NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 11; SWEDEN; THE SOCIETY

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�/cS /S
iweden
lay 1973
ATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SUN
Z
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LVV.71VV1 IV. L111
SWEDEN
CONTENTS
This General Survey supersedes the one dated Sep-
tember 1967, copies of which should be destroyed.
A. Introduction 1
Characteristic traits of society, homogeneity,
Sweden "the conscience of the world develop-
ment with minimum disruptions; industrialization;
labor as a political force; labor management re-
lations; social measures and suLservience to state
bureaucracy.
B. Structure and characteristics of the society 3
1. General 3
Similarities to ot%er Teutonic peoples, respect
for authority, influence of geographic isolation
and climate. factors making for cooperation.
2. Lingering class stratification. 4
Traditional egalitarianism, survival of the mon-
archy, distinctions based on occupations,
routes for advancement.
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3. The family
i Patriarchal, with expanding role of women and
some evidence of disintegrating family unit.
4. Social values and attitudes
Strong custom and tradition, social discipline,
individualism, group affiliation for economic
purposes and for culture and recreation, ma-
terialism, avant -garde attitude toward sex,
national pride, peace seeking role.
f C. Population
1. Size and distribution
i Population of 8 million, with concentration
in southern third of nation, low degree of
urbanization along with advanced industrial
development, growth of urban centers, con
centrations of rural population.
2. Ethnic types
Uniform, with 5% outside strains and the
1 Lapps.
3. Emigration and immigration
The Great Emigration, increased immigration
since 1930.
4. Structure
High proportion of elderly persons.
5. Vital rates
Declining birth, infant mortality, and death
rates, life expectancy, marriage and divorce
rates, probable static population.
D. Manpower and labor
1. Labor force
Some 3.9 million, including recent immigrants,
comprising three fourths of these 15 -64, dis-
tribution of the force� increase in number
of working women, source of aliens.
2. Employment and unemployment
Full emnloyment a national policy, 3% un-
emplo, .vent in early 1972, with highest per
cent in construction, programs and services to
cope with unemployment.
3. Wages, hours, and working conditions
Highest wages in Europe, increases in past
decade, nominal and real wages, rates and
"wage drift," costs to the employer; hours
covered by collective agreement and legisla-
tion; constant improvement in wc:king con
ditions.
4. Organization of labor
High percentage of both blue- and white
collar workers, the LO� affiliates, organiza-
tion, activity, and role in society; the TCO�
affiliates, organization; other organizations.
5. Organization of management
The SAF members, organization, function;
composition of the SFO; farmers' organiza-
tions; international affiliation.
g
S
Page
4
5
7
7
8
9
9
10
11
11
12
14
15
17
6. Labor- management relations
Peaceful relations with few strikes and lock-
outs, the Labor Market Committee and its
accomplishments, boards with labor repre-
sentatives, limited scope of labor legislation,
days lost because of labor disputes, agree-
ments, the Labor Court, changes in deter-
mining wages and conditions.
E. Living conditions and social problems
1. Material welfare
Even spread of the "good life," high rate
of taxes, average money income, per capita
consumption, short supply of adequate modem
housing, prevalence of renting.
2. Social security
Acceptance and. development of compre-
hensive program, administration, money re-
gnired from national and local budgets.
a. Old -age, disability, and widows'
pensions
Basis and coverage, supplementary pen-
sion.
b. health insurance
Coverage and provisions, charges by in-
come levels.
c. Workmen's compensation
Coverage and financing.
d. Unemployment insurance
Coverage and benefits.
e. Family allowances
Provisions for children, horsing allow-
ances.
3. Social problems
No tensions from great inequalities, high sui-
cide rate, increase in crime, juvenile delin-
quency, and alcoholism.
F. Health
Excellent health conditions.
1. Incidence of disease and causes of
death
Mortality from degenerative diseases, rheu-
matic and respiratory disorders, high rate
of venereal disease.
2. Animals and plants
Freedf,m from serious animal diseases, few
species of animal vectors, poisonous plants.
3. Nutrition
Satisfactory dietary level, caloric intake, eating
habits.
4. Public sanitation
Modern, adequate fool processing and stor-
age, good water supply, waste disposal, air
and water pollution, plans for purification
plants and regulations on environmental pro-
tection.
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18
20
20
G
23
24
25
25
26
26
27
28
4l:?
29
R

f
Page
5. Public health administration 30
Responsibilities of the Ministry of Social
Affairs and of the National Board of Health
and Welfare.
8. Medical care 30
Excellent medical ar.d paramedical personnel
and training, number of physicians, hospitals.
G. Religion I......
31
Strength of the state church and religious habits.
1. The Church of Sweden
31
a. Organization and activities
31
Divisions, the Church Assembly, role of
the bishops, the pastorata, the parish, lay
organizations.
b. Doctrine and policies
32
"basis, no direct political and social stands,
the ecumenical movement.
c. Relations with the government
33
Domination and subsidies by the national
government, church revenue, possible sev-
erance of state church ties.
2. Protestant free sects
33
Identity and following.
3. Other religions
33
Catholic, Greek Orthodox, ?ewish.
H. Education
34
1. General
34
Conditions until 1840, state direction of
schools and financial support, selective higher
education, reform to widen educational oppor-
Wnities, student participation in reform, sepa-
ratior of college and university, centralized
system, education to servo needs of the econ-
omy.
2. Educational system
36
a. Elementary and secondary education
36
Replacement of traditional elementary and
intermediate schools with the compre-
hensive school, its three divisions; the
secondary system, composed of gym
iuWuvi, continuation school, vocational
training, merging into an umbrella sec-
ondary school.
b. Higher education
39
Increase in university enrollments. and
i degrees awarded, the six universities, tech
nical, medical, and specialized schools,
S teacher training, closed and free fa ^.ulties,
enrollment, classification of students,
e state financial support, financial assistance
i to students.
c. Extracurricular student activity
"student
42
Sports, nations," the SFS.
Page
d. Adult education 42
Folk high schools; study circles, broad-
casting, correspondence courses, efforts
by local government.
3. Scientific research
Financial support, research councils, scien-
tific academics.
1. Artistic and cultural expression
1. Literature
Old Norse influence, development of the lan-
guage, Dutch and German influence in the
17th century, 18th century, romantisism,
realism, idealism, renewed German influence,
decadence and pessimism of the early 20th
century, proletarian school, expressionism and
ultrarealism of World War II period.
2. Theater
A factor since the 19th century, coopera-
tion between motion pictures and the legiti-
mate stage, theaters.
3. Music
Its importance since the end of the 19th
century, symphony orchestras, composers,
and singers.
4. Art and architecture
Pa:nters of national note, wooden structure,
stone churches, significant original architec-
ture, urban planning.
5. Handicrafts and industrial arts
Efforts to promote arts, furniture, ceramic
art, silver, glass.
6. Recreatiun
Outdoor sports, international competition.
T. Public information
1. Press and periodic -lc
High rate of readership, decline in number
of newspapers, their partisanship, govern-
ment subsidies, major publication centers,
quality and format, news services, circulation
in relation to party strength, freedom of the
press, weekly magazines and professional
journals.
2. Book publishing
Numbers and languages, fields of interest.
3. Libraries
Excellent public and school facilities.
4. Radio and television
Responsibilities of the SBC, revenue, stations
and programs, growth of television, channels.
5. Motion pictures
Theaters and attendance, the Swedish Film
Institute, production and type.
K. Suggestions for further reading
43
44
44
45
46
46
47
47
48
48
51
51
52
52
53
Glossary 55
ii
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Z'1'i'J L'i'fer l Jl
FIGURES
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chapter is UNCLASSIFIED but
is FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.
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Fig. 1
Population and population density
Fig. 2
(chart)
Mayor areas of population chart)
7
7
Fig. 3
Area, population, and density by
Fig. 18
Province (table)
8
Fig. 4
I...
Swedish types photo)
9
Fig. 5
Age -sex distribution (chart)
10
Fig. 6
Percentage distribution of age g.,. aps
24
Fig. 7
(chart)
Vital rates (chart)
10
Fig. 8
Birth and death rates, selected
11
Fig. 23
Western countries chart)
11
Fig. 9
Population and labor force chart)
11
Fig. 10
Gainfully occupied by sectors of the
Fig. 26
economy (table)
12
Fig. 11
Age -sex distribution of labor force
Fig. 12
(chart) I........
Unemployment in selected Western
13
Fig. 28
countries table)
13
Fig. 13
Hourly wages, cost of living, and
S3
real wages (chart)
14
Fig. i4
Workers, L. M. Ericsson Telephone
Corporation photo)
15
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is FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.
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Fig. 15
Working days lost because of laivr
Fig. 16
disputes (table)
Budget for a family (table)
19
20
Fig. 17
Distribution of net income, selected
Fig. 18
countries chart)
Comparative levels of living chart)
21
21
Fig. 19
Dramatic growth of welfare expend-
Fig. 20
itures (chart) I I.
Apportionment of costs of social
23
insurance (table)
24
ig. 21
Danderyd Hospital photo)
31
Fig. 2S
Church at Leksands -Noret photo)
32
Fig. 23
Educational facilities (photos)
37
Fig. 24
Educational system chart)
38
Fig. 25
Production of the glass industry
Fig. 26
(photos)
Selected daily newspapers table)
48
49
Fig. 27
Newspapers by political affiliation
and circulation (table)
50
Fig. 28
Radio and televisi;,., broadcasting
(table)
S3
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is FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.
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democracy help to guide the affairs of a free enterprise
economy for the benefit of a stutt- directed welfare
society. Geographic isolation and the insulating effect
it had tin Swedish social development during the
tnedievul and early modern eru enabled the society to
avoid most of the abuses a.n,ciated with feudulistic
Europe to the south and east. rhe impact of tho social
and industri,:l revolutions was therefore less disruptive
in Sweden than in most other countries of Europe,
because the privileged classes were not so firmly
entrenched and de termined to protect their interests,
and there was no severely oppressed peasant class
overly anxious to mif;rute to the cities. Existing rural
population pressures in the ratter part of the ;9th
century found relief through eraigration-- principully
to North America. During this twriod the essential
decentralization of Swedish industry and coasequent
reduced pas.: of urbanization, the establishment of a
pervasive public welfare system in step with the
ucceleruted industrialization of the 20th century, plus
the avoidance, or at least minimization, of wartime
disturbunces d+iring the modern era further mitigated
the shock of far reaching sociueconornic change.
Although Swedish society has remained decentral-
ized and has retained many values and attitude:
associated with rural life., it is essentiully indust�iul,
with a highly skilled and productive labor force, o
90% of Which is employed in nonagricultural pursuits.
Because industrialization came relatively late,
munugement and government leaders profited from
the experi -mce of the United Kingdom and "'ermany
and an icipute-I many of the difficulties associated
with uugmented labor forces in congested urban areas.
'rhe ugitat,on of the growing Social Democratic Party
in the 1890's and early part of the 20th century for
legislation protecting labor was met by the business
leaden and other conservr,cive government elements
with relatively enlightened labor codes.
ReIr.tions between employers and workers never
becume, us severely strained as in some other Western
democratic nations� notably France. The period of
greatest tension, rincipally over labor's right to
organize and its socialist doctrine, ended shortly after
the abortive general strike of 1909. Labor became a
force in polities wit!n the extension during the same
year (1.909) of the suffruge to nearly all adult males.
Labor's political arm, the Social Democrutic Labor
Party, helped obtain the extension of basic civic rights
to all sections of the population in 1921 with the full
exercise of universal suffrage (introduced in 1919). By
1928 the government recognized the binding force of
labor management agreements, and general long -term
labor peace was achieved bi the late 1930's through
2
agreements on negotiating procedures between the
central trade union and employer federations.
CAmCnued adherence of socialist working class
leaden to democratic pructices and the Swedish hubi!
of moderation in domestic politics have encouraged
the use of peaceful methods for reconciNng conflicting
interests. The concept of extensive governmental social
responsibility received general acceptance, and
orgunized labor, the principal exponent of such
doctrine, becatne politically dominant in the 1930's.
Powerful national organizations representing capital,
labor, agrarian interests, and others have since come to
play a major role in promoting group objectives. Partly
because industrialization came, nnnre slowly to Sweden
and partly because the labor movement turned from
revolutionary to democratic socialism at in early date,
there was never any important hostility to a free
enterprise economy, and negotiation between
different interest groups has been noted for its
successful spirit of mutual accommodation. The
practice of compromise has been most highly
developed in lab; management relations. Disputes
rarely require utiliza-ion of government fLciliti s, and
then only for .)urp oscs of mediation and judicial
interpretation of enntracts.
Swedish society, through the government, has acted
to reduce extremes of wealth as well as to assume
responsibility for the consequences of itidividuul
adversity. The objectives of social policy over the past
three decades have been to raise standards if living
(now among the highest in the world), improve the
already high health standards, expand existing social
Welfare programs. and enlarge the population. While
this policy commands the support of un overwhelming
majority of Swedes, there has been some criticism by
conservative elements that such elaborate social
meast.res tend to discourage initiative and risk- taking
and may undermine the self reliance of the people.
The "subservience" of the orderly Swede to the
omnipresent state bureaucracy has inspired some
adverse commentary by foreign observers. They note,
albeit somewhat less criticaily, a similar acquiescence
in the authority of an efficient civil service in
neighboring Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, and
to a degree. in West GL- rmany. The remarkable
freedom of cultural expression throughout the area,
however, as usually seen its banks and journais, in the
cinema, and on television, is hardly u sign of mural,
spiritual, or intellectual regimentation.
In Swedenn nonetheless, it is riot easy to oppose the
prevalent ra d ical -chic lines on a few specific topics,
notably Vietnam, national independence movements,
and race relations. Llere, there is in fact a notable
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2. Lingering class stratification
The sharp socioeconomic cleavages associated with
the industrial revolution of the ISth and 19th centuries
never fully developed in Sweden. Since many of the
new factories, which came relatively late to Sweden,
were dispersed in the countryside and in small towns,
the massive migration to the towns and cities that
characterized industrialization in Europe to the south
did not occur. Class differences initially accentuated
by the more moderate population movements blurred
again with the rapid development of the comprehen-
sive welfare system during the present century. A.
traditional relative egalitarianism, fostered in part by
the historic absence of great landed wealth, was
similarly stimulated in modern times. Whereas tie
crown retained title to the choice lands in an earlier
period, allowing the nobility to maintain its privileged
position largely through service to the state, the new
industrial barons were prevented from acquiring too
much independent wealth and hence personal power
through the early impos'stion of the progressive income
tax. Other factors militating against the development
of sharply defined social classes in modern times are
the political strength of the industrial workers,
stemming from a powerful, well organized trade
union movement; the traditionally respected position
held by farmers as a class: and a level of living second
to none in Europe and dispersed with remarkable
evenness among all elements. Many sons of small
farmers have risen to influential positions within the
church and in the school system, and a number of
individuals in the working class have attained
positions of political prominence as the result of
capabilities for leadership developed in the labor
movement.
At the same time an attitude of exclusiveness still
pervades the essentially industrial upper class, whose
ranks include members of the old aristocracy. The
extent to which some class consciousness linuers with
all Swedes is perhaps reflected in the continued
popularity of the monarchy as an institution. It was
also seen as recently as the 1950's in the official
breakdown of lists of persons entitled to vote for the
now defunct Upper House of the old Riksdag. The
register was diN ided into three social groups: uppej
class approximately 5 middle class (approximately
40 and manual workers' class (approximately
55 with roughly the same economic and
educational affiliations as elsewhere; in Western
Europe. The somewhat exaggerated attachment to
social leveling evident in the 1960's and 1970's not
only put an end to such official classifications, but also
4
has tcinded to foster attitudes of envy, with the result
that a mild jealousy of the material well -being and
success of others has become a rather pervasive
characteristic.
The behavior patterns of the average modern Swede
still reflect an awareness of distinctions based on
occupation. Formality, reserve, and a certain
deference to "position" may still characterize social
relations. Here, as in other northern societies, the
successful industrialist or engineer may commaN4^'. den,`., 15 �,'.'t!u.'.i:7:V:J,At*%.:V6Y5;
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ran receive speci;tl scholarships of SKrIO, 7 5A tier year,
Tog ether Willi or dinary gn"1ts and loatis, they provide
the student with an t"llltial tax-fret income of tibnost
SKie20.(XX) per yvair, In additiotl, students !n higher
rdueation receive indimet henefits, including lo`a'th
cam at state suhsltlizrd health services, low cost
hotisillg in student housing facilities, redtieed
tramporlittioti costs, lo\\� -cost nletIs it governmeut-
S11110di ed student restlturanls, and low-cost
merchandise at shopping centers run by student
unions,
c. Exteacurricular student activity
As lit other northwest I:urpeuti societies, orgimize d
extnteurri('ulur student activities Al l the arcvtildury !e\rl
AIM sonlewh;lt :;cur` in vvidelle
.c than ill the f.uliti
Mkilitries to the south, 'They At" not, however, pursued
tm the \Cale of their l .S, cYtitilrrpurls �\which are
pmhully unitple in the free world --,old Iilaty he
orgutiired 11\� the village or town authorities, rather
tilt"' sperificalh' hY tilt schools, As in other 'I vittoniv
societies, team sports, as oppost`d to itldividua) sports,
enjoy popularity, ca11d ski anti ltikitig Clubs. Choral
groups, told various hohh trg aniAations are in
evidelive, But the high school hands, tlrt llua eblbs, attic]
M101% debating soeirlies, so much it purl of the U's,
NVOW, at,` less in evidellvv,
At (lit titiiyersity level sludt`uts still lisscilkle in
student niations. vomparithit` to the tradiliomil
("ertlum fr aternities (although himlly devoted to
fetivitig) or 11 ,5, fraternities anti sor)rities, e\cY`pl I1,11t
most am ('orducalionatl, These 1111tious aim rooled ill
lilt` (;rrmatiic piast, In the (ar9t tuetrpolit lit n
uuivenll, Ihrir print`itut] f111101rnl is Io britig logrtl'rr
sotvitlly those` stutlrnts from tilt' satiltV (oral tim i or
p1minet" 1`41('11 option hits its own house" or mrrtltig
placY`, cYtnt>santblr to the 1 fritternity or eittilog
villb, where tilt` sllitleilts meet (or t`tlm"Istltioll ittld
oct"I"onid d "'0119, ritual sitigltlg, air other group
aelivily,
As is the t`asr 11"Mighotit fore hirpe, stlttients
orgarlizt` to prlleCt u"tl to try to ativative their special
itllen`sts, Ill S\k"Icl', nmlrll '1`811 t) In the one timhr`lla
Swedish Utiiou of Sttidellts (SIBS) is 1111"Idulorr, The
SI"S has s1lVVt'tided, as of late I972, ill pursuing student
interests inside ralht'r tilt ill ollkldt' of the rstalNsh-
ment, Although student pitrlic`lpation in derision
mukilig Ill tilt milversities wits n`Itttively 111111te(d I)efo
it
the Ic"1rn`hi11g of the Period of experimmiltllioll \will,
student demoera vy ill 1969/70, the SFS has long had
rollsith11hit` itlfblt`tice \with govvnim+itill botlirs
VOIRI `reed with higher miucalloll itnd lilts limi"tailwd
good mlatious with Ihetu, It is r +prose "led toil tntu'y of
-1;2
the six`clal committees set kill to study partickilar
problems, and it is tY �isultrd oil till government
proposals for change tlffeelili sludvilI interests,
Membership in the SF S is normally attaitied simply by
j :iuing the compollrnt student union al the tiniversify
or institute \where one is euntlled, Neither the
iudividtatl unions nor dw SFS receives government
financial support for their activities, so all C0Sts lutist
IN met by dues. The SFS anima) illcome from sttidetil
fees is uboul SKH6,5 miliitm, `Tlic illtlividkiai unions
at,` entirel} self governing and an` in no \way subject to
control by school officials, I`:atch student union
mprrsents the student hotly hvfor` the faculty, public
authorities, and other organiiatiotli, '!'he S:.S
repmsents the various tilliolls Itilliollidly.
d, Adult tWucatirm
(apse to our fourth of Sweden's population is
rnrIlt'd lit sonit` form of adult rd licit liolk, Otie
distiurtiyely S till.lirltayiati institution which hie bong
played tin important role in MIllit education is tilt folk
high school (folkhogshilor), Importe(I from Dvilmark,
\when` It was devt`Iopt`d by Bishop Nivolui F, S,
Gnotidtvig mid Kristen Koltl, the folk high school
arrived in SM'th`, in 1868, Its purpose is to provide it
sense of national COMIlltinity mid geuerid vtilhiral
owtlr`tims ---to imikv, ill holler Imt` vili %ells,
Clirricullr emphasis is not oil vocational training,
although such Irililling is included, The schools
attempt lit ro id out the students' gern`rt] vdimitiou
it' such subjects cats Swedish, arithmetic, civics, history,
geogriwk, hookkeepitig, and religious yalblrs, \yllilr
also enlplt "1119 Iessons, It`c`ttln`s, atilt] shitty groups to
help "devel_p el tractt`r mid give tilt sttitdt`nls it
deeper onderstilnditg of their onvirtiult`nl itlid
(Ykin It' utiiIV, In 14)71) then` were` Ill,' folk high schools
Pius 12 affiliates thrtmgilout till cotmlry, Abotit holf
o the schools Ater operaleti b pnvi "rill) c`tinrils cult)
tilt reniltindl,r by diffc`n`nt popular nitovements and
orga Ill ialions, such its the trade unions, t pill Prn111cc
societies, i"d di The millimtltll age of
eligibility is 18 years, lustrurtiol is tlstial given in
r `sideticY` and is free, although tilt shiderlts must ptly
for hoard alit) lodging, tilany of tilt students hold
scholarships from nlullit`iptllilies and organixatiolls,
however, whip` other finanrhli aid is cavailitble is tilt`
form of sitiall stone stiprmds, The folk high schools
\\r`r` voled appropriations of SKr76,8 million in the
1 171 goverutnenl budget, 'Three different kitids of
wo rse ill,` offert`da w inter, NIIIII llrr, illltd spt`c`il
subjects, "Tilt w illlt`r votirse, rinmilig I'n till 3 tt 3 yrtars,
tYIllnlatids the largest rlln)Ilmrnis, with nhoul 1 )l)
sitidrlits iti the IM 9/ 70 7l) academic` y ear, Ahotil ",,(KX)
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yt
students took special subjects In IWW 7l). No central(}
determined syllahus is laid down for the folk high
schools, which are free to shalpt- their own programs
within the parameters oollhied ahovv. For it !Iron`
detailed discussion of the philosophic origins of the
folk high schools', sec 1)ennuirk, Genera) Survey,
March 1968.)
Uother significant form of adult t` itivation has
been undertakt-n Iy lilt- study circles run by
educationill (associations, The informal educational
leclud( jut` was first adopted by the lemperativl`
movement al the tilrn of the evvittlrv, li I970 Own`
were 12 officially wtogniced vducaliomd associatiotls
that recelve and alliot goverlum`tit subsidies to adult
education programs, SKr98 million in govenimenl
subsidies was appropriated for 1-1'71, A daily eimiv
Inust Iliave at Ieasl five and no mon> thaall 20
participants in order to qualify for financial aid from
the sponsoring association, Then` an` al presvit about
1500X) stit(h eirelt-s \011 1,5 millioll participants.
The slide circles (`cover it wide viarivt\ of interests
ranging from avadt,nlie subjects to hobbies. '1'lu` circles
do not opercatt` a(vorditlg iu till\ f ixed s\- habits,
Educational broadcasting odds importantly to adult
millealion in Swetien, lit 1967 the Commillee for
hthleaticul by Telrvisioll amt Radio ('fliU) wits
formed, its main purpose living lc coconut-(
experiments with vdtlealional broadviols addressed it
adult leicrnt`m The fist THU cout-ses ill Flighsh tuul
business economics, both at (ht- secortlary level, got
ituderwaa\- in 1wi& During 11170 'I'llu hnuuieas(s b\
radio and (elevision \sere on I lit` afr about 18 hobs pt r
wei k, 'fill! wIlahorales in its work wiih other sponsors
of adult edietillon,
The guve rmilt`tll run schools ii Norrkoping a
Ilarmsatid vmibim` correspomivittt, studies with
r`sidenee training, in u{lt`rnaling c\eles, Ili tilt- hope of
r`emiting adult learners nationwide, The itistmoiun
give! lit lilt schools follows (ht` curricihirls of grades
N) in the ttim im school, the eoilirlualion
sehtol, and lilt` ,gymnasium, 1 ?Ilrollmt,il at holh
schools was eslimatted tit 7,5M lit the 1966)/7(1
academic year, of whorl 3,750 wen` slith irlg by
vorr`spondowe, Ili themid- 1970's 12,M)studentsart
emweted to takt` advaniagt` of Ilit`se voovsys, No
tuition fees art- charged, and the governtnt
underwrites staff sallivit,s amt pales the rust of stiltl'
matt`riids, Appropriations totaling AMU million
\ww voted in the 16)70�71 govenitm`nl hidgt,l,
ImuitI goverimment aulhtrilies also spomur
conventional wi mtmit\ adult ,`tluciation clauses,
Sim`t 16X(7 the ntullivipal milivalioll v orltlttilIvvs have
lead lilt lask of providing edtaration opportunities for
adults, mating in tilt- form of eveoing classes, The
iistruction, which is fret, of ciutrge, follows tilt-
citcriculmus of the compn`ht-nsive school, the
gymnasium, (lie colitinuatiou school, and tilt-
vocational school, In the 1967 tits academic rar
about 30 Ill till idpaalitivs offered adult t-dueatioi
courses in night high schools, whilt` in tilt- 1969/70
\vlkr adult education wits a vitila h 1t` ill about 210
Ill ullicipaliIivs \\ith ;I'll ettrol{mt-nt of 65,M) adults,
Although completion of work in tilt- gymnasiu n or
its etioivalt,nt is retluirt,d for university entmitte, since
1969 adults Illay mitivrlakv studies at the imiversit\
Ievel even if Ilivy htck (ht formal tlualif Iva tioits, Uidvr
tilt- nt-w regulations, lit adult student Itllst have
reacht-d the age of 25 at the lime of registration and
either lute hven eitlplo\ed for at least 5 \ears or have
actpilre l ettuivalent kno\tlet;ge by some other lueaus,
'flit` program is still lit the t,xperimvuta) stitgv, with
present enrollments tvtlfinrt{ Ito cr`rlain ruurses ol'frrrd
b\ the faculties ul' arts air sciences, In 19170 pion` than
8W aduit Iearlters sctr enrolled at div universities aid
their branches,
a. Scientific researell
Iligher education and scientific research arc tied
togelht,r closely lit Stteden, with svit-nlifit` research an
integral part of the prognlm of till tilt- univt,rsilivs :iml
teehmologica) institnies, Abotit one -fifth of all rl`searell
and developlurnt Is ewried out alt Institutions tit'
hight,r t-dncation, 'Total imrslmenl Ili research in
FY69 amounted to SKr2,(KH) million, or about 1,7''t of
tilt gross intioral product, The govornntt`111 aevouits
for ahoul No- fifths of lilt total cost of rest,;or`h, rhilr
t41111merdal and industrial interests aceount for the
rt'st, Tht major portion cI' government n`seareb I'unds
is allovalml Iii tilt lttliversitivs and tilt iltstitulvs of
Icehnolop wlilt aahont one third of the Iligber
education Itltlgel of the Minislr\ of Edlivaliol and
Evviesiasliea) Affairs devoted to seienlifie research,
Swedcli's uuivel -sits Ievel histituliolls Move otll\
limited basic n`solives iavililable for research, and their
onlillary appropriatiom air gt-ta`ral iol sifficit-il fur
extensivt` reseiurh prujeels. Supporting r`warcll h\
inslituliotls of higher cdut`itlloti, Iherefure, an` 12
public( finance(( ir`st-ii'eil trn11101s, 'file\ air allat`ht,tl
to vilrious mhkislrit,s and allocate govt, I'll lltt,rlt funtis (o
various research pwivos for which grails have brel
wiliesletl or to projeels fnitita(ed b\ lilt- rtuneih
tilt`list-l't`s, t'tveril111vlit grallls I'm "At`ar tit
iiiversilivs, inclining (host provint-tl thn)ugh lilt
msclirch vollitell�, ire -reast,d I'mill SKIM,,,) million in
FYti.'S Ill SK 1.89J) Inillioll in 1"1'67,
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Three scientific ticad(-ulies also play an important
role` In line supervision of researeil. 'I'll( Oldest of these
atcademiex, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences,
runs various scientific institutions, publishes it nunlher
cat .lournuls, arranges for Swedish metllbership lit metre
internulional scientific organizations, and is
responsible for awarding the Nobel prizes in chemistry
and physics, in addition to conducting research in
nlathenittties arid the matural set (-nct,s. The Royal
Swedish Academy of I;nginet,ring Scienct,s, lilt first of
its kind in the world, supports viirious khlds of
technical resvarch, The Rrn;d Swedish Academy of
Agricultitre voordinates research in agricuittlre mid
related industries,
I. Artistic and cultural expression
1, Literature
Swedish ilteraturt lids gent,rally presented it picture
of it culture shaped to tilt I pattern lit limes
creative alld tlrigillid, tit o1iier tittles merely reflecting
current cultural forces. The oldest stone- varved and
written literary mb show Sweden to have beell
strongly infiuetwed by Old Nowt, traditions. The sagas
told ba {lads-- rtimmin literary expressions of the
scandirtavialt ethical will mvlhica) ht,ritage ---are au
Important part of Swedish literature, Certain milque
folk song forms, such as the lyrical dunce song, wen
Swedish contribillions to the region's 12111 and 1,3111
century literature and milt' (e regarded as the first
original Swedish Iflerwttlre, Sweden, however, slid not
figure as promiltenily as Norway or lceluid in this
early literary outp111, and it wits not tmtil the
Reformation pliectvl the stanip of approviil tilt
bltell ^etilil) expression in local languages 111111 Swedish
literill Ire began the ,stelidy develtyllie l \which kites
(-ti,,,,r111et1 to the prest'lll (111\11
The 1.11011 aiphahet superseded rank viliaracto -n
throughout most of Sweden by the I�Itll celllllm" and
with the advent of tilt pril1ing press in Ille 1501
century, viume into general use, IAtentry activily
centered Ill religious writings, begilming in earnest
with lilt vermicular traltsllliolt of lilt Bible lit 15
During the Mill will 17111 evithirivs the language look
on new stilmhirds of cllrity and prevision, Georg
Stivnihielm (1.' 98.1(772), hailed its tilt Father of
Swedish poetry, proved through his poetry that the
S\wodish liulguage could be used for intricate e11ts,.ic
meters, lit \\orked iucessanlly to purify the litilguiige,
to revive will prvwrve old Swedish \wortis mill
expressions, and to refire wild stiuuhlrlixe the
grilmmar.
European cimsviousness in Sweden and Swedish
willingness to accept foreign cultural influence
increased sharply in the 17th century with the reigiis of
Gustavus 11, Adolphus, and Ghristinw. During the
Swedish period of greatness num vious universities
were founded, the Swedish Academy was organized,
libraries and art erolivetions were formed, theaters were
opened, and till the forms of high cultural v\pression
were fostered by the iticrealsingly self conscious wild
l:uropeauized arislocracy. initially the chief cultural
influences were Dutch and then Gernitm, but in tilt
14111 century it thin French overlay wits applied to the
life at court and among the very shall aristocratic
elite, This only partially filtered down to the growing
burgher class and did not overwhelm the iotellecttul)
vir`ies; its it restdl. Sweden avoided tilt extrellies of
Frailetophilia which so inhibited indigenous currents ill
central itlid (-list Ellr pe otilturitl expression during
the vssvnlially Frendiwk. A Kill 'gilt t,nnumt, Inslcad,
the Itith lenlury pnfit',,.it�ach local geniuses its the
naturalist, Carl von Linne (17117.78), whose literary
production wits prodigious, and Ematmel S\wedenhorg
(1688-172), scientist alld philosopher, who is today
most noted for his work in theology, Antlers C.Asins
(1701 �14), tilt origimitor of lilt centigrade thermome-
ter, \was also it scientific writer of some mote. The
outstanding purely literary figur of the period wits the
pull Carl Mikael Bellmtln (17 111.6)5), who drew much
of his inspiration from everyday lift in Stockholm,
Military defeat by litissiw and political change at
home, marked h\' the adoption of lilt Collslilutiotl of
1809, \weer` reflected \with Some lag ill lileralurt,.
Ronu11ifeism dune to tilt S\w(les, its to other
I"Illrpealls, its a reactfou to tilt, rationlllism of the
previous celltlu'y, \whivil, instead of bringing the
prillised plrgress of I1n1111mil\ plunged the volltinent
Into it eluarler ct,nlury of warfare, Romamlicism wits
also peolliarly suited to lilt rising tides of nationalism,
SO in motion by that warfare, \wllich \wort, (e) wash over
I ?grope throughout Ow 161111 will into (lit 211111
century, Swedelt dist,ngaged from its flirtation with
French culture and reolicnled its focus to Cerlllalty,
Gernan influellm was preemineltt until the 1920's,
Mid Swedish Iiterwlllre silevessively reflected t ierlilim
rnuultivism, idt,talisn, and rettlisn, The prirlcipwi
early 19111 century expomvnl of rnnwntic interest in
Sweden's past was F.A. C111stav (;vIjvr (175;3 1!7.171, an
eminent historlin, philosopher, poet, will musician,
Ditrillg the nliddlt deevuites of the 14th cvltury,
Swedish Ilteritittry oscillated im0mvell r`alisill will
idealisnn, new Interests ill everyday life, and it
rumi tit icizing of peculiar mllional traditions, Modern
Swedish literielum beghis with the work of August
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Strindlerg lN49- 1912), for till` modern dranitl dates
frlrn Iris Afustt�r O1of (IS72) and till` modem rn)yel
from Ills The Beth Bran (1 ti; 2), BY Ills originttlit lis
ulAsterr of pros, and dialogue, .111(i tit(. infltl,ncc` of his
work Auld personulih On S\\�t,( ish, not to stkN' F,11rol) `ao
li.eruturr, ht` is lc fur the grt`ilt(-st writer S\vrdrn has
pro(luc411, Thu` sharp sovi ;tl satire to which he devoted
himself throughout his life hiss 1 4 .11 of marked
si!{ull'it,nm'r`
')()tit sociitlIN' told Barra rih withi11
Sard(`n, Rt`tiction to Slrimiflt`rg ill lilt I880's took the
form of a tiro- mnluntirlst nuvl`nu`nl, Iwo leaden of
a'hiell wen` Verner yon Ilei(Iehstilnl (I 11)til) and
Selma I.ag(Irlof IISN(I Itimi, \nuns (lt
hest known works is a series Of romantic stories wovvil S\\`edish voltti ral iihiry. Dr factor lit
ilia of
around Charles \11, St, Bridget, an(I tilt, ]13th auld I�Ith this century followed to It lar(e t
c I
1 olkunlC kinds. \\'ills !'!u� Iltuulrrinl htslorir ;ll rmantv`, rnrl' ititn utYYf
Sardri
t
:\r /ern lulls t)f +111 /fllr UI) l, I I N first -raw plil\' \\'rlgilt, I()\1'l`r't`r, tint` gl`
rntertaint`d c +hildn`n tlr ighout (ht world, and with Striud1wrg (IS�IIE- 1012), \\'host mill greal s ltevr
her nllllallti(! (;oslfr /it�r1tlg1 tit ,{,eft, slit` (`slill)lisllt`tI Iliktiv Ills Italm ally Of 111v Illost iltlplrta of ill Illodern
hers,if its olll` of the Illost Implllll� 1111111ors of the Iwo- dritlllat .Mother stimt,ssfnl (Irarrlalist is Par higt` nist,
rIlAUttfc`lst school, llei(lt,nslarll told I,aurriof (,Ilse t how(It`11 Itlotic:tl plet(Ires and tilt`
r(TO l`d tilt, Nobel Prue in literatun`,
The earl\' tears of (In` 20th Mlitury were it period of dl gi flilla tt
hu t` 11usl other S ed v i cvnnit ikh I\ to it g r
luul
Civeadvilve hind p in Swc`(Iish literatow, its in relatiollship }fives to S\v(-disl) files till nrlistit, Clclir aul(I
+:unpt,un litrrutur` 111 1;t`Ilt,ral, lil`Irr st,llltlll \'t` of (Ills to Illtlll\' stil}1e I ltl's it Illtdertl, tl'11111t11t` rh1'tlltll,
II
11100d leer I liaimar Soderherg I +ti(i4)�!I)�11) 1111(1 lio
\noun( lilt ),It, at Swr`(1lsh perfornu`rs of tin` sta}(t` an 11 "9 1111111 (Iti(il)- IUti7), SOdc4'h(`I�H`s fort(` us Iht, shlrl sclr`rn hall (-rdit (itlrltl, In}(rid Ilrrumun, \'ivrrll
short', in whirl) his, ps�ehoIlt;it,al suhllrtr and in111' Afar` l +in(Ifurs, Ili);rid 'I'hulin, Si at, I Basso,
cohlhint`c) and In whit,ll, 11s ill Ills hovels Martin RiY`ks and liili ;\tide rs on, all af \\'htt11 111nx vu Sydow,
1jn, +(Irnt (1901) aud looklor Was (11)0,3), hrllppearsus tiloekholin's IO'al Dramatic 1'I Pat n
master aster of SM11dish prose, liergman also prodilved Rrr}(nuuc, 11 iliteruntio11all\ famous film
Inemorallt, short dories, hilt his n`a) nrtlium wars till till an p
9md surtv`ssftil (Ir well, \\'i +s
cntnlist ies (lirrclor or of this
fulls
1 \rll` Ill` th- \',loped alld "`fined Ills 1111t,11 st`
1 ill tl riesof llit`alt`r frtll 1!) \s n fllnlr\
1.1 t\ f
011 t,liols from alfnrtlrrll(t 1901) to lilket IN�1�I din 11.3 111 1)t1, "j,
`etor, ht, flllo\\a in I1), fool A it
11\' 1$)"'() 1$)"'() a ;3 ll,a' unnlp of "prolt \vritrls \'itdor lt ,i us lrm
Mid Mtatlrilx StilitIr, I1), gn`11( Ilom`en of Sav`dish
aI)I)t41rt`d 1111 (Ill` stv`11t`, Thesc` writers, klill\\'ll its The Illt11t)11 picture tort,
f u Ih`r}(Illtlll is ill tlltlll n`spt`lds it
lnk iivr "w� \lour I,utidkyisl (1)(Ni 1, Ililrrt dist,iplr tf Slustrm, Both pn`ft,rr`(f :1 rralisifr sl'lr of
1`111rtinson (19M. t;ustnv S1u1d1(nal (!I)t>�I- ?r'k 1ac`tilt}( 1tn(1 fnslstr(1 On nulhrnlic` s,llititts in \\'hic`h Ihr
lsklunel (11)O i- 1, and Josef K1r111(rrll (190 hilldse'apr` curd moods Of natltrviiO roils almost as
oIx`11rd nra' fields fur literary pr tlot (,lust, to essrnlial as Ihost, (if tilt at,tcal rd,n's It,ndin);
ild Johllsoll
them stands E% (1)tH1 orle of 111111 prodliver of ducumetltart filnl, sere Surksdorl'f
tvillilrt swedt`ll s trust gifted ruvvilsts, who was (1917- is best known for oils filth drulinu ailh the`
Auld prinulril\' ill hrla11 Auld illtlistrial sociel\ world of uuimiah iglu) riyilixr mite's e\isl lj r\ era'
its problems,
\Vorld \1'ur I1 pIr)du(.v`cf ut Ill
ultriurullsli, school of I AIIII 1 11 l ulilkr rnnrk l'ft,t,li\vdv
lielll
\\'ritt`rs, t`tlk,l� Ito e \pvrilllelll will Ile s1des and "`prt I\' I ts
bill Il lit` 1s v est
PrOgi \v ilh \\fiat I ,I tvnsich`n`d Ihr slog� rill, of kma'n for cvntrd ralhrr data y h,ilvier file`
pn11X1l`ss Illaltl, It' Ill!` "pr letarioll" wrltvrs, I)tll' 1 e11irt \!`111,(1 b 11(nimill,
I (""1- \\11)0 won the N oIt`I Prix, for +fill Ircltillig Ihealrr is till Ronal 1 raillctlit heater,
Ilte`rntluv` !11 !iE"11, is rrlKnnlyd It mane as tilt gr`alt'sl "'Ili,ll \yes foundt'd ill 1"O NN h} Kink (:usttivlls 111, t)f
Swedish wrll,r of' tilt ;20th t`t`lll 'm, Air I w ou(Imak of hisloricai hUen`sl is Iht, I.tl tval(ury (;oon'1 '1'1)(`
sin)
World \ljilr 11, I +agrrkuisl hhad 111r`ndt sho\\'n himsl`If I)rafl'1iulxholnl (,ilsllr, \\'hi,h uses till s11tHr pnp,rtirs
u}(!t infltic`mv`rl bt. til, 1lleralurt` aan(1 arl of iuul 111118h rl> of tlual a{I, \vlth the oril(ilutl stv`nrr\',
1 +:\pressionisnl, In Ills 1mviry and drallUt ht` gralduadIv
shaped Ills owlt s till power tend sinlplicit' of
\yhich chalrat,lerixe his later prose works�The u o f
alld /if rrubas ---ill wiliell tilt` difficult cvmfliets of the
limes are elearly al)pareu( under the historical)
(lisgIlisr, G(Illuttr Ekelof, wlu Ie1Cuu writing;
surren list it. pot,nls t,arl in ale lyt3 t's, later
dt a n1usU`r%' of nurt` traditional forms, and
finally arrived lit it kill I(Iuenrss of st\'It and vitulih' t1)
makes hire oltc` of Srvrdeu's most popular ports,
2� Theater
-i.1
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Outside of Stockholm, which is amply endowed with
private theaters, tilt Itgitimatt- stage is he avily
supported with puhlic funds, Many of tilt- larger cities
have mtmieipal pla.lyhoalst,sa the Malmo City Theatt.r
Is one of the largest in Emrpe. A number of touring
companies. which operate tinder the educational
sVstt,nl, give over 2,M) performatlrt.s each winter. 111
the sullimerlime various companies ,appear in
municipal nvreation parks. The theater dt,partnment of
the Swedish BttatlCalstitig Corporation also pnduers
plaNIs for radio and television.
3. Music
The latter part of the 15th century was an w1xv of
vigorous cultural activity in Sweden, and music in
particular flourished at the court of King Ctistavus 111,
j lit founded the ACadt,my of Music in 17 and the
Royal Opera, itlelutfing lilt !loyal Mullet, in 1773,
Ilowever, it w as not 1111til the Crvatimi of orgy mird
vonevrl activities with proft oreht.stras at tilt
(111i of tilt- 14th wtittlry that Swedish musical lift- rail
he said to have rvikOwd any.brvadth or indrpeucirller.
This is oa of the rvasotts why S\wdvit's greatest
sympholtist. F rattle Bvrwald (1796-1868) was not
ii4aloMmIged in Ills own country ualil nmaly yrirs
after his death. Sweden's foremost s\ nlpholly
composers inelalde, in addition to Berwuld. Wilht,bn
Stetilminuar (Iti71. 14);27), Ilogo Alfvt.lt (1872- 1960),
whose Midsummer Vigil is oftt,n heard it lilt. Visited
Slittes cider the (illy, Swwdish flhaitxctdy, finding
Rosmilierg (1134)2- and Karl- liirger Blondahl
(1431 (i-ti,4
Sinn tilt- hegiloiltg of tilt' 001 velllury, synlpbony
ordwstnts subsidirt,d by national will (oral
govemilletits halve hevii formed ilt lhr larpr vilies. In
addition to tilt 111mv outstanding Sloekholm
t`nsemblesp �tilt` Ito\'a l Opent Or`heslral, till` Sttwk-
holm Phillmrinoie, will tilt Hotho Owhestm- and
dw permanent symphttly owliestrits in tilt five largest
Cities, some fill orrhrstrats lhrllghoalt the vonntry any
composed of proft,ssiond dual aallialt'lir musicians,
During the 1960's musleill life has t,xpandvd gmally
hveaust of div formation of at govt.rultrul- supported
milimial Cotivt.rt bun which arranges Cotievri tours
by outstaanling artists to vitrious parts of lilt t4nmlry,
'1'ht,sr 1wrbrnutuCt.s, \\hlrll mitidwr over (,iN1U
alllllmilly, Include both evvning emievris and daytime
alppraraulres in whools, Mmly of Swrdrn's finest
singers aucf itlslrutnviditlish at- periodically ('tlgllgt,tl
ill such activities.
Corlrniporar> tmllt,strad aald Cham1wr mole, both
luternaatlomil will Swti at-` fairly \vet) w1m
in lilt Swedish mtlsivaal rvpvrtorr, The most important
Im
modern S\ %vdish eomixser\ itieludv Sven -Erik Duck,
Ingvor I.Idholrn, Alhm 1'ettersson, and Lars johan
Werle. Focal music is popular ill Sweden, as in tilt
other Cerintude Countries, and tiruws heavily from the
reservoir of folk songs, as well as it series of inspired
hallad writers, anxng them Carl Mikad Bellnaul,
Birger Sjoberg (1885- 141241), and Evert Timbe (1890-
Sweden's International wputation in vocal music,
however, stems principally from it number of foam mis
o1wral singers, such us jenny Lind (1820 -h" u
"Swedish Nightingale", Kristina Nilsson (11443 -I1a1
jussi 13jorling (1911 -60), the great tenor, Birgit Nilsson
0918. )c and Nicolas Ct.dda (11135 probably tilt'
greatest living tenor. All of them began their careers tot
the Swedish Royal Opera in Stoekholm, whose
extensive wpertoin includes, besides Cltissiral and
modern Eurolwan works, such Swedish operas its
I'vienon- Berger'\ AmIjot, Itanlgstrol's Kru nbruden,
iuld Ilomdihl's two ccotemporitry works, Aniara and
Herr non Hatic k Ameriraun r eogililtou of Swedish
operatic aarcyolplishtnt.ltts was marked by the rolling
of lilt Royal Oper;t's thrector Ceran Getade (t) take
over the New Turk MOrpolilan Opera. hnfortu-
nalvIv Cenlele was killml iu 14172 ill ail automobile
aareidvtit shortly afit he had iswmrd the position,
d. AK and lamhiteeture
None of the Swedish paitivr\ cult rank with the
truly great internaliona) figiiws, Kul several hove
altain d t.mint in their own maitre. Ertlst
josepllsotl 0851.144) aural Carl Fredrik Ifill (1849-
1911) are widely rrgalyded is the most gifted S\\etlish
Ilalinivrs of lilt Mill vviltilry, Both unllelplilml to some
t (ht v\pr