NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEY 35; INDIA; THE SOCIETY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NIS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP01-00707R000200070035-0
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 83
• Document Creation Date: October 25, 2016
• Sequence Number: 35
• Content Type: REPORTS

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

r
aF
WARNING
The NIS is National Intelligence and may not be re-
leased or shown to representatives of any foreign govern-
ment or international body except by specific authorization
of the Director of Central Intelligence in accordance with
the provisions of National Security Council Intelligence Di-
rective No. 1.
For NIS containing unclassified material, however, the
portions so marked may be made available for official pur-
poses to foreign nationals and nongovernment personnel
provided no attribution is made to National Intelligence or
the National Intelligence Survey.
Subsections and graphics are individuaily classified
according to content. Classification /control designa-
tions are:
(U /OU) Unclassified /For Official Use Only
(C) Confidential
(S) Secret
O
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
A.
II' I
CONTENTS
?ALP rArp. w[wTwdep (he wr{,ge Lrd racrr�
apo in tht Ce w"d SanrF dmu-d Fib bam Ifl"e
A. Lnlsodurllan 1
SMuiL�e and rharoeiwhlld of Ilse sodery 3
I- Religiously bused sad(j61
3
a- The Lllndus
3
b� Tike A1wUrns
r- Mh" r4gfau groups
8
d The tsfboa
7
Z Language
8
3- IntiMdbal and gaup set1tlamships
11
Attitudes and 'slurs
14
Tradilional and Wnsitlari
14
b Westem Mnd kno6rn inflwm s
15
m Other
1Q
S. Soda) stawltr and mobility
L7
Rm Ornawu Uss Oxsa
1..
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

.1
Page
C. Population
18
1. Size and density
18
2. Ethnic composition
18
3. Population distribution and structure
22
a. Distribution
22
b. Structure
23
4. Population growth and control
24
a. Population growth
24
b. Family planning
26
5. Population movements
28
D. Problems of the labor force
30
1. Employment oI, portunities and atti-
55
tudes toward work
30
a. Opportunities
30
b. Attitudes
32
2. Working conditions and wages
32
3. Labor organizations
33
a. The trade union movement
33
b. Major labor organizations
34
c. Management organizations
36
d. Industrial relations
36
4. Labor legislation
38
E. Living conditions and social problems
40
1. Material welfare
40
2. Crime and social problems
42
3. Welfare programs
43
Page
F. Health
44
1. General health conditions
44
2. Major diseases
46
a. Diseases of man
46
b. Animal diseases
47
3. Public health and medical services
48
G. Religion
49
1. Hinduism
49
2. Other religions
51
H. Education
55
1. The national context
55
2. Elementary and secondary education
55
3. Higher education
58
4. Technical education
59
5. Other programs
59
6. Problems and prospects
60
I. Artistic and cultural expression
61
J. Public information
65
1. Newspapers and periodicals
65
2. Books and libraries
68
3. Radio, television and films
70
4. Other channels of information
71
5. Information from abroad
71
K. Suggestions for further reading
73
1. General and reference
73
2. Characteristics of the society
74
3. Religion and artistic expression
75
4. Labor, health and welfare, and education
75
FIGURES
ii
Page
Fig. 1
Street scene in Delhi photo)
2
Fig. 2
Languages and minority religions
(map)
5
Fig. 3
Tribesman from Arunachal Pradesh
23
Fig. 14
(photo)
7
Fig. 4
Major languages (table)
11
Fig. 5
Hindu family at their family shrine
24
Fig. 16
(photo)
12
Fig. 6
Woman at a village well photo)
13
Fig. 7
Peddler in a Delhi street photo)
14
Fig. 8
Population density map)
19
Fig. 9
Population size and density chart)
20
Fig. 10
Hindu feeding sacred monkeys
27
(photo)
20
ii
IE
r
.o::.xRt'.Y:rv99Li1 tt
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP0l- 00707R000200070035 -0
Page
Fig. 11
Some peoples of India (photos)
21
Fig. 12
Distribution-urban/rural-by com-
munity size chart)
22
Fig. 13
Urban -rural distribution (table)
23
Fig. 14
Proportion of urban population to
total population, by state table)
24
Fig. 15
Cities over 1 million population (map)
24
Fig. 16
Indian wedding customs photo)
25
Fig. 17
Age -sex distribution (chart)
25
Fig. 18
Birth death rates table)
26
Fig. 19
Projections of population growth
through 1981 (table)
26
Fig. 20
Life expectancy (table)
27
IE
r
.o::.xRt'.Y:rv99Li1 tt
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP0l- 00707R000200070035 -0

C
J
r.
is
k;
fif
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA-RDP0l-00707R000200070035-0
Page
Page
Fig. 21
Public health nurse wAh patients
Fig. 34
Enrollments in schools and colleges
(photo)
28
(table)
57
Fig. 22
Children on the road to Agra (photo)
40
Fig. 35
Scientific education (photo)
60
Fig. 23
Consumption pattern (chart)
41
Fig. 36
The descent of the Ganges, 7th
Fig. 24
Slum conditions in Calcutta (photo)
42
century relief (photo)
61
Fig. 25
Open sewer, Calcutta (photo)
46
Fig. 37
Ajanta mural (photo)
62
Fig. 26
Unsanitary food handling (photo)
46
Fig. 38
Rabindranath Tagore's "Baleful
Fig. 27
Public and pivate health facilities
Lady" (photo)
62
Fig. 28
(table)
Hindu holy man (photo)
43
50
Fig. 39
Musical instruments (photo)
63
Fig. 29
Hindu temple at Bhuvanesvar (photo)
51
Fig. 40
Bharata Natyam dancers (photo)
64
Fig. 30
Hindus bathing in the Ganges River
Fig. 41
Newspapers and periodicals by
(photo)
52
language (table)
65
Fig. 31
Paraders celebrating Naga Pan-
Fig. 42
Major newspapers and periodicals
chami (photo)
W
(table)
67
Fig. 32
Jain nun making pilgrimage (photo)
54
Fig. 43
National Library, Calcutta (photo)
69
Fig, 33
School in northern India (photo)
56
Fig. 44
Community listening to radio (photo)
70
C
J
r.
is
k;
fif
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA-RDP0l-00707R000200070035-0

i a -r 1'Vl Sim K
3:
X
The Society
A. Introduction
Every sixth person in the world is an Indian. India,
whose people have had a continuous civilization for
some 5,000 vears, is one of the most complex of
national societies. Its population, the second largest in
the world (numbering at least 578 million in mid
1973), increases by about 2.5% per year and includes a
multiplicity of ethnolinguistic groups. All the major
world religions and many smaller sets have significant
numbers of adherents among the citizenry. In social
development, the people range from primitive
tribesmen to sophisticated, Western oriented business
and professional men.
To communicate with the various groups, the
Indian Government raust use more than a dozen
official and semiofficial languages (of which few are
mutually intelligible), and it deals informally in scores
of additional languages and dialects. Its task of
administration has been fraught with major
difficulties, complicated by the fact that some ethnic
and religious groups have sought to advance their own
causes through antigovernmental political move-
ments. Urban areas connected to the outside wend by
modern communications and trade differ materially it,
their social structure from isolated villages in the rural
areas. Divisive forces, therefore, are strong in Indian
politics. Regionalism is an outstanding feature of the
society, and most Indians are loyal first to their caste,
clan, or tribe, next to their cultural or linguistic area,
and only afterward to the nation as a whole.
A number of basic stabilizing and unifying threads
run through the social structure, however, cutting
across regional lines and helping to create a sense of
nationhood. Of these, the most important is
Hinduism, the early forms of which were introduced
NOTE �The entire contents of this chapter is UNCLASSIFIED
but is FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY.
into India about 1500 to 1200 B.C. by Indo -Aryan
invaders from Central Asia. Hinduism persisted and
grew through centuries of Muslim and British rule,
primarily because of its remarks 011 ability to absorb a
wide variety of philosophies and religious practices.
The rigid caste system, which evolved from the class
structure introduced by the Indo- Aryans in antiquity,
is another stabilizing factor. Membership in a caste is
normally determined by birth, and caste generally
governs not only religious rites and duties but also
social status and often occupation. Marriage is within
the caste but often outside the family, clan, and
village, a situation which has resulted in the
development of extensive intervillage 'Lies and an
effective network of word -of -mouth communication.
The extended family system is widespread, and it
also provides social and economic stability. Consisting
(if men closely related through the male line, their
wives, and their children, the extended family
frequently totals 20 to 30 persons living in close
proximity. Members contribute to joint family
property and call upon family supplies, resources, or
support as necessary.
The persistence of Hinduism, as well as of caste and
the extended family, has been aided throughout the
centuries by the fact that the agricultural population
of India has lived in relatively isolated and self
sufficient villages, more or less unchanged by the wars
and invasions conducted by the ruling classes. As a
result, the Indian villager generally is steeped in the
traditionalism and conservatism characteristic of
peasants. Although in many areas improved education
and communications are gradually ushering in new
ideas and methods, resistance to change persists.
The British during the 19th century introduced
another series of stabilizing and unifying factors in
territories directly administered by them. These
included a common system of administration and law,
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

a single official language, a nationwide railroad
system, and the beginnings of modern industry. Other
developments tending toward unification have been
stimulated mainly by the Indians themselves. Among
these was the movement for independence from
British rule, launched in earnest about 1920 and
completed in 1947. This effort, led by the Indian
National Congress (known more commonly as the
Congress Party, or Congress) not only united the
Indian people in a manner not previously experienced
but also gave such strong support to the i,ewly
independent government under Prime Minister Nehru
that it was able to run on the momentum of the
independence struggle for more than a decade
thereafter.
Increased mobility in the postindependence period
has also helped to create a sense of unity, though not
necessarily of stability. Improvement of roads and
automotive transport, the creation of two government
owned airlines, and the rapid growth of the bicycle
industry have all helped Indians to learn about their
own country. So have the expansion of government
payrolls and programs and also government training
Policies, which place together persons from different
areas, backgrounds, and classes. Indians have been
traveling abroad in large numbers, and growing
literacy, abetted by press, radio, and film media, has
made them more aware than previously of local and
foreign developments. In this situation, the recent war
with Pakistan and the diplomatic and military threats
posed by the People's Republic of China (PRC) have
tended to unify the people in the interests of national
defense.
Since 19.1 the interaction and cohesive and divisive
forces in Indian society has been influenced by
political and economic circumstances, making
national unity and ,ranquillity difficult to achieve.
The central government has attempted to emphasize
unifying elements �a common cultural heritage,
common defense problems, and an urgent need for
economic development. Its efforts at modernization,
however, have begun to erode patterns of traditional
social organization and thought, which in the past
have acted as strong stabilizing factors. At the same
time the resistance of well- established regional forces
has hindered the movement toward national unitv.
Continuing troubled relations with Pakistan have
contributed to occasional friction between Hindu and
Muslim religious groups.
Rising popular expectations resulting from
independence and the presumption that freedom
would bring immediate improvement in the standard
of living have been frustrated by the rapid growth of
the population and the sluggish growth of the
economy. Directly or indirectly, population pressure
has lowered real wages, diminished the per capita
availability of food supplies, slowed per capita
economic advancement, created growing unemploy-
ment problems, and provided opportunities for
subversive groups to capitalize on unsettled
conditions. Problems also arise from the rapid growth
of urban populations that is attendant upon industrial
progress (Figure 1). Persons migrating to the cities in
search of work often find it difficult to adjust to an
urban environment. The degree of security provided
by village and extended family relationships is
FIGURE 1. A street scene in Delhi
2
E
:h
j
s
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

r
reduced, and the new city dweller finds himself more
affected than before by fluctuations in price and
employment levels. The increasing heterogeneity of
the urban population is also promoting social
mobility, occasionally permitting a man to claim
membership in a social group higher than his inherited
caste level.
To achieve full national unity, the government is
trying to expand its social and economic development
programs into all parts of the country �.vith maximum
possible speed. To succeed in this, it must train persons
to carry out these programs and educate a largely
unskilled and illiterate populace to understand what
must be done. Funds for this task are limited, and
since 1962 increased defense expenditures have
complicated the problem of allocations. Many areas of
Indian public and private life are today characterized
by a wide gap bet-,veen goals and performance and
between official statistics and reality.
general each caste consists of persons who were born
into and marry within it, perform similar religious
practices, observe the same customs regarding
association with members of other castes, and share
the social status assigned to the caste as a whole. Each
caste normally has a traditional occupation (e.g.,
carpenter, weaver, blacksmith), but in many castes a
large number of members pursue different lines of
work.
The origins: of individual castes are obscure. In
theorv, at least, the system is modeled on the hierarchy
of social classes introduced between 1500 and 1200
B.C. �along with Hinduism itself �by Aryan invaders
from Central Asia. According to the Brahmanical
composers of the sacred Vedic scriptures (1500 to 600
B.C.), the society was ideall stratified into four
occupational levels, or vama. These levels were the
priestly Brahmans (who had the highest social status),
the warrior Kshatrivas (from whom rulers were
drawn), the trader Vaisyas (a middle class), and the
lower class Sudras (artisans, servants, farm laborers,
etc.). The most menial workers �those doing
fieldwork, hard labor, or performing services, such as
trash collecting, deemed to be degrading or defiling
were outside the social system entirely and considered
untouchable."
Although the present caste system superficially
resembles the Vedic model, it has been subject to
extensive alteration over the centuries and is now far
more complex than that described in the Vedas. There
are strong disagreements as to which of the more than
3,000 castes or subcastes belong to which varna, and it
is not unusual for certain castes to aspire to a higher
position in the social scale than neighboring caste
groups are willing to concede. Untouchables have for
all practical purposes developed into separate castes at
the bottom of the caste hierarchy and, although
untouchability was officially abolished by the 1950
national constitution, serious discrimination persists.
In India, Backward Classes �which are about 30%
of the population� constitute a general category of
people who for the most part are officially listed and
given special recognition for a variety of reasons. In
the Indian context, backwardness has a number of
distinctive features in addition to economic or
educational deprivation or low social status. It is
viewed as an attribute not of individuals but of clearly
defined social segments of the population in which
membership is decided by birth. Backward Classes
could �and in fact in some instances do� include
individuals who are highly advanced both economi-
cally and educationally. Additionally, as a member of
the Backward Classes one is entitled to certain
advantages and concessions specifically conferred by
the government.
B. Structure and characteristics of the
society
Indians are generally categorized according to
differences in religion, caste, and language and to
some extent �in the case of the tribespeop le, for
instance �in racial background. The great majority of
the population embrace Hinduism. However, some 61
million Muslims make up a significant minority. The
14 most commonly spoken local languages and the
hundreds of minor languages and dialects cut across
religious lines, fragmenting even the majority Hindu
community into regional groups which speak
mutually unintelligible languages. The physical types
found in India are so mixed that an individual's ethnic
affiliations cannot be determined by appearance
alone. Shadings of physical difference can be
significant in the sooinl hierarchy of a given region,
however, Vince taller, lighter skinned people generally
consider t,iemselves superior to those of shorter stature
and darker coloration.
1. Religiously based societies
a. The Hindus
L_
The most important social grouping -83.5% of the
population (more than 453 million people in 1971) �is
that of the Hindus, who are organized under an
intricate and stratified social system into a multitude
of castes and subcastes. The Hindu religion provides a
feeling of religious identification, vet the rigid caste
system divides the people into special interest groups
jealous of their particular functions and fearful of
outsiders. Authorities differ on the exact criteria
separating one caste or subeaste from another, but in
3
'4.
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP0l- 00707R000200070035 -0

r
Scheduled Castes (about one seventh of the
population), Scheduled Tribes (one sixteenth of the
population) and Other Backward Classes (about one
seventh of the population) are the three broad
divisions which comprise India's Backward Classes.
Confusion often arises over misapp'ication of terms,
even in India, with Backward Classes or Scheduled
Classes in some instances being used to denote the
listed Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and at
other times having a somewhat broader application.
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are loosely
defined in the Indian constitution. A Scheduled Caste
is "any caste, race or tribe" specified as such by the
President by public notification; Scheduled Castes
have generally been known in popular parlance as
"depressed classes," "untouchables," or "harijans." A
Scheduled Tribe is any tribe specified as such by the
President by public notification. Lists of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes are drawn up by the
central government and can only be revised by
presidential authority. A Commissioner for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes looks into the affairs of
these communities on a contin ing basis. The
grouping "Other Backward Classes" is a more
nebulous category and is mentioned only in the most
general terms in the Indian constitution. "Other
Backward Classes" have not been enumerated in the
census, and it commission which sought to define their
position in more specific terms could not come to any
agreed conclusions. State governments have, in
general, been allowed to use their own criteria in
drawing up lists of the Other Backward Classes in
order to promote their educr:tion and welfare.
The caste system is looser in northern India, where
the invading Indo- Aryans first settled, than in the
south, where conqueror- con(It,ered relationships led to
the formation of more complicated and more strictly
observed caste lines. Nevertheless, throughout India
the caste system stresses the group rather than the
individual and values conformity to established
custom as opposed to individual innovation.
In urban areas, where economic necessity and the
requirements of modern life are altering the caste
system, many educated Indians are in a state of
spiritual conflict. They wish to adopt modern ideas
and practices but are influenced by tradition. These
persons have little difficulty giving up some of the
taboos regarding traditional occupations, eating
habits, or association with other castes, but they still
pay heed to caste restrictions in marriage and social
obligations.
In the rural areas, where more than 80% of the
population lives, modernization has had less impact
1
on intercaste relationships. Over the years the
dominant caste, usually composed of landowners, has
consistently hired members of a specific lower caste as
farm laborers and looked to certain other castes for
other services. The obligations involved in this
relationship extend in both directions: the laborer,
servant, or artisan feels he must provide his special
services for the traditional patron, while the patron is
obliged to deal with and support these individuals
regardless of economic exigencies or the quality of
service. Less influential castes have similar mutual
arrangements.
These relationships are changing gradually,
however, as more lower caste members become literate
and their desire for greater economic independence
and occupational diversity increases. In some areas
government limitations on the size of landholdings
have reduced the dominant caste's capacity for
employing agricultural labor and have given
previously landless peasants it chance to acquire real
property. With the improvement of local transpor-
tation facilities, artisans and persons in service trades
have tended to drift to small towns, yhere they serve
clients in several surrounding villages. Discrimination
against Untntichal,les, who prior to 1950 were
prohibited from urinking at wells drid visiting temples
used by caste Hindus, still exists but is practiced
mainly in rural areas. Fundamental changes in village
life are slow in coming, and customary relationships
for the most part continue to govern rural life.
Caste plays a strong role in local politics. After
India's achievement of independence in 1917, the
ballot box and public office became important routes
for upgrading the social status of numerically
dominant castes or of coalitions of smaller castes. The
major political parties have been alive to the
advantages and pitfalls of caste politics. In many areas
they have attempted to preserve political and social
stability by arranging an appropriate caste balance in
t'ieir election slates.
b. The Muslims
India's 61 million Muslims form the second largest
religious community in the country, constituting a
little under 11% of the population. The State of
Jammu and Kashmir has a Muslim majority of almost
70 and Muslims are also prominent in parts of
Kerala, Manipur, Punjab, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Assam, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, and Bihar' (Figure 2). Although there are
'For diacritics on place names see the list of names on the apron
of the Summar%'tap in the Countrc Profile chapter and the map
itself.
H
'x
a
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

r
l
I_C Madras
Pondicherry
I Ko:hikode 9 s
I ZV o 'X S"O
Trivandrum
i
1 501M 7.73
FIGURE 2. Languages and minority religions (based on 1971 census data)
3
1
d:: war >.rsa,r a.amsa
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
LANGUAGE MINORM RELIGION'
Indo -Aryan 4% Estimated percent of state or
Dandin union territory population
L_ 1 professing Islam
Tibeto- Burman C Christianity
GAnO Language or dialed B Buddhism
S Sikhism
ti
l
I_C Madras
Pondicherry
I Ko:hikode 9 s
I ZV o 'X S"O
Trivandrum
i
1 501M 7.73
FIGURE 2. Languages and minority religions (based on 1971 census data)
3
1
d:: war >.rsa,r a.amsa
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
LANGUAGE MINORM RELIGION'
Indo -Aryan 4% Estimated percent of state or
Dandin union territory population
L_ 1 professing Islam
Tibeto- Burman C Christianity
GAnO Language or dialed B Buddhism
S Sikhism

r
some heavy concentrations of Muslims, very few local
communities are exclusively Muslim. Most Muslims
are descendants of earlier converts from Hinduism and
continue to live in their ancestral towns or villages in a
cooperative relationship with members of other
religious communities. Quarrels occasionally arise
between local Hindus and Muslims over religious
issues, however, and intercommunal bloodshed
sometimes follov s. Communa: rioting is more
prevalent in areas havit, a relatively. large Muslim
population.
The Muslims social and economic life differs little
from that of their neighbors. Their dress and
appearance is normally similar to that of the local
Hindus, although some variations in attire occur.
Among conservative groups, many women wear the
covering garment called the burga'. Most Muslims
speak the language of their native region, but some of
the better educated and more urbanized have adopted
Urdu, a Fersianized form of Hindustani �a legacy of
the Muslim Moghul Empire �as their major tongue.
Islam regards all believers as equal before God, and
Muslim society is therefore theoretically free of caste
distinctions. This has been a persuasive factor over the
centuries in the conversion of low caste or
Untouchable Hindus. In practice, however, a caste
system of sorts has carried over into the Muslim
community, as well as into the Christian and Sikh
minority groups. Class distinctions among the
Muslims are usually based on the caste levels of the
original converts, but traditional occupations and
wealth also affect the class structure. Relationships
between Muslims and Hindus at the village level are
often governed by rules similar to those applying to
Hindu intereaste relationships. Muslim class
restrictions, however, are not so rigid as those of the
Hindus, although marriages between Muslims of
different classes, even though not proscribed by
religion, are infrequent.
e. Other religious groups
Christians of various sects and ethnic origins
nun-bered 14 million in 1971 and comprised about
2.6% of the population; they therefore constituted
India's third largest religious croup. The southern
states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
together account for more than 60% of India's
Christians. Conversions to Christianity have occurred
sporadically over the past 2,000 years in areas
determined largely by historical accident. The oldest
of the several groups of Indian Christians is located in
Kerala State. Variously known as Christians of St.
Thomas," "Malabar Christians," or "Svrian
It
Christians," these people trace their conversion back
to the arrival of the Apostle Thomas in Malahar in
A.D. 52. They were originally high -caste Hindus and
remain economically and politically important in
Kerala. A second and far larger group of Christian
conversions dates from the work of the Portuguese
missionaries in the 16th century and from other
European and American Protestant missionary
activity which began in earnest in the 19th century.
Most of the converts were of low social status, ,nano of
them Untouchables. Missionaries were also active
among the tribal peoples of central India and the hills
of northeastern India.
Over 100,000 Christians are Eurasians, often called
Anglo- Indians, who are descendants of mixed
European- Indian parents. Anglo- Indians are primarily
urban dwellers. They were not accepted as social
equals by either the British or the Hindus in
preindependence India and had difficulty attaining
Positions of influence. Their special occupational
preserve was the Indian railroad system, %%-here they
worked in mechanical and lower grade administrative
capacities. "There is now little overt discrimination
against the Anglo- Indians, although Ifindu bitterness
over their opposition to Indian independence persists.
Despite these obstacles, some Angio Indians have
attained prominence in various fields. In varying
degrees Christian converts have maintained many of
their traditional customs and occupations. On the
whole, however, their social restrictions, particularly
those concerning intermarriage, are less rigid than
those of Hindus or Muslims. There are no taboos
concerning persons with whom they may cat.
The Sikh religious minority grcup, with some 10
million adherents t,r about 2% of the population, is
concentrated in the Punjab region of northwestern
India, but members are found throughout India. The
approximately 8 million Sikhs who live in Punjab
make up about 60% of the population of that state.
Most of the remaining Sikhs are found in Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, New Delhi, Haryana, Maharashtra,
Madhy Pradesh, and Bihar. The Sikhs are a
monotheistic, nonaseetic, and theoretically tasteless
group which has drawn most of its converts from
Hindu agriculturalists and landowners belonging to
the relatively high Jat and Khatri castes. Low -caste
Hindus were converted later, arid many of the Hindu
caste restrictions particularly those relating to
intermarriage �still persist in practice among the
Sikhs. The Sikhs are relatively more receptive to, and
adept in the use of, modern mechanical devices than
most Hindu groups. They are sturdy, industrious, and
0
t
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

L.
place a high value on good physical condition.
Proportionally more Sikhs than any other religious
group enter the Indian military services.
Some Hindu Untouchables have, over the years,
seized upon Buddhism as an escape route from an
uncongenial Hindu social system, and in 1971
Buddhists numbered 3.8 million, most of whom lived
in the western State of Maharashtra, home of the late
influential Untouchable leader B. R. Ambedkar, who
was converted to Buddhism. The great majority of the
converts are only nominally Buddhists. They continue
to observe Hindu practices and to occupy an
extremely low positi a on the social scale.
In contrast, two other small religious minorities, the
Jains and the Parsis, have assumed an importance in
the economic and political life of the country far out
of proportion to their numbers. The Jains, numbering
almost 3 million, are concentrated in the western
States of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rasjasthan and in
the western portions of Madhya Pradesh. Most live
within 400 miles of Bombay city, where members of
their community have become extremely successful
businessmen and moneylenders. The probity of the
Jains has won them the respect of the Hindu majority,
freeing them from the discrimination suffered by 'a
number of other religious minorities. They were one of
the first groups to seek Western education.
About 200,000 Parsis reside primarily in western
InC'a, most of them in Bombay. They are descendants
of Zoroastrians� worshippers of fire and the sun �who
ruled Persia for centuries and fled to India in the
seventh and eighth centuries before the proselytizing
Muslim conquerors. Having originally settled in
Gujarat, many subsequently moved to Bombay to take
advantage of the commercial opportunities created by
the British in the 17th century. Western commercial
contacts and English education enabled them to
become the most cosmopolitan and eventually the
wealthiest community in the subcontinent. Over the
centuries the Parsis have judiciously maintained their
separate identity through strict religious practices and
through marrying within the group. 'their numbers are
gradually shrinking, however, as a result of inbreeding
and limitations on membership. Inbreeding has
reportedly resulted in a sharp rise of childless
marriages, and, according to Parsi figures, 50% of the
population never marries. The Parsi birth rate has
been estimated at about 12 per 1,000, which is about 2
per 1,000 less than the reported Parsi death rate. An
increasing number of Parsi women, who outnumber
the men, are marrying outside the community and
their children are not regarded as Parsi Moreover, no
conversions to Zoroastrianism are permitted.
d. The tribes
i
The 1971 census reported some 38 million members
of Scheduled Tribes, groups which because of their
economic backwardness and their remoteness from the
country's socioeconomic mainstream have been
singled out under the national constitution for special
treatment in the fields of education, welfare, and
government representation (Figure 3). The tribes are
distributed throughout India but are concentrated in
three zones of settlement. The largest cluster is in a
belt running across central India from the Gulf of
Khambhat (formerly the Gulf of Cambay) to West
Bengal and Orissa. These aboriginal tribes speak
primarily Austro- Asiatic or Dravidian dialects. A
smaller concentration of Mongoloid tribes inhabits the
hilly areas of Assam. The third and by far the smallest
zone of tribal settlement is in the southern part of the
peninsula in the mountains parallel to the western
coast. Some of the tribes have adopted primitive forms
of Hinduism, while others have converted to
Christianity. Many, however, are strongly animistic.
7
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
FIGURE 3. A Palibo tribesman from Arunachal Pradesh,
formerly the North East Frontier Agency

Cultural variations are wide, but as a rule tribes
adhere to communal economic patterns based on
hunting and primitive agriculture.
2. Language
India's language problem is one of the most
complex in the world. Waves of peoples and cultures
have swept over the subcontinent, leaving a legacy of
linguistic diversity which today is both a strong barrier
to the development of national consciousness and a
source of chronic friction within some of the 21
states� reorganized largely along linguistic lines in
1956� between states, and between the states and the
central government in New Delhi. The problem is
greatly intensified by the tendency of major language
groups to regard themselves as cultural entities. Large
sections of the population identify strongly with their
particular language and take fierce and partisan pride
in it. Whenever language has becom uc emotional
public issue, agitation and violence followed.
During the 1950's, linguistic pric ind regional
separatism frequently combined to provoke tension,
sporadic rioting, and occasionally a complete
breakdown of law and order. Despite its reluctance to
do so, the central government's 1956 reorganization of
the states largely along linguistic lines was an effort to
end such agitation.
Geographically, the sharpest linguistic division is
between northern, and eastern central India, where
Indo- European languages, introduced by the Aryans
between 1500 and 1200 B.C. predominate, and the
south, where the predominant languages belong to the
totally different Dravidian group (Figure 2). Within
these broad categories, however, are more than a
dozen mutually unintelligible languages, each with its
own distinctive script. Hundreds of dialectal variants,
as well as a number of minor, unrelated languages,
further complicate the problem of communication.
Tibeto Burman languages are spoken in hundreds of
separate dialects in eastern Kashmir, the central
Himalayas, and the hills of northeastern India, where
the inhabitants have racial and cultural affinities with
the peoples of Tibet and Burma. Munda and Mon
Khmer languages, related to Southeast Asian tongues,
are spoken by primitive tribes in Bihar and Orissa in
eastern India.
Among the primary language group, the Indo-
European, Hindi is the most widely spoken language
and is used mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh, and Bihar. About 30% of the
country's population claim Hindi as a primary tongue,
while an additional 12% speak the closely related
Indo European languages of Urdu, Punjabi, and
D
Rajasthani. Urdu is a Persianized form of 11indi
developed by the Muslim rulers of the Moghul
Empire. In very simple spoken form, Hindi and Urdu
tire mutually intelligible. In their more sophisticated
literary forms, the two languages are distinct, with
little in common except the grammar and basic
vocabulary. Written Urdu uses a Perso- Arabic script,
while Hindi is written in the Devanagari script derived
from Sanskrit, the classical literary language of
Hinduism, and designated by the constitution as
official. Rajasthani, a collection of the dialects of
former Rajput princely states, has little literature
except in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthan. The use of
Punjabi has special political and emotional overtones
because of its status as the language of the Sikh
religious community, most of which is concentrated in
the Punjab. The Sikhs write Punjabi in the distinctive
Gurmukhi script. Hindus living in the same region
frequently use the Devanagari script and, fearing Sikh
domination, sometimes claim to be Hindi speakers.
Punjabi is also written in Persian script by some
Muslims.
The government is directed by the constitution to
encourage both the dissemination of Hindi and its
growth through the adoption of a modern vocabulary.
In carrying out this edict, the government has drawn
heavily on Sanskrit root words and thus is promoting a
more "Sanskritized" version of the language than is
used in common speech. Although an increasing
number of non -Hindi speakers, primarily in the north,
are learning the language, the 1961 census indicated
that more people (I1 million) listed English as their
second language than Hindi (9.4 million).
During the long colonial period, English became
the link language for communication between people
living in different areas of the country, although use of
English was largely limited to the Western- influenced
upper levels of the society. From the mid -19th century
onward, English was the working language of a
growing native corps of Indian civil servants. It
became the language of government, commerce, and
the universities. English contributed to the growing
sense of solidarity among the political and intellectual
elite who spearheaded the independence movement.
Now spoken by from 2% to 3% of the population,
English remains the most important language for
government and for business activity conducted on a
countrywide scale. It is subject, however, to almost
constant attack by non English speakers, especially in
the backward Hindi speaking areas of the north.
One of the major language issues is the extent to
which English should supplement Hindi as a working
language of the central government, and, indeed,
v
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

r
whether Ilindi should remain India's stile official
language. This official language" issue has often led
to widespread unrest as cutnpeling groups have
attempted to advance the interests of theirown native
tongues. The official language question was one of the
most bitte controversi issues dealt with by the
drafters of the Indian constitution. To most of the
constituent assembly it seemed incompatible with the
country's newly won sovereignty to uphold the
paramount status of English, the foreign tongue of the
former colonial regime. Yet, despite stronf pressures
from the Ilindi-speaking north, English was retained
as the official working language of the British- trained
hureauc�racy, in part because any native language
would have been "foreign" to most of the population.
Unable to solve this basic problem, the framers of
the constitution temporized with it compromise
provision. "Hindi in the Dev: nagari script" became
the "official language of the Union," hill English
would continue to be used for 15 years (until January
1965) for "all official purposes" in which it was
employed prior to 1950. Parliament was empowered,
however, to prolong the use of English beyond 1965.
This compromise solution dissatisfied many among
both the Hindi- and non Ilindi- speaking peoples.
Language, particularly as it affects the recruitment,
s promotions, and functioning of the central
government's civil services, has been a key issue in
Indian politics ever since. A basic north -south clash of
interests has arisen from the fact to at (luring British
rule non Ilindi- speaking south Indians acquired a
dominant position within the English- speaking
bureaucracv. Manv northerners who champion the
cause of Hindi do so in an attempt to offset this
imbalance and to give Ilindi speakers an advantage.
This north -south regional rivalry is esacerhated by the
fact that Hindi speaking India is an area of low
literacy, low urbanization, and low industrialization.
Thus im licit in the continuin stmt =Ie over the
continue to he used for virtually all official central
government purposes for an indefinite time after the
expiration of the 15 -year grace period.
Despite these efforts, violent protests broke out in
south India will) Ilindi's constitaalional coming of age
in 1965. The south Indian,� especially the proud and
volatile 'Tamils of 'Tamil Nadu Slide (then called
Madras)� connbined Iheir traditional distrust of
northerners with a belief (hill the Official Language
Act would reduce the disproportionately high number
of positions they �as I ?nglisl)- speakers �held in the
central civil services. They branded Ilindi an
instrument of north Indian "imperialism" and called
for it constitutional amendment insuring the
continued use of 1 ?nglish as the link language for all
India. Mob violence ravaged much of Tamil Nadu
and broke out in other non Ilindi areas. The
(listurbanc�es were calmed only when Prime Minister
Shastri in(] his colleagues in the ruling Congress Party
(nigh command publicly c�omrnitted themselves to
strengthening the 1963 legislation.
In late 1967 Shastri's successor, Prime Nlinisler
Indira Gandhi, atletnp to make good his pledge,
but the uproar by both the pro aad :anti Ilindi
elements forced her to snake concessions th. t satisfied
few. A highly controversial amendment to the 1963
Official Language Act and an accompanying
language resolution were ranmed through Parliament
amidst anguished cries from the opposition and
mounting popular agitation across northern India.
What was originally intended as a giant step toward it
final compromise solution of the official language
issue fell short of that objective and left unresol%ed
many of the problems that had provoked language
disorders in the past.
The 1967 amendment requires the central
government to use both Ilindi and I'.nglish "until the
legislatures of the non Ilindi- speaking stales decide
otherwise With lh .11. t 1 o I t 11 's
t
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
p hh
o e e n ra },t mine n nil
official language is the fear of the more developed
legislation requires the translation of all documents
states like Tamil Nadu that if Ilindi speakers should
into I ?nglish until the nun- Hindi speaking civil
gain a preponderant share of the government posts,
servants "have acquired it working know led) of
the Hindi speaking states would will an irrevocahle
Ilindi." Parliament added several amendments to the
advantage in the distribution of the central
original draft that underscore the commitment to
government's scarce resources.
bilingualism. English, for example, is obligatory in
1
In 1959 Prime Minister Nehru indefinitely extended
correspondence between New Delhi and ti non-
the deadline fo- the sNvitchover from English to Hindi,
Ifindi states, and English translations are required in
and subsequently the central government made
communications from a Ilindi- speaking state to a
t
various pronouncements calculated to reassure the
non Ilindi- speaking state.
a non
-Hindi speakers that they would not suffer
The legislative provisions were generally ac�ceptocd
discrimination. As a final move to head off the
by non- Hindi speaking Indians, who had largely
impending storm, Parliament in 1963 passed the
abandoned their earlier demand that the constitution
Official Language Act, specifying that English "may"
itself be amended. The northern pro- Ilindi forces,
9
t
�axxrs,.wh- hr.wr.,.
ti.. wotiw.. aw.. sa. rru.. u,.. a. mtie.... w a.rau,au..:..,:a.e.9.i+c.r.t. ,..WF ;.:aa.:..rra.
t
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

v
.y
however, led by the Ilindu nationalist Jana Sarigh
(Indian I I'arty) and the increasingl% militant
Satnyctkta Socialist Party (SSI'), reacted vchemenlly.
Offering parliamentary resistance at every stage and
inciting violent public protein demonstrations in major
north Indian cities. the Ilindi advocates were `inally
able to undermine rite thrust of now� legislation
through substawi.,11 modification of a govemment
language police resolution that was introduced in
Parliament along with the language hill. The most
important change in this resolution was a provision
that either English or Ilindi should be c�o ;npetlsory for
recruitment into the civil services, except for posts
requiring "a high standard of English alone or Ilindi
alone." This introduced for the first time the principle
that a joh applicant knowing only Ilindi might be
appointed t�r a competitive position in the all India
civil services.
Many non Ilindi speakers view the policy
resolution as being highly discriminatory, since the
minority of Ilindi speakers will he taking compelitive
examinations ill their native tongues, while everyone
else has to Ilse it foreign language, i.e., Ilindi or
English. To help case the burden, the polic% resolution
also recommends that the whools teach three
languages EngIisIt. Hiit (Ii, and the regional
tongue �or in Ilindi areas, another Indian language.
This has riot satisfied the southerners, who are
skeptical that the three language formula will ever he
applied in the north. Serinos riots broke oat in the
so11th� espec�ial1% in Ta tit iI Nit (lo �""ten the
legislation and lxrlic�% resolution %%ere passed in
Parliament.
The b:;stc c�amcs behind the language agitation of
1965 and 1967-68 are still present. Underking the
math's esixnnal of pro Ilindi themes is the general
backwardness of the heayil% populated Ilindi
heartland. Expectations for a better fmtore are
apparently increasing. however. as more young Iwople
than ever before embark on higher edocation with the
hope of securing lx�tter pa%ing jobs. Yet even when the�
rnediunt of instruction is English, the bulk of the
graduates do not really ac�cli ire a useful knowledge of
the language, and this se%e�rely limits theirchartc�rs for
the emplo%nwnt the%_ seek. (:onsceiuc nil\, the growing
student Impulation provides a tempting target for
those who would exploit the language issue for
personal or imlitical reasons. Ca %te rivalries acid
another dimension to the pro Ilindi rnmernent
Member, of rxx)r but r :.ing c�a%te%. hose %eat% attend
inadequate %c�hools, resent the a bilitv of the
traditionidly more prosperous caste�% to mutmopolize the
fe g(r(KI English medium imtitoliom.
fW
After two decades of periodic language agilation,
many south Indians have come to believe that the
south and other non Ilindi- speakit,g areas can expect
only incomprehension, c�on(lescensiun, or fanatical
intolerance from the Ilindi north. The Gandhi
government's willingness to give way to some pro
Hindi pressures has fostered the impression that Ze%%
Delhi's word canoot be trusted on diic language issue.
This conlinuin); legacy of distrust tray prove to he a
formidable barrier to further language compromises.
The constitution specifically recognizes 13 regional
languages: Assantese Bengali, Gujarati. !lindi,
Kannada. Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, 0, iya,
hmiabi, Sanskrit, Sim1hi, Tamil, Tcingu, and Urdo.
1'hi% does not in itself confer official status on the
languages, but they may he us('(I in dealings with the
central government and maul% have heen a(lople(I I)%
one or more state govemim tits as their official
administrative language. Only in Nagaland is English
the official state language. The 1961 census figures
indicated that 3M3.8 million persons (87.4"i of the
population) were native speakers of one of the I.i
de%ignated languages and chat there were sc %oral ether
major languages and dialects (Figures 2 ;md 1). Ever
since regionalist pres%orc�s c�omnelled the government
to redraw state boondarie�s in 1956, the� areas in %%hic�h
the major I;Iltguage%are spoken %ith the exception of
Ilindi and Urdo) have heed roughly conierminou%
with state bomndarie%. Became c oltoral areas tend to
coincide with lingoi %tic areas_ the c�realion of linguistic
states has reinforced regionalist sentiment at sortie� cost
to national nnih.
In addition to the 1.5 c�on%titotionally recognized
Indian languages. there were. in 19ri1. some 35 other
Indian languages, each %poker b% 11 0141) or more
persons. These languages, man% of thorn tribal. are the
native languages of app 12'; of the
Ixrpolation. '','he remainder �less than 1 �of the
Ixrpolation spoke 67:3 other Indian languages or
ungrollped dialects and 141 non- Indian tongue%
exc�IIl(1ing the nmmer00% dialect% of tine sitar %elf
Ix)ImIated Aronachal Pradesh (formerly the� North
Fa%t Frontier
IlindIl% in India s1wak mainly Ilindi. Baja%thani.
Gujarati. %hrathi. (hi%a. Bengali. \s %anu se. and the
four Dra%idiao langoares� Tamil. Telttgo. Kannada.
.end Mala%,dam Mmlim %Iwak prirnarik Preto,
Ilindi. Bengali. and Kashntiri Slam of the (:hri%ti.m%
Loom. English in addition to their native tortgur
because of mis%ionar% contact% Iodi.en% living
o %er%e:es, e%ix�eiall\ in Sri I.mka, Berm.(, Mala\%ia.
South :Africa. Manritim. Trinidad, Cm.uta. the
United Kingdom. Fiji. Ken%a. and Singaixen�. h.e%e�
carried Indian languages to those areas
f
i
i
J
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

R
FIGURE 4. Major languages
MILLIONS OF
PERSONS PERCENT OF
SPEAKING- POPULATION
MAJOR LANGUAGE 1961 SPEAKING LOCALE
Inds- European:
Ifindi* 133.4 30.4
Main plain of Ganges and Yamuna rivers. Language of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan
States.
Northwestern India. Also spoken by Muslims in some southern
districts. Language of Jammu and Kashmir State.
Plains of northwestern India adjoining Pakistan. Language of
the Punjab.
The Vale area of western Jammu and Kashmir,
The present State of Rajasthan in western India. Sometimes
considered merely a grouping of separate but similar Hindi
related dialects.
Southern Himalayan slopes from Pakistan to Nepal, including
the union territory of Himachal Pradesh. Speakers of these
dialects accept Hindi as their written language.
Coastal area of northwestern India centering on the Kathiawar
peninsula. Language of Gujarat State.
Northwestern Gujarat and western Rajasthan.
Northwestern section of Deccan plateau and west central
coast of India. Language of Maharashtra State.
Eastern Gangetic Plain adjacent to West Bengal.
Delta area of Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. Language of
West Bengal State.
Brahmaputra valley and adjacent slopes. Official language of
Assam State.
Northeastern Deccan and Mahanadi delta area. Language of
Orissa State.
Kannada' 17.4 4.0 Southwestern region of the Deccan plateau and part of the west
coast south of Maharashtra. Language of Mysore State.
Telugu' 37.7 R.6 Eastern Deccan and adjoining coastal areas between States of
Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Language of Andhra Pradesh.
Tamil$ 30.6 7.0 Southeastern coast and southern tip of the Deccan area.
Language of Tamil Nadu State.
Malayalam' 17.0 3.9 Southwestern coast and southern tip of the Jeccan area.
Language of Kerala State.
*Regional language" listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution. Sanskrit, not included above is essentially a dead
language. It was listed in 1961 as the "mother tongue" of only 2,544 persons.
Urdu'
23.3
5.3
Punjabi*
11.0
8.5
Kashmiri$
2.0
0.4
Rajasthani
14.9
3.4
Western Pahari, Kumauni, and
2.9
0.6
Garhwali.
Gujarati*
20.3
4.6
Sindhi$
1.4
0.3
Maratha*
33.3
7.6
Bihari
16.8
3.8
Bengali'
33.9
7.7
Assamese*
6.8
1.5
Oriya'
35.7
3.6
Dra languages:
Language is not usually a significant social harrier
locally. since in a given area all castes generally speak
the same tongue. The diversity of languages and
dialects. however, requires a heavy expenditure r,f
time and funds by national and state governments in
preparing publications for dissemination down to the
village level. `loreo%er. the use of English over the
past two centuries for most administrative, scholarly
and scientific purposes has inhibited the developmr-:it
of Indian languages into effective vehicles for mrz.lttltiXi .rr%iLv% 1,40'11 a l. Ir Ca rib,
%1WUtiLln3l MI.MJllan, famar: Irilaang, caadil. and
uul Loillg an' .ili" IMAng drsrlupnl
Its sllklr of a111HU111 -0 cE(011. L'6 I;Ir Klre. -ILllacul IIa
PI40morr rortimmelr des'clvpnwnt. Inliallnn and rapid
r 11w11,i oe1 u( t ier h wvv (4q.1 flat rte
w1410-prrJd Ieeiprrncmcra ue Iral v)dwaf ktarid.irds of
IH'lok Thr Kirallnk Crpmnil l4knwlr4l 11411 Ix�i
WilkC, MCllaler W ;l1 ANAll Ilar mllll \'u lrul al S"a01aal IEIe
prr19W cwhanre ralri In VI I!11ro rM it Alltil -31
M40011 414111111"1 tll.11 t1414, c,ladal i x� M JW4 1 11/ 1~S9 h,,
I Ike` ralcl LsE 4 I F LIllrt ll FZsr Ya,,f PI31e In 3iatc'lt 111 It
NJS Ara c.tlmnted that firr ruilha privat-
L\agaJaliplilRl -Ag ;11w tlir n1 ail "A 114
FYI Df1Ifni ,:anllit'AUS IILj Xi 11WIIILI%LT1L71JfW"iWJ
1u S73is> F'1 11r.V74 d:eurrally the rural Ixrlplc rrudc
lr� 11 411 .I lrlll lm% Illllll Illy l 11.thr in
LAM11 Arta tittarls GOT\ A IUWI liaau,rhldJ
tanumpuunantiNSsr oll Ike ounrrMlditt vormimptkun
o tio4m10 Iwor Allies li c.1rnprt. 0 irullomill"rAl
pnxtut -ls to nlr auaa(.uillrn laj.avl 1w1 uArlrultslral rya
Tlaalrnal& *1141914n'cr dwrr .ate gnat di[ferrncm in
Ltulurrl,llelir+ Wip .'11 t.lrnr r111 upipi n, 1 L r%
FIGM 31 Cappirkip4opq pomewrl, FYI 967-69
4 1
teL,�s:ia _>rb$1 L ..'.K. r .r _.v'... ti
t
1 #E11111
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
6`1.
lair
ial
ari
l ll 77
ri 'c' ,'.r'r; ILK'...
v: >A
tJS i':
FIGM 31 Cappirkip4opq pomewrl, FYI 967-69
4 1
teL,�s:ia _>rb$1 L ..'.K. r .r _.v'... ti
t
1 #E11111
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

also been nude in providing more consumer goods.
For instance, the availability of domestically produced
cotton cloth rose from I I meters per e:pita in 1951 to
13.4 meters in 1971. The manufacture of nwnmadc
fibers, almost unknown in 1951, added another 2.2
meters to the anount of cloth available per capita in
1971. Consumer goods are still in very short supply,
however, especially in the rural areas, and their
availability fluctuates widely in response to changes in
industrial output. In 1971 only 113,00) of the
approximately 570,000 rural villages were electrified,
and in 1972 there were only about IA million
telephones in the country.
Most city dwellers in India are as badly off as many
of the people who reside in the rural areas. The
average urban wage- earning family spends nearly
two thirds of its budget on food. Most of the
remainder goes for such essentials as clothing, housing,
and fuel and very little, if anything, is left over for
education, footwear, furniture, and occasional
entertainment. Adequate housing, especially in the
cities, is very scarce, and there has been virtually no
improvement in the housing situation over the last
decade. The government has been troubled by, but
unable to do much about, the rapid growth of urban
slums (Figure 2.1). Seriously blighted areas frequently
spring up almost overnight as homeless migrants squat
on public and private property and erect an
assortment of cardboard, tarpaper, and tin hovels.
Eviction is a slow process and is usually followed
shortly thereafter by the reoccupation of the same
space by another influx of homeless, poverty stricken
persons. Over half the families who live: in permanent
structures live in one room.
2. Crime and social problems
A multitude of factors, including economic
stagnation, rising prices, urban crowding, limited
42
employment opportunities, and co'ununal an-
tagonisns, have contributed to a noticeable rise in
mob lawlessness since 1965. Open political agitation,
student disorders, and full -scale rioting have been
more frequent in this period than at ally other time
since independence. The penchant for denonstra-
tions, often violent ones, has been deeply rooted in
Indian society as a popular means of expressing
dissatisfaction and receives almost casual acceptance
from most Indians. Almost daily some group organizes
it procession which takes to the streets carrying banners
and shouting slogans. The police, anxious to keep
crowds and processions under control, sometimes
overreact by charging into crowds or by firing witl
little warning, Agitation over the official language
issue was especially severe in Tarnil Nadu State �then
Madras �in 1965 and erupted there again in late 1967
and early 1968. The language disorders also sparked
widespread mob violence across much of northern
India. The 1967 general election occasioned an
abnormal amount of political turbulence, and through
early 1973 politically related violence has erupted
periodically, especially in the major cities. The most
serious such occasions have been the riots in West
Bengal in November 1967 in connection with the
downfall of the state's leftist, Communist -led
government, the politically inspired rioting in Bomhay
in early 1969, the communal rioting in Gujarat, and
the communal rioting in Maharashtra in mid-1970.
Crimes of violence �apart from the periodic
outbursts of communal violence �do not receive the
attention of the press or the general public to any great
degree. Such crimes, while not infrequent, do not
appear to he so common as in the United States. Cases
of robbery (theft accompanied by threats of violence)
also do not appear to be as frequent as in the United
States. On the other hand, petty crime, especially in
toe form of bribery and corruption, appears to be so
widespread and so much a part of everyday life that
many ostensibly illegal acts are not even thought of as
illegal by many Indians. In part this reflects the use of
Western standards to define illegal acts that are,
within the Indian societal context, riot traditionally
regarded as such. 'rhos, for instance, nepotism is not
regarded by most Indians as wrong.
Statistics on crime are very incomplete and
generally not very reliable indicators. As of 1970,
incidents involving all forms of crime averaged about
4 million annually, and if the statistics are at all
indicative this figure is probably higher today.
Culpable homicide averages about 4.5 cases annually
per 10),000 persons. About half of the important
"cognizable crimes" annually reported �most of the
more important criminal offenses that the police are
0
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
FIGURE 24. Slum conditions in Calcutta

0
i
authorized by the Indian Penal Code to investigate
without a magistrate's warrant� involve theft and
housebreaking. Other prevalent crimes are rioting,
cattle thefts, and criminal breach of trust.
Goornda.s ire frequently blamed for much of the
crime in the cities, especially during riots. According to
the Bombay Commissioner of Police, the terra gvonda
covers "girl- teasers, bullies, extortionist,, !!;rviings.
protection racketeers, bootleggers, gamblers, 1mru-
mours of prostitutes, wagon looters, pickpockets, and
burglars." In 1970, there were an estimated 25,000
professional goondas in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
and Kanpur alone. '['he police generally try to round
III) as many goondas as possible when mob violence
threatens.
Juvenile crime is not common. Although in 1970
persons under 21 constituted more than half of the
population, they committed only about 2.4% of the
important "cognizable crimes," and a smaller
percentage of crimes in general.
The use of narcotic drugs is fairly widespread,
particularly in the northern sub Himalayan area, but
drug addiction is relatively rare. Most drug consumers
use a diluted derivative of hemp. There is also some
use of, and addiction to, opium, morphine, and
cocaine. The legal sale of most narcotic drugs is
limited to licensed shops, but control over the
distribution of the cheap and plentiful hemp products
is largely ineffectual. India is the world's largest
producer and exporter of legal opium. The
government effectively controls and supervises its
production and illegal exports are believed to be
minimal.
Regarding other social problems, there are no valid
statistics on the extent of alcoholism, although it is
undoubtedly considerably less of a problem than in
the West. Complete or partial prohibition is in effect
in most states, but a substantial quantity of alcohol is
produced legally and illegally by organized industries
and small family -run village distilleries. There are laws
against immoral traffic in women and girls, but
prostitution is nevertheless relatively open in large
cities such as Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. Beggary
is a persistent and widespread problem, particularly in
urban areas.
There has been no comprehensive study of suicide,
but Gujarat State released a partial survey covering
eight districts in the years 1960 through 1964. This
study indicates an average annual suicide rate ranging
from 5.5 to 19.7 self initiated deaths per 100,000
persons. The suicide rate in the United States ranged
between 10.3 and 10.8 per 100,000 persons in 1964 -67.
3. Welfare programs
In drawing up its integrated 5 -year development
plans, the Indian Government has held the view that
the hardships of even the most depressed classes can
hest he alleviated by accelerating the growth of the
econotey as a whole, thereby expanding job
opportunities and generating the resources needed for
better housing, nutrition, health, and welfare.
Traditional attitudes and values which inhibit social
consciousness are a substantial harrier to the growth
and effectiveness of public and private social welfare
activities. The government has made a sustained effort
to promote organized social welfare activities, hilt as
yet these touch only a relatively small portion of the
population.
The Central Social 1Nclfare Board, a sent;auhmo-
nous body established in 1953, is responsible for
surveying the needs of social welfare organizations,
evaluating their programs, and coordinating assistance
from the central and state governments. At the stilt(-
level, there are Social Welfare Advisory Boards that
assist the central organization in the for of its
policies and explain its programs to voluntary
organizations.
The Central Social Welfare Board is involved in a
wide variety of programs, including grants to private
organizations, the establishment of rural :.end urban
extension centers, and special projects to assist
underprivileged women and children. The most
ambitious program undertaken has been the
establishment of rural welfare extension centers to be
eventually turned over to private organizations. By
1970, over 2,000 rural centers had been established to
provide preschool child care, maternity and infant
health services, literacy training and social education
for women, arts and crafts instruction, and
recreational activities; over 1,400 of these centers had
been turned over to local women's groups and other
private organizations, with government grants
provided for their continued operation. In addition,
the government had established oicr 2,300 similar
rural centers in connection with its community
development program. Similar services were provided
to urban areas through some 66 urban welfare
extension centers. Twenty -two night shelters had been
set up in several cities for hornless persons. Literacy
training programs for adult women and rehabilitation
courses for the handicapped were among the other
specialized projects under the guidance of the Central
Social Welfare Board. During the Fourth Five Year
Plan (FY1969/70- 1973/74) greater emphasis was
given to destitute children.
43
N
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

v
44
privately run. In addition, the government was
conducting about 800 courses, in which from 16,000 to
18,000 persons were trained in various phase, -)f social
work. The central and state governments were also
deeply involved in massive economic and educational
development programs intended to contribute directly
to the general well -being of the population.
Private welfare organizations have long functioned
in India, although their influence tends to he
relatively limited. Most of these are under the
sponsorship of domestic and foreign religious groups,
service organizations, and private trusts and
endowments. Western missionaries have long been
concerned with Indian health and education problems
and still operate some of the best hospitals and
secondary schools in the country. Organizations such
as Rotary International sponsor hospital and medical
care programs. Private hospitals, research institutes,
and welfare homes operate under bequests from
wealthy industrialists arid others. The World health
Organization, the United Nations Children's
Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Food and
Agriculture Organization, CARE, and the Ford and
Rockefeller Foundations have all contributed
substantially indian health and welfare activities.
India is affiliated with the International Red Cress
and participates in the International Secretariat for
Voluntary Service.
F. Health
1
The general level of public health in India is very
low. Malnutrition and numerous debilitating diseases
sap the energy of the populace and create an apathy
which is in itself it major obstacle to progress.
Competent medical and public health personnel are in
short supply, as are modern medical facilities. The
increasing needs of a rapidly growing population are
absorbing all of the input into public health programs,
while at the same time traditional social practices
iirn11�il to health are still widespread. The high
illy �icy rate and the lack of adequate health
education make it even more difficult to bring about a
marked change of popular attitudes. In view of these
serious difficulties, Indian health officials appear to
have made remarkable progress since independence,
although thus far only minor inroads have been made
in the total problem.
1. General health conditions
The Indian climate ranges from cold in the northern
Himalayas to hot and humid in the south. Most of the
country is characterized, however, by tropical
is
y 1 T�y ,M`
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
Other government programs are designed to help
certain particularly unfortunate groups. Some 11s2
billion (US$ -130 million, at the predevaluation rate)
was spent during the first three 3 -year plans
(FY1951/52- 1955/56) for special programs designed
to improve the economic position and general welfare
of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. About
33% of the outlay between 1961 and 1970 was for
education, while slightly more than 40% went toward
economic improvement projects. The remainder was
spent on a variety of health, housing, and other
welfare programs.
The principal beneficiaries on a per capita basis
were the Scheduled Tribes, whose 30 million members
constituted about 7% of the population in 1961.
During the Third Five Year Plan (FY1961/62-
1965/66), Rs530 million (US$I11 million) was spent
on tribal programs, most of which were designed to
reduce the economic isolation of the tribes and to
provide improved means of earning a livelihood to
those barely subsisting on primitive agriculture and
hunting. Programs for 64.5 million Untouchables, who
constituted about 15% of the population in 1961, cost
Rs380 million ($80 million) during the Third Five Year
Plan. Greater emphasis has been placed on education
in the Scheduled Caste programs than in those for the
tribes, with expenditures for this purpose accounting
for nearl half of the outlay. Only about 15% of the
Scheduled Caste expenditures between 1951 and 1970
k'.
were earmarked for economic projects. Special college-
level scholarships are available to members of both
r groups.
During the Third Five Year Plan, more than
E
300,000 of these annual grants were awarded to
students belonging to Scheduled Castes and the tribes
received nearly 55,000.
In addition to these continuing programs, the
government is establishing institutions to rehabilitate
juvenile delinquents, prostitutes, and beggars.
Considerable attention has also been given to
resettlement problems associated with the continuing
influx of refugees. Government sponsored social
security and workingmen's compensation programs
and medical care are still in their infancy and have
been limited almost exclusively to certain categories of
government and industrial workers and their families.
Since 1964, the Central Social Welfare Board, in
cooperation with the army, has developed and
supported welfare centers and organized women's
associations in the border districts of Arunachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Gujarat, and the Punjab. In 1970 there were reported
to be 25 schools of social work in India; most of them
were affiliated with universities, but some were
44
privately run. In addition, the government was
conducting about 800 courses, in which from 16,000 to
18,000 persons were trained in various phase, -)f social
work. The central and state governments were also
deeply involved in massive economic and educational
development programs intended to contribute directly
to the general well -being of the population.
Private welfare organizations have long functioned
in India, although their influence tends to he
relatively limited. Most of these are under the
sponsorship of domestic and foreign religious groups,
service organizations, and private trusts and
endowments. Western missionaries have long been
concerned with Indian health and education problems
and still operate some of the best hospitals and
secondary schools in the country. Organizations such
as Rotary International sponsor hospital and medical
care programs. Private hospitals, research institutes,
and welfare homes operate under bequests from
wealthy industrialists arid others. The World health
Organization, the United Nations Children's
Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Food and
Agriculture Organization, CARE, and the Ford and
Rockefeller Foundations have all contributed
substantially indian health and welfare activities.
India is affiliated with the International Red Cress
and participates in the International Secretariat for
Voluntary Service.
F. Health
1
The general level of public health in India is very
low. Malnutrition and numerous debilitating diseases
sap the energy of the populace and create an apathy
which is in itself it major obstacle to progress.
Competent medical and public health personnel are in
short supply, as are modern medical facilities. The
increasing needs of a rapidly growing population are
absorbing all of the input into public health programs,
while at the same time traditional social practices
iirn11�il to health are still widespread. The high
illy �icy rate and the lack of adequate health
education make it even more difficult to bring about a
marked change of popular attitudes. In view of these
serious difficulties, Indian health officials appear to
have made remarkable progress since independence,
although thus far only minor inroads have been made
in the total problem.
1. General health conditions
The Indian climate ranges from cold in the northern
Himalayas to hot and humid in the south. Most of the
country is characterized, however, by tropical
is
y 1 T�y ,M`
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

E.
monsoon conditions, with an extremely hot, dry
spring, a hot, humid summer, and a cool, dry winter.
In these regions health hazards vary with the season.
Heat and dryness between April and mid -June cause
water shortages and heat prostration, and duststorms
often cause eye problems. The June through
September monsoon rains bring flooding, water
pollution, and epidemics of malaria, dengue, and
filariasis. In most parts of the country, winters are not
bitterly cold. In general, mortality from diseases
appears to be the lowest in midwinter and the highest
in late summer. The remoteness of many rural villages
complicates the problems of establishing modern
medical facilities in them and of treating emergency
cases and epidemics.
A wide variety of fauna and flora constitute direct
or indirect health hazards. Mosquitoes, flies, lice,
ticks, and other disease- bearing insect pests abound.
Parasitic worms cause a high incidence of filariasis,
hookworm disease, trichinosis, and other disorders.
Large numbers of stray dogs and jackals carry and
spread rabies. There are more than 45 species of
poisonous snakes in India. About 25,000 deaths are
caused each year by snakebite, the highest mortality
rate being in Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal. The
highest incidence is in the hot months. Poisonous
lizards inhabit parts of India, and wild animals pose a
continuing threat to the safety of forest dwellers in
many areas. At least 28 species of plants causing severe
dermatitis on contact grow in India. In addition, the
pollen of many plants produces allergies in susceptible
persons. There are over 700 species of poisonous
plants, most of which are dangerous only when
ingested.
The Indian water supply is drawn from perennial
and intermittent rivers, springs, lakes, wells, rainwater
cisterns, and tanks (or reservoirs). In addition,
irrigation canals and streams serve as common sources
of water. Water is generally available in the northern
mountains and hills and in some plains areas. Lack of
extensive storage facilities renders many parts of the
country vulnerable to severe water shortages in
exceptionally dry years, however. Except during the
June September southwest monsoon, desert and some
plateau areas are without adequate water supplies. In
central and southern India, ground water lies at
depths of 30 feet or more and is difficult to tap. Many
wells are dry during the hot, rainless months from
March through early June. Little of the water
consumed is adequately treated to remove pollutants,
and most is contaminated to some degree. Even the
major urban areas lack adequate and safe supply
systems. Bacteriological testing is unreliable. Shortages
of chlorine, numerous breaks in the pipelines, and
back siphonage caused by periodic drops in pressure
contribute to the unsatisfactory condition of drinking
water. Contamination is worst during the monsoon
season, when flooding adds pollutants to exposed
water sources.
Urban areas generally have some form of sewerage
system, but nowhere is the system adequate (Figure
25). The increase in the number of urban dwellers is
contributing further to the inadequacy of available
sanitary facilities. Removal of excreta, refuse, and
garbage is unsanitary and irregular. In some urban
areas the bucket method of sewage disposal is used,
with so- called "sweepers" removing the material by
hand. In areas of heavy rainfall, open sewers are
serious health hazards. Breakdowns in urban sewerage
systems are frequent, and repair and maintenance
inadequate. There is no organized waste removal in
rural areas. Human excreta are deposited in the fields
surrounding the village. Garbage is generally left to
roving or domestic animals.
Food handling is generally unsanitary (Figure 26).
Ingredients are often polluted, adulterated, or
otherwise contaminated, and there is an inadequate
sense of the importance of personal cleanliness among
those preparing food. Only relatively prosperous
Indians have proper storage facilities for perishable
foods. In most homes, only such relatively
nonperishable foodstuffs as grain and dried
condiments are stored.
Poor nutrition increases the susceptibility of Indians
to disease. Indian diets are usually unbalanced,
regardless of wealth or social class. More than 90% of
the average diet consists of grains, peas, beans, sugar,
and oils and fats. Consumption of leafy vegetables is
low, and meat is not eaten by many Hindus because of
religious prohibitions. Milk is popular, but scarcity
often results in dilution with polluted water. Surveys
indicate that nearly two- thirds of the expectant
mothers in the poorer sections of the community suffer
from serious malnutrition. Although the average
caloric intake has gradually increased over the years, it
is still probably below the 2,300 calories estimated in
the United States as the minimum average daily
requirement, and protein deficiencies are acute in
many areas. During the serious droughts of 1966 and
1967 protracted food shortages were experienced in
most of the country and widespread famine was only
narrowly averted through the import of large amounts
of foodgrains. Substantial progress appears to have
been made after 1968 toward increasing foodgrain
production, but the drought in 1972 again caused
lower production, creating serious food shortages in
some areas.
45
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
laa 111 ovd. 4 1 1 1 m1111,-11n 11n I ud rr l 11 q1 Ilrli IrI IIM t1.1
hill 111ra 11AN,r brru w %vntom um in .ttlru111on
Strllulll`II ...IIM' I1n.C44 0 11.41. 191111 JII.I 1n lhla arr.1.
I It1�1d� Ila. 1111 ullnhtlet Iulxlltlr a1.11 61011 t..1
mti71.--mh imittaltn .1tm1 r 111a1111111t: %4111.1rM111111'
Wmrc 111.4. Ira11MA .I1Z411114 ImellodJlliln1% Iu v1gM.
atim hell .t MI IM' I}111I1le 1ti111e1w'll 1111it 1,- -.11rll L.
Il4�l lu Irrlul Lilt .,Ilr hn dwuug Milk --I IIm kv.lr
wIn'rl IIM'l+� Ja hllu� -A Well 11 4r HtMgt 10.Irll
pri M14KIII 111 lu 111I CIF AM It CA 111-1 1fi.tl It 11. ,41L1 Ix.'11 dP
111t'11`aHIJ% tttu1 4% ha� erNer an m11M1 o-41 ire
tlMj i mm al
0. lN>RJ Ilf 1114(4
%"Ill �411 Illy Itry111v1 1.1h"w rUvIll trlklu lr1.rr
.11r Inutml (41 I94dIa N IJhN rllltlrttlll� .IIw>IL+ IIK41xlr
a^1J1dPra. �16ut1tMn irlfhlr 14fn�111J1n 111-tWilt.. au11
t141tIh1.41 dew qua tprlvGeulln.,rAh dipltlllrn:l l ZPat
u-s,r�Illn,l a� lwill4 pre lllh�erm oil IN-T tlre"11W 11f
IIHYr.14tI 4111�M11�I44r 11f Im�llrf 411.1 111M N�. 1411� �tkll
41M:1L we Ixllinnlarlill� .11141 r okliwimwi% 11.11`111�
lh1'171h. bell 1111- tllll171rrr 111 fl41441 II1t411ta 11;w
111itA1111r1 t11 .1 rr1111Iar' 11. Irma Irar1 41,11rt1�r I ANXI 1111
1.rlt� 11 t. IIJIIMR\IIA t11 LaTllulel 1111� III1L1111�IM 41 1
jri
Well 110C.P61�1 I44'4144' .4 14rXr pullealt1 of IJ�4- 1:�
IInIM 11Ktmi alerl I pm. Ar 1 nY 141a1I1111 1.I Jb'.Itll 1 .1111
ItarUertltull
IG,iI rlt I1ia� per 41r,ttla Il Ir h11P1 plrlalrol 11M%4
am .11111441 lot ur nmi l1.111 died 1111IH7:11711t Il4
1141111111� elut6ir laawi. In Irlom-% .11111
It ll' r(4 .It jtl4'1.1h of 11 1 (4 1JijKrlbnil. .I IIM 14uV
.11141 dl.lrrlm.o .m- uM1r+I1rr.e1.1 alert I1rel�I6alla 'hill" r 111
"I711 11'Il4lr pnln itrbrlI� Tlwi. 1J 14.1�.1 fl j%I�(dRr JMIIlt
N ILM11111 1 dral .4111k Vim 1 rs11� I rltldrllar 1� III
rhr 1.17 (4 n1. .IIMl 11111 Iml uutll lrtil\ mil. 411th a1 .4141
t111tr Ill Illr wi F1wml I1111M.Itlllt: �6111MId 41Ytt111411
ImAIL m Itl.11rt dralll Wit Ih(ti� arr rN1t (cll.ilA4
la�I>14i111 ll4llW 41r4t I t :111r41tl.1 1. IIM� %tlnld
11.44111 ti ldrllelr 14K-bh Ile d1ldrlu. lahlt'll 1:111111+ 411
al lia Ill 1[11111 1II.1111(1 n"b i1('1I 11r.11141. [111 11111.4 1'aCh
I r'.1r I lluklrfd enwilll lum, d owelyd mume4� In 11v,tl 11 a tllC thr �Ivblr 111u1,1 a 1441 �13m1411. u1d x.tel
IIIIHlli tllr lIIIIIIIM'f .11111 Pa91 full Went ftrllKul.
laen. Itillm( [I(J1.1. It.Jf 1'It 441(411, \ludlnm rs1411%1k.
.IIM{ IIM atr.k a1a111t1d ILWHI el imor .4111. rrt�enl 1hr
111 rIM Itll9lb 44M Tl, 13 11 ITm1 jtara 1% 1 frl rh a rr
U4414- 1OM.1j, InnlLrl111 4llll 11t adltiuuanf ltrathlr ll
r1I4'J11.1 rrn prltr hkill wil In I FQ'i 11.11.
rt l,Itll (4414114'11 1111 111t71tr111T n1 Irl:11i111:1 While It1r
11111R6111t ref IjIv JJr+a h;,% t1Ir11rl fu11u Jna 141 .uro.
In 11171 plmmll lillr( ell 11tr Itltpu1j11ra4 f1411 Imix�rl
111111111ik-1:
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
'a' -T %'Z ,r s
F*U2E 25� Opon 1te.a(ape dRdl Ina I'Mml
Cokvno A^
FIGURE ?Q U1 Goiefory 1"d ham" MI o
Ii" Ddd bwktw

y
w
IN
l` k.
.i
0
protected from the disease. Filariasis may weii have
surpassed malaria as the major mosquito -borne
disease; it has been found to be far more prevalent
than was previously believed. In 1971 it was estimated
that sufferers membered over 8 million.
Tuberculosis is another major health problem. In
1970 there were an estimated 6 to 7 million cases of
active tuberculosis, of which 1.5 to 1.8 million were
infectious. An estimated 500,000 persons die from
tuberculosis each year. Influenza is a potential threat,
and epidemics occur periodically, although the
prevalent form seems to be mild. Pneumonia deaths
undoubtedly occur in significant numbers, par-
ticularly in the mountainous areas of Kashmir, Sikkim,
and northeastern India. Smallpox epidemics continue
to cause a large number of deaths, even though the
Indian Government reports substantial progress in its
eradication program begun in 1962.
There were about 2.5 million leprosy cases in India
in 1970. Although the government has established
control programs, the incidence of leprosy does not
appear to be declining. The interstate migration of
lepers living as beggars� particularly near places of
religious pilgrimage �helps to spread the disease.
Trachoma is the major single cause of blindness in
northern, western, and central India. It afflicts a large
percentage of the inhabitants of the Punjab,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Gujarat. Other states
having a high (but less than 50 incidence of
trachoma are Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, and
Madhva Pradesh. Goiter affects about 9 million
persons living in the narrow northern submountainous
belt extending from Kashmir to Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh. It has been estimated that between 5% and
10% of the total Indian population has venereal
diseases.
The incidence of infectious hepatitis is high. The
common vehicle of infection is water contaminated by
raw sewage. Typhuses carried by lice, fleas, and ticks
occur in various parts of the country, although there
are no comprehensive statistics on the extent of these
diseases. The poliomyelitis virus is present, but active
cases are not common, largely because most Indians
develop antibodies at a fairly early age. Diagnosed
cases are increasing, however, and may be even more
common in the future if improvements in sanitation
reduce natural resistance. Other diseases creating
health problems are sandfly fever, various forms of
leishmaniasis, yaws, various skin diseases, relapsing
fever, and meningitis. Nutritional diseases such as
anemia, night blindness, keratomalacia, rickets,
scurvy, and pellagra are estimated to afflict about 5%
of the population. Rabies is a serious problem because
'try' 1'6,:mU ;1..r..r lw.r.: ai jail levrl-.
J)mldty vtoloWeraldr esp,mmion of he nlurAlllmul
q Arm. Jllile acy has lerm In"rasinaf In India.
Imglortiorwl dmilnzz ill illiltrley ha sr 6etr1 by
I The rapidly r %pmhJ I11R iMppulutinn w I lot in s wAblc
(crud+ the Ilmnlrcr i*li 11 l ilerwlrs li'A 1611nntia
ItKmwA In the }rwi I,eivtiecn Ilse 1051 and I$:%
oemsuus, Ills Iltrrate pmparliun a[ The IxipulAfmi
Ilw1rasltl inm 10.6 to a lxH ll 2914. altlrorrkll Ar
neipatrr ul llUtreoln War -A%rd frame 290 trillkua to
,2 out 3W millinll. OF ell- 1.13 mittlun lwu* ufflrially
ddW(k%f )As III rate in mki -IV i. it a:IS estitrulttd Illal
pivilwltly onl} S'r7U Inlltlan sic it really ablr lu nkrAxv
In mraoingful rrnnmuadmliuntin the weiltrn wxA, It
Es, unlilrly lout tlwtr was a siRnlf1cartl lncermw in the!
J%alute uelmber eJ mea:ntaRfmlly 111mile lxaptc he
IB IJtcnlcy werks A+&Ilr In tifltwnl awasul Illy
cvlmlry .alMt Irtxnn Il .cu-%. [roan a high in Kcnlla
it[ almul. MZX (66Z'% nwim M.0% frM100 1 A 14kw
In Arllnwcllal 1'r.Ldrs> 0l 0.3% (]4.0% ntialm 3.S%
ftnwles}- Wit-rovy 1% u6o ul Iui tw pslligh lnthr dtitta%
{n cnrnl areas "mw 4 pmroodinnstrty Krratci schlal
enrolles"t In the kitk% alld it b 11104"t OWPOK hlgll
evRr :ZMkq% bled mtonl mltuelillcx turh a. Clld'164nk
5iUlt. Penis, and loins. Illllrran' Int& I* he hirJ
utrlling A1lalinit than ditaadus.
t, Klviaicsary and itcoadary rduratlaa
Rrerm Indellemirilrr, twosyOrrmciffirwillait arrml
wimmdaty t,doftfian have operwtcd smmiliameuJi.
The 6por of IfKw 6tier ucvdtWctidlyorktdediymc in
"clyd oat Ills Il IWI paltrm. A Pirallcl WAtIn of
Wsk cdllwtion" tell rod ucrd Ily Alin vAndiLs r:undhi Is
aimnl all c4wreleling trarWtig wish the phy.knl and
wk'la( rnv imnnxnl III the cl111d. The main rtnloh-a is of
Ihl. luster "Iwic hdllti 11013 it Art kld4l vse
53
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
r 'a'
FIGUIF 33 Ope'rb cir cknus 1e o 11110111 kl mfkltfn 1rAD
IIh Mlllstlar .oil ON IIIIti %I JI I:J 11in M1111M
46 4 444X .i rMl P IM�r %Y.11t� III 1517,114 0441% Jl bill 11 'W- 14
Ilir �I IMlrlll� III I IN� Itnl II a�'l;f,N1 'a 4 -Ilyd ITI Ill.'
w i l l .01, 'u1n 4�a.'7 J1r11 Illr4 -1111111,w %1
.tx.t% InNil Ir1.1IIIL111d11Q lull w'jWfAI4' al.lrth. In
1111fIK11ltinit Ill,' mi jil Ir,lpm +6-1 I M
11111. 1IN� II41M'll LIrxrr J11d tlxlh� 11111g1d1 dtNl drtt11rJ11%
.1111-11tr.1 %a�Mlll I F11Fr 'Ci V t+rt .'".,..ti w .,r q erv..^ .,_';:ae r
q
b b
q O
q 00
O 00
x W
m
C
C 00
G
q
G
P0
rAW
W
F
F
A
w
y
ra
q
V q
m L'
L
W
cs
d
L
0.
q
o
e
3 d
m
z
z<
d
e a
a F
a
F
W
rZi
E�
e a
01
r?
..k
L ..r
a
x z
o
x
o
z a
q
m< w
w
a W
a
x<
c
d
e
z N
z<
m
s x
m
Q z
z= 5 o z
�d:g
z
e z
x
Y 5
e z a
x
z F e d
e w w d
A
O
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

1,033 press service clients. It also serves the
government -owned All -India Radio. PTI has
reciprocal arrangements with Reuters and Agence
France Presse (AFP), supplying them with Indian
news and receiving their incoming wire service reports.
United News of India was established in 1959 by
several directors of PTI who were dissatisfied with the
larger agency's operation. It is an English- language
service and had 62 subscribers in 1965, of which 52
were daily newspapers. UNI has a reciprocal
agreement with the Associated Press (AP), making it
the primary channel through which U.S. news service
material is disseminated in India. It also receives
reports from West Germany's Deutsche Presse Agentur
(DPA) and the Yugoslav Telegrafska Agencija Nova
(TANJUG).
Hindustan News is more specialized in its coverage.
Established in 1948, this agency distributes material in
nine languages. It concentrates primarily on regional
and local news, carrying very few foreign reports and a
lower proportion of national news than PTI and UNI.
The agency is cooperatively owned by its staff.
Service of yet another type is offered by the Indian
News and Feature Alliance (INFA), formed in 1959 by
a veteran journalist with the objective of distributing
articles by leading correspondents to small newspapers
that could not otherwise afford such talent. In 1965 it
was providing several syndicated columns in English
and Hindi to 103 newspapers. Of the remaining
Indian services, the Indian Press Agency (IPA) is the
largest. It is comparable to UNI in total subscriptions,
but concentrates less on the daily press than on other
periodicals. Its subscribers (78 in 1970) are primarily
leftist, Communist, or fellow- traveling publications.
In addition to Reuters, AFP, AP, DPA, and
TANJUG, a number of foreign press services are
utilized by the Indian press. These include The New
York Times News Service, the news services of the Los
Angeles Times and the Washington Post, TASS, and
the Japanese news service Kyodo. The Soviet news
service Agenstvo Pechati Novosti (APN or Novosti) has
a special distribution arrangement with the Indian
Government. Other press organizations maintain
offices in India but do not regularly distribute news.
Among them are the Time -Life News Service, United
Press International, Poland's Polska Agencja Prasowa,
and Czechoslovakia's Ceska Tiskova Kancelar. The
Sun (Baltimore), the Christian Science Monitor, the
Los Angeles Times, Newsweek, The New York Times,
and the Washington Post have correspondents in
India.
68
2. Books and libraries
Although there are well over 1,000 book publishing
houses in India, most of them are small, poorly
financed, and equipped and operated almost on a
cottage industry basis. Fewer than 200 publishers are
of any significance nationally or internationally, and
only a small number of these maintain high standards
of production and a well- developed distribution
system. Most of the books published concerning
sophisticated subjects are in English, although some of
the leading publishers are also beginning to produce
high quality books in Indian languages. The editions
of books published in India are comparatively limited
(usually 2,000 to 5,000 copies). This is partly due to
the small number of people who read books and
probably more importantly to an undeveloped
distribution system. A number of the more enterprising
publishers and distributors have founded mail order
clubs and have through this means been able to
increase their business considerably.
In spite of the low literacy levels, there is a strong
unsatisfied demand for books in India. The publishing
industry is primarily attuned to the safe, profitable
textbook market, and publishers are generally
reluctant to risk their small capital on new and
untested general works. The tendency of the
publishers to sell in quantity direct to the schools
which are engaged in large -scale educational and
training programs inhibits the development of
wholesale and retail trade in books. Nevertheless, there
is a tremendous dearth of English- and, especially,
Indian language texts. Throughout most of the
country it is far more difficult to purchase a boor
alone a specific title, than to buy a leading p
Like many other aspects of Indian pul
country's library system reveals a great'
intent and performance. The go
committed to developing an effective li.
but has neither the means nor, on the
attitudes necessary to translate the intent into el iecUve
action. Nevertheless, there are a number of
comparatively well -run and well- stocked university,
research, and special libraries. Moreover, there are a
few central public libraries which are introducing
modern library concepts in India. The chief examples
of the latter are the UNESCO supported free Delhi
Public Library, which was established in 1951 to serve
as a model for Asia and has been a marked success,
and the National Library in Calcutta, which has
India's largest collection of books, over 800,000
volumes (Figure 43). The Delhi Public Library
remains, however, the only one of its kind in the
country.
urz tc ik:.
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
1
I
1 i 1
M�
i 4
,t
1
5
F to
ca
N
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
FlouR5 s3. A wnrdwg roan in *4 Nonw tAx", Cckwna

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0
I
F
i
In 1070. whey P0111t17 Ilhran WtVICT% ..err
1selfarrrrd L 13 51aic CCII1Ful lAbrAFIM. bs
Mr4unUtnw14y 100 clistdti lltlrtdn, alhool I,.M town
IlhriAm (m4161 of Ihrnl PAVIIte, ul`-MJI t1WIM- dJAI1x1
1lhtaTknK 1.410 Ie4fiec re11lral 111prurlm Leal NAM
villaptr t1]1 A11im Alms Rhea rin ere wry much In nerrl
of prr,ptr lWillnit, rr0nvp. aced Ixx,tt Meld ssf trn
lmlublr whm 4bc brad elf 1ti \.'dtiton;jl Uhrtp h as
W1 11 -i] "stwllnald IXM0 lnf luu314 11wirmrii erdly yn
prinwn gntl "'INLry school (illr.+rin %kq)tlliy 01 the
nine. Line] Ilk- avem t ealleAc tihr.,n k�,Asc, a prdl
tf ul lee br desiuYl
3. Rodin, trlcs'isIM and films
11- o-irtlerwilt :�rntevlled .ill -fndia ee prilu l AM b
;IM u4c rodlu antim ill 1Ud1w In cold -1079 AIR
01,era1�11 edevul 27q nwdlu11l ;AIkl sheNtsavc slutlevls
filr thr 6inurstiv aril! fun-litrt 13nhuties.1 succor AIR's
lrurt+nllticn 2nd rercrivlteK wilrn can rxili: ltrbll}
TV-K+ o: 711% of 111e thilh Ito pXpgrrnth.
Thrm is u aldr Rarx hrnanrr. 1wtsertYl IrulHrnl+ir.11
rsivrrat;e Mild actu.ii rt'.YPllnn twltenllA In IJIC 107b
I here w etc wl,uul 13 ml11loo Iitrn" rudPl Prwivers Ilk
Ilk e1111 eYN,ntt st e11 ilti'Cr lloll NWJ1 !11 Ilse latxl
tit" 1.1 gddillnn, their sssrr 11m2eaht} a sulxt4ta11al
100 urikurrxtl amrlbcr of Itnli�tt rd %CI Tlw
>~tnrrttnerul, %ldCh 1rurds the ntdin Jr, an I0elsnrtuul
1tlfsHn ul rdwaIing Ihr 11rujhle uneJ 1mJIGISiltK Ihcir
wRlr of Idrrltill will' Ibr oulkin. Ig nllasrlmli1R ter
lrmadrn Ihr IislsnioK ouelleliw by di.tril,ullrrl rrdl4n
III furul v116Rrt IFIKijm ail Alit It- elllmininn
rosrr.c Is 1 be etitreulini totil3rr of fltc papolatJun by
1974, and thrre tsa J>njr.m In Increase thr numltczof
Iwdlo rctrt�rrn
In 1970, uboul lull of AIR's "waic broudrag
Mee (Resole rcttiur l Mus *%dcll III rttwe "t
eenwtoder rchusislrr! of 11r%-% (?t; t. 111vnnrlon {B i 1,
nlral lKllum {:1+l, draneu (55:), wnd n sneitly of
sPr of ttm%ranls fur semowri. chl'don. faaw s. thr
umIcd sc -Ims, wlal Multi Rroupt Mum Than MO
diffreenl IonRua wild dlalrcts werr uw.d In Ala
sM+Rt -+loe dent lie3inr wMm sto tkxis i:ivc a:rd 9 to to
huun dally, Athough MAW. Ca kcutlu. BUI Kq, and
hlaelril Iara,tito3t IS 1* 21 hr.un dull} FAtcrnat
lsfltttenn xeer hm.,dti,tsl In �_l Iaeltuagm K I ndlam 13
folriRai pr417tivall) unhand Or clock to rtela- tin
Zralused, Arnllalld. Afflrst and Eueupr- lnr it to ul of
nlslut -15 61,111 4;
F-1 lb"4 h Atli Is a pwrmmrDl oppiltration. Its
AIM-We rnlnnotnt;etrhrs hu v r u faiU -,jl a rrpttlwtlon
Gip smunw, w33e1 Imrelltuhl> T1wrr1�s0menvDwvdl
IMARIM41 [WOO- uhinAdt rinc11u11 0MitL ]hut IhcGanllrns
PodY wild elp;awtbnl Knuep. arr allurrd espwl time lee
Ctpin+ Ifhcir sWX%, eJlr malur crilldsm u( AIR s
crRular hrcha.?ev +14 1% 11'1ar Ibr. Wild IV I)r do ind
ImTx -Wa1.01 Ipt 3istrek.1, lime rklm -1wl y
ma eked perfe-Mntr felt 1Jt11 t. vadclr rnlrrtoilsment a lto]
Men fN tt wpuf.ir mus plated In Rad Crylorb
troll! lull� 1909 Illd1il h IMM16 111117 telrItiOn
.Nohow Tl'tt Is IL V Iklrtl In BEIILt and Jr-4s a hmuda�I
r-01 n ill nnh u1jewl 37 IrLdn la t?ctobrr lW2 T1
xvrict� hrculno Mraht.tlltfi lie Ihr fleettJ ax:L stlttt Ihr
i
711
floullf tliattegm gowwad
WOLMW IN Up-mn dly radle set
:W"
I
t
I
d
wz
;x
r
r
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

5
i
0
opening of it station there built by West German
technicians, Reportedly to offset the effects of
Pakistani television broadcasts seen in the populous
Vale of Kashmir, a TV station also went into operation
in Srinagar in January 1973. All of these stations are
operated by AIR. There are plans to open stations in
Ahmadabad, Amritsar, Bangalore, Calcutta, Kanpur,
Lucknow, Madras, and Mussoorie.
Motion pictures are probably the most popular
medium of mass communication in India. India ranks
second only to Japan in the number of films produced
each year. Indian moviemakers release about 300
feature films per year, some 15% of which are in color.
Production of regional- language films, aided by
incentives from the state governments, is increasing
yearly. Films of all types are imported, the largest
numbers coming from the United States, followed by
the United Kingdom. English language films cater
mostly to the English- speaking big city elite.
Most Indian feature- length films are highly
romanticized accounts of modern urban living,
although historical, mythological, crime, and
adventure themes are also popular. Song and dance
routines are almost invariably included. Documen-
taries and newsreels are gradually becoming a regular
feature in some large cities. Censorship on moral
grounds is strict, with the result that Indian films are
rather bland and foreign imports are often extensively
cut. In 1971 there were 7,000 movie theaters in India
consisting of 4,500 permanent structures and 2,500
touring types. There were two cinerama theaters in
operation in 1968 and a third, under construction
then, probably has been completed. About 100
theaters specialized in showing foreign films. Some
500,000 people normally attend motion picture
showings every day.
Private studios in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras
produce most Indian films. However, industry,
business and the government have recognized the
effectiveness of films as a medium of communication,
particularly with the large illiterate segment of the
population. Some businesses have begun to produce
commercials while others have recognized the
potential public relations role of educational films,
which they show in villages by means of mobile film
;Nits. The government set up a National Film Board
in 1957 to promote the development of the film
industry as a "medium of culture, education, and
healthy entertainment." A large number of newsreels
and other short subjects are produced in regional
languages each year by the government. A film
production bureau, constituted by the National Film
Board, advises and assists in the production of films.
Licensed motion picture theaters are required to
include in every performance at least 2,000 feet of
government approved documentary, news or educa-
tional films. The government sponsored Film Institute
of India gives special training in film techniques. The
government also supports the Children's Film Society,
promotes international film festivals, gives awards to
noteworthy Indian films, and encourages the export of
Indian films.
4. Other channels of information
The government has begun imaginative programs
of visual and aural information to increase public
awareness of its more urgent programs such as family
planning. Various information and educational
themes are presented to the public in many ways
including displays on billboards, buses, trains,
matchbooks, shopping bags, building walls and other
surfaces, as well as in calendars, folders and brochures.
The government conducts meetings and group
discussions, puts on exhibitions, sponsors song and
drama shows, and organizes citizen's information
forums.
Personal contacts have a special importance in
Indian society, despite the increasingly effective mass
media techniques. Face -to -face communication is an
indispensable means of exchanging information
because it utilizes traditional networks of family, caste
and religious relationships as well as commerce.
Informal means of communication cut across the
fabric of Indian society and are important even among
the intellectual elite, who have more formal channels
of communication at their disposal. The intellectual
community receives information on important.ideas,
books and articles by an effective, although informal,
word -of -mouth and letter writing network.
5. Information from abroad
Many major countries and a number of smaller ones
make information available to Indians through
informal channels and several countries maintain
formal information programs. The principal media
used include radio, publications introduced from
abroad or domestically produced, foreign government
news agencies, exhibits, organized gatherings and
cultural exchanges.
The best received and most frequently listened to
radio broadcasts from abroad include Radio Ceylon,
Radio Pakistan, British Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC), Radio Moscow, Radio Peking, Radio Australia,
and Voice of America. Radio Ceylon, which
broadcasts in Hindi, Tamil and English, can be heard
71
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2009/06/16: CIA- RDP01- 00707R000200070035 -0

}dR fLj. ",di.'"".,Y7'" T.,:p, ,kn??"io1'^Fn,'.r ...+`ixy!.� n..w,.. r.i..rr >r... ..r�- ....�r r.
.nm *.m.mv+� .r.wnanr .,.var,n rt. �,c.ne. rr �rt