantry
antitank weapons; successes include the 82- and 105
millimeter recoilless rifles. A capability also exists to
design artillery, mortars, and antitank grenade
launchers and their necessary ammunition. Two
variations of a 128 -mm rocket system have been
developed and produced �one is a 32 -tube towed
model and the other a hand carried, single -tube
model, designated Partisan. Performance tests of the
rocket indicated that the system is not abreast of the
state of the art prevailing in other European countries
engaged in rocket system development.
The Military Armored Vehicle Development
Institute develops and tests engines and armored
vehicles and has worked on adaptations of foreign
designs of both amphibious and other armored
personnel carriers. Reportedly, production of a
Yugoslav armored personnel carrier, the M -60, began
in late 1969. The capability for designing and
producing all types of antipersonnel and antitank
mines, smokeless powder, infantry and artillery
ammunition, and handgrenades is good. Several
nonmetallic mines have :)een developed, and
probably research in this field is continuing.
Automotive vehicle and engine research and
development efforts are concentrated primarily on
components and improved replacement parts. For
several years, Italian and Yugoslav engineers have
been collaborating on the design of an automobile
that is to be produced entirely in Yugoslavia. A few
engines of native design are produced within the
country, both for the domestic market and for export,
notably to the People's Republic of China. Diesel
fib
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engine research apparently has a higher priority than
that of spark ignition, and a variety of domestically
produced diesel powerplants ar3 turned out, ineleding
turbocharged types. The engines are used for marine
and automotive propulsion and in combat vehicles.
Yugoslavia has a limited research and development
program on engineering equipment. Two major
developmental projects in military bridging are
underway, one a tank launched scissors bridge and the
other a truck- mounted scissors bridge. During 1968 the
Institute for Armament in Belgrade built a prototype
tank- launched bridge for testing purposes. In 1970 a
new truck mounted scissors bridge, similar to the
Soviet TMM multiple -span truck launched scissors
bridge, was displayed in a military parade for the first
time. This bridge is the first TMM -type bridge ever
developed outside the Soviet Union. The bridge is
probably now undergoing testing.
Military engineers have been active in the
development of techniques and materiel for defense
against nuclear attack and have developed portable
reinforced concrete beams for use in the construction
of fortifications and shelters.
Shortages of funds and technical personnel have
generally restricted naval research and development
essentially to adapting and improving appropriate
models of foreign equipment; however, small naval
surface craft and submarines have been designed and
developed. The Ship Research Institute in Zagreb
(Figure 4) has conducted hull research, chiefly of a
commercial nature involving routine experiments.
8
2. Biological and chemical warfare (C)
Yugoslavia has a minimal capability to conduct
biological warfare (BW) research and development
and is not known to have an offensive BW program.
Some research which could be related to offensive BW
is underway on rickettsia and viruses and the
attendant public health problems created by these
agents. Research with defensive BW applications,
especially in the areas of antibiotics and vaccine
development, is of good quality. The Yugoslav
People's Army has active training programs in defense
against biological attack, especially protection and
decontamination procedures.
Chemical warfare (CW) research and development
are done on a modest scale, although Yugoslav
scientists are acquiring considerable information on
CW through the exchange of scientific personnel and
information with Warsaw Pact countries and through
exploita,'ion of publications from Western countries.
There are no indications that work is underway on
V� agents, the development of new lethal agents, or
the improvement of existing agents. A number of
toxicity studies are conducted on organophosphorous
compounds, chiefly the G -series nerve agents but
these are presumably done in connection with
antidote research. Research with a military potential
has been conducted on incapacitating agents and has
concerned the characteristics of ergot alkaloids, which
are source materials for LSD -25. Compounds of the
LSD -25 type had been considered for development as
incapacitating agents, but the cost was prohibitive.
More recently, such compounds have been studied to
obtain a clearer insight into their physiological
mechanisms with the anticipation that such studies
may lead to the equally effective but less expensive
compound. Research also is.underway on compounds
which may have potential as candidate CW agents,
including muscarine, a highly toxic alkaloid which
produces symptoms similar to that of nerve agent
poisoning and various curare -like compounds which
cause paralysis. It is quite possible that Yugoslav
scientists have correctly identified the chemical
structure of the U.S. standard incapacitating agent
BZ. No known research is being done on chemical
munitions or weapons to disseminate toxic chemical
agents, smoke, incendiaries, or flame.
Considerable emphasis is being placed on defensive
CW research in the field of nerve agent antidotes. A
large staff at the Military Medical Academy,
Belgrade, is working with 2 -PAM and TMB -4 to
determine their pharmacological effects, their ability
to reactivate inhibited cholinesterase, and the inherent
toxicities of thl- antidotes themselves. A combination
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FIGURE 4. The Ship Research Institute, Zagreb (U /OU)

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of atropine, the standard nerve agent antidote, and
toxogonin also has been investigated, but specific
conclusions concerning its effectiveness have not been
made. There is no indication that work is continuing
on the modification of defensive equipment st )plied
by the U.S.S.R. and Eastern European Communist
countries.
3. Atomic energy (S)
Yugoslavia has established a modest nuclear energy
program confined to basic research, the use of
radioisotopes, and the development of the economic
uses of nuclear energy, particularly for the production
of electric power. The country does not have the
capability to develop nuclear weapons and has no
plans to expend any effort in this field. The nuclear
energy� program has been carried out with the
assistance of other countries and probably will
continue to be dependent on foreign aid.
The three major nuclear research institutes are the
Boris Kidric Institute of Nuclear Sciences in Vinca, the
Rudjer Boskovic Institute in Zagreb, and the Josef
Stefan Institute in Ljubljana. Tile Institute for
Nuclear and Other Mineral Raw Materials at
Belgrade was established to exploit domestic uranium
resources.
Most reactor research and development is being
conducted at the Boris Kidric Institute (Figure 5),
which has as its major facilities a bare critical assembly
constructed by the Yugoslays and a Soviet supplied
research reactor. The critical assembly originally went
into operation in May 1958 using 4 tons of natural
uranium and 7 tons of heavy water supplied by the
Soviet Union. The assembly was shut down in October
1958 following the accidental irradiation of six persons
which resulted in one death. The heavy water was
FIGURE 5. Boris Kidric Institute of
Nuclear Sciences, one of the coun-
try's three major nuclear research
institutes (U!OU)
removed from the assembly for use in the Soviet
supplied reactor. Subsequent operation of the
assembly has been with heavy water purchased from
Norway through the IAEA. The Soviet supplied
research reactor went into operation in 1959 and has a
power level ranging from 6.5 to 10 megawatts. This
eactor is fueled with 2% enriched uranium and uses
heavy water for moderator and coolana The principal
use of these facilities is for research, training, and the
production of isotopes.
In addition to the reactor at the Boris Kidric
Institute, a U.S. supplied research reactor was
constructed for the Josef Stefan Institute under the
auspices of the IAEA. The reactor is a 950- kilowatt
(kw.) TRIGA -II type which also is use:: or training,
research, and the production of isotopes. A trilateral
agreement between the United States, Yugoslavia, and
the IAEA for the construction and fueling of this
reactor was concluded in 1961, and the reactor went
into operation in 1966 at the village of Podgorica pri
Crnucah, near Ljubljana.
For a number of years Yugoslavia has been
interested in the possibility of constructing nuclear
power stations. Because the federal government has
lessened its control in favor of greater autonomy for
the republics and provinces, the nuclear power
program now is the responsibility of the various
republics. The two republics with the greatest power
shortage are Slovenia and Croatia. In October 1970
the premiers of these two republics concluded an
agreement for the construction of a 600- megawatts
electrical (MWe) nuclear power station to be built on
the *north bank of the Sava river near the village of
Videm Krsko, also called Krsko. This village is about
30 kilometers northwest of Zagreb 'ust across the
border in Slovenia (Slovenija), but both republics will
9
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be provided power from the station. A second station,
to be built in Croatia, is being planned for
construction, probably in 1976.
On 8 April 1971, general data for bids for the
construction of the Krsko nuclear power project were
published, and requests for bids were sent to two U.S.
firms, a We t German consortium, Atomic Energy of
Canada, Lta., and the Soviet Union's Tekhnoprom-
export. The deadline for submitting the technical
portion of the bids was July 1971, with the deadline
for the commercial portion to be fixed later. On the
basis of the technical bids, the two U.S. companies
and the West German consortium are preparing for
the submission of the commercial bids. The planners
of the Krsko project are interested in the largest
possible participation in the construction of the
nuclear power station by Yugoslav industry, and the
extent of Yugoslav participation and the conditions for
foreign financial assistance are expected to have a
major bearing on the selection of bids. The state
utilities of Croatia and Slovenia have set a target date
of 1972 for concluding a contract for the construction
of the power station to be operational in 1977.
Uranium reserves amount to about 1,300 tons of
uranium oxide (UaOs), mostly in uneconomic types of
deposits. Small mining operations are carried out in
the Balkan Mountains area near Kalna. A
concentrating facility with a capacity to process 100
tons of ore per day was constructed in this area but
shut down in 1966 because of the low grade of the ore.
Larger deposits of uranium have been disce in
the Zletovo- Kratovo mining basin of Macedonia
(Makedonija) and in Slovenia (Slovenija) where two
mines were opened in 1968 at Zirovski Vrh in the area
between Idrija and Skofja Loka. The Geologic Works
of Ljubljana has a ccntract with a U.S. company to
conduct a technical and economic feasibility study of
uranium mining and possible concentration plant
construction near Gorenja Vas, Slovenia. The Institute
for Nuclear and Other Mineral Raw Materials has
conducted considerable research on methods of
economically processing uranium and established a
small pilot plant in Belgrade for reducing the uranium
oxide from concentrates to metal.
4. Electronics (C)
The level of electronics research and development in
Yugoslavia remains low when compared with that in
the more technologically advanced countries. Most of
the effort has been directed toward copying or
adapting foreigp_ equipment to domestic needs.
Government, industry, and the armed forces are
working together to improve the present electronics
10
research capability which is limited by a lack of funds
and a shortage of personnel. Research is aided by
longstanding agreements for scientific and technical
cooperation with other Communist countries and with
France. Military electronics research and development
are the responsibility of the Military Research Institute
in Belgrade.
Mast electronics research and development concern
microwave equipment, radio telecommunications,
television, and computers. Universities and autono-
mous institutes have done research on semiconductor
materials, and a process for the manufacture of
germanium transistors has been developed. The
Yugoslays also have begun production of silicon
transistors and diodes necessary for the production of
modern radio and electronic instruments. The Boris
Kidric Institute has designed a transistorized portable
electronic teleprinter, which is adaptable for military
use.
Research on lasers and laser devices is underway.
The Yugoslays have nearly completed construction
and assembly of a high -power ruby laser at the
Institute of Physics in Belgrade. A helium neon laser
and a carbon dioxide laser also are under
development. The ruby laser is to be utilized as a
precise measuring instrument; the carbon dioxide laser
is t-) be used in controlled thermonuclear research.
Research in the use of lasers in communications also
will be undertaken.
The Yugoslays have constructed a parametric
amplifier for use in civil aviation, which increases
radar sensitivity by about 40% through a reduction of
internal noise, resulting in a corresponding major
improvement in radar effective range.
Yugoslavia has a good start on the development of a
computer industry. Although the industry is very
small, even by East European standards, a number of
different digital computer models have been
manufactured, including desk types, a general
purpose machine, and a process control machine. A
prototype of one of the desk -type digital computers,
the MIKA ALAS, was completed in 1965 and is the
first all electronic compi!lwr designed and manufac-
tured domestically. The computer manufacturing
facility is the Electronics Works in Nis. The Mihailo
Pupin Institute is engaged in computer research and in
1965 -66 developed the CER -200, a solid- state, digital,
desk -top machine for business applications; produc-
tion of the machine began in 1967. The institute also
developed the newest and smallest of the CER series,
the CER -202, which is used for data processing
purposes. An earlier development of the institute, the
SAVA, controls operations in a rolling mill. The Boris
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Kidric Institute of Nuclear Sciences has designed and
built small analog and digital computers. A few
experimental computer models have been built by
competent university researchers and are used mainly
for teaching purposes. The Kraj Enterprise in
Ljubljana has in production a transistorized computer,
the ISKRA-Z-2"iv, based on a licensed version of the
West German ZUSE -23. Most of the components for
the ISKRA are of domestic origin. Although early
second generation, the ISKRA is a significant
production item for the country's fledgling computer
industry. Yugoslavia has imported some of the most
modern small -to- medium size machines from the West
and in 1971 had 340 computers in operation, most of
which were imported. Large computing needs are
handled by such models as the CDC -3300 at the
Stegne Computer Center in Ljubljana. Other
computing centers have been established, including
ones at Rijeka, Karlovac, Cakovec, and Split. The
Boris Kidric Institute of Nuclear Research has made its
computing center available to outsiders. In mid -1970
the Institute for Space Technology of the Yugoslav
People's Armed Forces installed a computer.
A small but important ferroelectric research and
applications effort is underway. Research appears to
be confined largely to Ljubljana University and the
associated Josef Stefan Institute, although some work
also is being done at the Boris Kidric Institute of
Nuclear Sciences. The country has produced probably
the best -known research scientist in ferroelectrics
outside of the Soviet Union, Prof. R. Blinc of
Ljubljana University. A specialist in hydrogen- bonded
materials, he has published extensively in U.S.
scientific journals and has held a position at the
University of Washington in Seattle. Yugoslavia is a
source of supply for a number of ferroelectric and
piezoelectric crystals. Quartz and Rochelle salt are
produced at the Mihailo Pupin Institute, the physical
laboratory of the Electrical Industry (Industrija za
Electroveze) in Ljubljana, and the Radio Industry
(Radioindustrija) in Zagreb. Yugoslavia is attempting
to build its domestic production of these materials to
decrease its dependence on foreign imports, and by the
mid- 1970's should be able to produce quartz and
Rochelle salt of the quality needed to meet its
requirements. Electronic and acoustic applications of
ferroelectries are being emphasized, but no important
results have been achieved.
5. Medical sciences,, including veterinary
medicine (S)
Biomedical research is limited by insufficient
financial resources and inadequately trained
personnel. Primary emphasis in biomedical research is
in fields concerned with public health medicine and
such related areas as industrial toxicology, oc-
cupational health, and the rehabilitation of the
injured and chronically ill. Research carried out in
collaboration with the United States and supported by
P.L. 480 funds since 1962 is producing results,
especially in neurophysiology and radiology. Modest
progress has been made in microbiological research for
the control of viral and parasitic diseases.
There has been a striking increase in government
support and encouragement for research in
neurophysiology. The United States has established a
neurophysiological research laboratory at the Kotor
Institute for Brain Research and has initiated research
at the laboratory. In addition, productive studies are
underway at other facilities on physiological reactions
to stressful environments, impaired function of
breathing in persons with respiratory diseases,
neuropathology of brain injury, brain survival in
anoxia and hypothermia, and medical problems of
divers. Improvements are being made in the Belgrade
hand prosthesis, which is myoe!ectrically controlled.
Work in rehabilitation is outstanding. Assistance to
the physically handicapped and the prevention and
treatment of all types of occupationally related
disorders are emphasized. Some attention is given to
abnormal absorption of pollutants, including dusts,
metals (especially lead), solvents, pesticides, and
radioactive elements in ore.
Microbiologists are doing competent research on the
control of tickborne encephalitis and other
arboviruses, development of experimental vaccines for
enteric diseases, isolation of type specific antigens for
zt �piococcal infections, typing of phages, identifica-
tion of resistance to antibiotics, and combating
parasitic diseases. Studies in immunology are
concerned with the biochemical, radiological,
microbiological, and economic aspects of the subject.
Researchers have made advancements in food
technology and have established firm microbiological
specifications for the control of food. Epi lemiological
research has been aimed at the perfection of survey
techniques.
Radiology has received considerable emphasis.
Radiologists have developed a good, practical system
of multiparametric measurement of environmental
radioactivity. Biochemical investigations conducted in
support of radiology include the study of the kinetics
of enzymes and the effect of radiation on protein
metabolism. An outstanding team of researchers at the
Rudjer Boskovic Institute is studying the effect of
radiation on muscle tissue, cells, and subcellular
particles. Other important research in biochemistry
has concerned the study of lead poisoning, the effect
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Of pollution on sea organisms, the character of urinary
proteins in endemic nephropathy, indicators of fat and
carbohydrate metabolism associated with the
incidence of diabetes, and the transport of metabolites
by neural membranes. Funds have not been adequate
to support any significant research and development
of pharmaceuticals, and emphasis is placed on the
production of familiar drugs developed abroad.
Research in nutrition, which had lagged behind
other fields, is improving under competent guidance
from foreign scientists. The relation of proper nutrition
to optimal growth is being investigated under the
auspices of the World Health Organization. The
Yugoslays are collaborating in studies on coronary
heart diseases with scientists from the University of
Minnesota and the National heart and Lung Institute
of the U.S. National Institutes of Health. Modem
biochemical techniques are employed in carefully
designed surveys of the nutritional status of the
population. The Yugoslays have introduced vitamin
enrichment of foodstuffs.
The military medical research effort is generally not
significant. Most of the research that is und, -nvay is
conducted at the Military Medical Academy and the
Aviation Medical Institute, both in Belgrade. The
development by the academy of a vaccine against
dysentery has received international recognition.
Yugoslavia has made significant advances in
applied veterinary research through the adaptation of
foreign research to local conditions and by enlisting
technical assistance from international organizations.
Although there is an imbalance in favor of the applied
aspects, the program has resulted in increased livestock
production. Emphasis is on adequate nutrition, the
husbandry of domestic animals, and the prevention of
diseases. The development of more effective vaccines
against viral diseases has received much attention.
Foot- and -mouth di-_ -e is of great importance. Efforts
are underway to eradicate bovine tuberculosis, hog
and fowl cholera, rabies, anthrax, and bovine
tuberculosis. Other research is being done on the
etiology and control of respiratory and enteric
infections in calves and swine, infectious equine
anemia, and the parasitic diseases of domestic
animals. Artificial insemination and infertility of
animals are of major concern, and research leading to
the effective preservation, storage, and distribution of
semen have resulted in greatly expanded artificial
breeding programs. Federal veterinary research
facilities exist at Belgrade, Zagreb, Sarajevo, and
Skopje.
12
6. Other sciences (S)
a. Chemistry and metaUurgy
Although the Yugoslays actively engage in chemical
research, their capabilities are not strong. They rank
ahead of Bulgaria and Greece but behind Austria and
Hungary in overall chemical capabilities. A modest
amount of good- quality research is being done in
several branches of chemistry, but there are few
indications of outstanding work in any subfield.
Although industrial chemical research is growing at
several facilities, the total effort is stall small and
relatively unimportant. Yugoslavia is highly
dependent on imported chemical technology.
Most chemical research is done in the Universities of
Belgrade, 'Zagreb, and Ljubljana and the three nuclear
research institutes. Although many branches of
chemistry are studied, the research lacks depth. Some
good work is underway at the universities in organic
chemistry, particularly on synthesis and structure
determination of organic nitrogen and sulfur
compounds. For example, two members of the Faculty
of Natural Sciences and Technology at the University
of Ljubljana, Mika Tisler and B. Stanovnik, are
studying thiosemicarbazides, thioamides, benzo-
thiazoles, thiadiazoles, and triazines. Organic chemists
at the Rudjer Boskovic Institute are competent in the
synthesis of C -14 labeled organic compounds and are
doing work on C -14 labeling of indole compounds and
on metabolism of amino acids in plants. Physical
organic chemical research also is underway at the
institute, and work is being done on strained rings and
on isotope effects in organic reactions. Dr. Dusan
Hadzi, head of the laboratory of structural chemistry
and analysis at the Boris Kidric Chemical Institute of
the University of Ljubljana, is highly regarded for his
research on stereochemistry, infrared absorption
spectra, and hydrogen bonding. He is the country's
leading research spectroscopist.
Analytical and inorganic chemistry are subjects of
substantial interest. The University of Belgrade is
particularly active in developing analytical techniques
involving polarographic, coulometric, spectrographic,
interferometric, and other methods. In inorganic
chemistry, substantial research is underway or xenon
fluorides and other inorganic fluorides at the Josef
Stefan Institute. Researchers at the Rudjer Boskovic
Institute are concerned with studies on coordination
complexes of various metals with organic compounds
and in conjunction with the University of Zagreb are
studying complexes of niobium and tantalum. Work
on the preparation and properties of silicon- containing
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pyrolytic graphite reportedly has beer, done at the
Boris Kidric Institute of Nuclear Sciences, which
engages in many aspects of inorganic chemistry
related to nuclear technology, including ceramic fuel
elements, sintering of uranium oxide, and nuclear fuel
reprocessing. The Josef Stefan Institute has a large
chemistry department, which is studying high
temperature refractory materials, gas -solid reactions,
preparation of uranium dioxide, and problems of
solvent extraction.
Miscellaneous studies in physical chemistry,
including some work on catalysis, are carried out at
several instituteb and universities. Electrochemistry is
an important subject of research. The University of
Belgrade and its associated Institute for Chemistry and
Metallurgy are particularly active in this branch of
chemistry and engage in studies on fuel cell electrodes,
electrochemical oxidations and reductions, and
elect rocrystallization of metals. Polarographic studies
and work on electrochemical reduction are carried out
at the Rudjer Boskovic Institute.
Research in biochemistry is generally weak,
although some work in ribonucleic acids and
deoxyribonucleic acids is pursued at the University of
Belgrade and at other locations throughout the
country.
Although most of the metallurgical research is
applied, since about 1968 some emphasis on basic
metallurgical research has been noted. The major part
of the basic effort has been directed toward the
elect rochemistr; and electrometallurgy of nonferrous
metals. Interest in the field has been a natural
outgrowth of the country's growing nonferrous metals
industry, which is based on refining by electrometal-
lurgical methods. The Institute of Chemistry and
Metallurgy at the University of Belgrade has done
some work in electrometailurgy and has developed a
good c.ampetence in research on the kinetics and
thermodynamics of metal deposition reactions. This
institute and the Institute of Physics of the University
of Zagreb engage in studies on the causes of oxide and
possive layers in metal deposition. The latter institute
also has conducted research on phase analysis and
precipitation in aluninum alloys. Research has
increased on electroplating and corrosion. Corrosion
research is undertaken at the Institute for the
Protection of Materials against Corrosion at
Dubrovnik. The Institute of Nonferrous Metals in
Belgrade has done considerable research on the
pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy of copper and
nickel oras. In powder metallurgy, good work is being
done on sintering phenomena and powder charac-
terization under Prof. D. Koslar of the Josef Stefan
Institute and Prof. M. M. Ristic of the University of
Nis.
Some basic research on the physical metallurgy of
stainless steels is undertaken at the Institute of
Metallurgy in Ljubljana, although most of the
research is applied and directed toward solving
production problems of the small steel industry.
Typical programs have included the reduction of iron
ore, the heat treatment and vacuum metallurgy of
steels, and the extractive metallurgy of zinc. The
institute also has studied fracture mechanism in lead
bismuth alloys. Considerable research on welding,
specifically on electroslag welding, is done at the
Welding Institute associated with the University of
Ljubljana.
b. Physics and mathematics
The main subjects of research are nuclear, plasma,
and solid -state physics. Nuclear physics receives the
most attention and support, while only a modest
amount of research is done in solid -state and plasma
physics. Much of the physics research underway is
common in advanced countries, but the Yugoslays are
conducting the research in order to gain experience
and to train cadres.
Most of the research in high- energy nuclear physics
is being performed by a few theoretical physicists at
the Rudjer Boskovic Institute. Their basic studies
involve multiple scattering spin structures, formula-
tions associated with three nucleon ground state wave
functions, clar,sifications of vector mesons, and studies
of the basic concepts of the shell model and excitation
modes in nuclei. Some studies are underway at the
University of Ljubljana concerning hypotheses
associated with faster than -light particles. The Boris
Kidric Institute of Nuclear Sciences is the most
advanced of the nuclear facilities in physics research
and concentrates on nuclear physics, radiochemistry,
radiobiology, reactor engineering, reactor materials,
and radiation effects. Neutron generators at this
institute are being used to make comparisons between
activation and integrated cross sections for the
radiative capture of 14 Mev. neutrons. The institute
hiis been active in lattice studies of heavy- water-
moderated cores and investigations related to neutron
scattering by iron. At the Rudjer Boskovic Institute
angular distributions of tritons from boron -barium
reactions at 14 Mev. are being measured and
compared with previous work done in other countries.
Some research also has been underway for a number of
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years concerning studies of tellurium isotopes to obtain
values of energy levels, wave functions, and
electromagnetic transitions.
The Yugoslays have developed an entire series of
detection instruments, such as beta, gamma, and
nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers; particle
counters; scintillators; rate meters; scalers, and other
nuclear instruments for researching nuclear concepts
and for furthering their experimental research and
training programs.
The Yugoslav Federation of Manufacturers supports
reactor research applicable to the de of an
atomic powerplant. Some of the work involves the
development of nuclear batteries, and some success
reportedly has been achieved in producing 1- kilowatt
cells of low current capacity.
The scope of solid -state physics research has
expanded significantly during the past few years.
Researchers at the nuclear research centers and the
university laboratories are active in experimental
research in semiconductors, properties of solids,
ferromagnetic and ferroelectric properties, and the
development of superconductors and the study of their
characteristics. Other semiconductor studies have
involved the measurements of conductivity and Hall
coefficients in germanium, and photoconductivity
and photovoltaic effect of cadmium- telluride.
Physicists at the Rudjer Boskovic Institute have
studied the electrical and optical properties of indium
selenide thin films after they are formed through
vacuum deposition phases. Some good experimental
results have been obtained at the University of
Ljubljana on double hysteresis loops obtained with
ferroelectric crystals. The study of superconducting
properties has increased considerably at the University
of Zagreb. Efforts are being directed toward
examining the results in terms of superconductivity
enhancement caused by rapid quenching of
aluminum alloy specimens.
A sizable portion of the plasma physics research is
being done at the Elect rotech nical Institute of the
University of Belgrade. Some research results indicate
that the Yugoslays have been able to produce a true
plasma waveguide and a magnetron that will operate
at 2,200 megahertz frequency. The Physics Institute of
the University of Belgrade has increased its studies and
experiments dealing with plasma phemunena. The
experiments involve ionized gaseous media and
include measurements of electron densities and
vel- cities of are plasmas. Research at the Josef Stefan
Institute involves spectroscopic observations of plasma
behind shock fronts in electromagnetic tubes.
14
An insignificant amount of research is being done in
quantum electronics. A few physicist; at the Boris
Kidric Institute have conducted experiments on the
application of gas magnetron diodes for use as a laser
pump. Other studies are underway on the means for
amplification obtained through the use of helium
neon mixtures in laser resonators to obtain an
understanding of geometrical optics theory.
Capabilities for mathematical research lag behind
those of neighboring countries. Although the research
has improved in recent years, the effort apparently
lacks depth. Yugoslav mathematical research covers
all fields of classical mathematics with the possible
exception of statistics. About half of the concentration
is on analysis, including such subjects as ordinary and
differential equations and real and complex variables.
The rest of the effort is well distributed through
geometry (including topology), algebra, foundations,
and applications. The Yugoslays continue to show an
increasing interest :n applied mathematical research
and in computers and their applications.
e. Astrogeophysical sciences
Capabilities in astronomy, space science, and the
geophysical sciences with the exception of hydrologic
and hydraulics engineering are generally limited.
Yugoslavia is one of the leading Eastern European
countries in applied hydrology rnd hydraulics. The
major research facility is the Federal Hydrometeoro-
logical Institute, Belgrade. Most studies are directed
toward the full utilization of water resources for
hydropower, irrigation, drainage, and expansion of the
navigation network. Research is supported by model
tests and field investigations in connection with
studies on stress and deformation of dams, energy
dissipation, duration of flood peaks, and scour
dynamics at hydraulic siructures. Engineers have
succeeded in devising methods anal instruments for
measuring vibration of dams, silt movement, and fluid
infiltration. Coastal research is limited and mainly
concerns studies of marine dynamics and shore
processes applicable to navigation and harbor
development and protection.
Geodetic activities are the responsibilitv of the
Geographic Institute of the Yugoslav People's Army
and of the Federal Geodetic Administration. The
overall capability for geodetic research ar. I
development falls below that of the let;ding countries
in the field. The major Yugoslav weakness is in the
design and development of geodetic instruments. The
strongest research is carried out in the fields of
triangulation and leveling. Noteworthy research has
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been done on the direction and angle methods of
adjustment of triangulation nets, on studies of the
local geoid and of a reference ellipsoid to determine a
basis for the Yugoslav triangulation systcm, on the
development of methods for the simplification of
rigorous computational adjustment of geodetic
triangulation and leveling, and on determination of a
new vertical datum for the country. Activity in
gravimetry has been increasing, but only a small
portion of this activity can be regarded as actual
research.
Some astronomical research is conducted in the
areas of positional astronomy and celestial mechanics.
During 1970 an astronomical observatory was being
constructer' in cooperation with Czechoslovakia on
Otok Hvar off the Dalmatian coast. It is being
equipped for stellar and solar research and forsate;',ite
tracking. Upper atmospheric studies are meager. The
Mihai!o Pupin Institute for Automation and
Telecommu includes an observatory which
contributes to the international collection of
ionosonde data. The Yugoslays have developed a
small solid propellant sounding rocket, designated
Senclit, which is patterned after the Japanese Kappa -6
rocket. Research is underway to obtain improved
rocket nozzle materials for the Senelit.
Capabilities in space research and systems
development are insignificant. Unlike other areas of
science, there has been little participation in space and
related programs with other countries; Yugoslavia is
less active in the Soviet space research projects than
any of the other Communist countries. Yugoslavia has
become a member of the International Telecommuni-
cations Satellite Corporation (INTELSAT). A
Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT)
ground station, to be constructed near Ivanjica, is
scheduled to be in operation by late 1;73 or early
1974. When it becomes operational, this station will
greatly improve communication between Yugoslavia
and various countries located in Europe, Africa, and
North and South America.
Yugoslavia has a limited meteorological effort that
emphasizes weather forecasting, agrometeorology, and
climatology. The work in these fields has been largely
routine. The Federal Hydrometeorological Institute
coordinates both operational meteorological activities
and meteorological research. There also is a
Hydrometeorological Institute of the Socialist
Republic of Croatia in Zagreb. Research is undertaken
in the universities and has covered dynamic, physical,
and synoptic meteorology and numerical forecasting.
In early 1968 a meteorological radar shtion was
established near Belgrade. It is intended to be the
center of a small- rocket, antihail network for the
region of Sumadija, a rich agricultural area in Serbia;
the Soviets are assisting in establishing the network.
The Yugoslays engage in some geomagnetic and
seismic observational activity. The country has one
geomagnetic observatory, the Geomagnetic Institute,
located at Grocka, and heveral secular variation
stations, which make routine observations. Capabili-
ties in seismology have improved since the Skopje
earthquake of 1963, and detailed studies have been
made, in part with Soviet assistance, in attempts to
determine the cause of the earthquake and. its
engineering and geological effects. Deep seismic
;;,undings of the Carpatho Balkan region also have
been made, presumably in cooperation with
neighboring countries, and Yugoslavia planned to
participate in a joint program of seismic measurements
in the Swiss- Italian Alps in cooperation with Austria,
Hungary, and Italy. There is considerable geophysical
and geological activity directed to mineral pros-
pecting. Although the country apparently has a good
geological survey in its Institute for Geological and
Geophysical Research in Belgrade, geological
exploration efforts are poorly organized and
coordinated.
Oceanographic capabilities are relatively low but
appear to be increasing slightly. Oceanographic
research is confined to the Adriatic Sea and adjacent
waters of the Mediterranean Sea, consisting primarily
of routine studies in support of the country's fishing
industry. Although the research is limited by a
shortage o! funds, the overall program ha: expanded
considerably since 1966, and in 1968 an increase in
funds was provided for the support of oceanographic
research in the Mediterranean Sea. The research
program has suffered from a lack of coordination
among facilities concerned with oceanography and
from a conflict between senior administrators and'
managers and the younger, better educated
oceanographers. Some improvement in the oceano-
graphic effort should occur with the establishment by
the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts of a
committee to coordinate research in the field. The
Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries at Split,
sponsored by the Council for Scientific Work of Bosnia
and Hercegovina, conducts most of the oceanographic
research. Other organizations carrying out marine
scientific investigations are the Institutes of Marine
Biology at Kotor and Rovinj; the Institute of Sea
Research at Portoroz; and the Biologir�al Institute at
Dubrovnik.
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In 1971 a 1,540 -ton Moma -class auxiliary general
survey ship (Figure 6), Andrija Mohorovic was
purchased from Poland. The ship has five laboratories'
providing facilities for oceanographic, hydrographic,
chemical, photographic, and multipurpose studies. A
1,200 -ton oceanographic survey ship is under
construction at the Tito shipyard in Belgrade. The
addition of thcce two ships should considerably
increase Yugoslav;a's c ^anographic surveying
capabilities. The country has developed and produced
some submarine acoustic equipment and has been
active in sonar and passive underwater defense
research.
16
Yugoslavia has cooperated with the Soviet Union in
oceanographic studies and exchanges in the past, but
present collaboration is minimal. Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia have a cooperative marine research
agreement. Italy and Yugoslavia are engaged in a joint
effort in the adjacent Adriatic Sea, which involves a
large -scale oceanographic program. A cooperative
agreement between the United States and Yugoslavia
also is in effect to study the productivity of the
northern Adriatic Sea. Yugoslav delegates attended
the 21st meeting of the Intemational Commission for
the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea
held in Monaco during September 1968.
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FIGURE 6. Moma -Glass auxiliary general survey ship (C)

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FIGURE 7. Selected sites of scientific activity (C)

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SECRET
Places and features referred to in this chapter (u /ou)
COORDINATES
18
e
IN.* IE.
Balkan Mountains (mis) 43 15 25 00
Belgrade 44 50 20 30
Cakovec 46 23 16 26
Dubrovnik 42 39 18 07
Gorenja Vas 46 07 14 10
Grocka 44 41 20 43
Hercegovina (region) 43 00 17 50
Hercegnovi 42 27 18 32
Iivar, Otok (isl) 43 07 16 45
Idrija 46 00 14 02
IvaDjica a3 35 20 14
Kalna 42 52 22 26
Karlovac 45 29 15 33
Kotor 42 25 18 46
Kragujevac 44 01 20 55
Kratovo 42 05 22 12
Ljubljana 46 03 14 31
Mortar 43 21 17 49
Nib 43 19 21 54
Novi Sad... 45 15 19 50
Podgorica pri Ornubah 46 06 14 35
Portoroi 45 31 13 36
Rijeka 45 21 14 24
Rovinj 45 05 13 38
Sarajevo 43 50 18 25
Sava atrm 44 50 20 28
Skofja Loka 46 10 14 18
Skopje 42 00 21 29
Split 43 31 16 26
$umadija (region) 44 20 20 40
Titograd 42 26 19 16
Videnl -Kriko 45 58 15 29
Vin8a 44 46 20 36
Zadar 44 07 15 15
Zagreb 45 48 16 00
2irov3ki Vrh (ridge) 46 05 14 10
Zletovo 41 59 22 15
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
SECRET
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