ICE CONDITIONS IN THE WATERS BORDERING USSR

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• Document Page Count: 126
• Document Creation Date: November 11, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 4, 1999
• Sequence Number: 9
• Publication Date: June 6, 1947
• Content Type: TRANS

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Number 77
ICE CC10721C.I..3 IV TEE
6 Jun 194.'7
4
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DOCUMENTS BRANCH
TRANS LATIO N
Number 77
6 Jun 1947
ICE CONDITIONS IN THE 'WATERS BORDERING USSR
Prepared by
'Documents Branch
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE GROUP
2430 E Street, N. W.
Mashingtont, D. C.
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SUMMARY OF CONTENTS
Ice Conditions in the Waters Bordering the USSR
This publication is comprised of 49 extracts from 25 dif-
ferent Russian and Japanese documents. These translated ex-
tracts provide information on ice conditions in the seas bor-
dering the USSR. The information is presented by geographical
area, beginning with Sakhalin, proceeding roughly counter-
clockwise through the Arctic, and then down through the White
and Black Seas.
? Topics discussed include the formation of the various
types of ice, influences affecting such formation, ice
movements , the dates of the-first and last appearances of
ice, and harbor data.
The greater part of this information, which has been
drawn from Russian documents or from Japanese translations
of the Russian sources, concerns the ice conditions in the
North Pacific and in the Arctic Seas. The information ob-
tained from Russian sources falls into two categories: that
obtained from ships investigating ice conditions in the
Arctic Seas, and that obtained from ice observation stations
in the Arctic Seas at important points along the Northern
Sea Route.
It should be noted that temperature readings appearing
in the text are in Centigrade.
- The sources from which this material has been extracted
. .
are inserted for convenient reference following the section
headings.
Pages 1 through 120
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EXTRACT TRANSLATION
ICE CONDITIONS IN THE WATERS BORDERING USSR
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Ice conditions in the North Pacific
A. Sakhalin
1. General
2. Ice off North :Sakhalin
3. Ice off South Sakhalin
4. Sea Ice on the East and West Coasts of Sakhalin
5. Harbors
B. The Kuriles -
1, 'Drift Ice orf the Kuriles
Ice in the Kuriles
? 3, Sea Ice in the Central Kuriles
4. 'Harbors
Kamchatka
2, General
2. ' Harbors
D. Gulf of Tartary
.1. General. -
2. Harbors
E. Okhotsk Sea
1. General
2, Harbors
F. Bering and Adjacent Seas
1. Drift Ice Conditions in Bering Straits, Bering
Sea, and Chukotsk Sea
2. Anadyr Gulf .
Ice Conditions in the Arctic Seas
A. Chukotsk and Adjacent Seas
1, Chukotsk Sea
2. East Siberian Sea
.3. Drift Ice Conditions in the 'East Siberian Sea
.4. Observations of the Icebreaker Litke, 1934
B. Kara and Adjacent c?"eas
1. Kara Sea
2. Laptev Sea
3. Observations of the Icebreaker Sibiryakov, 1932
4. Freezes and Thaws of the Sea off Dickson Island
C. Barents and Adjacent Seas
1. Barents Sea
2, Ship Observations of Ice Conditions in the Arctic
Seas, 1934
3. Murmansk Harbor
D. White Sea
1. General
2. Harbors
III. Ice Conditions in Other Seas
A. Baltic Sea
1. General
2. Harbors
B. Black Sea
1, General
2. Harbors
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IV. List of Ice Observation Stations
V.
List of Hydrological Survey Stations
A. Stations in the East Siberian Sea
(Compiled by Survey Ship, F. Litket 192)
Stations in Chukotsk Sea?.Berin$ Se,a, and Bearing
Straits
(Compiled by Survey. Ship,
C. Stations in Chukotsk Sea,
Straits
(Compiled by Survey Ship,
D. Stations in Chukotsk Sea,
Straits
(Compiled by Survey Ship,
E. Stations in Chukotsk Sea,
Straits
(Compiled by Survey Ship,
Bi
Dal'hevestochniki 1932)
Bering Sia, and Bering
Krasnoarmeyets, 1933)
Bering Sea; and Bering
F. Litke;, 1932)
Bering. Sea, and Bering
Soviet, 1932)
Editor's Note: Names appearing in capital letters followed by an
asterisk are transliterations :from the original.)
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T. ICE CONDITIONS IN THE NORTH PACIFIC
25B 294954, Ocearl2a2.phy of the Pacific, Pacific Association,
194.17
Grea4e Ice. _Grease ice, by definition, is the term applied
to t:he thin covering of minute_ice crystal's which cover the sur-
fdce of the sea when freezing begins. It is seen first in the
Bering'Sea'-and the Sea of Okhotsk and then moves south. It may
be said that the grease ice. west of the Kamchatka peninsula moves
south...mere raPidly than that on.the?east. In the Vladivostok area,
grease ice appears much more rapidly than would be expected for
its latitude, and the _clustering of the isopectic lines-may be a
phenomenon worthy of note. Still, this clustering is noticeable
,only when the lines are drawn very roughly, and actually the for-
mation of grease ice is a sortiewhat irregular Phenomenon. Grease
ice has an important connection with the subsequent formation of
drift ice and land ice, and therefore with navigation.
Drift Ice. Generally its formation takes place in much the
same way as grease ice. Investigations in 1929 and 1930 showed
that drift ice appeared within 5 days after grease ice formed in
about half of the places where ?observations,were made. This was
thought to indicate that a long period of time need not elapse
between grease ice and drift ice, and indeed, some experts argue
that in the Arctic, one day is sufficient for grease ice to change
into drift ice about .a root thick, The author has observed that
in the Straits of Tartary grease ice may change into lily-leaf-
shaped ice in anywhere frau .a few minutes to several hours. .,
, The course followed by drifting ice would' seem to be con-
trolled by surface currents and winds, but such .observations are
extremely difficult, arid the true answers not:easy-to'bbtain;
It has been noted that drift ice:off:the Maritime Province,
south of 4.50N and east of 135?E, moves extremely slowly. One ex-
planation offered for this is that it is due to .the comparatively
high sea temperatures brought about by the Tsushima Current.
?
Freezing\ Time. The freeze begins the latter part of Sep-
tember in the vicinity of Anadyr Gulf on the Bering Sea and ends
in January neai4 Vladivostok.' Komandorskiye Island, Dutch Harbor,
and Kiska display only a thin ice even in the most severe winters
and mark the southern extremity of ice-in the Bering Sea. The
mouth of the Kamchatka River freezes the first ten days in Novem-
ber; hence, we can see how a narrow cold current flows near the .
Kamchatka Peninsula, and in the east, a warm one near the Komandor-
skiye Islands.
- In the sea off the. Mouth of the PVMTA* river in western Kamchatka
there are several places that are slow to freeze and Often remain
open until the end of December. Near the southern extremity of the
peninsula, the Westcoast freezes about a month. earlier than the
east, i.e., in November. "
As -a whole, the'sea of Okhotsk freezes earlier than the Bering Sea.
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Navigation. Navigation becomes impossible along the north
coast of the Bering Sea between the beginning and the end of Oc-
tober and along Kamchatka between the middle of September and the
end of October. However, Petropavlovsk can be used, until the
first of.Jonuary. The north coast of the Sea of Okhotsk:is closed
to ships by the middle of October and the region around the mouth
of the Amur River between November and December. It should be
borne in mind that although these ice'conditions control the dates
when navigation is possible, the importance of individual voyages
also contras the dates to some degree.
Complete Congelation. Complete congelation refers to ice frozen \
completely enough to allow communications to be carried out over its
surface. Complete congelation occurs in the region of 4.5?N, and in-
complete congelation around lamchatka. The former is in the area
affected bY_the,extremitiesaOX the Tsushima Current. The latter is
probably pe .to the Japan.C147rent, or perhaps to the fact that the
Kamchatka peninsula pro_pcts out to sea and has generally maritime
meteorological conditions. At any rate it is not Yet clear why
Kamchatka does not experience more severe 'cold and freezing.
.Surface Communications.. ComiauniCations on the'as-urfece of the
ice begin, in the Bering Seal about the middle of October.
Thaw. The first sign that the-land ice is beginningtd thaw is
the opening of fissures in the surfixe of the ice. The thaW, in gener-
al, proceeds opposite to the freeze, from south to north. The thaw
occurs near Vladivostok the last of February; near Amur Bay the middle
of May, in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea the middle of June,
and in Anadyr. Gulf, near the end of July.
Resumption of Navigation,. As the thaw progresses, navigation
is resumed, usually about 20 days after the ice begins to split up.
Thickness of Ice, Inside Anadyr Gulf is 2 meters thick, but
only 1 meter thick at the mouth of the Gulf. The 1.5-meter line runs
Eiff across the Sea of Okhotsk, and the 1-meter line runs roughly
across the center of thia sea. It should also be noted that although
ice freezes early in the Vladivostok area, it does not reach great
thiekness.
. Sakhalin
1. General
LI-5B 288688: Climate of Japan, O(ADA Takematsu.,; 1917
According to NODA, former director of the Metedoiogical Observa-
tory at Otomaril in Results of the. Meteorolo ical Observations in
,?4,aa1in for the 20 Years., 1906-1925., 1927, t e sea ice is Usually
formed every winter on all the coasts Of Sakhalin except at gabka
and its neighborhood., Even, there?' there are visitations eraflOat-
ing ice every winter. 'Generally', the sea is covered with floating
ice more or less cemented together so as 'to form a laree'sladet of
?ice. This ice sheet usually has a thickness of 50 to 100 centimeters.
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Often it surpasses 5 to 10 meters, and presents great inconvenience
to navigation. The harbor at Otomari is closed by the formation of
ice generally in the last ten days? of December and that at Shikuka
in the first ten days of the same month.
2. Ice ollir.North Sakhalin
ZTB 2887061 Weather. of North Sakhalin0 Central Meteorological
.Observatory, 2927
Alexandrovsk? the only itportant port in'North Sakhalin,"
15 shut for about half the year because of ice and often even ice
breakers prove to be of no value in restoring communications. It
requires ten days from the' mainland to north Sakhalin by sled and
since it is a very difficult journey, attempts are often made to'
,use Riley?, near the border. However, even Bilevo cannot be said
to be a completely ice-free port.
When: the freeze begins the temperature is -100 or lower
for several days, and the temperature of the water when it freezes
is usually -20. By the last ten days Of October the northern coasts
begin to freeze, and the ice gradually. fills the Straits of Tartary,
except for the mOUth of the. Amur River. In the area of Nikolayevsk
the freeze begins. the first ten' days of. November, and near Aleksan,.
drovsk and,along the,eastcoast, the last ten days of November. Th0
Amur channel and Straits of Ta.rtary freeze'andfcan be crossed on the
ice after the middle ten days of December. This ice is difficult to
classify according to type, but when relatively quiet weather prevails,
it resembles ide cread, With a light filM-on top as if cryptomeria
leaves were floating on the surface. As it bedomes thicker, it be
comes smooth, but in the north the gales cause the ice surface to .
1?ecome irregular. Also, once an ice field has beenfrozen, additional
ice and snow may fall causing it to assume irregular shapes. At
Alekandrovsk this is called "ice mountains."
The ice fields are not of uniform thicknesp, but the maximum
thickness is I Meter. At the peak of the season they cover the entire
visible area, extending 3,000 meters or more from the shore, and are
strong enough to allow men, horses, and even automobiles to cross.
.The thickness of the ice, in addition to being influenced by
the continuing cold, is added to by the Great Manchurian Tides which
break through and cover the ice stirface where they Mix with the snow
and freeze adding to the thickness. Transport over the surface of the
ice is easy when the ice is smooth, but it requires great labor to
clear a way through the mountainous irregularities which do appear:
Although the surface of the ice-field appears firm, the tidal
variations may cause it to fracture. Even in extremely cold weather,
this, together, with the wind, may be enough to break the ice from the
shore and start it, drifting. This situation has forced people to dis-
tinguish between this 'drifting 'ice and the "stationary" ice which re- "
mains attached to the shore, bUt actually they do not differ in ndture.
It is important, however; to recognize the drift ice, because of the
danger of using it for transport. The current under Ihe ice is extreme-
ly rapid, and since this keeps small channels open long after the rest
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of the area is frozen, the ice is liableto develop fissures.
If one falls into such a fissure, he is almost sure to be
carried away by the current.
The ice in the Straits of Tartary does not extend into
the open sea and is therefore extremely atrong. The straits .
can be crossed by sled from December of each year until April
of thc following year. People liiing in temperate lands cannot
even imagine how extremely busy communications between the con-
tinent and North Sakhalin become at such a time!
The ice usually breaks up in May and drifts gradually
southward; The increasing temperature, of course, contributes
to the'break.up of the ice, the tides and gales are also im-
portant. '
Information of this sort, concerning the nature of the
ice fields, has aided in forecasting the periods of freezing.
' Even though, in general, it may be said that by May
all regions are free of ice, occasionally ice floes, aconstant
danger to navigation, are seen east of Sakhalin in June. The
Straits of Tartary can hardly he aaid to be completely safe for
navigation, even in June. Ice flowing out of the Amur -River
goes both north and south. Since the channel is wide and :short,
it is usually cleared early.
A short table of freezing and thawing dates recorded at
Zhonkierskiy Light filexmadrovsl,j/ follows:
3. Ice off
,LEB 396061:
?
Year
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920.
1921. ?
1922
1923 -
, 1924.
1925
South Sakhalin
Sailing Directions for
18 Nov
5 Dec
-6 Dec
I Dec:
2 Dec
-22,-Nov
29 Nov
29 Nov
?19 Nov.
Thaw
29 Mar
117,4r -
26 Apr
? 20 Apr
8 Apr
- 23 Apr
7 Apr
3 My
22 Apr.
26. Apr
Sakhalin and Kuriles,
Hydrographic Office, 19377
Ice south of Sakhalin consists of Ice frozen on the coast
line and drift ice which has piled up on the coast. It is usually
anooth, but when surface irregularities do occur, the result of
'snow accumulating and freezing on the drift ice, they are often
sevei-al meters high.
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JDrift iCe is generally controlled by the direction of the
wind.
Drift ice at Maoka is -Carried in by the
southeast wind.
While atFunatomari it is ,carried in by
out by the west or northwest wind,
northwest
and out by the
or northeast and
'The island has extremely: lbw winter temperatures. Since,, the
Water temperature often falls below the freezing point, the entire
coast :line freezes, and drift ice is alWays experienced in spring.
-
40-or. 0-mile region south of Maoka is rarely free of ice, but the
region around Cape Soni and Cape Nishinotoru is often almost completely
blocked.
Tb p ice, caused by gales and extremes of temperP.ture, forms
over the sea where the depth is 3 to 5 meters; at such times ice from
the rivers and snow mixes with this ice, causing it to look like
whipped cream. Sometimes it assumes a dark grey cole:o. Smooth,
transparent ice is rarely seen.
This soft ice develops as the temperature drops, and when the
daily mean atmospheric temperature drops 7 or 80 below freezing, the
water temperature drops to -1? or lower which causes the ice to be-
come fairly solid. Wind and tide force it into a, compact sheet,
kPeping vessels away from the coast.' This generally occurs in Otomari
in the last ten days of December, about 20 days earlier in'ShikukA, 15
days earlier in Ambetsu, and 20 days later in Maoka:.
Ih Qtomari about the last ton days of December, the mean daily .
atmospheric temperature falls to about -1(76 and the water temperature
reaches -1.5?. The coastal ice thickens to between 0.5 and 1 meter..
Since it is stationary, its surface can be used to transport
cargo, but in Maoka, the temperature, even in January, the most seite/7e.
'month, does not reach -2.00. ,In Honto since it does not 'reach 790, ,
there is little ice.
During the middle 'ten days of March the warm spring weather
begins, and as the daily mean ,atmospheric temperature reaches -50,
the temperature of the water under the ice rises, and the ice breaks
off from the shore and begins to drift. And ahd tide Parry it south.
Sometimes it reaches the coast near.Kitami'but usually it melts in
the area of 45? or 46? N.
AccoP,ctin to Commodore Makaroff'? obserlf,ations.., the Sakh414
cold current'anws south from Cape Kitashiretoko into Taraika Bay ,
where it is :joined by ice from the Peronai and Naibuchi rivers. Pro-
ceeding north'along'the west coast, it affects Shirotoke Peninsula,
Aniwa Bay, and Cape Nishinotoro.
4. Sea Ice on the East and V'est Coasts of Sr1'd12.1in,
2513 368798: Study of Sea Ice and the Freezing of Harbors,
ILYLSHI Takeshio and KURATSUKA Yoshio, 1947
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Sea Ice on the East Coast of Sakhalin
There is a marked difference in sea ice conditions on
the east and west coasts of Sakhalin. The east coast of Sakhalin
comes under the influence nf a cold current with the result that
its freezing period is about one month longer than the west coasts,
and navigation is impossible for over six months in the year. Ice
conditions on, the east coast are determined by the east Sakhalin
cold current which drives the drift ice south and gives rise to the
drift ice off northeast Hokkaido. The details of the drift ice
period are-as follows:
Location Freeze Thaw End of
,
Drift Ice
' Okrata Anchorage, Saknalift.
urkt
La.- uct
Lariy May
(Urkt Road)
Bay
At See
Late Dec
Late May
Late dun
'Lake Taraika
Early De
Late Mar
Early Jun
Naka Shiretoko tpeninsula
Lid Dec
Yid Apr
Late Yay.
Sea ice is caused by the ice floes on the Horonai and
NaibUchi Rivers which flow down to the sea in winter and form a
belt of sludge ice along the coast Until December. Gradually it
changes into .hard ice but it i naturally broken up when it comes
under the influence of these wind tidal cUrrents. Then it becomes
drift ice and begins to move. During this period, the sea ic&
freezes into solid blocks and the ice floes come into contact with
each other, forming large masses. To these is added accumulated
8now.and the area of ice is gradually increased. The sOuthward
flow of the east Sakhalin Cold current,: the flow of the riVers, the
north wind, and Taraika Bay and other topographical features compel
the drift ice to flow to the soUth, only to be obstructed by Tonnai
Bay :and Cape Aire. It naturally has a tendency to accumulate along
the east coast to the north of these two points. If the ice en?
Counters the strong northeast Wind, it becomes increasingly compact
and forms large ice fields.
With the advent of the spring thaw, the ice is carried
away from the coast as sheet ice by the. rise in temperature and..
the. wind tidal :currents. Although the ice breaks up under .the heavy.
seas, it continues to drift southwardS on the east Sakhalin current.
The south wind, however, which blows in this region for four to six
months, frequently interferes with the flow, The drift ice is carried
on the cold current of-the'Sea of Okhotsk and stretches mainly from
Kaihyo Island to Tonnai Bay, Sakaehama, and Cape Airo, and drifts:
about generally inside the bay, forming a large continuOus idelarripr
reaching to Cape, Naka Shiretoko. The strong west wind, t.he.rise in
temperature, and the swell assist in the dispersal of the ice until
it clears completely.
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,From the above and from shipping reports, it appears that
there are two main strips of drift ice. One, strip appears to stretch
along the east coast from Shirutoru to Cape gaka Shiretoko and another
from Kaihyo Island southwestward to Cape Airo, As in the southern
section of Taraika Bay, the density of the iCe in the northern section
is low and the ice is formed to the south by the cold current as well
as by the river ice from the Horonai River. Skirting Kaihyo Island,
the drift ice enters the bay and is said to reach the Kashibo area on
the east coast, There are no accumulations of ice as long as the
- rather strong Acutheast wind does.not,blow continuously along the coast
in the Kashibo area,
'If the westerly wind blows strongly, the ice, assisted by
the southward current running alopg,the east coast is forced southeast-
ward. When a southeast wind blows continuously, the ice is always
packed into the bay.
As long as there is noyariation in the wind direction in
the coastal belt stretobt4 for 5 :to 10 nautical miles below Shikuka,
a southward current flows from the confluence ofthe river ice, ef this
area and the sea water, This has a tendency to form a lane in the
drift ice as far as Cape Naka Shiretoko.' It iS thought, however, that
this lane will close as soon as the wind direction changes. Thus it
is presumed that vessels navigating in the northern section of Taraika
Bay during the thaw take advantage of the constant west wind. It is
obviously the best policy when sailing northwards to make use of this
ice-free lane.
The types of drift ice in this area are as follows: Typ6
the ice is spread out in a line floating upon the surface of the water.
This becomes drift ice at the beginning of the thaw and gradually in-
creases in size after travelling 1 or 2 kilometers. Type B: the ice is
level and rather high, surmounted by white snow. Type C: the iso is
flat and blue in color. Type D: the ice has accumulated -.ike piled-up
marble. Tye E: the ice is a combination of the last three types. Type
F: ?the ice is high above the surface of the sea and worn away near the
surface of the water; Type G: the ice appears slightly above the water
but is mainly submerged. Generally Types Band C are hard and Type D is
the hardest. Because Type E is a combination of Types B, C, and D, gaps
and cracks normally occur in the ice. During the thaw, Types F and H
(deeply submerged ice) appear as individual units of drift ice. There
are many gaps in the field where marine animals sport on the drift ice
belt. When you come within 100 to 200 meters of the drift ice, the water
temperature suddenly ,drops.
.b. Sen Ico .nri the est Crc,Ist of Sakhalin
,frb,0 climate of the west coast of Sakhalin is mild, compared
to that of the cast coas,t as it comes under the influence of Tsushima
Current from the Sea of Japan. ?Even the effect of `the drift ice is
slight in comparison with the east coast. The west coast is distinctive
in that it p6ssesses.tho one ice-free harbor In Sakhalin, and at present,
communications are maintained on every 'alternate day between Otomari
and Wakkanai-over the Railway Winistry communications route between
these two points. The following is a summary of conditions during the
drift ice season on the west coast of Sakhalin.
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Location Freeze' Thaw
Maoka Late Dec fate Mar
Us4iro Mid Dec Early Apr
Esutoru Mid Dec Early Apr
End of Drift Ice
Atbetsu Early Dec kid Apr
Aleksandrovsk Early Nov Late Apr
In Maoka Harbor, thin ice, about 20 to 30 centimeters
thick, can be seen within the harbor itself and on the level beach
area,. Although the harbor is occasionally blocked by drift ice
passing through from the north, large ships are not prevented from
entering and leaving the harbor. The reasons for .there being no
ice between Maoka .Harbor and ,Ijonto Harbor, almost 25 nautical miles
away, are that the area is affected by .certain sea currents to the
south of Maoka Harbor, and that t4-le Presence of waves witnin the
harbor does not, permit thewater.to remain calm. If we compart the
east and west Coasts:, the'fallowing differences become apparent:?
Southern Section Northern Section Drift Ice
Coast Freeze Thaw Freeze Thaw.
East Coast .Early Late Late Early Plentiful
'Test Coast Late Early Early , Late 'Little
c. Sea Ice in the Soya Straits (La Perouse Straits)
The most important role in maritime communications
along the Sakhalin coast is played by the communications facilities
of the Railway Ministry. These are mainly affected by the drift
ice of Soya Straits and Aniwa Bay. The drift ice in these two.'
areas varies greatly according to the locality and the year. .At
the end of December, floes of river ice float down to the mOUths af
the Susuya and RUtaka Rivers, and as the temperature decreases,. the
extent of the ice field gradually increases, Mounds of snow are
thrown upon the surface of the sea and beaten about, turning into
'slush ice. The surface of the sea becomes sluggish and the waves.
die dawn Until with a sudden. drop in temperature, the surface freezes.
These conditions extend all along the coast with an increase in the
cold. The ice is broken up by the wind waves. However, the moment
the wind drops, the ice reunites, forming large masses. Uth the
fall of snow, it gradually develops into a thick ice field, extending
over the entire area of the.bay, and in motion at every point because
of the Wind and, tidal currents, This sheet forms in early February, .
and by the middle of harc.h?.Ahe ice is from 0.3 to 1.2 meters thick;
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The waters of the Soa. Straits seldemfreeze'becauSe
o' the warm Tsushima Current flowing north from the Japan Sea.: lhat
little ice occurs is either of the -SI:ugh or. pancake type. Most of
the drift ice, driven by the north win and the east .Sakhalin current
along the coast of Sakhalin, flows South and drifts along the northern
coast of Hokkaido,, Some of the ice drifts into the Soya Straits and
the presence of the numerous ice floeslowers the temperature in the
strait for a period of two to four menths. This ice rounds Cape Nishi-
notoro and drifts as far west as Kaihyo Island and as far north
Cape Soni. To the south, it reaches the islands of Rishiri and Lebun
off the west coast of Hokkaido. At the beginning of April, the drift
ice, from 1 to 2 meters thick, clears..
As previously stated, the amount of ice in the Soy' Straits
depends to a .great extent upon the year. About Feb 1931, freezing and
drift ice conditions did occur. At this time two icebreakers, a new
type, the khiwa Maru and a modified type, the Iki Maru, navigated the
straits but the latter veisql frequently stuck fast in the ice field,
which was 2 to 3 meters thick, Unable to mon forwrd,pr.,,b.44-, it
was compelled to remain in the ice until extricated, With _difficulty,
by the Aniwa Maru. The area was also affecteq. by drift ice during
the winter of 1939 when great volumes of ice riven by a very strong
gale drifted into the strait?s on .6 Feb from t e as coast of Sakhalin.
On the 7th, the ice filled Wakkanai Harbor anl. as the Aniwa, Maru stuck
fast in the ice fiela while entering the hart9r, all communication
between Otomari and Wakkanai was temporarily uspended. From 10 to
24 Feb, communications were maintained along n emergency route be-
tween Otaru and Otomari. On the 28th, it was possible gradually to re-:
store communications between Otomari and Wakk nai, and the damage re-
sulting from sea ice diminished from that day on.
5. Harbors
a. General
L,51): 357487: Report 313 HydrographicOffiee?
?Confidential," Jan 19327
Ice is encountered everywhere on the coast of the island f::xcept
:for a region 4 or 5 miles south of Maoka. Maokai sUi2ject to drift
ice in February and March.
The north of Taraika Bay freezes solid in the middle oL December:?
Aniwa Bay often freezes in ,December and is alWays frozen solid in
the middle Of, January. It thaws the last ten days of March, but as late,..
as the middle of May, large ice floes are seen along its east coast.'.
,
'
Place :Years Recorded Freeze Begins Hard .Ice Maw End of:.
,
Forms Begins. Drift Ice
27 Nev 19 Jan 9 Mar 2.,Apr
28 Nov --- ' --- 12 Apr.
21 Dec .....:.... : 20 Apr
8 Dec 28 Dec 16 Mar ..13 Apr
:Qtamari
1906/1936 '
Shikuka
'1906/1936
Maoka
1906/193
Ambetsu
1929/1936,
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b. Ice at Alekaandrovsk (1919 - 25) DB 288706 Weather of North Sakhalin, Central Meteorological Observatory, 1925J
Nov
1919
Dec
1920
Mar,
-
-TOTE: In this diagram, the 4;0
"entire sea surface," an areq
o? about 15 miles radius, vie.
ible from Zhonkierskiy Light g
(elevation about 63 meters) CL
Gig is rated as "10," and the nn
frozen portion rei.resented ig
terms of this figure. "Sta-
CD
tionary" and "moving ice"
are defined as follows:
"stationary ice" is that (01
fixed to the shore, and is -&
between 2 and 3 feet thick; U,
"moving ice" Consists of -CD
drifting floes,. willch, 21- ig
thoughtheyimay occasionally1.7,3
attach themSeIves to Station-En
.ary ice, are generally kept,"
in motion by currents, tide (")
and wind.
33
1:1
co
4)
(h)
CD
CD
CD
CD
CD
cn
CD
CD
?a
CD
CD
CD
co
Zn
1320
Dec
. . .
1921
e'3 Mar
m
co
6
Cd4
CD
cn
C20
CD
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B. Tie Kuriles
1. Drift Ice off the Kuriles
ZI5B 368798: Study of Sea Ice and Freezing of Harbors, HAYASHI
Takishio and KURATSUKA Yoshio 1947
The drift ice off the Kuriles must be thought of in relation-
ship to that off Hokkaido and Sakhalin. The drift ice which strikes
the north coast of Hokkaido normally reaches Atoiya (Kunashiri Island
in the southern Kuriles) about Feb, having been carrie&by the Sakhalin
sea currents and the seasonal winter northwest wind. Then, it strikes
the western coast of Etorofu and Shana about 19 Feb From there, it
drifts northeast and reaches the islands of Uruppu and Shimushiru in
the central Kuriles.
There is little data for areasfarther'northp but according
to the Report No 47 of the Kobe Oceanographical Observatory, in a
normal year, the ice goes no farther north than Shimushiru?,and even
in years of heavy ice it is seldom seen as far north as Onnekotan
Island in the northern Kuriles. In heavy years, it flows out of the
Channel of Ricord, Vries Strait, and Boussole Channel, drifts from
the east coast of Kamchatka to the Pacific side of the Kuriles by way
of the Bering Sea, is carried down on the cold current which passes
through the wators off the southeast coast of Hokkaido, and gradually
disperses. This ice appears to originate in the Okhotsk Sea and does
not appear to encounter that from the Bering Sea. the period of drift
ice gets shorter as one goes north. Details as given in the follow-
ing table:
Beginning and End of Drift Ice Off the Kuriles
? 1924 1931
Island Place Name Begin End Duration Begin End bLumtion
Uruppu Mishima Bay
Shimushiru Buroton Bay
Ushishiru Bay
Matsuwa Yamato Bay
23 Feb
21 Apr
58 days
18 Fob
20 May 92 dayf
2 Mar
26 Apr
51 days
19 Feb'
13 Mar 23 dayt
7 Mar
20 Apr
45 days
20 Feb
10 Mar 19 day
12 Mar
23 Mar
12 days
4 Ear
12 Mar 9 days
2. Ice in the Kuriles
275B 396061: Sailing Directions for Sakhalin and the Kuriles,
ralTEnse-Hydrographic Office, 1932/
loating ice on the Sea of Okhotsk side of the Kuriles is
driven in by the north or west wind and out by the south or southwest
wind. At Shiranuka and other places on the Pacific side this situation
is completely reversed.
In Chinomiji on the southeast coast of Kunashiri, the ico is
-frozen from the first 10 days of January to the first ten days of May. .
On the northwest of Etorofu Island there is much floating ice, and al-
though it freezes in winter, it does not become as firm as land. Ice,
driven by wind and current from the north, enters tho bays and piles
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CPYRGHT
Alp along the coast, gradually extending out to sea for several.
smiles, and reaching a thickness of 3 meters or more. In'Shanal
a thin iceldue to the west or northwest wind, freezes on the
coast in the middle of January. By the end of the month the bay
is completely closed. In Shibetore; the floating ice is blown
inland the last ten days of January by-the north or west wind,
until in the first ten days of February all that can be seen is
an ice field.
?
The region north of Etbrofu and, as far as Shimushu Island,
has very little ice, comparedwith the seas to the south, but the
, ?
northwest coast, oven though 'it is north of Etorofu Island, is
'affected by the wind from the 'Okhotsk Sea and freezes. It may be ,
said in general that with the exception of Shimushu and Paramushiro
there is little evidence of ice here. ,
In general, there is much drift ice northwest and south-
west of the uriles and surpriSingly little near the islands be-
tween the east of Eruppu Island arid KaMchatka, and on the south-
east of the Kuriles. Thickness and size of ice also differs.
On the northwest, ice forms each year, but on the southeast,
often it does not form at all. On tho southeast, even when ice
'does form, there are no vast ice fields as are seen in the north-
west.
In the northwest of the scuth 41pri1es, near Shanal ice
begins to drift about 10 Fob. This ice is formed in the north
and northwest part of the Sea of Okhotsk and is carried by wind
and current. Occasionally, it blocks the straits and coasts for
hundreds of miles. Etorofu Island, Kunashiro Island, the east
coast of Hokkaido, and Shikotan are occasionally closed by ice
4 to 9 meters thick. This ice is melted by thu Pacific, an the
?
ports are open by the middle ten days of May. ? .
The Chief of the Namuro Cbservatim Station at Rubetsu on
Etorofu Island, determined, about 1921, that the April and May
drift ice on the Kurile area freezes in the winter to thc east of
Sakhalin, breaks up in March, and is brought south by tidos and
wind. North of Hokkaido it meets the northeast current which washes
the northwest coast of the Kurile, is carried to Etorofu Island,
Uruppu Island, and the coast of Shimushiru Island. One portion
proceeds from Kunashiri Channel, the Etorofu Straits, and Eruppu
Channel to the oast of the Kuriles and is carried on south. The
ice frozen west of Kamohatk,?, and along the shores of the Sea of
Okhotsk does not enter the Kurile. . Drift i(ZQ is generally en-
countered from -prii-to.tho first ten days of Yay and after the,
middle of hay is usually not encountered at all.
Drift ice found in Juno and July in the Sea of Okhotsk
is' 4ways accompanied by fog, but fog does not occur in the Kluiles
bpcause the temperature conditions are not suitable. It is im-
possible to detect the presence of drift ice by measuring tie temp-
erature of the water because therc is no difference between the
temperature of the water near the drift idc: and thu usual temperature
.of the sea. The wind gives groat force to the drift ice, and its
surface 'is generally very irregular.
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It is apparent from the experiences of ships entering these
waters that the wind?-controls ,the.,,position of the drift ice. The
northwest coasts of Eterofuii4a4c1 44c1 Ku4ashiri Island are frozen
solid, and it would seam to be extremely difficult to find suitable
navigational conditions around these waters.
3. Sea Ice in the Central Kuriles
. .
ZBB 244833: Weather. ,of the Central. uriles, Report No 87,
Kobe Oceanographic Obse-rvatory, Jun 19327
, Due to the severe minter wind and violent movement of the
sea, the temperature of the water .often drops below freezing without
heavy ice forming. On clam days, or when 'there is a northwest wind,
sludge ice forms about 50 or 60 meters out to sed. If, however, the
sun shines or the wind changes to the seutheast or becomes violent,
the ice breaks up and begins to disappear. Observers have stated
that sludge ice never occurs in Kobune pay (Uruppu Island).
At Buroton Bay (Shimushiru) the entry of drift ice aids in
the freezing of the sea, and heavy ice forms.
The period of freeze, as shown in the table below, generally
lasts from the first ten days of February until the middle ten days of
March:
Freezing Dates
Place
Tokotan Bay (Uruppu)
Year
1928
1931
.Freeze Began.
12 Feb
4 Jan
Freeze Endeti
Buroton Bay (Shimushiru)
1920
.24 Feb
2 Mar
1921.
18 Jan
14 May
1224
17 Feb
---
1925
10 Jan
16 Mar'
1928
28 Jan
18 Feb .
1931
16 Feb
-...-
Nellie Bay (Onnekotan)
1924
? '6 Mar
11,Mar:
1931
23 Feb
12 Mar
Drift ice floating along the coast comes from the Sea of
Okhotsk, but none seems to come from the Bering Sea. Most of the
drift ice encountered in this region seems to Form along the east
coast of Sakhalin, and along the coast of Kitami-Kuni, in Hokkaido.
Broken?up by changes in temperature, it is carried along on the
Okhotsk current and the winter winds.
Assembling all observations on the movement of this ice we
learn that it first approaches the southern Kuriles, and proceeds north
following along the archipelago.
Most years it stops in the vicinity of.8himushiru and rarely
goes further north. Records show that in 1923, 1924, and 1931 the
ice reached Matsuwa but was not observed at Onnekotan. These seem to
have been unusually cold winters with correspondingly ,plentiful drift ice.
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In contrast, the winters of 1926 and 1930 were comparatively warm
With no drift ice. The drift ice also appears to have a relation-
ship to, the atmospheric temperature Over the Sea of Okhotsk. -
One part of the driftice, while advancing north, goes into
the Pacific, where the cold currents carry it south. This is the ice
encountered on the Pacific side of the Kuriles. Li observer ot
Mishima Bay observed pack ice drifting south through the south Uruppu
channel.
The Hakuho Maru, attached to the Ministry of Agriculure and
Forestry, encountered the following drift ice while patroling the
Kuriles over a several year period:
a) 1150 15 May 1925: Encountered south-bound drift ice
about 10 miles south of Uruppu.
) Evening 17 May 1925: Encountered large amounts of
drift ice entering Pacific south of Uruppu (Channel).
Temperature of sea, -20.
c) 0900 17 Feb 1926: Encountered large amounts of drift
ice coming from Kunashiri Channel, about 20 miles east
of Shikotan. Temperatkure of sea, zero.
Drift ice in harbors and bays is governed principally by
the wind. Sea winds drive it in and the land winds drive it out.
'Thud,' the position of a bay in the archipelago, i.e. whether it is
on .0-ie Pacific or on Sea of Okhotsk, is most important.
Bays on the Okhotsk side are filled with drift ice by the
northwest winds, and cleared by the south or east winds. ',:hen a
great amount of ice comes in, the sea Often freezes into large ice
fields which are driven closer, and closer together by the wind.
4. Harbors
[Source -same as DB 24483
Drift ice conditions at various harbors in the Kurilcs
are reported below:
a. Mishima Bay, Uruppu
This small harbor, near the northeast extremity of the
island, east of Cape Shishiiwa, opens north. It is about i mile
wiae inside and about 1 mile wide at its mouth.
8 Mar 1?29: Fresh northwest breeze. Drift ice observed
off shore early in morning. ,,bout 1600 began to close in shore
until about mile away.
9 Mar: Drift ice increased. Covered entire visible area.
10 Mar: Large amounts of drift ice off northeast extremity
of island, proceeding to Pacific,
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15 Mar: Uind shifted to south. Harbor drift ice driven'
out to sea.
war:, , 'Jest wind produced a small amount of drift ice
in the Sea Of QkhetSk',.-WhiCh'iastted until 3'Apr: b0.0auseef the calm
weather. On 3 April the wind shifted-toincthweSt, driving the ice
shoreward..
?; 10 Apr: E48f *4,4d;.. 1.Ce packs beganto separate from the
shore.
11 Apr: North wind. Ice returned.
-
^
? +
14 Apr: Moderate south gale, driving ice out..
19 Apr Southwest wind! Ice. packs about 4 miles north
Vest of island,- "
20 Apr: Ice approached shore, but wind changed to south,
driving it northeaSt. Last day drift ice was noted.
b. Buroton Bay, Shimushiru
This harbor, in the northeast of the island, faces the
Shimushiru Straits. It is half?moon shaped with a radius of about
3 Miles., It varies in depth from 5.9 meters at the mouth to about
250 meters in the middle, and is surrounded by moiantains which shelter
it from the wind. The mouth is about 160 meters wide,- 2 meters deep,
and full of rocks and sea weed which show on the surface of the water.
Flood tide at the mouth is about 2 knots and ebb'tide about 3 knots.
17 Feb 1924: Noon atmospheric temperature ?130, water
temperature ?2'6, a rapid fall from noon 16 Feb of 8? and 10. West
windolaccompanied by snow. Thin ice, about 50 meters out to sea, the
first ice of the year.
. 2; Feb South wind, causing ice to move. A blue fox on
the ice we4 caftied out of the bay. At about 1500, wind changed to
west, driving the ice back towards the shore, rescuing the fox. (Such
. , .
a fox, it should be noted, ordinarily weighs about 4. kilograms.)
7 Mar: Northwest wind; drift ice 'entered harbor for the
first time.
8 4,a; Bay filled with ice floes, extending about.200
meters out to sea from the mouth oflthe port. Largest ice floes about
5 meters long, with about 1 meter of their height'.exposed above water
line. Ice floes packed close together, permitting crossing on foot at
will. -
l5_har.2. Nothing but ice visible from mouth. Shimushiru
Straits, about'll miles wide, frozen tight as far Ketoi Is.
Ice stops at Pacifid. '
,
?
18 4g: 'East wind. Atmospheric temperature rose to--30
at noon. Ice floes began to move. -
,
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CPYRGHT
19 Mar: Ice completely gone outside of bay but re-
mained in bay.
?
22 Mar: North wind. Drift ice.
23 Mar: .From morning on, gentle south wind Which
gradually cleared mouth of bay. '
24 Mar: East wind followed by severe southeast
wind. Noon atmospheric temperature, 00; water temperature, 1.5?.
Ice floes, which up until yesterday could be crossed-en Toot, CQ111-:
pletely disappeared and the sea was calm.
25 Mar: dest wind. Ice ippeared in bay.
26 Mar: Ice scattere-2, over bay but did net leave bay.
6 Apr: West wind drift ice again entered bay. Con-
tinued until 8 April, covering bay.
13 Apr: Rapidly rising sea and atmospheric temperd-
tures caused rapid thawing, and prevented pile-ups of ice floes.
Most of ice disappeared.
14 Apr: Some ice, carried by morning tide, entered
bay and remained until 24 Apr.
26 Apr: Large ice packs seen in Sea of Okhotsk. Last
ice of season.
c. Ushishiri
This island consists, actually, of two islands, Kita
and Minami, connected by a reef about 300 meters long. There is a
bay on the east or Pacific side ad one on the west or Sea of Okhotsk
side.
7 Ear 1924: Fresh northwest breeze, accompanied by snow.
Noon atmospheric' temperature, -90, water temperature, -0.50. First
drift ice of year seen in Sea of Okhotsk.
12 Mar: Moderate northwest breeze. Noon atmospheric
temperature, -2.50; water temperature, -0.50. Drift ice in west
bay about 5 miles to the north apProaching island; reached west
bay at 1815. Some drift ice apparently proceeding south in east
bay.
13 Mar: Moderate northwest breeze. Noon atmospheric
temperature; -4; water temperature, 00. Drift ice which entered
west bay evening of 12 Mar now fiemly packed around Kita and Minami.
Islands. Blue foxes seen crossing between the two islands.
14 Mar: Moderate west breeze in morning, Changing to,
north in th.e afternoon, Noon,atmespheric temperature, -30; water
temperature, -0.50, Majority of drift ice off west of Minami
Island diSappeared. Drift ice on west of Kita Island proceeded
into east bay through the reef.
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. --
,
15 Mar Fresh west breez4 Noon atmospheric temperature
-*70; water temperature, 0.50. West by solidly frozen from shore
out; connecting Kita and Minami Islands. Some ice also in east bay.
I
16.121:1 Moderate northeast gale, bringing drift ice into
east bay from 0700 on. Ice in west bay moved out to sea. Noon atmos-
pheric temperature, 2.5?; water temperature, 0.5?.
17 Mar: Moderate northeast gale continued, completely re-
moving ice from both east end west bays. Noon atmospheric temperature,
-1.5?; water temperature, 09.
19 Mar: Some ice entered west bay in morning, crossed the
reef and entered east bay in afternoon. Ice noted occasionally out to
sea, off the west bay, drifting from southwest to northeast.
28 Mar: Moderate south breeze. Noon atmospheric temper-
ature, 59; water temperature, 19. No ice in east bay. Ice seen
drifting off west bay from west to northeast.
Har-
bor'
0
.2....A4EI Ice suddenly sighted off westbay.
1,2-A211
19-20 Apr: Ice seen off west bay. Last ice of Seasen..
Ice approached Island
then withdrew to th north.
Drift Ice Seasons
Year First Day Last Day
Notes
?
,1921 2 yr,
Drift-ice until 9 Mar when observer
lcft.
1922 I Mar 5 Apr
1923 12 Feb ___ No records after this date
1924 6 Mar 14 May.
1927 1 Mar --- I e until 11 Mar, when observer left.
1928 2.1 Feb 9.Apr ,
1929 -12 Feb 5 May
1930 7 Feb 21 Apr .
cd
m 1924 12 Mar 17 Apr
, 1925 y23 Apr 12 May:
-g 1929 12 Apr ---
,0
0 1931 27 Feb 1 Mar
1,4
1:q . 1924
1925
I 1927
?,0 1929
, 19.31
23 Feb 26 Apr
8 Yr 16 May.
16 Apr ObserVatIonsfdid not begin until 16
_
8 Mar 20 Apr Mar when ice had already formed.
18 Feb. 20 May Drift ice sighted far out to sea on 20
May; not .seen between 29: Apr and 20 May.
, ? ,
Ice this day only.
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(cont'd)
Harbor Year
0
M
F.1
tit
.24
F-1
?
Drift Ice Seasons
First Day Last Lay
Notes:
1923
15 Mar
13 Apr
1925
?11 Apr
Ice this day only.
1927
29 Mar.
3 Apr
1929
4 Mar
Ice this day Only.
1931
14 Feb
25 Feb
1927
28 Mar
2 Apr
1931
17 Feb
Observer left before end of
drift ice. '
1920
6 Mar
25 Mar
1921
27 Jan
11 Mar,
1924
7 Mar:
26 Apr
1925
1 Apr
Ice this day only.,
1927
2 Apr
Ice this day only.
_1931
19 Feb
13 Mar
1924
13 Mar.
27 Apr
1931
19 Feb
11 Mar
1923
5 Feb
27 Mar
1924
7 Mar
20 Apr -
1931
20 Feb
10 Mar
1931
3 Mar
12 Mar
1923
13 Feb
15 Feb
1924
12 Mar
23 Mar
1931
4 Mar
12 Mar
Station
TIShima,Bay
Buroton Bay
Ushishiru Island
Yamato Bay
Comparisons of Drift Ice Seasons
1924 No of
First Day Last aly Days
23 Feb 26 Apr 63
7-Mar 26 Apr 51
7 Mor 20 Apr 45
12 MP/. 23 Mar 12
First Day
18 Feb
19 Feb
20 Feb
4 Mar
1931 No of
Last Day_ Days
20 May :92
13 Mar 23
? 10. Mar 19
12 Mar 9
NOTE: The drift ice season is shorter in the northern islands.
C. Kamchatka
1, General
LTB 209732: Map_of Sea and Weather Phenomenon, Northern AreQl.
undateg
The past coast of Kamchatka is frozen. from November through
April. The ice breaks up the first part of May. When it is frozen
it is possible to cross the channel (Lithe Straits) from Kamchatka
to Karaginski Island. A thin ice appears inside Petropavlovsk Harbor
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in the winter, but it is kept clearby power.eraft and
. , ,
ships may enter and leave.' The lowest temperature at
PetrapavlovSkoccurS'in january, when it reaches 330 below
zero. ?
.The west coaPt. 0:e1.4mChatka irs frozen from Nov-
ember to April. The ice melts the first ten days of June,
but, there, is much drift; ice, :Ice begins to melt on the
,
- south coast of Kamchatka in the middle of March.
The northern part of the Sea of Okhotsk is _frozen
, .
from November to May.. :Drift ice is a danger to navigation
on the east coast of Sakhalin ,until the middle of JUne.
2. Harbors
JIB 302646: Surve- of Far Eastern USSR) Economic
?search QC ion, South Manchurian Rail-
road, 19327
The Bering Sea is acted upon in the south by the
warm current, making Petropavlovsk practically an "ice-free
port," However, the navigable season is usually only from
April to November. Other so-called "ice-free ports" such as
Vladivostok can be used only from February to December; at
other times, navigation is almost impossible without the use
of ice-breakers.
Navigation is generally difficult during the thaw
because of the drift ice and gales. Accidents and collisions
are especially frequent in the area from Nagayevo to the
Straits of Tartary and on the east coast of Kamchatka.
In the East Siberian Sea, drift ice most often en-
dangers navigation near Vrangelya Islands.
D. Gulf of Tartary
1. General
fussian Pilot of the Pacific Ocean, Hydrographic In-
stitute, 1940/ .
.To the west of Soya Straits drift ice is carried Put
of Tartary by north and northwest winds. In the region of
Cape Nishinotoro this ice may be observed from the end of
December until the last ton days of March. led floes, weather-
ing Cape Nishinotoro, reach up to Cape Soya. The ice diminishes
in the presence of southeast winds.
Drift ice appears in the Soya Straits, usually about
20 Jan. This ice comes from the Sea of Okhotsk to the northeast.
With the advance of spring-0 as soon as the southern and western
winds begin to blow, the ice is usually carried off immediately.
This occurs on the average around 16 Mar, although itis not
rare to find drift ice even in April if there are no northeast
winds.
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In the region to the east of the Soya Straits, ice flocs
appear with north and east winds at the end of December or at the
beginning of January, and disappear at the end of April or the be-
ginning of May. But sometimes in the event of large 'accumulations
of ice in the southwest part of the Sea of Okhotsk and the preva-
lence of northeast winds, ice floes up to 300 odd meters may be
seen in succession across the Soya Straits in the area between
45?-47?N and 144?-1450 E, even during the last ten days of May.
Along the southeast coast of Hokkaidc on all the points
from Cape Erimo to Cape Nosappu, drift ice may be seen from the
middle of December to the end of March. There is an especially
large amount of icc on the eastern extremities of Hokkaido where
it often obstructs passage through Goyomai Straits.
Ice is widely dispersed in the sea and often obstructs
traffic. Ice fields attain,dimensions up to two square miles,
and pile-up to a 'height of 7 mo"ters above 'thv water. They
appear from the east and, as a result of the currents, gradually
approach the shore where they freeze in with the thin shore ice.
In the winter the northwest coast of Hokkaido freezes out
to 6 to 8 miles from shore, but the Soya Straits remain open as a
result of the high temperature of the water brought by the current
coming from the Japan Sea. Drift ice fills the straits from the
end of December to the end of Earch, making navigation nearly im-
possible.
2. Harbors
L5B 209732: Map of Sea and Weather Phenomenon, Northern
57;.-TaTzate-d7--
North of Sovetskaya Gavan, pack and drift side that can
be dangerous to navigation is common. De Kastri is generally
frozen until the latter part of June. Its minimum temperature
in January is -29.10.
-
Aleksandrovsk has.a minimum temperature in January of
-33.5?, and Nikolayevsk of -45.0?. The Straits of Tartary arc
frozen from the middle of December until the middle of March.
The ice here breaks up in April, except in sheltered places
along the coast.
Harbors in the vicinity of Okha freeze over in November,
and the coast in December. Ice here melts the first part of hay.
2I5B 307665: Gazetteer of the Soviet Far_East? South Manchurian
Railroad, l92/7 ,
The sea does not freeze in the vicinity of Fallshivaya Bay,
but a mile of .ice does form along the coast. The main part of the
bay, the mouth of Khadya River, does freeze, in spite of its great
depth and area, since the temperature in winter sometimes reaches
40?C .512, but only for. short periods of time. The weather at
Falfshivaya Bay is, in general damp and cold.
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De Kastri Bay is frozen usually from the, beginning of December
on, but it has been known to freeze the first part of November. Be-
ginning in the east, it thaws in April, aided by the action of waves
arid tide. The thaw has occurred as early as the latter part of March.
The ice, even after it is broken up, continues to float for some time
in the offing, and in 1897, continued to float here until the middle
of May.
That part of the Straits of Tartary facine, De Kastri Bay freezes
solid in winter as far as the eye can see, but the ice is not one con-
tinuous sheet, and drift ice is often seen off Cape Sushcheva. Only
the inner reaches of De Kastri Bay can be navigated safely at such
times, and so the gulf itself can be said to be navigable only for 6i
months---from the first of May until the middle of November.
In the area between Nikolayevsk and De Kastri Bay the ,first
place to freeze is the region around Cape Jaore, which is usually
closed by the end of October. Next, the channel betweon Popova, Island
and Cape Yekateriny freezes. About two weeks later, the Amur River
facing Nikolayevsk freezes. Since the Straits of Tartary, when frozen,
is used for traffic, it is supposed that it freezes' completely, but
there are portions south of Cape Lazareva which do not freeze.
E. Okhotsk Sea
1. General
Z5B 292727: The Pacific Ocean, Academy of Science of the USSR,
192g
In spite of low temperatures, the Sea of Okhotsk freezes only
along the shores in a bolt 75-90 kilometers wide, but bays and gulfs
are entirely Covered with ice. Freezing begins during the first half
of November; the accumulation of ice continues until February, and in
the north until March. Toward the middle of March, when the temperature
everywhere has risen to 00, the accumulation ceases, and in May the
thaw begins along with concurrent breaking up of ice in the rivers along
the coast. As a,result of winds and currents the ice begins to move.
At the end of May and the first half of June, the ice begins to go out
to sea across the Kurile ridge. Usually towards the second half of June
the Sea of Okhotsk is almost clear of ice, At this time the presence
of ice is possible only in the western part of the Gulf of Sakhalin and
the southwest corner of the sea. After that the ice moves mor,per-
sistently and disappears only towards the second ,half of July, and Some-
times'not until August, as was the case in 1915.
LII6B 307665: Gazatteer:of%the Soviet Far East, South Manchurian
Railroad, 19227
.Ico is,.of course, encountered in the Sea of Okhotsk during May,
and has been seen in July and August. During the.cold-season west and
north winds prevail. In winter west winds are'most frequent, with oc-
aassional north and east, Winds. In March the 'winds are changeable and
often severe northeast gales which tend to breaklup'the ice and spread
it over the west and northwest of the sea arise. ?
?
The central part of the Sea of Okhotsk does not freeze, but its
coast 2.4.ne is closed from Noyember to April. In the first part of May,
the various rivers emptying into the Sea of Okhotsk begin to thaw, and
the sea ice begins to move from the north towards the Shantarskiye Is-
lands, and the east coast of Sakhalin. Some enters the Soya Straits.
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but most of it moves towards the mouth of the Kuriles,. where it
is melted by the Pacific waters an July. Ice remains near the
Shantarskiye Islands until. August, and has been recorded in Z-Lmur
Bay as late as July.
2. Harbors
Lgource same as DB 307662
The Gulf of Sakhalin freezes in winter, but even though
it freezes-before Amur Bay, drift ice still occurs at the end' of
July.
Nikolaya Bay (53040, :.,dademii Bay) has a very mild climate;
severe winters are rare. The rivers freeze the latter half ofApril
as spring begins, and the ice completely disappears in 'May. However,
the ice inside the gulf does not break up in winter.
F. .B..e.rixag...zd.....4.11.E.nts
1. Drift Ice Conditions in Bering Straits, Bering Sea, and .
Chukotak Sea.
ZEB 302476: "Hydrological Survey and Drift Ice Conditions from
the East Siberian Sea to Bering Sea," Far Eastern
USSR and Outer Mongolia Research Data No 54,1 Re-
search Section, South Manchurian Railroad, Dec 1939,
from the Russian Li., Kireev, 19357
a. Chronological Observations During the Navigable Season
1932 (Survey made by the ship, Dalinevostochnik, spon-
sored by the National Hydrologic Research Society and
Pacific Marine Research Society and Pacific Marine Re-
search Society)
14 Aug 1932: hiie cruising through the Bering and
Chukotsk Seas from 14 to 17 Aug 1932, the ship encountered drift
ice in.the vicinity of the Bering Straits and the southwest part
of OhukOtsk Sea. On the morning of 14 lAig, an ice pack boundary
lying along a north-south axis was seen 3 or 4 miles southeast of
Cape Dezhneva (East Cape). The survey ship made anchor 2 miles
east of the ice pack boundary (660 00'N, 169? 27.5'U). few
small icebergs were seen, only in the north-northwest direction. -
Ice spears were extended 4 to 5'milos south of Cape Dezhneva. -Due
to a north wind, these ice spears became broader and started to ?
spread in.the southwest direction. Drift ice from the north began
to flow past the ship, and by nightfall its donsity was 4 tO 5 balls.
15 Aug 1932: By early morning the drift ice completely
surrounded the vessel. Several small icebergs were seen among the
drift ice. The flow of drift ico throughout the day was'to the
south and southwest. In the afternoon the ship sailed into the bay
near Cape Dezhneva to unload supplies at the Uelen weather station.
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, 16 Au 1 2 While leaving the bay, it was necessary
to cut acrosg't e ace spears at the muth. After leaving the har-
bor, a westward course was followed ?diad drift ice was soon en-
countered having a density Of L. to 5 ballso The east portion of
drift ice moved towards Ratiiianova ;stand (Big Diomede Island), and
now the ice barrier was 'extended from northeast to.SOuthwest, h.t
0630 the, ship's position was 650 '53-.8'N1, 169? 27'W, and it was finally
able to get out of the drift ice area. It sailed northward keeping
parallel to the ice barrier on the left.. :A.0800 the ice barrier
was no longer visible. Afew hours later the course was changed to
the west, and the ship sailed through open sea until nightfall. At
a point 10 or 12 Ales northeast of Cape Uiguen, an ice barrier whose
boundary ran from southwest to northeast was encountered. The ship
changed its course with the change in the ice barrier. boundary, and
later the course Was, chanPd toward Cape Thompson on the Alaskan main-
land. After the ship cruised east for two days, on the night of 17
August, another ice barrier was sighted at 67? 06' NI 1680 39t ?
b. Chronological Observations During the Navigable Season,
1933 (Survey 'made by a ship sponsored by the National
Hydrologic Research Society and the Pacific Marine Re-
search Society)
,11 While the ship sailed along the coast line
from Cape Dezhneva to Cape Serdtse Kamen 4o drift ice was observed.
Moreover, no ice was seen around the vicinity of Cape Serftse Kamen.
Even after sailing 60 miles north, from Cape,Serdtse Kamen, no ice
was observed. The ship's course was changed. to the west and then the
northwest. On the morning of the 13th, an ice barrier was sighted
at 68? 311 N, 175? 20' N. The ice barrier boundary lay along a north-
northwest-to-south-axis. The ice barrier was disintegrating arid was
mostly composed of small ice floes having a density of I ball. ,The
course was again altered to the north and several ice spear's which
were elongated by a north-northwest wind were crossed. After proceed-
ing farther north, the ship encountered drift ice with a density of
8 balls. ht 690 45' N, 175? 451 i, the ice barrier boundary changed
its direotioh,to north-northeast. Numerous ice spears were elongated
several miles in a southeasterly direction. The type of drift ice was
the same as before; large and small. ice floes having a density of 1
or 2 balls were seen,
13th and the
of sight.
ug 1933'A north-northeasterly course was followed the .
th, and at time the ice barrier boundary dropped out
14 au s 1933: During tho morning Herald Island,' surrounded
by drift ice, was sighted north-northwest-of.their position (700 49! NI
1730 57! W). They sailed northward following an ace barrier which
was mostly composed of small icebergs, and detoured around ice spears
which were elongated towards the east. Towards evening' they 'passed
Herald Island, and at 2100 they reached the northernmost 'point in their
course (71020t N, 173? 45' W). The density of the drift ice was 5
balls. At this point observations were made from the crow's nest
(visibility, approximately 10 miles). An open sea passage, about 8
miles wide, extended to the northwest. Extended ice barriers were seen
? to the east, northeast, and east-southeast. Next, the course was
changed-to the southeasterly direction, and a new ice barrier was fallozed.
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The nature of the ice was similar to the previous observations.
15 .Lug 1933.,The southeastern course was maintained
until 1300. ;It 70' 411 N 1700 2=0 II ice barriers were seen to
the east, southeast and southwest. Solid ice about 4 or 5 miles
?
wide was stretched between the oil and new ice barriers, and it
extended in the northeastern direction. In the west-southwesterly
direction; extended ice spears from the west and northwest crossed
each other, and the drift ice was Very dense. The drift ice in
the vicinity of Herald Island had the characteristics of melting
snow.. Even the trawling boats had difficulty in proceeding
through this area. At 2100 heavy kog settled and at times drift
ice godpletely surrounded the Ship..
1.6 falg 1933: During the morning ice floes of various
sizes were sighted to the port seen around the vicinity of Cape
Serdtse Kamen, Cape Dezhneva; and Provideniya Bay.
c. Chronological Observations During the Navigable Season,
1932 (Survey made by the ship, Litke, and others, spon-
sored by the Arctic Research Peoples' Maritime Commission)
23 Jul 192: The ship, Anadyr, entered Chukotsk 'Soa
and observed a narrow strip of drift ice along the coast of Uelon,
facing towards the northwest. it drift ice pack was encountered near
the coast of Inkigur. The ship, Sucham, also entered Chukotsk Sea,
and sailed northwest to Cape Serdtse Kamen. At a position 9 miles
northwest of the above cape, they encountered an impenetrable mass
of drift ice. The natives along the coast explained that previous to
this period no drift ice had appeared in this area. This phenomenen
was-caused by a strong north wind.
26 Jul 1932: A reconnaissance plane was dispatched from
the ship, Suchan. Along the west coast of Cape Serdtse Kamen, an ice
field, approximately 12 miles wide, and a drift ice pack, composed
mainly of large ice floes, wore observed. Farther off the shore, the
ice conditions changed and ice floes of various sizes were seen in
the open sea. This covered an area about 5 to 10 miles wide. /lout
6 miles east of ididlya Island, a drift ice pack 18 to 20 miles wide
was observed. North of this area there was no drift ice. The mouth
of Kolyuchinskaya Bay and the area 20 miles to the. north were cov-
ered,with drift ice, n open sea lane one-half to 1 mile :wide, was
seen along the coast from Cape Dzhenrctlen to the mouth of Kolyuchin-
skaya Bay.
2 Aug 1932: From a plane flying from Cape Helen to
Cape Serdtse Kamen, a narrow drift ice belt, composed mostly of small
ice floes, was seen along the coast from Cape Uelen to Cape inchouk
(Intsova) . The drift ice (ice floes of various sizes) northwest of
Cape Inchouk gradually increased towards the north and at p1 cc it
was 12 miles wide. This kind of drift ice extended from Cape Inchouk
to Cape Serdtse Kamen. ,
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3 A4 1932: - The shp''Anacbir drifted with the drift
ice to a positiqn 8 miles northe4st of Cape Inkigur, and came to a
halt. Varieus pbservations were ,Made at this position. /In ice field
cbMpOsed mestlY of ice. floes of Various sizes (density ef 10 balls),
.
was vlsible to the west and:northeaSt. ' A narrow sea lane was seen
among the scanty drift ice to the northeast and the southeast, but
the ship was not ahle to 'free itself from the ice. The ship Suchan
was stranded of Cape $erdtse Kamen on 28 Jul, and drifted for sever-
al days. Drifting came to a halt on 3 Aug, 50 milas'southeast of
Cape Serdtse Kamen. The skip was finally able to reach an open sel,
lane to the northeast when tiie south-Wind began to scatter the ice.
The rift ice along thi coast had a density of 7 balls, and its width
was approximately 10 miles. The drift ice was composed of ice fields
and variously sized ice floes,
Au
tion approximate
of Cape Inkigur.
, . .
19324 An ice' barriir boundary ektendedin.a direc-
y 330. from the above position to 22 miles northeast
. .5 Aug 1932! The two ships met off Gape Serdtse Kamen. ,
Travelling weAward to Cape Serdtse Kamen, the Suchan sajaed through
drift ice haiing a density of 5 to 7 balls. '
6 Aug 1932: An aerial observation was made from Cape
Uelen to Cape Serdtse Kamen. The drift ice from Cape Uelen to Cape
inchbuk was mainly composed of small ice floes. The ice belt was
approximately 3 miles wide, and it gradually increased in width to 18
miles near Cape Uiguen. The drift ice was composed of ice floes of
various sizes which developed into iceberg fields, and the density in-
creased gradually towards the shore. The drift ice conditions from
Cape Uiguen to Inkigur were almost the same as before, but the density
was greater, making passage impossible. However, the ice in the vicin-
ity of Cape Inkigur was comparatively low in density, and there were
numerous ice-free areas. The tdrift ice belt from Cape Inkigur to Cape
Serdtse Kamen was about 25 miles wide. On various occasions, large
floes from lbroken ice fields Were seen. For a distance ef 10 miles
along the .shore west of Cape Serdtse Kamen, .the drift ice was rather
dense and it appeared as though passage was impossible. The ,drift
ice was composed of ice fields and large ice floes. The density of
'drift ice increa4ed again from Cape Serdtse Kamen to Cape .Dzhenretlen.
The area between Cape Dzhenretlen and Kolyuchin Island was covered with
pancake ice. To the north and east of the island the ice was similar,
but its density was greater, Moreover, in the vicinity of Cape Onman
the density of the drift ice reached a maximum, and passage was im-
possible.
7 Aug 1932: Along the coast line from Cape Schmidt to
the mouth of the Amguema River, the drift ice was very compact; the
density was greater near the shore line. It was impossible to penetrate
the drift ice southeast of Cape Yakan, and new ice was seen forming
continuously. In this'manner.the drift ice along the coastline from
Cape Serdtse Kamen to Cape Yakan blocked the passage of ships during
the early ,part of August.
, 18 Aug 193?: An aerial observation Was made using Cape
Uelen as a base. Arouncrthe vicinity of Cape Zhentetlek? west of Cape
Serdtse Kamen, the drift ice was composed of ice floes of various sizes
. #
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and the density increased farther out to sea. However, there were
some portions near the coast where the density was also high. From
174? 10' WI to the west of Kolyuchin Island, an ?pelf' 'sea lane spot-
ted with small j,ce floes was seen. Five miles north of the Kolyuehin
Strait the drift ice was composed of snail ice floes, but its density
was relatively high. From Kolyuchin Island to Cape Vankarem, very
little drift ice was observed., Some grounded sections of ice floes
and ice fields were seen along the shallow waters neer the coast.
Drift ice consisting of small ice floes was seen in the -western strait
of Kolyuchin Island. Its density was rather high and numerous .broken
pieces from ice fields were observed. While progressing to Cape Onman,
the drift ice became rather sparse.
22 Au w 1932: An open sea lane approximately 1.5 to 2.5
miles wide appeared along the northwest shore of Cape Onman. The
research party finally arrived at Cape Vankaramon the 211th. The
drift ice off the shores of Cape Nankarem appeared to be very compact.
25 Aug 1932: The ships sailed through a narrow open sea
from Cape Vanr-a-crem te 'Cape Schmidt, which was spotted with small drift
ice. At times they encountered pack ice which covered the sea and extended
to the shore. The drift ice was composed of ice floes, of,Varieus sizes,
and the greater part of many of the floes were submerged. The drift
ice fartner out to sea was exceedingly compact, and it contained large
broken sections from ice fields. -.
26 Aug 1932:
coast line. At times it
to the shore in order to
.27 Aug 1932:
cOuntered numerous drift
used to make headway.
The ships proceeded northwest along the,
was necessary for them to sail very-cloSe-
prevent making contact with the drift. ice..
aile passing Cape Schmidt, the ships en-
ice barriers,. At times explosives were.
a...Llaa. At 69? 16' NI 1790 W the ships were un-
able to, make further progress, so ,an. aerial reconnaissance was made.
A narrow sea lane, free of drifte, was seen close to the shore
line up to Cape Billings. Farther out to sea, the drift ice was much
thicker and more compact. The large drift ice barrier near Cape
Billings was poin'ting, towards the north. An open sea, dotted with
small drift ice, was sighted near Shalaurova Island.
d. Drift Ice Conditions Around the Cape Shelagski Area
from Late Sep to Early Oct
26 Sep 1932: The survey ship left Cape Billings, and
followed the coast lin' towards Cape Schmidt. The sea lane near
the coast was almost free of drift ice, butefarther out to sea the
drift ice was always present.
e
e. Chronological 0bsere4tions During the Navigable Season,
1532 (Survey mace by the ship, Soviet, sponsored by the
Kamchatka Company)
10 Alla 1932: At Lavrentta Bay arctic drift ice composed
of small ice floes was encountered. The ice was drifting towards
the south. The Soviet remained at anchor in thii bay until 14 Aug.
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15 Aug 1932: The Soviet sailed along the coast line to
Dezhnav Village. In this vicinity ice floes which extended 9 to 11
meters below the surface of the water were seen. Due ,to the appear-
ance of arctic drift ice, the Soviet was forced to leave Dezhnav
Village before completing the loading of provisions.
16 Aug 1932: After leaving Cape Dezhneva, the Soviet
passed through the Bering Straits, entered Chukotsk Sea and headed
towards Herald Island.
18 Aug 1932: At 0130 the Soviet encountered drift ice at
a position 40 miles southeast of Herald Island. The drift ice was
composed of small ice floes, and it was not necessary for them to
change their course. At 700 06' N, 174? 30' W? the drift ice became
more compact. The ship drifted with the ice from 0300 to 1200. The
drift ice in this area had a peculiar characteristic---the sun and
the water loft the ice with a layer of mud on its surface. Two ice
floes containing wooden rubbish were seen.
12.1aa_12zal At 1500 the Soviet began to drift with the
ice once again. The following table shows the drift ice conditions
from 1800, 19 Aug 1932.
Date and Hour
19 Aug 1845
-2000
:.2200..
Z300
2400
20 Aug 0100-0400
0900
1200H1500
Drift Direction
NNW
NNE
SE
SE
SSW
E
SIN
Note'
Pes#eion.at 11470 20
Aug' was 700 58.5' N
. 20 Aug 1932: The Soviet proceeded towards Vrangelya
Island?_but a little later the course was changed towards an open sea
; , . _.
lane to the east and south-east. The. 4ip remained in this area for
several days, in order to wait for better ice conditions near Vrangelya
Island,
3 Sep 1932: At 1100 the Soviet set its course towards
Herald Island from its position at 700 14 N 177?
4_42L123.11 At 2000 the Soviet finally arrived at the
drift ice barrier which completely surrounded Vrangelya Island. The
drift of the ice was south-southwest,
Lap 1222: v'hen the drift of the ice changed to west-
soUthwest, the Soviet tried to get closer to Vrangelya Island by util-
izing an open lane caused by the broken ice, However, the ship could
not make progress, and it was necessary to withdraw to the open sea.
.7 Sep 1932: The ship drifted with the ice pack from
, the 7th to the 11th. The drift ice conditions were as follows:
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Date and Hour Drift Direction
7 Sep SSK
9 Sep . 0000 to 0400 .
9 Sep 1800 S and SW
10 Sop SSE
12 Sep 1932: Al 1715 the Soviet started for CaPe.
Severnyy. It finally came out to an ice-free sei 150 miles south
west of Vrangelya Isalnd.
. ..
..
13 Sep' 1932: At a point 25 5i1ei7north of Cape Vankarem;
the Soviet encountered a wide 4ri.ft.ce.. area which extended all the
way to the shorp. On the way to Cape plrezhneva the ship had to sail
through drift icp composed of small ice. floes. Just before it en-
tered the. Bering Straits at 18000 16 Sepl the ice became, so compact
that it was necessary to drop anchor. .The ice was drifting south.
17 Sep 1932: At 1700 the Soviet encountered pancake ice
drifting in a east-southeasterly direction,
, 1$ Se 1932: A southwest wind swept the drift ice from
Uelon Harbor. The following day the wind direction changed to north-
west, and the compact ice was pushed towards the shore.
..
19LSep 1932: The following table shows the drift ice
condition in the vicinity of Cape Dezhneva, from the 19th to 23 Sep.
Date and Hour
19 Sep 1300
19 Sep 1800
20 Sop 0300
21 Sep 0500
21,3ep 1300
22 Sep 0706EE
22 Sep 1300
23 Sep 0900
23 Sep 1300
23 Sep 2400
Drift Direction
-
,..,
NNE
ENE
NE
NE
,
S
SW
SW
SSW
Ed
Drift Velocity
(knots)
2.0
0.1
0.2
0,2-,
00
0.,.2 .
'0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
Wind Di,-
rection
w
11
NNW
SSE
W.
NNE
T
NE
NMI
..,
. 24 Sep 1932: The Soviet left Cape Dezhneva an sailed
towards Provideniya 8ay. The last drift ice was seen at 65 251 N,
1700 371
2. Anadyr Gulf
2513 270130: Report 'on Trip to 3ussian Kamchatka Tamate 1/I0 19217
The ice on the upper reaches of the Anadyr River begins to,
move between the first and middle part of june. In summer the area
around the mouth of the-river is. colder than the upper reaches, and so
does not thaw until the middle of JLtne. The thawing usually.produces
a flood stage in the river, with the water 15 feet or more. The floods
subside towards the end of June, and the river returns to normal around
the first part of July. Thin ice forms between the middle and last of
September, and by the middle of October the ice has stopped the flow of
water,-
Yg. -
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II. ICE CONDITIONS IN THE ARCTIC SEAS
Lfil 303091: Nature, Economics and Transportation of the
Soviet Ai tic, Research Section, South Man-
churign: Ri1way, 19327
According to Prof Zupaff, the polar ice field covers 5,000,-
000 square kilometers, and the portion moving south each year
contains about 1,0000000 Square kilometers. The mind effects
changes on the portion moving south, but, in general, the follow-
ing may be said:
One portion of the ice moves from east to west, passing
along Severnaya Zemlya (North Land), Franz Josef Land and Spitz-
bergen. The other portion goes along the north portion of Green-
land, proceeding from west to east. Both pass through the straits
between Spitzbergen Island Greenland and proceed into the
Atlantic,
The coast line of the continent begins to freeze from the
last ten days of September to the first ten days of October, and
is completely frozen' by the middle or end of October. The thaw
begins near? the 'end of May, and navigation can commence the middle
or end of JiLlSr. The-ice is generally from 85 centimeters to 1.5
meters thick, and a maximum of 2 meters has been recorded off
Taimyr Peninsular.
NaVigation was previously thought to be extremely dangerous
from, the time the freezing began until after the thaw when the
ice had completely disappeared. Recent research has proven this
a false supposition since the coastal ice, as we have seen, never
exceeds a thickness of 2 meters, so it can hardly be considered
very dangerous. The problem, rather, is the portion of the polar
ice field that moves south. This ice, driven by wind and cur-
rent, is partially submerged, and sometimes becomes 45 meters
thick. It prevents navigation, and on occasion has been known to
pack around vessels and crush their hulls.
In 1932 the Sibiryakov encountered icebergs from 10-to 12
meters high on the Chukotsk and Bering Seas. The Sibiryakov was
an ice-breaker which left Murmansk for Vladivostok at the begin-
ning of the navigation season. The northern winter had already
set in, however, when it reached the Chukotsk and Bering Areas,
and the north and northwest winds, which blow from autumn into
winter, had begun to effect the coast. '
The east and west portions of the polar ice are considerably
different in form. The west portion is considerably influenced
by the Mexico warm current and the many large rivers near by, but
the east portion has almost no outside elements affecting it,
except for the Lena River. Atmospheric temperature, wind direc-
tion and shape of ice are all important to navigation, but the
most vital is wind direction, at least as far as ice is concerned.
In summer, Arctic winds blow from the sea to the land, and
therefore the ice has a tendency to be blown toward the coast.
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In winter, the situation is reversed, and the direction of the ice
is exactly opposite. In general, the Arctic may be 'said to have
a prevailing easterly wind.
:
Ice found east and west of the Novo Sibirskiye Islands is
quite different. In the east the 'high pressure -of the Pacific
affects the region during the first part of the navigation season,
and southeast winds are common. The thaw is slower than in the
west, and navigation conditions are good. In autumn the situation
is reversea. The Pacific low pressure is in evidence, and the'
north and' west winds blow ice, flocs along the coast. Navigation
in the Borisa Vilkitskogo Straits and Bering Straits is, at such
times, extremely difficult.
? s
The wost mind commonly blows inland during the first half
of the navigable season, packing the drift ice against the shore,
and making coastal navigation dangerous. During the latter part
of the navigable season, the Mind blows out to sea, driving the
ice away from the coast and at the same time fascilitating navi-
gation by combating the bad effects of the atmospheric temperature.
It should be noted that near Cape Chelyuskin LTN: across
from Severnaya Zemlya, on the Borisa Vilkitskogo Strait2, the
situation is somewhat exceptional.' Here, the winds aro generally
west or east, while in the nearby Kara Sea area, in September the
strongest winds are generally north, adding to the difficulties
of navigation.
This Cape Chelyuskin area is one of the most dangerous for
navigation in the Arctic region. If it is avoided, navigation to
the east is quite easy, at least in the first part of the navi-
gable season.
In summer the polar ice starts south from the Barents sea,
It moves along Spitzbergen Island and the east coast-of Novaya
Zemlya, to the north of Vaygach Island and along the entire coast
of the Taimyr Puninsula into the Novo Sibirskiye Islands and the
Chukotsk Sea area. The Kara Sea, the Laptav Sea, and the Berents
sea escape coastal ice duo to their rivers and sea currents, but
the Chukotsk Sea and the Taimyr Peninsula are almost entirely
frozen in by the southward progross of tAe polar ice.
,
a,
B 234307? The USSR and t'ae Arctio MCRIARI Y, 194i7
Station Years Ice
Break-LT
'Ito Freoio-.Froztn NoTofMax
Melts Shut Days Thick-
of
-I?e
Yugorskiy ? ? ???._
Shar 191_07. 28 Jun 24 Aug 20:06t 20 Nov :204 137
Straits 1934
Sea,_, . ?
? . . ?
Barents
SeaY ?
,?
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(Contd)
Station
Eatochkin, Shar
(Novaya ?Zemlya)
Malye-Karmakuly
(Kara Sea)
Kolguyev Island
(Barcnts Sea)
Vaygach Island
(Kara Sea)
Cape Mare-Sale
(Kara Sea)
Novyy Port
(Kara Sea
Dickson Island
(Kara Sea)
Indigirka River
(cast Siberian Sea)
Yeniseyskiy Gulf
(Kara Sea)
Nizhne Kolymsk '
(East Siberian Sea)
Cape Schmidt
(North Cape)
(Chukotsk Sea)
Delen (on Chukotskiy
Peninsula)
(Chukotsk Sea)
Ihrangel Island
(Chukotsk Sea)
Provideniya Bay
(Bering Sea)
Mouth of Lena River
Yenisoyskiy Gulf
River
Bay
North -Part of Bay
(Kara Sea)
Years Ice Ice
Break- Melts
up
1924-
1934
1924-
1930
1925-
1930
1913-
1934
Freeze Frozen,No_of Max
Shut Days Thick-
' Of-- ness
(cm)
137
,
Ice
9 Jui 23 Aug 10. Oct 28 Oct
310
26 Jun'10 Jul 17 Oct
2479
14 Jun 4 Jul ' 4 Nov
233
17 Jun 22 Jul 22 Oct 25 Nov
'346
1913- 17 Jun 17 Jul 14. Oct
1934
1924- 18 Jun 6 Jul 9 Oct
1933
1916- 23 Jun 27 Jul 18 'Oct
1934
1939- 16 Jun
1940
1924- _7 Jun 17 Jun.22.
79
112
26 Nov '348 145
5 Nov 266 147
- 158
.4 Oct 235
L4.1 144
1933
?123- 6 un...J
-
1941
1911- 20 Jul
, 1913
1938-: 20-Jun 28 Jul
1941
1927- 16 Jul
1935
1936- 24 Jun
1941
25 Jun
15 Jun
15 Jul
28 Jul.
0
25
MOO
5 Oct
5 Oct -
15 Nov
9 Oct 24 Dec
2 Oct
15 Oct
5 Oct -
28 Oct
A Comparative Table Showing Portion of
Sea Frozen During Latter Part of August
20
Year
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
Kara Sea
36%
35%
10%
70%
62%
15%
45%
25%
Laptev Sea
22%
70%
302
10%
40%
30%
East Siberian
75%
84%
65%
58%
20%
50%
60%
40%
?Soa.
Chukot sk Sea
25%
24%
32%
18%
20%
08%
12%
06%
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Chukot,sk and Adjacent Seas
Chukotsk Sea
Z7Data on Ice Conditions on the Soviet Arctic Coasts in.the
Winter of 19 -34," Transactions of the Arctic Institute,
Vol 0, 193
a, Cape Schmidt (North Cape)
On 1 Sep 1933, within the limits of visibility, the
surface' of the water was covered with smooth pack-ice fields,
hummocky on the west. In the bay there also floated combined
large and small ice pieces, among which were separato fields. On
2 Sep the fields on the sea changed into large ice pieces as a
-result of the tide and a weak east wind in the deoP part of the
bay by the station, and filled the bay lying to the west. The
drift ice on the open sea was separated in the morning from the
ice in the bay by a gap extending across the bay at its entrance.
During the day this gap widened, and with the improved visibil-
ity a second gap was observed about 0.5 miles -wide 2 miles from
shore. It extended along the seashore from west to east within
the limits of visibility.
On 3 Sep this gap was covered with large ice pieces and
was clear again for one day. From 11 Sop on, the gap at the en-
trance to the bay was somtimes cleared and somotimcs covered
again by large and small ice pieces which remained on the sea
throughout September. On 16 Sep, in the deop part of the western
bay and in the bay by the station, young ice which extended east
along the shore of the open sea was observed. On the evening of
16 Sep in the deep part of the bay at the station, the young ice
froze and formod smooth fast icc which, spreading to the exit of
the bay and beyond to the east along thc shore, covered the whole "
surface of tha bay by 21 Sop. A small gap remained only in the
land floc at the outer part of the bay, but even it was covered
by an ice sheet on 22 Sop. The western bay was not covered with '
a hummocky ice shoot until 1 Oct.
From 2 Sop on, the steamer M.koyan was stuck fast in
the large and small ice pieces in the western bay, and it was tak-
en out by the icebreaker Litke on 11 Sep. Until the formation
of the ice patch on 16 Sep, there was a conglomerate of large and
small ice pieces in the -western bay all the time. This formed a
hummocky ice cover when tho bay froze. On 17 Sep at Cape V7BER*
the icebreaker Chelyuskin drooped anchor, and departed the same
day. No more steamers appeared until the next navigation season.
During October the seaward part of the ice floe disinte-
grated frequently, and water appeared at the horizon reaching the
shore to the west of the western bay. Daring November the visi-
ble surface was covered with a sheet of hummocky ice with ice
fragments piled edgewise, and in December the seaward part of tho
land floe frequently underwent considerable disintegration.
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Aftei- a southwest wind of over 28 m/s and a considerable lower-
ihg Of the surface of the water; on I Dec, the ice in the bay at
the Station cracked considerably. Water came through the cracks
and froze on 4 Dec.
Until 18 Dec the hummocky ice sheet covered the whole
visible surface, and on 19 Dec a wide crack was formed along the
shore at the place where the gdp had been. in September It was
covered up by 21 Dec.
On 1 Jan 1934 the seaward part of the land floe dis-
integrated due to the brisk southeast wind .and the lowering of
the surface. ,At the horizon, large ice pleces appeared, and, in
the bay, cracks formed which were later co44';*red by 4 Jan. On
8 and 9 Jan small gaps appeared in the land llge 2 - 3 miles from
shore, They were 30 - 40 square meters in aro,, and decreased
considerably on 10 Jan and vanished by ll'Jan. F.Fom this point
to the end of tho month, the ice cover remained unchanged. In
Ftbruary, March, April) and up to 5 May the whole'visible sur-
face was covered with a hummocky ice sheet.
On 6 May, with light shifting. winds, cracks appeared
on the ice of the bay. On 7 May the ico in the bay was separated
from the sea land floe by a crack about.10 centimeters wide on
the line of Capes Kozhevnikov and VEBER*. On 9 May cracks up to
10 meters.widc appeared in the land floe 2 miles from shore, and
on 10 May they widened to 1 mile in the moderate south winds.
On 12 May a gap was formed across from Cape KoZhevnikov, and on .
16 May pools of molting snow appeared at the shore. On 21 Nay
the gap across from Cape Kozhevnikov increased considerably, ex-
tending to the west beyond the limits of visibility. Large and
small ice pieces moved about in the gap with the tidal currents;
driven against the edges by the wind and chipping the ice, they
brought about an increase in the size of the gap. When the wind
shifted to tho northwest, tho gap changed into a narrow strip in
the shape. of a fissure.
The pools of melting snow,which were covered by new
ice at the low temperatures up to 3 Jun did not freeze from 4 Jun
on, but greatly increased in number, cutting the visible part of
the ice cover in all directions. From 5 Jun to 9 Jun the crack-.
ing of ice was hoard from time to time, regardless of the fact
that tho east winds did not exceed 17 m/s. On 10 Jun a crack
50 to 100 meters wide again appeared 3 miles from shore, exten-
ding west beyond visible limits. On 13 - 14 Jun the land floe
disintegrated considerably, and on 17 Jun a water patch appeared.
On 18 Jun the crack in the ice of tho bay was about 70 centimeters
wide. The land floc remained about 5 - 6 miles wide until 28 Jun.
Beyond its edge largo and small ice pieces were drifting, driven
by winds from the northern half of the horizon against the edge
of the land floe; sometimes they froze to it. On 29 Jun many
pools and cracks appeared on tho land floe, and on 30 Jun the
steam.ers, Khabarovsk, Anadyr and Sever, passed from west to
the east.
Until 6 Jul the cracks in the bay and the land floe con-
tinued to spread, rid on 7 Jul the ice of the bay and the land
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floe broke up in the calm weather. The fast ice
at .611.9 southwest shore of the western by and in
By 9 Jul there was no more ice in ght? and the
quite clear. However it'St.111 fi1led from time
amall ice pieces',
remained only
the eastern bay.
eastern bay was
to time with
Among the 9-ball drift ice, a large gap was disc
tingukshed which extended from east to west along the shore. On
10 Tu l a second gap was formed opposite Cape V8I3ER*, parallel to
it, and near the shore. There wore many breaches in the large
ice pieces until 14 ,Tul, but by 15 Jul they w'ere covered over.
On 24 Jul the ice thinned out, and, another gap formed in the
place of the formqr one. On 25 Jul once again the ice thinned
out on. the 'visible part of the surface of the water, but due to
east winds, dense ice was formed at the west shores of the bays.
As a result, A clear water approach to the station was opened
for boats. On 28 Jul the eastern bay was cleared of ice a second
time, and sparse large and small icc piecos with gape and breaches
were on thm sea until the end of the month.
Thickness of Ice at Cape Schmidt
Date
16 Sop
20 Sop
30 Sep
7 Oct
20 Odt
30 Oct
12 Nov
20 Nov
30 Nov
1,0 Dec .
_20 Dec
30 Dec
7 Jan
.20 Jan;
,29tJan s
Thickness (cm)
1
2
8
27 ,
40
42
46
49
62
69
79.
89
98
100
117
Date
10 Feb
20 Feb
2 Mar
10 Mar
19 Mar
31 Nhr
30 Apr
10 May
18'May
30 May
11 Jun
20 Jun'
39 Jun
11 Jul
Thickness (cm)
128
140
.146
3.65
170
, 174
173
167
160
? 150
-144
132
?:100
71
. Wrangel Island.(DeLong Strait and Rogers By
In 1933 slush appeared in the west Part of the bay
on 19 Sep, and remained In a dense border nt the shore. The '
rest of the bay was covered with 6-ball ice pieces which com-
bined at the ,shores.. On 20 Sep 2-ball, separate, ono-year and
many-year hummocky ice blocs wore observed, and on 24 Sop in
calm weather the bay was covered with level sheet ice in which
there wore. separate hummocks. The quantity Of ice on the Sea
increased from 20 Sep on, anclaixed young an' many-year old ice
was observed. On 25 Sep the ice on the bay would still support
a man, and on 27 Sep onc could cross the bay on sled.. On 27
Sep, with the shift of the wind to the northwest, the ice on the
sea began-to diminish, and by 2) Sep there' was only 1 ball left.
On the fullowing day when thc wind ab-ted', ice passed again to
.the,east,ecovering the surface of the sea to a density of 6 balls.
On 1 Oct in calm weather the whole visible surface of the sea
,
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was Covered, With.frozen_young,ice from detached many-year old
hummocks.
Fast ice remained on the sea until 28 Oct, when, due
to the action of north-northwest winds of over 28 m/s, the ice
broke up, Within the range of visibility from the station, the
sea was clearod la less than 24 hours. According to Eskimos ar-
riving from the island) ice from the Khishchnikov River was carried
for 15 miles. Until 30 Oct-whon the wind was never less than 11 m/s,
no ice was observed on tho sca. On this date slush appeared and
became dense; from this datc on, the sea vaS-covored with a winter
ice sheet. (Observations could not bo made from l*Nov 1933 to
_29 Jun 1934.)
On 29 Jun tho sea was covered by 9-ball hummocky
,ice sho9t and 1-bal1 ono-year smal] ice pieces. On 2 Jul the
land floe began to disintegrate ander the action of southwest
winds, and a gap appeared in it as well as,in'Llhe bay. On .4
Jul the sheet ice on the bay also began to..anintegratel and only
7 balls remained. On 9 Jul the land floe not only in the bay but,
also on the, open sea disintegrated considerably in the southwest
winds) and by 11 Jul the amount .of large and small ice pieces
and fields on the .sea increasod-t) 2 balls. On 13 Jul the land
floe vanished); and 6-ba11 ice, consisting of fast ice and large
ice pieces, remained in tho bay. On the sea 1 to 2 balls of .
ice remained with northwest winds, but, whop a.calm arose on 20
Jul, the amount of hummocky fields and largo and small ice pieces,
over a 24-hour period sharply increased to 6 balls and remained
at 7 to 9 balls until the end of the month. Titre was not more
than 1 ball of small ice pieces in the bay from 20 Jul on.
. .
. By 9 Aug the by was completely clear of)..co, but
on 12 Aug 1-ball small ice pieces reappeared. Largo p:nd small ice
pieces with hummocky fields of 6 to 8 balls remained On the sea.
from 12 to 13 Aug) with southeast winds. 0n12 Aug ice obsor-
vations ended.
c. Cape.Dczhnev (Vellen Station)
.0bscrvations of tho ice cover at Vellen Station
began on 1 Nov 1933,.whodtho visible surface was covered with
10-ball mixed hummocky ice. This cover remained Unchanged
until 5 Dec. On 6 Dec a strip of fixed ice with grounded
floebergs 200 - 300 meters -wide extended along the shore. Be-
yond the edge of this ice, small ice pieces were drifting; in
the middle a gap about 2 miles wide, from which a channel of
clear water 90 to 100 motors wide lad westward along the sliorc
w\as formed, On 7 Dec the gap began to widen, and. 8 Doc the ice
passed out to tho horizon with a sbuth wind;' where it remained
at -1 to 2 balls. A patch of ice, 200 - 300 meters wide re-
mained at the shore with packed amall ico 'pieces and grounded
floobergs.
. _
_ .._ . .
. jWith the-oOntinding.south-Winden 12 ,Doe the see-
ward part of thezpaten'doveleped SeVeraI'cra'cks,,,r.eSulting in
, . .
the detachment ef_ico flocs that were quickly carried out to.
sea. The disintegration of the patch continued through 13 to
14 Dec, until the wind shifted to the north. Then, the rest of
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the patch combined with old ice from the sea which consisted of
fields and large and small ice floes of 7 to Erballs. Due to
the ice which came up and froze to it, the patch widened to
500 meters, remaining 60 until 17 1Tec. At that time during a
calm, all the floating ice froze, forming a 10-ball land floe.
On 19 Dec the seaward part of the land floe was de-
tached by the south wind, clear water appeared on' the horizon,
and another gap appeared Opposite the station. On 21 Dec large
and small ice pieces with floes again came up to the edge of the
land floe in the north winds. Breaches and gaps Were observed
among the drift ice. From 22 Dec on, the main land floe was
400 - 500 meters wide; beyond the edge was a gap' 500 - 1000
meters wide, and beyond that the moving part of the land floe.
On .26 Dec, beyond the said gap, a second gap appeared 200 -
500 meters Wide; beyond it pack ice, among which slush had form-
ed, was observed. -Young ice floated in the gaps.
From 27 Dec to 6 Jan 1934, no changes were observed
in the condition of the ice, but on 7 Jan the cracks formed by
the northwest wind and the young ice in them formed hummocks.
On 23 Jan cracks were formed in places on the land floe.
On 6 Feb the whole visible surface was covered with a fast ice
shoot which remained until 17 Fob, when the wind changed to the
southern rhumbs and detached the seaward part of the land floc
again. The remnant was 2 to 3 miles wide. When the wind shift-
ed north on this same day, the Nhole visible surface was again
covered with 10-ball ice.
Throughout March and April a fast sheet of hummocky
ice was visible. On 3 MaY gaps 100 to 200 meters wide and about
2 to 3 miles long were formed in it along the shore. The snow
on the ice became granular, and on 5 Kay water appeared under
the snow.
On 14 May, when a gap was hollowed out from the direc-
tion of the Bering Strait, the ice had a granular-texture. On
16 May the seaward part of the land floc disintegrated under a
south wind, and only the foot of the land floe from 500 meters
to 2 miles wide remained at the shore. Beyond it were drifting
ice pieces and fields of 4 to 5 balls. On 17 Nay, east of the
station, there was clear water beyond the land floe. Toward
evening this became covered with drift ice. From 19 to 21 May
pools of melting snow appeared both on the drift ice and on
the land floe. A movement of ice to the northwest with a south
wind was noted.
On 22 tray air reconnaissance showed that the strait
was clear. In places there were detached accumulations of drift-
ing ice pieces, torn frOm the land floe which was visible as
far as Cape Unikan. This land floe was 1 to-2 miles wide at
this point, and 400 meters to 2 miles wide at Vellen. The float-
ing ice moved north and northwest with the south winds. On 23
May a_large amount of ice Which had been carrie out of the
Bering Sea appeared on the horizon.
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,On 24 May the number
creased and small lakes appeared;
the ice was con04.4erably cracked:.
sunk: deeper, and the water around
The floebergs melted and darkened
sand and gravel in them.
otTOols ofmelting snow
in-
near the grounded fIoebergs
,AS a'result the-'40ebergs
them rose to the ice-surfabe..
considerably, discloSth
From 25 May to 8 Jun the land floe underwent no
change, and beyond its edge large and small ice pieces which
changed their direction with the winds and currents were float-
ing. With north winds the density of the floating ice reached
9 ? 10 balls. On 9 Jun several small lakes formed on the fast
tee, and ice particles were detE.ched from the edge of the land
floe. The width of the band of ice on'il,:b;In was from 250 meters
to 2 kilometers, and beyond its edge the strait was clear of ice,
Air reconnaissance en 11 Jun di.$c12P0 that in the area of Dezhvev-
Serdtse Kamen, the sea was clear and the -land floe hathbeen de-
tached in places. On 13 Jun the width :2f the foot of the land
floe was from 250 meters to 2 kilometers and beyond its edge a
slush formation was observed. A half day later, when the Wind
'
shifted to the northern rhumbs, large and "small ice 'pieces drift-
ed in from the sea ,and, were driven against the foot of the land
floe.
On 15 Jun the seaward part of the foot of the land
floe was considerably disintegrated by ,the blows of the :_te
pieces, and its width along the shore of Uellen was reduced
to 30 to 40 meters. From 15 - 21 Jun 1 to-2 ball ice pieces
were, meving On the-sea, chiefly east to west or northwest. On
22 Jun, with a shift of the wind to the northern rhumbs, the
amount of drift ice increased to 4 ? 5 balls, and on 23 Jun the
visible surface was cleared of drift ice ,by the south winds.
, On 1 Jul the remains of the land floe were de-
tached by the south-southwest wind, and only separate ice pieces
were drifting on the visible surface of the sea, During the
first 10 days of July the visible surface of the sea was cover-
ed from time to time wibh separate drift ice pieces which 'still
remained at the shores from autumn. These wero'subsequently
detached.
2. East Siberian Sea
Source same as abovi7
Bolshoy Lyakhovskiy Island (eastern part of Dmitria
Lepteva Strait)
The station of Lyakhovskiy Island was transferred
in Apr 1934 to the min northern route and only from that time
is there material on ice observations. Throughout April the
strait was covered with a smoothlf,ast ice sheet, 176 centi-
meters thick at the end of the month. A'shere band of i-se,
2 to 4 kilometers wide, both on the continental side and the
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islands' sido, had hummocky scctions. On 30 Apr, in a strong
wost-southwcst wind (up to 20 - 23 m/s), cracks appcarod in thc
icc lasting through thc first half of May. The quantity of icc
did not diminish in May, but the snow bcgan to melt on 14 May.
Small'lakoS of fresh water appearcd and froze over in a few days;
this increased thc general thickness of thc ice to 210 contimutors.
On 25 May, small lakos reappoarcd 'on the icc; and on 28 May new
cracks through which tho sca wator came were formed.
On 8 Jun a watcr patch was formcd noar thc shore by
fresh water from, thc surface of thc icc; it becamo transparent
on 27 Jun. On tho same day under a strong wind, the number of
cracks at thc shoro incrcasod and thc ice rose in placcs. Bands
of Water wore visiblc at thc horizon (obviously fresh water on
tho surface of the ice). Thc amount of icc was tho samo. It
was about 200 contimeters thick whilc in places thc ice rcsted
on the ground (there wore considerable deep parts in tho strait).
On 8 Feb, the water patch widonod to 2 kilamtcrs and ice piccos
floated in it. On 10 Jul, it all broke up and romained as pack
ice (large and small ice pieces) until 21 Jul. On 22 Jul, thc
ice pioccs war? comprosscd toward the shore and then the ice
went out and remaincd packed in the deep parts of thc strait
and thinned out ?at the shores. On 23 Jul, there was 9-ball-ice;
24 Jul, 5 balls; 26 Jul, 3 balls; 27 Jul, nono; and 30 - 31 Jul,
1 - 2 balls of small ice pieces were brought to the shores by
the wind.
b. Modvezhti Islands (Chotyrokhstolbocroy)
Obsorvations of the ice woro made from Chotyrokh-
stolbovoy Island in the Modvosh'i Islands archipelago. The
observation point vas 2 kilometcrs from thc station, 99 motors
abovc sca lovol? ovcrlooking thc surrounding hoights, so that
thc sca horizon was opcn all thc way round. Thc visibility
from this point was about 20 miles.
On 25 Sop, near tho shores of the bay, icc crystals
and slush appearcd; a smal] amount of tho latter romained until
30 Scp whon it increased to 5 to 6 balls. On 29 Sop, spars?,
small icc picccs which morod to the northwost appeared in the
southcast scctor of the oca. On 1 Oct, thc slush on thc bay
changed to'pancake icc and within the Units of visibility, on
tho sca, a sluSh formation was observed among thc snarso largo
and small ice picccs. '
From 2 Oct on, large and small ice pioces also,
appcarod in thc bay and romainod along with tho slush until 6
Oct, after which the whole surface was covcrod with brash ice
about 2 contimotors thick. On 7 Oct, thc bay was cicarod by a
modoratc north wind. Until 4 Oct, theL-o woro no observations
of tho sca duo to poor visibility. On 5 Oct the whole visible
surfacc of tho sca was again covcrcd with forming ice (lush,brash icc) changing into panca2cc icc; 9-ba11-young ice (slush,
brash ice, ice rind icc), hummocky in placos, remained until 12
Oct whon young ice appearcd. On 13 Oct, a hummocky land flow
formed at t1ic 1 yond thc odgc of which ice mved about
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in a wind to the northeast. From 14 :)ct the area of the land
, floe at the island incAased considerably and on 22 Oct the whole
visible surface of the sea Was covered' with *a fast ice floe in
weak winds and with individual gaps in places.
After the clearing of the bay on 7 Oct slush and
ice rind appeared in it again, and patches formed along the
shore. The ice became thicker .every day and on 16 Oct the whole
bay was covered with a fast ice Sheet, hummocky in places, 3
'centimeters thick. On 23 Oct, at the northern shore of the
island, a gap, 'formed in weak south winds covered with floating
, pan-cake iCe.' This gap widening from time to time, and. covered
the whole'time'with young floating ice, lasted until 2,.Nov1
? ,, ,' Similar gaps appeared from time to time also in the
southern half of the sea horizon? but on 3 Nov all the gaps
froze over. They began appearing again when the wind shifted
from the north to the southeast and east on 22 Nov. ,
The formation 'of gaps in all directions from the
island went on until .21 Dec, depending upon the direction of the
winds. There were no changes in the ice cover from this date
to 3 :Jun 1934, except for the formation of hummocks at the edge
of the shore andlo,floc which' surrounded the island in a band
about 2 to 5 miles widc.
On.. 4. Jun 1934 water, from thawing, appeared on the
ice. near the shore, and fl.owed through the cracks. From this
water on 5 Jun'a water band was formed on the ice around the
iSland and grew wider each day. On 6 Jun pools of melting snow
appeared on the whole visible surface of the ice; their number
increased continually until on 11 Jun small lakes formed. On
7 Jun on the north part of the horizon for the first time after
the freezing, a water sky which subsequently appeared. several more
times was noted. On 8 Jun, along the shores of the island, a
transparent water patch formed 20 to 100 meters from the shore.
On 14 Jun, the number of small lakes on the ice
decreased considerably since the water was flowing into the
Cracks and thawed gaps whichjlad formed. The hummocking of
the ice, regardless of the weak winds, evidently continued due
.to the vibration of the sUrface and the currehts.
. During the secend half'of June the ice disintegrated
' considerably and on 28 Jun the ctacks in some places became 10
meters wide. There were manY cracks to the west of Chetyrekh-
stolboyov Island in thedireetien of Lysov Island.
On 8 Jul, there' was a movement of ice in the north
wind. The ice was up to 100 centimeters thick but it was melting
considerably andern,eath. As a result of the movement along the
southwest sher,e of the island, a gap, which extended west to
Lysov Island was formed. . The (Atter part of the bay was free of
fast ice."
On 11 Jul, there 'Was a marked slow movement of ice
in the sea to the west-soiathwest in a brisk east wind. The ice
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moved in a body forming gaps and hummocks. The pressure of ice
on the eastern shores was so strong that the shore disintegrated,?
?-? . . '
On 13 Jul, the fast ice broke up completely, several
gaps formed and on the whole visible surface of the sea there was
a 9-ball-mass of ice in the moderate east winds which formed hum-
mocks and moved slowly westward. On 16 Jul, in the east and
among the islands in the west, a large space with sparse ice was
formed. On 17 Jul the island was encircled with large ice pieces
and large 8-ball-floes beyond which a field of ice pieces was
observed. Ice, gradually disintegrating with the shiftingwinds
and waves, changed on 26 Jul from large fields to large and small
ice pieces. Hummocky fields remained only in the eastern half
of the herizon. On 28 Jul, the fields moved to the island and
in the east wind passed further to the weat. On 31 Jul, large
and small ice pieces with sparse fields up to 2 balls were ob-
served within the limits of visibility.
Thickness of Ice at Chetyrekhsolbovoy Island
Date
Thickness of Ice (cm)
Date
Thickness of Ice (cm)
2 Oct
2
8 Jan
103
12 Oct
5,
19 Jan
114
20 Oct
20
29 Jan
124
30 Oct
.28
4 Feb .
131
10 Nov
43
24 Feb
142
22 Nov
57
.9 Mar
171
30 Nov
66.
2 Jul
130.
9 Dec
82
9 Jul
110
19 Dec
91
-19 Jul
90
30 Dec
94
Until 17 Jul, 1- to 2ba1l.-large and small ice
pieces remained onthe sea. On 15 Aug, the visible surface of
the sea was completely cleared of ice; ice remained only in the
bay:
3. Drif-LIce Conditions in the East Siberian Sea
ZP-b 302476: "Hydrological Survey and Drift Ice Conditions
'from East Siberian Sea to Bering Sea," Far East-
USSR and Outer Mongolia Research Data No 54,
Research Section, South Manchurian Railroad,
Dec 1939, from the Russian of I. A. Kireev,
193.(27
a. Chronological Observations During the Navigable
Season, 1932 (Survey report by Arctic Research
Peoples' Maritime CommissLon)
.1.-AtIg '1932: While the ship was passing Cape Yakan,
a small area of 7 to 8-ball-drift ice was observed. As the ship .
sailed westward, the ice gradually became more sparse and off the
shores of Cape Billings an en sea lane was formed. At nightfall,
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drift ice having a density of '3 t
west,of,Cape Billings.
4 balls via seenseveral milds
The:Surek ,party Sailed through 20-
,
Mlles,bf drift ice density of from1.3.?td..5-,ball4' after feaVing
Gape Billings. . ,
.Large ice fiadS,began to appear in the viCin'
ity,Of NORM, Bay. .
$p l92: The survey party's progrdss westward
was retarded because of heavy fog, and it was necessary to sail
among the ice fields and large ice flees to get maximuni protec-
tion from the strong wind. The fog began to lift around the
neighborhood of Cape KOZHMIN*. The ships followed a course close
to the shore arid about 10 miles east of Cape Shelagskil a sea
lane with scanty .drift ice was found. The ships proceeded to
Aion Island.
,
Sep 1932: The density of drift ice north of Aion
Island was 6 balls, and it was found that the density of drift
ice decreased as they neared the island. 'During the westward
progress to Cape Baranov, wide-open lands, containing little or
no drift ice,. were found.
-4 Sep 1932: Somc of the ships In the survey party
proceeded to the mouth of the Kolyma River, and no drift ice was
seen in this area. These vessels remained at anchor in this
region from 4 to 24 Sep.,
;;IL Sep 19,2: The survey party left the Gulf of
Kolymski and sailed eastward to Aion fsland. At 166? 10' E,
they sighted a sea lane containing no drift ice, and at 690
54' N they observed a flaw of drift ice having a density of 3
to 4 balls. The amount of drift ice increased as they sailed
eastward. Reaching the western side of Aion Island, they noticed
an ico-free passage between the shore and drift ice boundary.
To the north this open lane gradually became narrower.
25 Sep 1232: One of the ships sailed through the
narrow strait southwest of Aion Island, and proceeded to
Chaunskaya Bay. During the night a large drift ice pack was
encountered at 70? 18' N, 168? 52' E. This ship ' was unable to
free itself from the ice pack; so it was necoSsary to spend the
winter in this area. Another ship circled Aion Island and
attempted to enter Chaunskaya Bay from the north. However, the
entrance to the bay was completely blocked by ice. Nide areas
of drift ice were soon drifting towards Cape Sholagski. A field
of ice also extended from Cape Shelagski, along the coast south-
ward to Rautan Island.
6 Sep 1932: The open sea lane on the northwest
side of Aion Island gradually moved away from the island, and
the drift ice spread along the coast. The old ice closed in on
the entrance to Chaunskaya Bay and formed an ice barrier along
700 N. Thin ice and new ice werc seen within the bay.
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28 Sep 1932: The thin ice in the northern part of
Chaunskaya Bay was 5 to 10 centimeters thick, '
2 Oct 1932: The icobreaker lcated :at 700 14'N,
169? 05' E tried to assist a ship stranded 5 or 6 MiTos south
i in Chaunskaya Bay, but failed after four days. The thickness
of the new ice in the bay increased 15 to 18 ceptimet'ers, and the
formation of icebergs began. On 7 Oct the icebreaker also retreat-
ed into the bay and joined the other stranded vessels to prepare
for the winter.
.b. Observations During the Winte] Season, 1932-1933
All thp ships in the survey party were stranded in
Chaunskaya Bay until the spring thaw. One of the vessels was
stranded in drift ice north of Chaunskaya Bay and between Aion
Island and Cape Shelagski. At first the vessel drifted eastward,
,
then towards the northwest. During the latter part of November
it drifted as far north as 71? 0,6' Ns 168' 37' E, -approximately
70 miles 'north of Cape Shelagski. Then it drifted southward, and
in May it was located several miles north-northwest of Cape
Shelagski.
. Chronological Observations During the Navigable
Season, 1933
;]. Jul 1933: The icebreaker was the first vessel to
leave Chaunskaya Bay and was sent to aid the vessel which was
located north-northwest of Cape Shelagski. The icebreaker final-
ly reached the stranded vessel on 18 Jul, at 700 45.5' N, 1680
23' E, north of Aion Island. The icebreaker was able to free the
stranded ship, and they both arrived at the mouth of Kolyma River
.on 21 Jul 1933. Three of the five ships in Chaunskaya Bay set
sail on 16 Jul, rounded Aion Island on 17 Jul, and arrived at
Kolyma River on 19 Jul 1933. The other two vessels sailed east-
ward from Chaunskaya Bay, and after passing Cape Shelagski on 17
Jul, they encountered a large drift ice pack. The two ships made
very slow progress and on 1 Aug they were onLy 20 miles east of
Cape Shelagski. By utilizing the flow of drift ice, they were
able to reach Cape Sh4aurova on 4' Aug.
Aug 1933: ,A large drift icc pack was observed be-
tween Sha/aurova Island anecCape Aachir4, In some instances, ex-
plosives were used to free the stranded ships.
ISQR 1933i The drift ice a1ong the coast of Shalau-
rova Island recededout to sea .and formed. huge ice. floes, This
phenomena was caused by a sodth wind. The scattered drift ice
were all joined together by the formation of new ice (about 3
centimeters thick).
3 Sep l'933i The open sea lane fromA miles off the
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coast of Cape Billings to Cape Yakan abruptly closed up at 69? N,
1760 50' E, and it was necessary for the :Ships to *return tetard
Cape Billings, The .second attempt was made aleng the coastline,
but the progress was very slow. The party finally arrived at
Cape Vankarcm on 13 Sep.
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Observations of the Icebreaker Litkc 1934
LTB 303474: Ice Conditions in the Arctic Ocean During the
)234, According to Observations of the Ice-
breaker Litke, Central Meteorological Obser?
vatory, Aug 1943, translated from the Russian
of V. Yu. Viz?, Transactions of the Arctic
Institute, Vol 29, All-Union Arctic Institute,
19317
The Litke, which had left the Bering Sea for the Chu-
kotsk Sea, encountered ice, at: 67? 55' N, 174? 39' W, on 14
Jul. This ice was small tongues of ice lying some distance
northeast of a large ice field which was in contact with the
Chukotsk sea coast. Skirting the northeast ice floes, the Litke
advanced northwest ,and entered the ,ig.e at 68? 42' N) 1770 01' W.
The density of the,ice, which was broken up considerably, soon
reached 7 balls) but when we arrived at 68? 57' N, 178? 12' WI
it ;was 10 balls. Because it became extremely difficult to ad-
vance through this hard compact ice, the Litke drifted along with
the ice until 20 Jul, when it shifted its course toward toe south-
east and then reversing itself went through the ice floes. From
hbre ,(c68? 41' N, 176? 53' W) the ice floes continued all the way
to 69 21' N, 175? 12' W; at this point, the ship entered ice
again. At 69? 33' N, 1750 34' 16, whore the Litke stopped 21
Jul the ice was considerably broken up and with a density of 8
balls. The ic6'of the Chukotsk Sea in Jul 1934 had character-
istic channels running in a northwest direction because of the
influence of the warm sea water from the Bering Sea.
Because of maneuvers of airplanes, the Litke halted
near the ice floes until 23 Jul; on that day it started once
more on its voyage toward the northwest. From 68? 50' NI 177?
38' W to 69? 09' N, 179? 51' W the ice density varied between
7 and 10 balls. Here, the outer surface of the ice was composed
of broken ice of wrious sizes; the ice field of palcocrystic
ie floc was composed of brash ice. The larger. ice floes were
very dirty 'in color and greatly eroded by melting.
From the 1800 meridian, the Litke advanced along the
sea coast through a thin ice-belt 3-5 miles in width, as far as
176? 30' E. This belt was bounded by ice floes heaped one upon
another, which were extrembly'dirty and which had small fresh
water lakes on the surface. Along the coast the Litka encount-
ered, rather frequently, ice floes rising above sandbars (stamukhi).
West of 176? 30' E, no consolidated ice fields were seen in the
north. Before arriving at Shalaurova Island the Litke entered
-clear water composed of gaps of water in an ice-covered surface
(Polyn'ya) along the seacoast about 4-10 miles in width. The
gaps near Capc.Yuzhmin were blocked by a field of large ice
floes. The icebreaker went around the field on the coastal
side.
In crossing Chaun Inlet, the Litke sailed a Zigzag
course through clear water which was some distance frOm the
ice floes. on the southern side.. At 690 58' NI, 167? 13''E the
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Litke again entered ice, which continued as far as Cape Medvezhi.
It encountered flat ibe 30ocentimeters thick broken up into var-
ious sizes. West from 165? E, the ship ran into extremely dirty
ice floes for the most part.
On the trip (31 Jul) from Cape Medvezhi-to liredeohi
Island, the Lake encountered ice of 7-9 balls density (broken
ice of various, sizes, brash ice-fields, and flat ice-fields).
The northern tip of this ice lay across 70? 271 No
sailing from ModVezhi Island to the Novo-Sibirskiye
Islands, the Litke cut across two ice accumulations. These were
in the form of tongues, separated from the,icc floes which were
conjectured to exist in the-ntsrtheast. Perhaps.the previously-
mentioned accumulations of ice were not a continuation of the
larEe ice floes in the Siberian Sea; they seemed to form in-
dividuai pancake-shaped ice masses; however, these various con-
jectures are nct very reliable.
The Litke encountered the first accumulation'of ice be-
tween 71? 281 N, 159? 361 E and 71? 45 N, 157? 581 E. Here, it
discovered large amounts of brash ice and fragments of ice fields
whose density varied between 1 and 3 balls. The second accumula-
tion of ice was between 720 001 N, 156' 131 E and 720 201 N,
1530 301 E. Here wore ice fields, ice field fragments, and brash
ice of all sizes whose density was 1 to 8 balls. The ic6 fields
wore not hard (20 cm thick) bad were greatly eroded from 'molting;
they gave an appearance of groat decay. The greater part of the
ice was very dirty.
Heading westward from this second accumulation of ice,
the Litke continued to encounter isolated masses of ice (density
for the most part less than 1 ball); after that it never enceuht-
cred any ice at all in the seas, until it arrived at Great Lyakhov
Island.
Although Dmitriya Laptova Strait, passed 2 Aug was
blear, on the south coast of Groat Lyakhov Island white patches
of ice could be Seen. _While the Litke was sailing to Tiksi Bay,
ice was encountered onIy.at-72? 481 N, 137? 54',E (3 Aug) there ,
a sheet of thin. ice (density:' 1 ball) about one-half Mile wide
was seen. This strip of ice did not extend very far to the south;
in the north, the strip continued beyond the horizon. This belt
of ice was very thin and consisted of ice fields which had com-
pletcly broken up.
Travelling froaTiksi Bay to Samuila Island, the Litke
encountered small detached ice floes, at 73? 041 N, 131? 181 E.
At 730 151 N., 131? 201 E, the density of the ice (broken up into
various sizes) was as low as I ball. Some ice detached from
these floes was seen at 730 241 N, 1310 221 E.
? In the northwestern part of the LaPtev Sea, ice was first
sighted on 11 Aug. The southern tip of the ice was sighted at ?
76 12? N, 118? 401 E. Sailing alongside this ice margin nta,
safe distance pf 2710emilos, the Litke continued northwest with ?
the ice margin'te the Starb6ard. At 76? 41' N, 115? 451 E, the ?
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Litke entered the 4-5 ball-ice which was broken up in large'and
sm'all floes. At. 76? 491 Np 114? 521 Ep it began to encounter
a greatly eroded ice field with a thicknets of 5-50 centimetcrS.:
Icebergs which had small freshwater lakes at rare intervals were
clso encountered. At 760 54' N, 114? 14' E tho density of tho- ice
s 8-9 balls. About. 70% of the ice here was less than 50 conti-2
meters thick; ice one meter-thick was rarely encountered. On
12 Aug, at 77? 061 N, 111? 17' the Litke entered a sea of ice,
All the icp encountered on the course northeast from PIYOTORU*
Island was less than one year old.
, ? It was not difficult for an icebreaker to sail through
these ice belts whose width was 73 miles.
On 12 Aug the Litke approached Samuila'Island. The
straits between the various islanas the above group were cover-
ed with land flo iCP that vas still difficult to crack. Accord-
ing to N N ULVATEV* who passed the winter Dn. these islands,
Vaddeya Bay at this time of the year freezes in the same manner
as Samuila Island.
The ,st,eamer bel9nging to the Lena River Survey Unit was
anchored in the land floe between the islands of the Samuila
group; the Litke had to 'assist this ship. In order to sail the
ten-odd kilometers between it and the Lena River Survey Unit
ship, the Litke had to labor for 112 hours. During the first two
days it advanced slowly by .pulverizing the land floe which was
i to 3/4 meter thick; on the third day the ice was 1.5 meters
thick.
F:ram 18 to 19 Aug, two airplanes carried out rcconnais-
sancec to explore the width and general nature of the hard ice
which lay across the eastern part of the strait from the Litke.
On the second reconnaissance the ship captain N U Nikolavy him-
self participated. The width of the above ice was 19 miles. The
ice-margin extended northward from the Samuila Islands, then
northeastward, and finally toward the area of Malyy Taimyr Island...
On 21 Aug the Litke traversed th course opened as the
'result of icebreaking by the YERMATSK* and crossed the ie lying
across Vil'kitskiy Straits. The ice, rarely exceeding 1-2/3 met,-xs
in thickness, was greatly melted. According to observations made
by the Sibiryakov, this ice cracked finally on 27 Aug.
4Between Cape Chelyuskin and Russkiy Island (24-25 Aug),
the Litke entcred'upon. clear water; it rarely encountered ice
floes. Crossing a belt of thin ice north of Russkiy Islrld, at
76? 56' N,'94? 05'E, the Litke approached the margin of the ice.
(brash ice-fields and large floes of broken ice), but sailing
along the margin of this ice, advanced toward the northwest.
On 27 Aug the Li61,e took.a course toward the southwest and ad-
vanced 55 miles o come oat upon a smooth sea. However, on the ,
way it encountered year-old ice, large and small ice fragments,
ice almost completely melted, and ice 20 centimeters thick. '
Cruising along the weotorn part of the clear water, on
29 Aug the Litke encountered continuous fields of ice floes (8
balls in density) and blocks of ice rising up over sandbars
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(76? 301 N, 89? 031 E). On 31 Aug, the Litke again took a south-
west course and encountered chiefly small ice floes about one year
old; occasionally, closer inspection showed fields of ice floes
two years old. After 750 161 N, 86? 571 E, ice fields were no
longer encountered. At 74? 47' N., 84? 10' E the Litke came upon
clear water (I Sep) and then cut across the lower 'Sart of a sea
of thin ice, about 10 miles with. The southwestern edge of the
ice in this sea was sighted at 740 221 N, 82? 371 E. The sea from
here was clear all the way to Dickson Island,
In navigating from Dickson Island to Yugorskiy Shar Straits
(14-16 Sep), absolutely no ice was encountered.
The table below lists the number of Miles the Litke passed
through ice:
Sea
No of Miles
Through Ice
Distance Through
Compact _Ice
Chukotsk Sea
135
60
East Siberian Sea
345
16
Laptev Sea
94
58
Kara Sea
179
Barents Sea
-
Total
753
134
Since the distance from Cape Dezhnev to Cape Murman is
3505 miles, the number of miles of ice the Litke traversed was
only 22% of its total voyage in the Arctic Ocean. The distance
through compact ice (density of 8 or more balls) was only 4% of
the total distance.
According to these figures, tho summer of 1934 can be
regarded as a year when there was little ice on the Arctic Ocean
routes.
B. Kara and Ad'acent Seas
1. Kara Sea
/fate. on Ice
Winter of 193-4," Transactions of the Arctic Institute,
Vol 45, 193
Conditions on the Soviet Arctic Coasts in the
a. Cape Zhelaniya, Novaya Zemlya (760 56' N, 68? 351 E)
On 19 Oct 1933, small icebergs, moving slowly north-
east, Were noted for the first time ,in the ,open sea, as observed
from the cape by rhumbs from northwest to north,-northeast. Ice
in the form of floating icebergs and fields with a density of 5
to 7 balls was observed for the Second time 2$ to 30 Oct. On 31
Oct the water was clear.
On 1 Nov there was 8-ba11s-brash ico. On 2 Nov it
was clear, but on the northern part of the horizon an ice sky was
seen. From 3 to 5 Nov there were 1 to 5-ball-ice fields moving
south-southeast. On 6 Nov ;it was blown back beyond the limits of
visibility by the south-southeast wind. From 10 to 11 Nov a few
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? large drifting icebergs appeared; from 13 to 18 Nov icebergs and
ice fields of 2 to 10 balls' density appeared. On 19 Nov the
sea was clear; on 21 Nov there was another 3-ball-field from north-
east, on 21 Nov the sea was clear. on 22 Nov 8-ball-ice fields
came from tAe north, On 23 Nov Micro wore, 10 ball ice fields, and
on 24 Nov the ice stopped moving and turned into a 10' ball Station-
ary icelield of land floes from 15 to 150 centimeters thick. On
26 Nov there wero 7 balls of ice left, and on 30 Noir the sea was
clear) duo to a south-southeast wind of over 28 m/sec. There-
ever slush was formed, it was 1 ball.
On 4 Dec, 10-ball-large ice pieces appeared with a
wind of over g8 m/sec. blowing northwest. Part of it, 3 balls,
remained by the 'shore. 011.6 Dec the fast ice was already 10 balls.
During the following daysl,the ice became firmer and from 21 to
144 centimeters thick, 04 16 Dec part Of the ice was blown away
by a 17 m/sec wind, From 17 Dec to the end' of the month there was
48 .to 116 Centimeters -thick, regardless of storm
winds, On 30 Dec there was a water sky at the horizon from north-
west to north.
On 8 Jan 1934 part of the ice .-Was torn from the north-
. west.sido and carried out to sea, leaving the remainder at 8 balls.
On 10 Jan almost all the ice was carried out except a narrow
' 1-ball-strip of shore land floc from 68 to 134 Centimeters thick.
On 13 Jan there were 6.balls of ce, On 14 Jan all the ice was
carried out.by,a wind of over 28 m/sec.' On 15 Jan there was a
level land floe, 7-ball-young ice, and on 16 Jan, 10 ball. On
19 Jan half of the ice broke up, and on 0 Jan almost all the
-ice was carried put. A 1-ball-shore land floe remained. On 21
sTan 5-ball7large ice pieces were blown out by a south-southeast
wind of over 28 m/sec; on 22 Jan the sea was clear; on 23 Jan there
were 4-ball-icefields; on 24 Jan the sea was clear, and ice
. fields were viisble on the horizon to the northwest. Prom 25 Jan
to the e4d of the month drifting largo and small ice pieces were
observed of from 7 to 9 balls density, except or 30 Jar, when
there was no ice (with a west wind of over 28 m/sec; however, on
the following day, this same wind blew in 7-ba11-iCe).
- Throughout the first 10. days of. February a con-
glomerate Of ice pieces and ice flee' Masses, 63 to 80 centimeters
thick, of :0 balls den-iity? remained fast. On 12 Fob its seaward
part was moving soathcast. In the fast part (the shore part, of
5-ball-ice) individual gaps appeared
The lo-ball-ice remained until the 'end of the month.
In the seaward par-c.? movement to he southeast was noted from
21 Mar on On 27 Feb the ice was broken up, and on 28 Feb it
changed into 7-ba]1-small ice pieces. There was clear water on
thQ horizon, On L .Mar there woro.thinning small ice pieces of
8 balls, ac1(.! then on 20 Mar there was a 10-ball-fast Sheet. On
21 Mar part of the ipo was carried out, with a remainder of 7
. balls, of which 2 balls were largo ice picccs.
From 22 to 24 Mar there were from 3 to 8.balls of
icealmevt_411:floating cc pieces From 25 to 28 Mar 1-ball-
small and icebergs floated by at infrequent intervals.
?
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On 29 Mar there mere 8 balls and on 30 Mar there were 10 balls, of
fast ice.
About 10 balls of ice remained until 22 Jun.. From
0.2 to 0.5 of its area was taken up with the movement and break-
age of ice during the beginning of the first and second ten day
periods of Apr. On 8 Apr part of the ice was carried out by a
strong Mind from the south-southeast, leaving a remainder of 7
balls; however, its quantity increased to 10 balls again in the
course of the day.
On 23 Apr the northwest portion of the ice was blown
away, with a 6-ball-remainder; sn 24 Apr, it was 4 balls, and on
25 Apr large ice pieces wore blpwn in by a north-northwest wind.
With the remains of the fast ice., there were 6 balls in all. On
27 Apr there were 10 balls of fast ice floes.
, On 2 May 3 balls of ice were left, under the influ-
ence of a west wind." Of the fast ice only the narrow shore band
which generally does not disintegrate in winter remained. From
4 to 10 May the quantity of ice increased, and most of it became
quite fast. On 16 May there were 10 balls of fast ice. On 17 May
half the ice broke up. On 18 May there were 8 balls of ice, main-
ly ice pieces. On 20 May there were 10 balls. On 24 May there,
remained only a shore land floe of I ball, on which there were
pools of melting snow. On 29 May 5 ball large ice pieces came in;
on the following day there were 6 balls, and the land floe band
increased to 2 balls.
Through the first 10 days of Jun the ice remained
from 8 to 10 balls, while the land flow band grew to 4 balls,
and then broke up. On 12 Jun there were 7 balls of ice; on 13
Jun 4 balls; on 14 Jun, 8 balls. The fast band of ice grew again
in these and the following days, and on 18 Jun all the 10-ball-
ice became fast and remained so; on 28 Jun it all broke up and
was carried out. On 30 Jun thcrc was a 1-ball-remainder of small
ice pieces.
- Southeast of the station in Pospelov Bay, the Ice
process *6:tit on rather dniferaly.
" On J, 04 1 ball of slush appeared for one day, then
5 to 6 balls from 27 to 30 Oct. From 1 to 2 Nov there were 3 to
7 balls of ice crystals. . From 3 to 6 Nov there were 8 to 10 balls
of young ice. On 7 Nov this was already a 5-ball-land floe,
rPaching 10 balls on 11 Nov. On 12 Nov 2 icebergs appeared in
the bay. The ice was torn away on 18 Nov by the west wind, and
half of it was blown out to sea. On the following day there were
only two icebergs loft in the bay, resting on the bottom. On 20
Nov 7-ball-ice was blown into the bay by a northeast wind. On 21
Nov the Pea IAP.,s clear, (except for the icebergs, which remained
throughout the winter). On 22 Nov small ice pieces blow in from
the sea, and they combined with the local young ice, 10 balls.
On 2 Dec the ice was carried out to sea by a northwest wind; on
4 DeQ 6-ball-sludge ice was formed. On 5 Dec an 8-bal1-fast land
floQ 5 centimeters thick was formed. Then, until the end of the
month there was 10-ball-fast ice, except on 16 Dec, when two-tenths
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?
of the ice from the sea side of the bay was carried out to sea
? In the first 10 days of January there were 10 balls
of ico. From 11 to 13 Jan 1934 there were 4 to 5 balls of ice.
The ice was torn from the sea side of tile bay; on 14 Jan there.
were 10 balls, and on 15 Jan, 7 balls; on 16 Jan, 10 balls; on
19 Jan there were. 8 balls, while in the seaward partthere were
ice pieces: On 20 Jan there were 2 balls, and on 21 Jan all the
ice was carried out to sea to the north. On '22 Jan there was 1
ball Of.yourg ice, increasing on 28 Jan to7 balls and forming
a small land floe. On 29 Jan the amount of ice diminished to 4
balls. From 2 Feb it increased and on 4 Fob reached 10 balls.
Half of the ice was floes. On 12 Feb there were 8 balls of ice,
and on 13 Feb 10 balls then for 3 days, 6 balls. From. 17 Feb on
there were 10 balls again. From 26 Feb to 4 Mar the ice remained
at 5 to 6 balls, while in the scawarj part there were ice pieces.
From 5 to 20 Mar there were 10 balls. A third was fast ice, the
remaining two-thirds being flocs. On 21 Mar the 'seaward portion
of the floe ice was carried out. Mere was a remainder of 8 balls.
From then on the ice continued to J,rea.k up and be carried out.
On 29 Mar there was a roma,inder of 1 ball.
.,s.
On 30 Mar small ice pieces appeared and solidified
into 10 balls of young. ice. Fas-,, largely floe ice of 10 balls
remained throdgh.')utAPril and May. But in May at the time the
wind strengthened there were days with loss ice: from 7 to 8
May there were 5 balls; 18 to 19 May, 8 balls; 24 to 28 May,
8 and 6 -bails.: On 30 May the thMkness of the ice measured
120 centimeters.
In Jun the ice was generally 10 balls, except for
1 Jun when it was 7 balls, 5 to 8 Jun, 7 to 9 balls; 15 Jun, 9
balls; and 29 Jun, 8 balls. At tha end of the month, the ice
deteriorated as follows: on 26 ,:un there were individual gaps;
and on 27 Jun there were pools of melting snow. On 30 Jun
there were fresh water pools on the surface.
b. Matochkin'Shar (73? 16' N, 56?-24'E)
On 5 Oct slush appeared on Nochuov Brook, and on
7 Oct ice crystals appeared on the northern shbre of tho strait.
After a snowstorm on 12 Oct snow blown from the bank farmed
siudgc ice at the mouth of Nochuev Creek'. On 15 Oct the whole'
eastern part of the strait was covered sludge ice, especially
thick on the northern shore. Fvom Cape Drovyaniy to the outlet
of the strait into the Kara Sea, a 1.6u.; floc. was formed which ex-
tended to the middle of the strait.
With the formation of the land floe An intensive
formation of brash ice, sludge and 'slush began in ole whole
strait, as a'reSult of which passage for ships was inpossible
on 15 Oct. On 16 Oct the whole eastern part Of the s",rait was
thicklY failed with brash ice and slush, which,' on the mornin'g
of 17 Oct, was driven to the north shore of the strait 1.y the
south wind, and in the evening was carried into the Kara (lea by
the west winds. On 18 Oct brash ice appeared for the secnd time
in the strait. On 19 Oct ice appeared on the horizon of to Kara
S a
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? Frpm 22 to 24 Oct the strait was clear of ice, and
on the 24th the strait and the visible part of the sea were cov-
ered with brash ice and slush to the extent of 9 balls. On 25
Oct the frozen brash ice and slush formed a land floe at the south-
ern shore and sheet ice in he area of Capes Popevechinyy and
Drovyanoi and at the outlet of the strait. The rQst or the strait
was covered with yound ice. On the morning of 26 Oct. the eastern
part of Latochkin Shar was covered with a fast ice' shect? in which
a shore gap on the northern shore between Nochuev Brock and Cape
Vykodnov and a gap across from the station remained until evening.
On 7 Oct young ice and a sludgc"ice were floating
in the gaps. On 28 Oct only the shore gap at Nochuev Brook re-
mained. On 29 Oct the number of gaps increased, and.? regardless
of the weak winds in the northern quarten, tho land'flow was
separated from the southern shore of the strait by _the current,
evidently, and on 30 Oct in the morning the eastern edge of the
land floe advanced from tha station to Cape Byk. All the ice was
carried by the current from the eastern part of the strait into
the Kara Sea, but in the evening sludge and young ice werc formed
again, and on the horizon of the Kara Sea, fragments of an old
ice field were visible. In the evening of 31 Oct the strait was
partly cleaved by the current, and on 1 Nov ice rind formed. This
froze on 5 Nov into a flat sheet of winter ice, the edge of which
extended for several miles beyond the confines of the strait into
the Kara Sea. The solid land floe remained in that form until
3 Feb 1934, when its seaward part thinned, and on the, horizon
hummocky fragments of ice fields appeared; these broke up into
large ice pieces on 5 Feb.
In the evening of 10 Feb the seaward part of the land
floe formed again, but it was hummocky, differing from the fast
ice of the strait. From 13 Feb on, the land floe was not formed
beyond the line of Cape Vykhodnoy and Cape Klokov, and the whole
visible portion of the sea beyond the edge of the land floe in
the strait was full of floating, chiefly heavy, hummocky icc of
a variegated type, except for icebergs.
Ice was brought daily by the ebb and flow of the tides
near the edge of the land floc,. and at other times carried out
again, forming a band of clear water along the edge. According
to traders, long hummocks extended on the horizon from across the
strait to the north beyond Cape Kankrin. There were no instances
of the visible surface of the sua being clear of floating ice for
more than one day until 1 Sep.
The thicknes's of t:7_. icc, measured at a distance of
100 to 200 meters from the shore, increased intensely at a rate
of 9 centimeters every 5.days until 1; Nov, after which the in-
crease dropped to 1 to 3 centimeters. From 22 Nov on, it increased
again to 5 to 9 centimeters cvc:ry 5 days. Tho greatest jump in
the devalvpment of icc, as much as 12 ck,iitIm'aul-G, wa$ obgerved
between 15 and 20 Dec? after which the growth decreased again and
did not exceed 3 to 4 contimotors ovary five days until 20 Apr,
On 20 Apr the thickness of the ice reached its maximum of 121
centimeters, which remained with small fluctuations (up to 119
centimeters) until June. Then intensive thawing began, and.be-
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teen 25 to 30 Jun, the thickness diminished to 38 centimeters,
after :which the Change in the thickness proceeded slowly until
the winter ice sheet actually disappeared. The maximum measure-
met of ice thickness in November was 40 centimeters; in Decem-
ber, /7 centimeters; in January, 85 centimeters; in February,
94 centimeters; in March, 112 centimeters; in April, 121 centi-
meters; in June 119 centimeters; and in July, 41 centimeters.
. . The.:thickness of the snow cover On:the ice in No-
vember was about 2,to 3 centimeters) and in April about 16 centi-
meters-.
The disintegration of winter ice in the strait began
on 7 May with the formation of pools of melting snow at the north-
ern shore. The melting pools were covered with snow except on
28 May when a drop in atmospheric temperature covered them with
young ice. The amount and extent of the pools kept increasing
constantly. On 21 jun at the northern shore water, which ex-
panded considerably at Nochuev Brook on 23 jun appeared.
Asa result of the expansion of the water and the
increased pools on the ice?.foot traffic across the strait was
impossible on 25 Jun. On 26 Jun cracks appeared on the ice,
and a gap extended from Nochuev Brook to the middle of the
strait.
On 10 Jul the gap from Nochucv Brook extended far
to the south, and also along the northern bank. The sheet ice
of the eastern part of the strait was considerably vitiated by
small lakes and gaps. On 11 Jul it was broken up by a south-
southeast wind of 4 m/sec. The edge of the sheet ice remained
between Cape Poperochnyy and Cape Drovyanov, and a large ice
field floatod at the nouth of the strait.
On 24 Jun a post was sot up on Cape Kaukrin to Ob-
serve the ice on the open sea. The results indicated that the
shoro land floe had combined With the Matochkin Shar land floe,
that the sheet ice of Kaukrin Bay was covered with small lakes,
and that beyond the land floe floated large pieces of 10-ball
hummocky ice. On 30 Jun the land floc was torn loose north of
Cape Kaukrin, and on 1 Jul it was torn away south of the bay.
On 3 Jul a heavy pack of 7-ball-floating ice was driven toward
the horizon by southwest winds; on 5 Jul the sheet ice in Kaukrin
Bay was broken up and carried out.to sea. After that, on 18 Jul
the bay was piled up with small ice pieces by winds from the north-
east coming in from the sea, and the bay was not clear until 22
-Jul.
. On 12 Jul the land floe disintegrated in the narrows
between Cape Popevechnyy and Cape Drovyanoy, and in the eastern
part of the strait, within the range of visibility; there re-
mained only 4-ball-small ice pieces. On 14 Jul these- were
carried out of the Strait by the current and by winds from the
northwest. Until 16 Jul the strait was quite clear of ice, and
16 Jul 6-ball-large ice pieces were carried into the strait from
the sea. These were gradually carried out to sea by northwest
winds from 18 Jul on, and by 22 Jul the strait was cleared,
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although on the horizon of the Kara Sea there remained large .
pieces ofhummocky ice. On 26, Jul Small ice pieces were again
carried into the strait from the sea by southeast winds. Some-
times they ,filled the whole strait, and sometiiilos they thinned
out and were driven against the shore. This condition lasted
until 1 Sop'
Thickness of Ice in Matochkin Shar Strait '1933-34
Date
, .7 Sep
13 Nov
15 Nov
17 Nov
21 Nov
22 Nov
23 Nov
24 Nov
25 Nov
26 Nov
28 Nev
29 Nov
30 Nov
1 Doc
2 Dec
3 Dec
6 Dee
9 Dec
10 Dec
13 Dec
14 Dee
15 Dec
17 Dec
18 Dec
19 Dec
20 Dec
23 Dec
25 Dec
26 Dec
31 Dee
ThickneS6 (an)
18
27
28
30
30/3
31
31
33
34
36
37
37
40
Date ThiCknea (cm)
..- 21.Jan '80 -?
20 Jan 85
30 Jan 85
11 Feb 88/16
- 20 Feb 94':.
I_ Mar : 98
]4 Mar '108
4 Mar 112 .
10 Apr 12646
20 Apr 121
30 Apr 121,
10 MaY 120
:20 May 120
42, 1 Jun -119
44 20 Jun' 101
46
51
56
56
56
58
59
65
68
70
71
73
74
75
77
24 Jun 79
25 Jun 75
26 Alla 72
27 jun 55
28 Jun 49
25 Jun 44
3o Jun 37
1 Ail 41
2 Jul 36
3 Jul 28
4 JU-1 28
'8 Jul 26
7 Jul 24
NOTE1 Denominator of fractions indicates' depth of snob on ice:
,
On 2 Nov at the station on Vaygach Island ice crys-
tals appeared; on? Nov, regardless of brisk winds from the east,
slush formed? and after a snowstorm on-8 Nov, sludge ice was
added to the slush, and the sludge remained, especially at the
shores, On 11 Nov brash ice, and, the next day, having been
driven against the shore, it formed an Ice band which extended
into the bay to a width of 'l mile. On the same day on the north-
northwest horizon, large pieces of 1-ball-hummocky ice appeared.
Navigation for boats, except icebreakers, was at an end. The
last boat went through the strait on 19 Oct. On 13 Nov the whole
visthle surface was covered to the horizon with young ice mov-
ing south. On 14 Nov, duo to the action of the wind and tide?
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6%11 ice pieces,. Slush, brash ice and pancake ice came in from
the Kara Sea and filled the whole strait. There were two small
,
gaps in this ice southeast of 0Thoniy Island and one large one
opposite Cape Bolvanskiy.
,
The ice remained without essential change until 16
Jan, but on -17' Nov the strait, except for the bay, was piled with
large' ice pieces due to north winds. Among these was observed
intensive formation of young ice. On 17 Nov, in the bay betvleen
the. shores of Vaygach Island and Oleniy and Voronov Islands young
sheet ice and gaps which surrounded Oleniy Island from the south
romaihod. On 18 Nov young ice was violently torn off in the direc-
tion of thq station shore by a strong west wind, and on 19 Nov
the strait was completely cleared. After this, due to a heavy
snowstorm, there was no visibility until 22 Nov. On 22 Nov brash
ice, brought in by moderate northeast winds, was observed within
the limits of the 4-mile visibility in the strait and the bay.
Slush and sparse small ice pieces moving north were also seen.
,
On 24 Nov a land floe, whose 'edge advanced from Cape
Bolvanskiy to Oleniy Island, and beyond to the /anov,Islands and
Cape Voronov, was formed. Hummocks were formed on the land floe,
and gaps remained in places. They were frozen over on 26 Nov.
Beyond the land' fiec? 8-ball-hummocky fields wore floating.
Until 8 Dec the land floc reMained within its former
limits, sometimei,extending to the line formed by the Oleniy, Yanov,
Morozov and RagOzin Islands, and sometimes stopping at the line
of the Olcniy.and Voronov Islands. A 'shore gap, decreasing in
arcal.remained between Oleniy Island and Cape Bolvanskiy, abut-
ting directly upon the shore. On 8 Nov the gap in the said
location was about 3 miles in diameter with the channel approach-
ing the station shore. On 11 Dec the gap between Cape Bolvanskiy
and Oleniy Island was covered with unstable sheet ice which broke
up on 12 Dec. On 10 Dec an ice band which combined with the land
floe, was formed at Cape Bolvanskiy. On 23 Dec a gap extended
along .the land floc on the side of the strait and along the north
shore of Vaygach. Large.i.ec,pieces and hummocky ice fields re-
mained beyond the gap until 1 Jul. They moved slowly with the
,winds and the tidal currents along the edge of the land flee,
-sometimes approaching it or moving off to form a gap.
In the beginning of Mar 1934 the gap changed its form,
dividing from time to time into several gaps. On 11 Mar the whole
surface beyond the land floe was covered with hummocky fields
and was not open again until 21 Mar when the winds shifted to the
south rhumbs. Afterwards it was sometimes clear and sometimes
covered, depending upon the winds and the currents, until the
end of May. On 10 May water appeared under the snow on the land
.flee, and on 26 May part of the land floc was broken up at the
mouth of Dolgaya Bay by waves and floating ice. On the parts of
the land floe remaining between the islands, many pools of melt-
ing snow and small lakes, which froze when the temperature
dropped, appeared. .
On 1,Jpn the edge of the land. floe passed from the
Ragozin Islands, enveloped the Merozovanov, and Oleniy Islands,
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and proceed from there to Cape Bolvanskiy and along the north
shore of Vaygach Island to a Width of about 3 miles-. Beyond the
edge of the land.floes floated hummocky Ice fields and large and
small ice pieces becoming donSer toward the horizon.
The disintegration of the above-mentioned land floe
began on 2 Jun between Oleniy island and Cape Bolvanskiy, and on
5 Jun part of the land floe was 'torn away from the Outer side
ap to Voronov Island. On 6 Jun a gap was formed between Olcniy
and Vaygach Islands. On"? Jun it combined with the open area
between Oleniy and Vaygach Islands. The outer part of the land
floe was broken up from day to day by west winds., And by 11 Jun
it remained between Cape Voronov Noe, Yanov Island and Oleniy
Island, from which the edge .proceeded south to a point across
from the station and beyond to the no.rth'along the east shores;
this limited the ice band to a width of about 3 to 4 cablers
lengths.
On 22 Jun the greatly disintegrated land floe moved
off Yanov and Oleniy Island, and on 23 Jun its edge passed from
the cape on which the station was located to Voronov Island and
from there to Cape Voronov Nos. Between the cape where the sta-
tion was and Cape Bolvanskiy there was a strip of ice left by
the land floe as it passed. Floating ice continued to fill the
whole visible part of the horizon, and in it large ''ice pieces
predominated over hummocky fields.
On 26 Jun several cracks and thawed gaps were noted
on the land floe. On 30 Jan the strait was navigable.
On 1 Jul the horizon was clear of floating ice, ex-
cept that remaining in a very ,mall band on the northwest part
of the horizon, at Oleniy Island and the station shore. The land,
floe remained only in the bays south of the station and at the
ihore of the station. On 3' Jul there was.no "pore fast ice, mak-
ing the bay navigable. Large and small ice pieces remained at
the shores. The whole remaining surface of the ,strait and the
open 8ea was cleared of ice by a strong southeast wind. On 5
Jul only sparse 868,11 Ice pieces remained within the _limits of
visibility. .From 6,to 11 Jul the bay and the visible part,..Qf
the strait were -clear Of ice. From 11 Jul to the end of he month
with predominating northeast minds, from 1.to 5 balls of .ice?
shifted about by the winds and Currents, remained in the strait
and the sea.
Thickness of Ice In''karsiciy Vorota Strait
at
Vaygach Island
-Date- Thickness (cm)
24 Nov 20
30 Nov 31/2
10 Pee 41/8
20 Dec ,
. 54/9
.30 Dec 63/10
10 Jan , 65/13
20 Jan 72/14
3O Jan 72A1
10 Feb .
73/35
20 Feb 78/2Q
28: Feb '85/29
10 Mar 92
NOTE: See preceding table.
Date
_ 20 Ear
31 Ear
10 Apr
20 Apr
30 Apr
10 May
20 May
31 May
10 Jun
20 Jun
30 Jun
2 Jul
,
Thickness (cm)
.93.
110/25
102/27
.105/28
106/32
100
116/28
134/0
107
89
52
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d. Yugorskiy Shar (69? 491 N, 600 451 E)
, On, 1 Nov, young, small ice pieces appeared in the
strait with southeast.winds. They extended across the strait:.
tothe viSible part of the Kara Sea. On 2 and 3 Nov the whole
ViSible expanse of water was clear of ice, and on 4 Nov brash
icc and 'slush appeared A. the east shore. On 9 Nov slush also
appeared at sea. Tho amount of slush and brash ice in the strait
increased from day to day) and on 14 Nov fast ice was formed
in 'the north part of the strait due to the freezing of the slush
and brash ice. It occupied an area of 8 balls, as a result of
Which stoader traffic was impossible. On 16 Nov half of the land
fide in the strait was broken up, and a field of young ice, which
remained until 19 Nov when the strait wai Covered with a smooth
ice sheet, appeared from the direction of the Kara Sea. .On 21
Nov the ice broke up again) and on 22 Nov a new land floe was
formed in the Straia. On 24 Nov a gap appeared between Cape
Karlin and Cape Kameunii) separated by' an'ice barrier from the
clear water beyond the line of Sokoliy Island and Cape Kanin.
On 25 Nov the whole visible surface of the water was,covered
with an ico shoot, in which a channel of 'clear water?oxtending
N 8 miles) to the limit of visibility, in the middle of the strait,
appearcdaon 2 Dec, On 6 Dec the channel widened far enough to
be navigable although the ice of the land floe was 48 centi?
meters thick. Until 11 Dec, observations could not be made due
to poor visibility. Until 13 Dec there remained only a small
gap, where the channel had boon, in the middle of the strait
between the radio station and Cape Kanin. The flat ice cover
in the strait, where the channel of clear water had boon, had a
hummocky strip.
The land floe remained stable on the shores of
the Kara Sea) east of the outlet from the strait, while west of
the strait, until 19 Dec, clear water, extending to Cape
Belyy, was observed from time to timo.
During the wintor the land floe was stable, with
a width of about 3 miles; it remained at the shores of the open
sea and combined with tho ice sheet in the strait; the rest of
the water surface visible from the station was covered sometimes
with fast ice, sometimes with heavy floating ice, and sometimes
was completely clear. For the greater part of Jan 1934, clear
water was observed beyond the indicated limits of the land floe,
beyond which an ice sky could be seen.
- In February the horizon of the Kara Sea was very
often clear, and with the exception of days of poor visibility,
,tnore was clear water for 22 or 23 days.
In March an even ice sheet or a hummocky ice cover
predominated on the visible arca of the Kara Sea. It was dis?
tinguished from the icc wedged into the middle of tho strait-from
the north. On 11 Apr part of the land floc was torn away by
strong winds, and it remained about a mile wide at the shore and
less than a mile wide at the headlands. A wedgo of clear water
extended to a point opposite Cape Kanin, but on 18 Apr the visi?
ble water surface was again covered with a hummocky ice shoot,
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beyohd_which large and small ice pieces and ice fields appeared
froth 22 May on. On 4 May water was observed beneath the snow on
Akio ice, and on 25 M.eq cracks appeared; on 26 May pools of melting
anew Could be soon.
On 5 Jun successive separations of the land floe from
the shores began. On 6 Jun the land flow was torn away at Cape
Yareasel aPd other capes to the cast of it. A wedge of clear
water was formed at Cape 4flin, while fields of fragments of the
land floe, torn off by the west and southwest wind, were floating
on the sea. On 16 Jun, in the middle of the strait, to the south
of a point opposite Cape Kanin, a gap was formed; on 18 Jun this
combined with the narrow channel from the open sca? filled with
small ice pieces'
On 22, Jun, after a brisk northeast wind, tho gap in
the ice of the strait, having been filled with large and smalI
ice pieces from the fields of the detached land floe, widened to
4 miles, With the formation of the gap which joined the Kara
Sea, the strait became navigabLo in the vicinity of the station.
From 28 Jan on, the gap in the strait, as well as
the breach in the land floc, began to be cleared of ice by the
_
southwest and west winds. From 29 Jun to 23 Jul, large and small
ice pieces, brought by north winds into the north half of the
strait, were observed. Those ice pieces were c,rried oat into
the Kara Sea by southwest winds after 23 Jul, and only. separate
ice blocks remained in the strait up to 26 Jul. By 2,,7 Jul the
strait was completely cleared.
Date
27 Nov
7 Dec
19 Dec
30 Dec
10 Jan
20 Jan
31 Jan
10 Feb
.Thickness of ice in YUgorskiy Shar Strait
,
Thickness (cm)
21
48
59
65
.67
72,
76
89
Date
28 Feb
l? Mar
, 1 Apr
16 Apr
: 15 May
25 May
'10 jun
,19 jun
Thickness (am)
- 90
90
90/35
93/36
113/10
121/10
.75,
. 40, .:..
21 Feb ,85,
NOTEi See proceeding table.
0, Co Mare-Salo (66? 431 NI 660. 481 E)
On 9 Oct the small lakes nearby were covered with
sheet ice, and on many, a wide icc patch wasformcd, and on the
Marra-yaga River slush and panckac ice appeared. on 9 Oct.
On 11 Oct allrthe lakcs.were.covered with sheet ice,
which in a fey days,becaroe 7 to 10 centimeters thick. An ice
patch with. slush and,Or4sh ice, of the same.thickness Wa:P ,f9rm04,:.
on the NarraYaga River and ..at theScaShore.. On 15!Det-thp:riyer-
was cleared of ice by strong winds from the, northeast, and the
patch was Toi-ri away ,from the seashore, where only a band of brash
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ice remained. With the,weakening of the wind on 16 Oct, a,narrow
patch formed again at the seashore. Beyond it, brash ice was
observed in places, which had also filled up the Marra-yagajuv-
Qr, On 16 Oct the SS Krkos arrived. the brash ice on the river
and at the seashore remained until 21 Oct, when the ice was
washed ashore by brisk western winds and the surface of the
water was cleared. On 22 Oct brash ice again appeared at the
seashore, and on 24 Oct it froze at the shoo and formed an ice
patch. Brash ice appeared on the Marra-yaga caused by snow blown
from the bank. On 25 Oct the river was clear, and ice remained
in the form of a path only at the seashore. The patch remained
on the Marra-yaga River and at the seashore from this time until
the end of the month, brash ice was floating beyond it. On 31
Oct during calm weather the whole visible surface of the sea was
covered with pancake ice in the calm weather and the Marra-yaga
River froze. On 27 Oct the SS Arkos left.
On 1 Noy the whole vipible surface of the sea was
covered with brash ice and pancako-iee, which changed on 21 Nov
into young ice. On 9 Nov hummocky fields were added to the young
ice; their number increased until by 10 Nov there were 85. The
floating fields remained until 12 Nov when the whole visible
surface was covered with hummocky sheet, ice.
On 19 Nov, as a result of a groat" drift, water ap-
peared on top of the ice at the shore and in the brook. During
the night from 21 to 22 Nov, the land floe was partly disinte-
grated by the pressure of ice from the sea, and new piled-up
ice fragments appeared.
From the end of Nov to 10 May 1934 the hummocky
land floe remained; sometimes it extended to the horizon and some-
times its seaward part was broken up making floating ice pieces
or clear water visible. In most cases, the ice beyond the land
floe was the heavy type and moved north and northwest.
On 10 Ma water appeared under the snow on the land
floe. On 23 May the winter characteristics of the land floe
persisted, but the amount of water under the snow increased
considerably, and on 27 May several pools of melting snow
formed, changing on 29 May into small lakes. On 2 Jun a water
patch and thawed gape were formed on the land floe; as a result,
the waters on the.ice surface was reduced.
On 13 Jun the seaward part of the land floe was
torn away by a brisk east wind, and hummocky fields and large and
Small ice pieces appeared beyond the remaining edge of the land
floe. From 13 Jun the disintegration of the land floe proceeded
without interruption until its width on 1 Jul was about 4 miles.
Beyond the edge of the land floe, clear water in most cases
ereMained, and from time to time large and small ice pieces were
.observed.
A gap appeared across from the mouth of the Marra-
yaga River on 25 Jun, a6d by 1 Jul it extended for several miles
along the shore. On 5 Jul the part of the land floe between the
gap and the sea was disintegrated by-west winds, and beyond the
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ede large and small ice pieces with hummocky fields appeared.
,On 9 Jul there was ho fast ice anywhere. Only a
band of do.mb).nod large and small ice pieces, driven by winds
from the west half of the horizon to a shoal, was observed When
the westwinds qlaokened? the ice Was carried mirth by the cur?
rel-A.4 and on 14 Jun the sea W8S, clear of ice within the limits of
visiblility. The ice reappeared (visible from Beyaratskaya Bay)
from 15 to 16 Jul, but it vanished again with brisk winds from
the north. Except for separated large and small ice floes and one
field which appeared between 21 and 24 Jul, the sea was clear
until 1 Aug.
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Thickness pf Ice off Cape Mare-Sale
DATE
THICKNESS (cm)
10
Jan
80
20
Jan
80
1
Feb
81
10
Feb
86
2
Mar
101
? 2Q
Mar
112
1
Apr.
111
? ID
Apr
116
20
Apr
120
30
Apr.
'120
10
May
123
20
May
123
f. Belyy Island. (b?30' N, 80?24' E)
The'polar station at Belyy Island began to function
1 Nov 1933. Regular ice observations began 9 Oct 1933 from the
cape where the station waL set up. This cape is washed from the,
north by a channel about one mile long which connects with the
sea. The channel has a bar and is unnavigable. From the south
side of the cape runs a brook which flows into the channel. The
brook is full of water only during the time when the snow is
melting on the island and during the summer at the time of high
tide. In summer there is sea water in the channel and in the
brook.
The northern, highest shore of the cape on which the
station is located is about 5 meters high, and the southern
shore (where the brook is) about '2 to 3 meters. The shortest
distance to the shore of the open sea on the west is about 800
meters. A special tower 8.72 meters above sea level was erect-
ed to observe the ice.
The horizon visible from the tower is open from
the south through west to north-northwest. The northern sector
was shut off by the high bank of Cape Rogozin, and the eastern
half of the horizon was obscured by the island. With positive
refraction, the part of the horizon beyond Cape Rogozin almost
to northeast sometimes became visible. The extent of visible
horiz'm of the sca fr-71 the tower is 6.14 fines. The object
of observations was the -ice cover of the channel and the croon
sea which could be observed due to low banks.
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The first ice formation in 1933 began on the channel.
Here, brash ice appeared on 16 Aug, reaching a thickness up to 20
centimeters. As a result, movement on the channel in a launch
or motor boat became difficult. On 18 Aug, however, the channel
waS clear of ice.
After a snowstorm on 25 Aug thick sludge ice was form-
ed. It was impossible to pass through in a motor boat, but,a launch
overcame the friction by rocking, and went ahead. At the same time,
sludge ice also appeared at the shore of the open sea, but on 29
Aug it disappeared after a strong southwest vind. In the channel
part of it was carried from the station toward the island. The
motor and rowboats in the sludge and the pancake ice were carried
in the same direction.
Pancake ice formed on the channel from the sludge and
brash ice on 10 Oct after strong west winds and a drop in tempera-
ture. On 12 Oct it froze in places to such an extent that it could
be walked upon. On 14 Oct the channels were covered with sheet ice,
in spite of a brisk southeast wind on 13 and 11, Oct.
On 15 Oct floating ice was observed on the open sea,
and at the shore sludge ice and small pieces of pancake ice form-
ed, locally. On 16 Oct hummocky fields were visible on the,
horizon from the southwest to the northwest. They moved south
despite a weak southwest wind. Small ice pieces which moved south
tith the same speed as the hummocky fields floated between them
and the shore.
On 17 Oct the whole visible expanse of the sea was
covered with pack ice which was driven forcibly by the south-
west storm wind toward the shore and the hummocky ice. At 1900
on this day, as a result of a great drift of water, the ice in
the channel was raised and its surface was covered with water.
On lb Oct an ice hatch with a hummocky edge was formed at the
seashore, and along it ice slowly moved south at a distance of
2 miles from the shore until 20 Oct.
On 20 Oct, with the shift of the wind to southward,
the amount of floating ice decreased to 3 balls. But on 21
Octup to 10 balls of ice was carried in by a strong west-north-
, .
west wind again, ad many hummocks were formed in tho snaestorms.
On 25 Oct, due to winds from the north, drift ice
was carried out from the shore, and a shore gap 4 to 5 miles
wide was formed. Beyond this gap hummocky ice with gaps was
moving: south as far as the horizon.
Oa 2, Oct the first grounded flocberg oas formed
under the pressure of the ice on the -shore, to the northwest of
the station, within 3 to 4 miles of the shore. On 30 Oct the
hummocky ice was driven by northxst winds to the shore and
froze, forming a winter land floe t. the horizon. The surface
of the land floc, in accordance with its formation process,
had a variegated appearance. A band of relatively even ice, 5
to 6 miles wide, extended from the shore. On it, ,for a distance
of about 2 miles from the shore, was a series of small grounded
flocbergs, evidently resting on spurs extending into the sea
beneath the surface of the water.
A second series of grounded flocbergs, 5 to 6 meters
high, limited the relatively even surface of the land floe.
Beyond the grounded floebergs the surface of the land floe was
very hummocky, evidently to the edge which was not visible.
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The ice of the land floe was to covered with cracks,
a great abundance of which was observed near the hummocks and
grounded floeborgs. By observations of the water sky, the land
floe had its greatest extent on 1 Jul 1943, i.e., about' 20 to 30
miles, while the 'smallest width was observed northwest of the
station, about 20 miles In observing vibrations, about 0.
mile from the seashore in the channel at the time of the webt-
erly storm winds, a vibration of the surface of the water as
noted.. ,It was of short duration and of an amplitude up to,
1.5 cendmeters. Small surface vibrations similar to wind
waves changed to a large atplitude, after 7 to 9 to 11
vibrations. After 1 to 2 such vibrations they stopped again.
Similar Small vibrations of the surface were noted only once
in an opening cut in the ice by an observer.
The thickness ot the ice, observed in the channel
With a depth of 2.4 meters, was 0.85 meters on 'l Doc; on
19 Jan 1934, 1.28 meters; and its greatest thickness, 1.42
meters was reached in May (3111-1LaY).. Tho snow cover on the ice
waS 1.5 'meters high? From May on, the thickness of the ice,
' with a snow cover from 0.2 to 1,0,meters,bogan to decrease,
slowly at first (on 13 Jun it was 1,38 meters), and then .
rapidly (on 5 Jul it was 89 centimeters). The ice of the
land floe on 21 Dec was 0.68 meters thick, and was covered
with .now to a depth of 6.16 meters. On 16 Jul the ice of the
land floe was from 0.30 tox0.60 meters thick.
Until 29 May the ice of the chainel remained
without change, but on the morning of 30 May, after a marked
lowerine of the surface, the ice went to the bottom. In the
evening, after a drift of water brought by the northwest winds,
it could not rise again; Irater flooded the top of the ice, and
new ice was formed on its surface. On the same day a -water sky
was observed from southwest to north-northwest. 'On 16 Jun
In the sam sector a water sky with blue bands. interspersed
with white ,a height of 3 to 4 degrees over the horizon, was
again observed. The bands moved slowly from north to south.
As snow came from the surface of the tundra, ice mirages were
observed repeatedly over the island, enveloping the horizon
from the south through west to oast,
On 23 Juno so mc}' Water collected on the ice ,
of the channel and the 'brook that the ice could not be travers-
ed on foot. The level of the water on the ice of the brook
was higher than on tho channel, and the water issuing from
the brook passed on to the ice of the channel, and then flowed
under Ue ie through an opening of about 70 to 80 centimeters
in diameter. On 28 Jun the level of the channel was raised by,
this inflow; so that the ice of the shore opposite the station
was raised.
As a result of the continuation of the flow of this
water, the brook ran dry on 8 Jul, and'thc muddy water of the
channel, passing above the old ice spread out a considerable distance
to the shores and formed a continuous washout of zigzag form.
Duo to the great speed of the current of the channel at the poin.t
where the water ran out under the ice of thc,land floeYa furrow
1.5 to 2.0 meters deep was formed. From 26 Jul on all the, ice
that had been under the water began to rise to the surface and to
be carried out of the channel) breaking up the patch of new ice.
.???
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On 3 Aug the ice, except for that heaped onto the shore,,ias broken
-up and floating but the channel with the tidal currents, and the
channel :was completely cleared on 11 Aug.
' On 2 Jun water appoarod under the snow on the open
sea land floc: a band of which extended along the shore to a width
of about 200 meters. This band had a crack at its outer ed7c about
25..ontimetors vide whieh also extonded.along the shore line.
Elidently the water was on that part of the land floe which was
fFozon to the ground. On 26 Jun there was little snow left on the
shore part of the land floe, and the water withdrew ad appeared
at a distance of 5 to 6 miles from shore in a band of hummock
formations. On 28 Jun a water patch about 2 miles wide appeared
at-the seashore, beyond which the area of tho land floc was
covered with pools of meltino, snow and small lakes about 0.5
meters deep. Many new craCks were formed; proceeding from the
edge Of-the land floc, where the nearer they wore to shore the
wider they wore. The hummocks and the grounded flocbergs turn-
ed black. Among them many seals wore noted.
' On 1 Jul many cracks wore formod among the floebergs;
the color of those changed from black to brown due to the-sand
which entered into the ice. The width of the land flow remained
about 20 miles, and the icelpecame so crumbled that it could be
crossed only with skis. On 15 Jul many new cracks which changed
their width under tho pressure of the drift ice were formed in
the land floe. On 24 Jul the land floe was full of gaps and the
width of the land floe remained more than 5 miles; its shore
part about 1 mile wide had a dirty yellow color. Beyond, at a
distance of 5 to 6 miles from the shore, a series of protrud-
ing grounded floebergs remfined.
On 1 Aug a tidal comb (ico washed up on shore by
the tido) was left, beyond which came a water patch about a
mile wide filled with large and small ice pieces which shifted
with thc tide. On 4 Aug a broach began in the land floc, and on
9 Aug the quantity of ice left did not exceed I ball. On 15
Aug the sea within the limits. of visibility was finally cleared
of ice and on 23 Aug the first steamor arrived.
g. Dickson Island (73?30' NI 80024' E)
'By 1 Sep the straits and bays wore clear of ice, and
ooparato ice blocks which wore scattered over the whole surface
to the horizon were Observed at sca. On 6 Sep the whole .visible
,surfacc of tho sea ;asclear of ice until when northeast and oast
winds brougtt separate flocs again. The sea was once more cleared
by 12 Sep. On 19 Sep slush appeared at the and of the bay, which
quickly changed-to pancake ice; on 20 Sop slush was.observed at
the seashore and slush with icc rind in thc straits, On 22 Sop
thc pancake ice in the bay turned into youna- ice, 8 centimeters
thick, and on thc following day it extended into thc straits,
driven by the west winds. On 24 Sep separate ice blocks ware
observed at sea, and on 25 Sep thedeeppart of the bay was
cOVcred with fast ice while thc straits were clocred by moderato
north winds. On 26 Sop brash ice appepred in thc straits, and on
27 Sop the bay was covered with 7-ball young ice; a conglomerate
of .small ice pieces of 10 balls was brought into the strait on
' the same day by northeast winds.
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At sea the quantity of ice kept increasing slowly up
to 27 Sep. On 28 Sep large ice pieces brought in by the northeast
winds covered 7/10 of the whole surface; slush and young ice was
drifting at the shores. From 27 Sep on, the area of fast ice in
the bay kept increasing,, and on 7 Oct the bay was covered by a
sheet of fast ice, beyond whose edge separate ice flows drifted
in the straits until 10 Oct; from 11 to 13 Sep the straits were
eoMpletely cleared by weak, shifting winds. On 27 Sep the ship,
Farvater, left, and on 13 Oct the icebreaker Lenin left. On 14
Oct slush which quickly changed to ice rind and young ice,
formed for the second time in the straits, and on 15 Oct the
straits were covered with a fast ice Sheet. On the following
day Chortov Bay froze; the process was hindered by the southwest
and west winds.
From 28 Sep to 19 Oct there remained from3 to 7
balls of small ice pieces at sea: These were chiefly concentrat-
ed in the north half of the horizon, The ice patch, having been
observed until 19 Oct only in narrows and inlets of the open sea,
widened considerably on 20 Oct, especially from the north side,
and extended to the Dolgiye, Medvezhii and Verns Islands. The
north half of the herizdn of the open sea was covered with 8-ball
large and small ice pieces with ice fields interspersed, On
21 Oct when the wind changed to the west, closely packed hummocky
ice fields were floating on the whole visible surface of the
sea. On 24 Oct gaps were formed by brisk north winds among the
conglomerate hummocky fields west of tlie Medvezhti and Verns Is-
lands, and were also observed north of the Dolgiy Island and north-
west at the horizon. On 28 Oct the gaps at the islands were Cov-
ered over and remained only at the horizon in the northwest por-
tion. In this way the land floe which, in the course of the winter,
.proved unstable and underwent early disintegration, was formed.
101n 24 Oct the foot of the hummocky land floe envel-
oped all the islands of the Dickson archipelago, and its edge ex-
tended from the Dolgiye Islands to the northeast, and from Verns
Island to the southeast, where it joined with the level, conti-
nental land floc. Beyond the edge of the foot, the hummocky land
floe remained without change until 12 Nov. On 13 Nov after the
gouth winds, bands of clear water appeared at its border off the
foot. On the following day, they were cloSed, and their reappear-
ance was not noted until 24 Nov. On 25 Nov beyond the edge of the
foot the ice broke up, and within the limits of visibility, 60 hum-
mocky fields appeared. These froze again on 28 Nov and formed a
continuous, fast land floe, hummocky in places.
, From 1 Dec to 13 Jan 1934 there were no observations
duo to darkness.. On 14 Jan beyond the foot large ice pieces and
a field of 4 balls were observed. The next observations were
made on 16 Feb when a hummocky land floe with gaps was observed
,
beyond the foot. '
- 22, 24 and 25 Feb a broad gaP extended along the
edge of the foot from west and north, beyond which lay an ice
field. On 28 Feb the gaps remained only on the north side, and
the remaining surface was covered with a sheet of hummocky ice.
The gap beyond the foot of the land floe between
the Medvezhli and the Dolgiye Islands remained until 9 Var. On
10 Mar this gap was greatly widened, and the ice beyond the edge
of the foot was broken up by the east wind and carried away, again
the water was cleared. In the next observation made with good
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visibility on 15 Mar, a gap beyond the edge of the foot off the
Modvezhti Islands, roundin-, the ,-,d-se from th3 north had widened
toVards' the east..
. ,
Vest! of Dickson, 3:54rid.. 441? tJ-1.9 iumn?ky leg, sheet were
seVeral gays. On the folla,King, day the north gap was considerably'
extended by moderate east; winds and on 17 Ma.r ,the,..5?e beyond the edge of the
foot broke up into separate .fields,and was carriedway from the edge.
From 24 Oct tIrou-hout the whole winter, the ice beyond
the foot sometimes melted, somet4mos disintegrated in the south and
east winds. This ice moved, .forming ice fields away from the edge
of the foot.
Uitil 1 Apr they, lane floc with the gaps remained stable
in the north winds'. On 13 Apr?Jwith the shift of the wind to the
south thumbs, the .ice didinte,sraed maredly, not only in the west
and north, but alsc south. of Dielwpon sand. .On 16 Apr when the
wind shifted to the north the ficld froze -rain forming a continuous
hummocky cover with gaps.
The disintegration of. the cover began on 17 May with
calm weather. EeYond tne f90tOf the land floo,the number of gaps
increasod? and the ice disintegrated, forming large ice floes, whose
number incrcaSed daily, aleh rlbh 40 fields. Until the end of the
month, regardless of northeast 7inds?-the ice beyond the foot of
the land floe did not freeze, moving between the edge of the foot
and the hummoCky ice sheet on the horizon under the influence of the
tides and winds.
During June largo end small ice pieces and hunnock-
fields of 2 to 7 bulls renamed on_thc sea. On 1 Jun the ice on the
bay was cleared of snow in places, and :ools of melting snow were
formed. The seaward part of the edge of the land floe was tern away
In the west and north by brisk north winds, end as a result, the
southwest shores of Verna Island wore freod of the land floe; on 15
' Jun the west shores of Neduezhti Island were freed.
On '30 Jun the edge of the fast hummocky ice procpeded
from the continental shore to the northwest, and to the east shore
of Verns Island. From there it went to the south shore of Pfedvezh'i
Island, the east part of which was icebound. From the north shore
of Nedvezhii Island, the edge of the ice proceeded to the DolEiyo
Islands, then east and northoast along the continental shore,
The ice on the bay melted regularly _during June, and
there were several 160e1s
to time on its,surfacO.
2bay and the,straits.i. ond
Shores.' On 25-Jun poold
and on 301Un thorocre
Proven.
that were covered with new ice from time,
On 25- Jun-craq%s-appeored.in,thc,ice.on the
the .water.41ccumtlated,:on ttip ice at th9?,
obscred on the ico.-;ofithc:_straits?
thawed gaps in the straits,ofj.,ery-and,
During July the foot of the land floe disintegrated
regularly, and on 20 Jul T!edvezhT,Island and tlio Delgiyc Islands,
as well as the northwest shores of Dickson Island, were Quito free
of fast ice which remained between Dielson, Vorns, and Oloniy
Islands and had joined with the continontU.land fpc. The ever
wideninc, shout- in the Lena -nd Pi-even "trtaits 'lore joined on
20 Jul in the , northern part with the,' open sea, and continued to ex-
tend soUth into Veg Strait. On the sea sparse l&rge and small ice
picbcs were observed aloo drifting in the north straits off Dickson
Island. On 10 Jul 'mshouto wore formed in the ice of the bay, and
on 44 34 th,2 l'co was brokch Up by 'brisk southwest winds at the
?sdme, time as in Veg Strait. TIII3 remainder of the land flee was torn
off :from a point south of 'Dickson 'bland. On the some day an H-26
plane wont aloft ,Eto make obseryttions7.
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From 25 Jul on there was no more fast ice in the Dickson
archipelago, and within the limits of the visible horizon, sparse
small ice pieces were floating. To these large ice pieces brought
in by the north winds *ere added on 28 Jul. On 26 Jul the bay
and the straits were cleared of ice by the west winds. The first
steamer, Tsirkul, arrived on this data.
Thi,ckness of Ice at Dickson Island
DATE
THICKNESS
(cm)
DATE
THICKNESS (cm)
9 Oct
12
10,Mar
141
20 Oct
25
20 Mar
145
30 Oct
33
33j1.11.
150
" 4 Nov
40
10 4Tia:
156
10 Nov.
60
20 Apr
162
20 Nov
66
10 M4Y
-...,,
173
I
30 Nov
71
20 May
182
% .
10 Doc
76
31 May
184
20 Doc,
88
10 June
177
30 Dec
93
20 June
168
10 Jan:
104
30 June
140
27 Jan
110
5 Jul
105
11 Fob
115
ip Jul
95
20 Feb
123
20 Jul
74
28 Feb
130
'
h. Domashniy Island, Severnaya Zemlya, South Kanenev
Archipelago (79?31' N, 91008' E)
Observations of tho ice cover in the area of Donashniy
Island ,ore made from the home station at a height of 5 motors
above sou level (when actual changes were noted in the ice,
observations were made from a mast 18 meters above sea level),
with 4.5 mile range of visibility. The objects of observations
were the open sea and the channel south of the island.
,The channel was bound throughout the winter by a
sheet ot fast ice, and was not opened an until Aug 1934. On 26
:ran 1934 water appeared on the surface of the ice, and on 30
Jun the whole surface of the ice in the chancel was covered
with pools which lasted until 14 Jul. At that time the water flow-
ed from the surfaeo of the ice into the cracks which had been
,
formed.
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A continuous hummocky land floc stayed on the open sca
unti1,29 Sop 1933. Cr4cks p. rod on tho whole horizon along the
edge on 30 Sep. In the first half of Oct a mist was Observed
%
on the whole: horizon; on 17 Oct a water .sky was seen.
Thore was a continuous hummocky land floe to the limit
of visibility from the second half of Oct to Mar 1934, and on I
Mar a narrow band of wator si4c- which disappearod on 3 !!dr, was
visiblo in thc south. From 18 c.,o 20 Mar the mist romained over the
horizon from south to northlost.
By 2 Apr the winter land floe was partially disintegrated
and drifting hummocky icu appoared with a density of 2 balls. This
condition lasted for 4e hours,after which it froze to the land floc.
0no4 Apr a wator sky apporred in tho south-southeast and south; a
mist was soon in the ro,Fion of Golonyanniy Island. On 5 April there
vaS said mist which unpvoached from Oolorvanniy. On 12 April,
beginning in the morning, the mist began to movo off tomards the
horizonl and a water sky appearod over the horizon at tho timo. On
13 Apr the land floe pertially disintegrated, and 2 balls of drift-
ing hummoci ico were formed Until 20 Apr the land floe slowly
disintegrated, and its dcnsity remained about 5 balls; the rest of
tho visible -surface vms full of hummocky ice. On 21 Apr a largo
hummoe fc,rmtion wcz produccd at the edgo of tho land floe, and
a water sky wa-_ visible to the west-northwest. A 10-ball hummocky
land floc remained from 21 to 26 hpr, and on 27 and 28 Apr it dis-
intogratod again, leaving 2 balls of drifting hummoc17 ico.
Dunn :lay the land floc remained at 10 balls, and its
regular diSintpgration did not begin until 30 May. A water sky
was obsorved from 4-8 May and on 21 Mayo Gaps and broaches bogan to
form on tho evening of 29 11.y.
From 30 May to 13 Jun the dansity of tho ?aryl floc re-
mained 5 to 6 balls; cloar water, as Loll as floating hummocky ice,
who amount inorce.sed on 14 Jun, was observed: This ico remained
until 18 Jun, boing driven to tho land Ixe by the wind. On 19
Jun, beyond the part of the. land floe that was newly disintegratod,
large und small ico -eicces of 4 to 5 balls appeared for the first
time 'and lasted until tho ond of to month. On 23 Juno pools of
melting snow wero formod on the ice of the land floc. They in-
creasod considorably on 25 Jun, and on 1 Jul small lakos which
continuod to grow formcd among the hummocks of thc land floe.
On 9 Jul a largo gap formed on the south, and a narrow
ono on th.; west, from wcst-northwest to rortl-northwost. On 13
Jul a gap was formed along the tholo land floc, sovoral cracks
aPPoared in tho icc, antl the oatcr flueed through them from the
surface of thc, ioo. On 15 Jul the land floc was disin;cgrated by
tho, north winds and carriod to the south in pieces. The floating
ice gradually thinnod out, and from 22 to 27 Jul the sca was cloar
of floating icu; tho land floc remained to the end of the month at
a donsity,of 10 balls.
Cape Chelyuskin (77? 44 N, 104 061 E)
Thc fast ice ron,:inod in 1933 untl] 14 Jul, and aftor
It disappoared (viFibility from thOstAion up to 10 miles), therc
was flocAing ice of variogatod form, sort timos thinning to 1 ball
and sometimes covering tho whole visible surface.
On 15 Sop the ice fields that had boon drivon to tho
shorefriozo, forming fast ice, beyond id'Ach von) floating hummocky
ice fields. In the intcrvals of opon water between the fast ice
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? fields, the formation of young ice which joined the fields, and
formed a land floe or 18 Sep was observed. From 18 to 24_Sop there
remained a large accumulation of ice from the Laptev Sea side, and
:itbecamo_i=kodlyhummockyfromato23Sep.On25Sep the
direction of the moving ice changed to the oast, and a noticeable
accUmulation of drift ice appeared in the west. Large and small
ice pieces moved slowly to the cast beyond the land floc; they,
changed on 30 Sop into the annual ice fields with broaches' co'V'er-
? ed with hudgo.
From 1 to 5 Oct, 3 to 4-ball-co fields moved-s14m1Y
east in the strait, and they changed on 6 and 7 Oct into large ice
pieces. On 8 and 9 Oct the small ice pieces moved west, and from
10 Oct on, the ice drift changed east again, and 1-10 ball
drift, ice was observed clp to 27 Oct. On 24 Oct plane reconnais-
sance showed that the strait was covered with young ice fields of
9 ball density, increasing in density toward Bolshevik Island. To-
wards the Beyborg Islands the ice thinned out to 8 balls, with
breachoS.' From the-Capo Cholyuskin meridian oast, a narrow,
? gradually widening gap extended. 2, continuous land floe ex-
-tended along thor conqnental shore eastward, enveloping the
Komsomolskoy Pravdy Islands, On 31 Oct the hummocky fields and
small ice pieces beyond the land flee remained in place, and there
were gaps north of the station,
From 1 to 5 Nov largo and'small ice pieces and fields
re=ined beyond the land floe, and a large hummock formation
appeared among them on 6:aav. Afterwards, hummocky sheet ice
was observed within the limits of visibility until 15 Nov. On
20 Nov several grounded flooborgs 7 to 8 motors high were formed
as 'a reault of now shifts of the ice. The bed of these flooborgs
vas about 1 mile from shore.
It was discovered by foot reconnaissance on 'l Dec
that the bed of the floobo gs was 300 to 500 moters(1.7ide, and the
width of the land floe more than 6 miles. The strip of land floc
was bordered by a strip of young ice, beyond which no displace-
ment of old ice was discovered. Cracks, evidently formed by local
compression, were encountered in places. Changes in the condition
of the land floe were not noted on the foot reconnaissance of 3
Doc, but on the west (from the direction of the Kara Sea), a noise,
characteristic of moving ice, was heard! ,
From 13 to 19 Feb 1934 the, ice was observed _from a
plane; the observations proved that the autumnal strip of ,the
land floe extended along the shore to a width of about 15 miles.
Frozen, partly-hummocky fields of young ice were on the whole
strait beyond the edge of the autumnal foot. In the vostorn port
of the strait, they changed into very hummocky fields, and among
them old ice formations wore found, In the eastern part of the
strait alonL the continental shore, the edge of the land floc
passed to the northwest as far as the latitude of Cape Chelyuskin
and from there to the northeast, There was no ice beyond the edge
of the land floc.
Thus) in Feb the whole strait was bound by sheet ice
Which ,was formed mainly from frozen drift ice. Hummocky ice
wasCwedged into the land floe from the direction of the Kara Sea,
Beyond the -eastern edge of the land floe there was clear water,
entering into the middle of the, tidal flow between Halyy Tayivr
and Komsomolsky Pravdy Islands!
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Air reconnaissa,nco on 19 .4r indicated that a strip
of level fast ice extended along the shore to a width of about 20
miles) from Cape Vega to the Firnloy Islands. This ice became
hummocky to the north.
On 27 May it became noticeably warmer and between 1
and 10 Jun, water appeared on the ice under the snow. This water
spread over the ice in a lagoon in the interval between 10 and 20
Jun. Several pools of melting snow were formed on the land floe,
and its shore part was covered with cracks. After 20 Jun the pools
formed small lakes and the shore part of the land floe was cracked
,to, a width of 100 to 200 meters.
-Between 1 and 10 Jul, the shore band of the land floe
disintegrated considerably from thawinL, and a cracl- appeared 5
cables from shore in a large load of hummocks resting on the bottom.
Tho width of the crack varied with the tides.' Small lakes located
at the shore, combined, and melted ice at the shore formed a water
patch. Toe lagoon was quite free of ice.
- From 10 to 20 Jul a,crack that had formed in the begin-
ning of July opposite the strtion joined a largo washout located,
east of it, so that a long ;:ap formed, extending 1 to 2 males to the
north. The gap permitted iCo flocs, separated by cracks, to move
about locally and form hummocks. From 20-30 July the width of the
gap reached 200-300 rioters. On 25 Jul it was discovered by foot
recozinaissance to the north-northwest that at a distance of 600 to
700 meters from shore there wore many 7-Jide cracks and humns2ks
formed in spring, At a distance of 'l to 2 mace from the shore, pools
wore completely absent on the 1=7 floe.
In the first 10 days of Aueust the development of water
patches and cracks continued, and the gap widened considerably to
the north of the station. On 10 Aug part of the land floe west of
the gap bean to more out toward the 1;ora Sea in a strong south-
east wind. During 10 and 11 Au:; Lhe ice was carried out of the
area, so that it was north of the line of Cape Chelyuskin-Caloo Vega.
Fart ot the shore land floe remained to a width of C. miles until
15 to 16 Aug 'ihen the final disintegration of the land floe was
hastened bythe action of the wind6. At ,the end of the month only
a strip of ice from the 1;nd floe about 200 meters wide, with a Lou
large grounded floc:berg's, remained at the stetion.
On 30 July 451c/ the remains of the land floe were
torn away by strong south 'winds and were carried out to sea aleng
with the bed of floebergs, The western part of the strait was clear
of ico.
2. Laptev Sea .
gource sare as above7
. KomsomollsRey PraVdy Islands (Eastern Taymyr)
While the ships of the first Lena Expedition were winter-
ing at the Komsomeirshoy Pravdy Islands, observations were made on
the ice cover. Obsorvetiens 7/00 begun on 26 Sep -between the
Komsoraoliskoy Fravdy Islands. Ice breakers .cleared away the last
years ,ice tnat nod a thickness of 1 to 1.25 meters. The distance
from the ships to the edge of this ice was 2 to 3 miles. Approximately
4 miles to the nortYwest was Falyy Island, and 3-4 riles to the
southeast was Bolshoy Island and a group of smll islands.
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To the southwest the shore of Taymyr Island 12 to 15 miles away, was
visible in clear weather. ,
. Until 25 Nov the observations were carried on from the
ship at an oye level of about six meters (a range of visibility
of 5 miles), On 26 Nov, observations were made from the cast tape
of the island with an eye level of about 10 meters (range of
vieibility 6 miles).
On 26 Sop the edge of the smooth, fast, one-year
ice extended from MalyY Island straight to Boltshoy Island, and
from the latter to the small islands lying to the north,. In .
the middle of the land floc which extended within the range of.
visibility -to the .Taymyr shore) a channel was cut. Reyond the
edge east of Malyy Island, there wore 3-ball small ice pieces
beyond which the Visible horizon was clear.
On 5 Oct the artificially-made channel froze, and
the small ice pieces at Malyy Island increased to 4 balls. On
T.21. Oct the land floe e??terlde4 into thepoa, and gaps were ob-
served in the young land floc at the edgeand beyond the edge
to the 6ast of Malyy Island. The small ice pieces remained in
their former density.'
.In the subsequent observatios on .36 Nov, the
visible surface of the spa :was covered witnot fast ice sheet en
Which bands of hummocks which charactorigc4 the, develppmentef the
land floe were visible. North of Dol!shoy. Island, two grounded
floebergs wore ferMed.'
The intOrrupted observatiena were renewed on 21 Jan
3,934. Until them to there had been no Chango6 in the land floe.
On 21 Jan in the northeast sector of the horizon, a water sky was
obsorvcd which ,was i t nted in theisubseqaenO bsorotions of
19 an42 Feb. .Tho next observation was on 6 !iar, and the water
H. sky was visible to the, east-southeast. On 14 Ear the water sky.
Was, net visible, and on 24 and 31 Mar it was noted again. On 14
Mar the thicknoss,of the ice in the strait among the islands was
'about 180 centimeters.
In the observation on 5 Apr, part of the land floe
to the east broke away, and beyond its edge, small ice pieces
and slob ice were floating. Until 14 Jun, there were no actual
changes in the ice cover, and on 15 Jun, beyond the odge of the
land floo observed on 5 Apr, there were sparse large' and small ice
pieces. A water sky remained over the eastern part of the horizon,
,On 22 Jun there was water on the ice of the land floc
under ,the. snow, so that the ice turned blue. On 30 Jun many pools
of, melting snow which changed into small lakes Vzero observed. On
4 Jul the water from these lakes began to 'runinto the cracks which
had formed, and on 10 Jul, the water on the ice covered only
twe-thirds of the visible surface. On 22 Jul the snow on the ice
-increased, and thawed gaps appeared in the land flog, but the
edge of the land floc remained unchanged. On 28. Jul the quantity
of cracks and gaps considerably increased, and water patches
appeared along the-shore,
In the next observation on .6 Aug, a marked erosion of
tho ice and.disintogration of the land floe were noted; strips
of open water formed around the steamers. On 13 Aug tho seaward
part of the land flow was detached, and beyond its edge there
were 2-ball large and small ice pieces. Smooth field's appeared
.the.foll.ewing day.
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On 17 Aug the channel was cut by the icebreaker from
the edge of the land floe to the ships) and some of the latter
were taken out to the clear water which was around the mouth of
the channel. On this date the young land floe to the north of
Bollshoy Island was broken 0), but it remained to the northeast
of Malyy Island. Beyond the edge of the land floe, 4-ball large
and small ice pieces and fields were floating.
On 20 Aug gaps formed in the old land floe, and the
young land floe disintegrated still more. On 23 Aug there was
nothing left of the young land floe in the limits of visibility,
and on the old land floe a wedge was left which extended between
the island,s from the southwest. East of Malyy Ialand less than 1
ball of eparse; large and small ice Pieces were floating. On 23
Ag the fast ice tO the west was completely broken up, and floes
were drifting in the straits with large and small ice pieces among
them. The following day part of the ice was carried out by the
southwest winds, and within the limits of visibility, less than 1
ball of ldrge and small ice pieces refrained. On 25 Aug the wind
shifted to the north, 10-ball-large and small ice pieces with fields
moved toward the strait and the visible part of the sea, and de-
tached one grounded floeberg north of Borshoy Island. On 26 Aug
the ice thinned with the northwest wind. On 27 Aug, in a weak north-
eEk wind, the amount of drift ice increased, and the second and
last grounded flocborg was detached by the movement of the ice field.
On 27 Aug the Sibiryakov arrived in the strait..
b. Anabarskaya Gulf
. On 21 May 1934 Anabarskaya Gulf 'was covered with a
hummocky winter ice sheet, smooth in places. There were a few cracks
on it which ran mostly parallel to the shore. Hummocks of various
sizes were visible at the north of the bay. On 26 May in the sector
from north-northeast to northeast, a water sick was observed for the
first time. On 29 MaY 7the water sky extended to the north.
' On 4 Jun, the water sky increased. On 5.Jun pools of
melting snow appeared odt of which small lakes formed on 10:Jun.
On the-same day, a water patch and gaps appeared, and at the same
time the cracks increased in number an. width. On 13 Jun, at a
distance of 6-8 miles from the shore, a narrow gap formed and ex-
tended to the sea. This gap increased on 18 Jin, having approach-
ed the western shore of Bus-Khaya. On 29 Jun the gap from Bus-Khaya
to the sea considerably increased, and several neW gape' appeared.
On 30 Jun in Calm weather a movement of ice took "place. -
On 1 Jul 9-ball large ice pieces, Within the 'limits of
visibility were shifting about with the tides. On 12 Jun 'many small
ice.pieces appeared along with the large ice pieces, and the ice de-
creased to 6 balls. Shifting winds alternating with calms evidently
delayed the clearing of the bay, so that by 20 Aug there was still 4
balls of ice left. The schooner, Laptev, arrived in this ice. After
20 Aug the ice thinned greatly under winds from the eastern half of
the horizon, and by 25 Aug there were only 2 balls left. On that
date observations ceased.
C,'
Observations on conditions of the ice cover on Tiksi
Bay were made from the region of the meteorological station located
at a height of 6 meters above sea level (the range of visible horizon
was 5 miles). From ,this point the bay was visible in the sector, 0?-80?.
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elhe shote line extended from the pont of obServation north, and in
this diredtion the sUrface' of the bay was visible to the nearest
Cape vhich was 1.5 miles avay. The horizon of visibility wqs
limited by this cape and by the northwest part of Brusnev Island,
which also bordered the northeast part of the bay, 4 miles from
the observation point. The south-east part of Drushov Island
merged with Cape nostakh on the horizon.
On 5 Oct slush appeared in the bay at the station
shore and on 7 Oct was carried out into the be; by a west wind.
On 8 Oct the whole bay was covered with young ice about 2 centi-
meters thick. On 10 Oct the bay was cleared of ice by a weak
south wind, and on 12 Oct sludge ice appeared at the stntion
shore. It covered the whole visible part of the bay by 14 Oct.
On 15 Oct young ice about 3 centimeters thick was formed, and en
17 Oct the bay was covered by a fast Ice sheet 8 centimeters
thick.
Aft,4 the freezing, the ice cover of the bay remain-
ed unchanged until 10 Mar 1934; cracks appenred for the first
time on 11 Mar.
On 6 ilay the snow cover on the ice boron crumbling
and on 22 May pools of molting snow were formed; they increased
in number and size every day and forted small lakes.
On 3, Jun part of the ,later from the ice leaked through
the cracks underneath the ice. On 8 Jun washouts were formed
and a water patch appeared along the shore. On 25 Jun the patch
became transparent and water from the small lakes flowed into it.
On 19 jun all the water 'left the ice, and the ice cover of the
bay looked as though it wore divided into sections separated by
cracks. The patches and washouts increased, and on 4 Jul a
movement of ice took plabe in the strong tido durinL, calm weather.
After this, about 1 mile from the shore, a gap into which the
schooner, Tamp, and the Chelyuskim sailed was formed.
On 6 Jul in calm weather the ic-o of the bay broke
up. On the evening of the'same day, the steamer Lena arrived
in the area of Cape Nostakh. On' 7 Jul large and small ice
pieces were compressed by the north wind, and the remains of the
land floc disintegrated; it remained only in the south-south?
eost part of the bay. On 9 Jul most of the ice was carried into
theA.iver Sogo, by a strong cast wind and formed hummocks on the
shore. Due to winds and currents, the friable large ice pieces
'crumbled to the size of small ice pieces on 12 Jul, and they con-
tinued to cover, the whole bay; clear water was visible only 5 to 6
miles to tho east. The small icc pieces continuously disintegrated
until 15 Jul, and as a result the surface occupied by tileel steadily
diminished and the expanse of clear water on the bay increased.
With a shift of the wind to the south, there was 1 ball of ice
left, and by 17 Jul the bay was completely cleared.
The condition of the ice cover on the open sea was
observed from 17 May on from one of the small islands surrounding-
Dunay Island located northwest of the periphery of the Lena delta.
The observation point was 3 meters above sea level (range of
visibility was 3.6 miles)
At the shores of the island on the open sea side, a
winter hummocky land floe with single ice fragments piled up edge-
wise extended to the horizon. On the land flee were noted two bands
of hummocks; in the control band was e grounded floeberg.
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On 1 Jun victor appeared under the snow on the ice, and
the upper layer of snow became so gy. On 3 Jun several cracks full
of brine, appeared in places on the ice, and a snowy cover from 6 to 55
centimeters thick lay in a flat layer. On 9 Jun pools of molting
snotr appeared, and on 12 Jun, movement by foot on the ice became
impossible due to the deepening of the water patch along the shore.
The patch formed chiefly from melted water drained from the shore.
On 14 Jun the water on the ice Nostly concentrated at a distance
of about 15 miles from shore., and most of the piled-up ice fragments
melted considerably underneath. On 18 Jun the area of water on the
ice diminished, since part of the water flowed under the ice. On
the following day only a few pools remained on the lc c surface;
evidently the ice had cracked.
Tho amount of 'iator.on thc surface of the ice diminished
ever:, day. On 10 Jul a transparent water patch formed, and on 14 Jul
a gap formed at the shore. On the ,le,rning of 15 Jul this gap in-
creased considerably and joined the patch. In the evening of 15 Jul
a movement of ice took place ,on the whole bay under moderate south-
east winds. Up to 20 Jul the only fast ice loft was one grounded
floeberz which remained along with large and rall ice pieces and
fields. ,On 21 Jul the sea was completely clear of ice within the limits
of visibility. Sparse large and sr-,all ice pieces wore formed again
on 23 Jul under northwest and west winds. The amount of this ice dimin-
ished daily, and on 26 Jul, when the wind shifted to the north and
the cast, the soa was completely cleared. No ice appurred until the
end of the month, despite strong: west, north, east, end southeast
winds.
Thickness
of lc(
in Tiksi Bay
DATE
THICKNESS (cm)
DATE
THICKNESS (cm)
Oct
2
31 Jan
145/7
20 Oct
13
10 Fob
152
24 Oct
19
20 Feb
162 ,
20 Nov
56
11 Mar
204 ,
30 Nov
75
22 Mar
207/6
10 Dec
90
15 Apr
, 197/7
20 Dec
105/4
21 Apr
199/10
31"DeC
114/2
11 May
102/6
20 Jan
130/2
20 Pay
.10/9
NE:
Denomin-tors of fractions indicate sncr:: cover on the ice,
d. Kotel niy Island
(Novosibirskiye Islands)
Observations from the n-.rth end of :oteliniy Island
wore begun on 1 Jul 1933. The horizons on the surface of the sea
from the observation point wore open from 27c through north to 40(s.
'* On 1 Jul, a s,,--)eth land floe still remained and was
hurLocky in the distance. Beyond its ed-,o a 'hand of open sea which
exte;ded to the west about 3-5 miles fro.: shore was visible. To the
northeast about 1 to 2 miles there were. cracks the land floe at
the shore. The ice was covere_, with snowy yater which flowed into the
newly-fornod cracks on 4 Jul. :1The cracks widened daily, and on 9
July the cracks at the shore for-led a transparent water patch.
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The land floe forming on 8 Jul broke up to a considerable extent
and ice pieces 17c-re carried out to sea with the south rinds; the
Area of open water increased dao to the disintegration )f tho ice
nOge. On 13 Jul the land floc was detached by southwee'c, winds of
over 28 m/s. The floe broke up end -Ins carried out to c,he horizon.
Large and small leo piecob and fragments of fields to the extent
of 3 balls wore within the limits of visibility. The abom-
nontioned typos of ice remained at a density of 1 to 10 balls
.hroughout August.
The amount of ice increased with the northwest
winds which generally brought ice fields. The northeast
? winds also brought heavy ice pieces---fragments of fields
and,large ice pieces. The sea was not completely cleared
until 2 Sep., On 17 Sep the formation of Ace crystals ?
and ?slush began at the shore. From these a natch which
?laSted for 48 hours was formed on 18 Sep. On 19 Sep after
a strong north west wind, 1-ball small ice pieces cppeared again,
and remained for 96 hours. After that the sea became clear. On
1 Oct sludge npperrod on the sea, and on 2 Oct young ice and brash
ice appeared and covere'd the whole visible surface of the sca. on
the following day. Tho young ice and brash ice remained until 11
Oct when the sea was completely cleared by strong south Lads,
Moro, sludge, however, formed on tho followin day, and on 13 Oct
the brash ice and the young ice formbd again, reaching 10 balls on
14 Oct. On 15 Oct hummocky ice was brought in Ly brisk north-
west winds, recently formed in port. This froze and formed 10-
ball fast ice', On 18 Oct the ice broke up due tc very brisk
west-southWest winds, and when the wind shifted to tYe south) the
ice was carried out to sea. The visible eurface of the water oas
completely cleared. On 21 Oct when the woad slackened, brash ice
and young icc formed again, but the son was cleared the next day
when the wind strengthened and shifted to the southeast. On 25
and 26 Oct slush was formed as the wind slackened to 11m/sec,
it vanished again when the south wind strengthened. Slush
reappeared on 29 Oct as the wind weakened to 11m/sec and on 30
and 31 Oct when the wind weakened again, the whole visible sur-
face of the son was covered by a smooth, thin, ice sheet hummoc
some distanco from the shore. The ice was unstable, and regard-
less of the calm weather, broke up probably due to surface vibra-
tion and the currents. This left an ice patch along the shore of
no groat width on 1 Nov. Now 3-ball ice fields floated on the
sea.
On 9 Nov the patch was detached. On_10 Nov a
formation of slush was noted, and a new patch formed on 11 Nov.
This patch continually widened duo to the freezing of the ice rind
which formed on 14 Nbv from the ice that had been brought in.
It became a land floe covering the whole visible expanse on 13 Dec.
Between 7-12 Doc, the land floe sometimes loft thio
shore (about 0 meters) and sometimes returned to it a-nin due to
southwest winds of 11 to 17 m/sec. There were no changes in the
condition of the ice cover from 13 Dec 1933 to 1 Dec 1934 when
observations ceased. On 16 Mar 1934, at a 'distance of 675 meters
from the shore, the ice was 165 centimeters thick; one mile5rom
the shore it was 130 centimeters thick.
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obqorvo - ebreaker Sibiryakov, 1932
.41-m 303474 'cc, Conditions in th,1 J cL.QeBctweon Novaya:
arid, tj DcAnr: Strait, ;,Lcoerlring to Observa-
tions of .11.2,19_12i).1 Central toteero-
lgical Observatory, ug 1943, translated from the
Russian ef V. YU.Vizeo ZIansactions_ef talc,,Lrotip
Vc1 1 Arctic Inst44 -193,27
On the way Iron ratochkin Shnr to Dickson Island, the
Sibiryakov encountered the ico-nargin at 73?22' N, 58?12' E on
1 Jug.
it 73?361 N, 60?35' El the Sibiryakov entered clear water
whore we onlY rarely encountered scattered leo floes.
After passing through about 40 nils of clear water the Sibiryakov
again encountered ice at 73?43' 1g, 62?431E; this situation continued
as far as 73?52' N, 65?09' El but after that point there was no
ice for the remaihder_ef the trip to Dickson Island.
The nature pf the ice in this second sea-arca was different
from that of the ice in the first sua'area. Here the ship en-
countered, at rare intervals, ice broken up into large pieces; thc
thickness of the ice was from 3/4 to I meter. The ice was dirty
brown, greatly eroded, and was melting extremely rapidly. Tho ice
density was 8 balls (at 73o 48' N, 64?17' E it was 6 balls); how-
ever, the upper layers of the surface water lying among the ice had
a temperature above zero (thc water tenporrturc of the first sea
area was below zero). Tho ice in the second sea area, also, offer-
ed ,no hindrance to the navigation of our ship at all. Hooever, it
was exceptional to sail for 2; miles thrcugh a region where the
ice density exceeded 9 balls.
During the :trip from Matochkin Shar to Dickson Island, the
Sibiryakov loarred by radio from the Leningrad Soviet, a ship
hunting marine animals, that an ice margin extending from west to
east was encountered at 7504 N, 71?E.
In the entire trip from Dickson Island to Scrgey Kamenev
Islands (11-14 Aug),the Sibiryakov encountered no ice except ice-
bergs west of Sameylovich Island ( 79?08' N, 910321 E).
- While sailing northward along the Lost coast or Severnaya
Zemlya, the Sibiryakov encountered, on 15 Aug, an ice margin at
$1007' II, 93?08E. ,The ice was finely broken up and in an extreme
stage of disorder (1-2 balls). Ice broken up into lar:,e sizes
was encounterd at 81225' IT, 96?37' E; the density of thc ice had
increased to 4-6 bal]s. At 81?2S'IT, E, the icebreaker
approached the margin of a hunnocky ice field which was thought
to form thc southern limit of the polar ice pas?. (thick Falco-
crystic ice). The margin of this ice crrvod sharply south and
'blocked the eastward progress of thL icebreaker. Lt Sl? N thc
ice was in very close contact with thc east -.,,oast of Komsonolets
Island. Here it was n flat win or ice field to 3/4 Ticter thick,
not .621k, above mentioned polar ice-pack with piled or rafted hummocks.
Ls a result of thawing, the surface of those ice fields was black
and on the surface han:, ,;aps could be soon. Mien the icebreaker
was passing through this ice, thc ice was under strong compression
and therefore, skcc the ice-density wee' 10 balls, thc low humocky
ice was forced tb upheave at the cdje of the icefields.
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Occasionally, ice formed in the spring, about 30 centimeters thick,
was oneountorcd. -Many icebergs, some rather large, were sighted.
TheoSibiryakov was occasionally caught in the sheet of ice
Stretching from Komsomolets Island towards the cast and was often
forcod to rotroat. At ono, time it was necessary to alight from
the ship'. At another time five amanel land mines 'were put under tho
Ice in ordor to free tho ship.
On 17 4ug at 80?17'N, 98?441E, the icebreaker approach-
ed a flat ice fiold which was not in motion and appeared to be
winter land flou_that had not cracked yet. On the periphery
and in the center of this ice field there were 129 icebergs com-
posed of brilliant milk-colored ico in the form of innumerable
ice columns. The great majority of these icebergs secmcd to have
their bass on the ocean bottom; therefore, a possible explanation
is that those Were masses of land floc which had net yet crrcked,
being the whole eastern land floe from the entrance of the
?Xrasnaya Armiya Straits. Since, connected to this ice field,
there was another ioo field with z4ftod hummock$ yhie blocked
our .passago to the east, there was no other coUrso but to force
or way south of it through winter ice fields with black watery
spaces. The thickness of the ice in the northern part of the
ice field was 3/4 to 1 motor. The icebreaker was hardly able to
advance ono-third of the length of its hull for each single
ranMing thrust. Often the ship was caught tightly in the ice
and at such tines it was necessary to blast the ship out-with
amanol which was not too effective is we progressed &Japer
and deeper into the ice field, the ice gradually became thicker
.and thicker; it reached 1,5 meters; also, we encountered fewer
and fewer gaps. At.80?12'f, 99?11'E the icebreaker entered clear
watcr. It had roquired'40 hours to traverse the 5 miles of un
cracked ice fields.
On 18-19 Aug starting from Matusovich Fjord, there was
Sem? clear water off the oast coast of Oktyabraskaya Rovolyutsiyn
Island. Ice existed from the coast eastward for a distance 10-
15 miles. The Sibiryakov proceeded southward, following the margin.
of ice which was a flat ice field formed in w;!nter and upon whose
surface could he soon_inhumorahle small lakes., From 18 to 19
Aug, the temperature of the night air fell as low as
consequently, a bolt of young ice appeared along the Ice margin;
3 motors wide and motor thick.
? . On the side opposite the north entrance to Sika])skiy
Straits, the Sibiryakov entered ice, which was ,broken up into
large nieces and snail pieces. This ice was obviously in close
cehtact- With the northeast coast of 1301'shovik Island. ,i?s the
ship advanced east-southeast, the ice density increased and
furthermore it encountered pancake ice, i.e. paleocrystic ice
fields with raftcd hummocks. The density of the ice between
79?16'N, 98?501E and 105?481E was as nuch as 9-10 balls; it
took us 53 hours to sail thr Urth this ror,i-en of ice so heavy
that soractimes it was neceASrry tb,use amanol to blast our, way
through. Since this ice was pf the paleocryetic typo which
had bec,In forced upward by internal ice pressure, it was frequent-
ly a dirtz'brown end sometimes a chocolate color. Thu average
thicnoaP of the 4-S,PIn this roV-6n was not loss than 3 rioters.
? &'011t1, qg 7,865,01N, ,whiIe foil-owing Vie east coast of
Boltshevik Island the qibiryakov oncountCred year-old ice; some-
tims it ran into brash ice-fields rtbout 30 centimeters thick
generated in the spring; furthermore, the ice-density decreased.
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On 22 Aug, at 780061N, 105026% the icebrerker ontered,clear water
near the eastern entrance tO Vatkitskiy Straits.'
On the way from Severnaya Zemlya to the mouth of the Lena
River, on 22 Lug, at the entrance to Vilikitskiy Straits, 770561t4
0 .
106 19 E lt ran into ice, running 'cast and west of Malyy Taimyr
Island. As far as 77?33'N, 100040% it ran into rather finely
broken ice of low density (2 balls): Further south the ice en-
countered becarle oniony paleocrystic ice broken up into large
pieces, along with brash ice-fields. Faddoya Bay did not seem to
have any ice, judging from the appearance of the water sky in its
direction. Botween 770201N,and 76050'N, the ship encountered large
pieces of predominately palcocrystic ice; further south, year-old
ice masses, flat or humocky were visible. As the ship approached
the margin of this ice, the ice density varying between 4 and 6
balls, for the most part, decreased, starting at 76?29'N. On
24 Lug, the Sibiryakov entered cle-r water at 76?05'14 116?30E
and did not onceuntor any ice thereafter until it reached the delta
of the Lena River.
On the northeast coast of Taimyr Peninsula, the ship often
ran into dirty black-brown ice. This kind of ice was encountered
betwoon 77?12'N, 110?36/E and 76?52'14 112?541E.
On the trip from Tiksi Day to Bollshoy Lyakhovskiy Island
from 30 tc 31 Lug, the Sibiryahov navigated upon a sea that hod
absolutely no ice. Laptev Straits likewise had no ice. Accord-
ing to data of the Marine Noteerolo;ical Observatory on Bol'shoi
Lyakhovskiy Island, in 1932 the ice in Laptev Straits began te
break up 10 Jul and was completely gone by 6 Aug. By 14 Lug, ice
was seen only rarely, but after that date, absolutely no ice was
soon either in the straits or in the open sea outside.
On I Sop the Sibirynkov sot sail from Bol'shoy Lyakovskiy
Island for Medvezhi Island. On our way, except.for a large mass
of ice hung on a shoal at 7301014 145?371E no ice was seen. This
point, according to chart No 9V5? is comparatively shallow and hence
the presence ot this ice mass hung on the bottom is quite under-
standable and proves the shoal' s existence.
- Vhile the Sibiryakov was approacling Medvezhi
soottorod ice was soon for tie first time on 3 Sop at 71?411N
and 15E?031E. At 71?32'14 1590131E, the Ice-margin was clearly
sedn to the north. Th, ice encountered by the Sibiryokov north
or cast of Mcdvezhi Island was broken up into larLe and small
pieces, frequently piled,bup or hummocky. For the most part, the
density of the ice .did. not oxoeod 1 ball and only in certain
places did it reach as much as 2 ball. The Sibiryakov sailed
g_Outh, keeping Ledvezhi Island sighted to the west; at 70?05'14
162?35E the ship entered 'cl-or water; from this point to the
coast thcro was no ice. .
The ship continued oast1Trd and on 4 Sop sighted the
first ice 4aeos at 69?521N, 162c35E. Those floes were extremely
rare (generally of density less than 1 ball) and were of the
hummocky tue. .O the same day at 690581N1 1650061E the ice was
"ccunte;.0c1, The ice density,' up to thi, point 70?061N an0, 166'
57'E, did not exceed,. 4 balls; north of Lion Island the &nsity
reached a balls. Hero largo and'snail pieces of pale.ocrystic
hummocky ice were encountered. Fields of brask ice wore rare.
The sea water between the ice flos -,fas covered with frosh new
ice 21)04 6 centimeters thick.
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The nature of the ice east of Alen Island was as follows.
The ,density was from 2 to 8 balls, the average being 5 balls. On
the coast of Chukotsk' Peninsula., Sep 1932, the ice was.. for the most
part huge paleocrystic masses which lay deep in the water and
possessed large underwater spars. The linter ice which was one
year old before the Sbiryakov navigated along the Chukotsk Sea
coast was almost completely. melted. .,';s the ship approaced Cape
SeVern,yy'(Cape Schmidt or North Cape) the ice density increased
and at times reached as high as 9-10 balls. The clear water
was covered with young ice about 2 centimeters thick. Near
Cape Severnyy, heavy dense ice was almost in contact with the
coast; near the coast ,there remained a strip of clear water,
barely 200 meters wide.
Here it was twice necessary to break an ice juncture,
with amanol. According to the Chukotsk people who livt on
Cape Severnyy, the ice here had lasted three years, since 1930;
,sometim6s, the ice increases year after year. The Chukotsk peo-
ple said that the year 1932 was one of the years of greatest ice.
"East of 179?17, the density of the ice decreased some-
what; beyond 1769451 the density rose again, to 9 balls. Near
Cape Orman, the compact ice was in close contact with the coast.
During the difficult navigation through the dense ice not far
from the coast, the Sibiryakov suffered, on 10 Sop, damage to
four blades of its screw. From 10 Sep to 16 Sep while replac-
ing these blades, the ship was drifting among the dense ice
(8-9 balls) between Cape Omman and Kolyuchin Island. There was
apparently no ice in licolyuchin Bay.
On 16 Sop the Sdbiryakov continued its eastward voyage;
near Cape Dzhenretlen it again ran into dense ice of 9 balls". On
the morning of 18 Sep at 67?081N, 172c501W, the propeller shaft
was bent, the screw was lost, and the Sibiryakov began to dri6ft04;51n
on 1 Oct it stopped north-northeast of Cape Dezhnev. There was
broken ice, large and small, 18-20 Sep,between Cape Ikigur (6
171220'W) and IDORIDORI* Island; the density of this ice was 8-10
The ice was in close contact with Cape 'Inkigur and Cape
Serdtse Kamen. In the region northeast of Cape Inkig,ur where the
Sibiryakov drifted 25-28 Copt, the ice-density was low, 5-7 balls.
At 0900 on 27 Sep, at 66?55'N, 177?02'W, the ship spread its sails;
thereafter, sails were used. On 28 Sep, young ice covered the
clear water, but the next day, the young ice reached a thickness
of 8-10 centimeters. At 1445 on 1 Oct, thc icebreaker entered
upon clear Water at 66?17' N, 169?281 W.
The disposition of ice in Chukotsk Sea for Sop 1932
possessed extremely peculiar characteristics. Even previously,
on rare occasions, there have appeared large inlets of clear
water which indented the Longa Straits, from east to west (these
are probably formed because the comparatively warm ocean water
moves northwest.) Clearly it seems that these in1ets grow most
rapidly at the end of the period of navigation.
The Sibiryakov selected the most illogical and worst
path when it chose. to sal] 2-3 miles offshore .in its eastward
voyage from Cape Severnyy. Captain V.I. Voronin had warned that
-ice conditions in the north were uncertain, when one advanced to-
wards the coast over clear water usually cut by projecting points
and capes. The Sibiryakov would have changed its course north-
ward after reaching Cape Severnyy if the conditions regarding ice
movements had been clearly known. There was without a doubt a
?
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30-milo ico-strip which Poparz-tcd the icobroakor from the clear water
whom it was possible for a 'ship to navigate. In this case the ice-
broakor would havc had. nbsolutcly'no trouble at all. ,This rovoals
thc trcrondous significance of having planes in th rctic Ocean to
reconnoiter ice conditions; the poor exa:mplo of the S'biryakov is an
Important and noteworthy objoct loasoh.
Tho leo conditions which th, Sibirynkov nd thc Soviet dis-
covered in thc Chukosk Sea in 1("32.showod how oxtremoly illogical
it is to nevito near the Chukotsk So a coast, tho course chosen by
tho Captain who Lod thc 6hip from thc Boring Straits to Kolyma
Straits.
When the Sibiryakov cndod its obsorvations on ice conditions
oncountorod during its long northeastward voyage, it was loarnod
that in 1932 thc National Hydrographic Roscarch Institutu carriod out
for the first timo Ice forocastin- for the whole rceion of tho Soviet
Arctic, that is, from Spitzborgcn to tho Boring Straits. In tho
future thorc will bo attempts to forccast for the rogion through
which the Sibiryakov passod.
Forecast for oarly"May 1932: "Too conditions probably
botter than usual in thu eastern part of Kara Son; Sorgoy Kamoncv
can bo roachod by iccbrcakors, after mid-Lugust; no conclusions can
bo foachod rU.garding thc Eastern Sibcrian end Chuhotsk Seas, but
in tho 1932 navigation season thcro have not boon any changos in
Ice ccnditions."
Forecast for 16 Jun 1932: "Ice conditions appear bettor
than usual in tho lattor hrlf of tho navigation season in tho oast-
or part or the'Laptov Sea; ib zi11 probably disappear in tho sca
botwoon Laptov Straits and thc mouth of the Lona Rivcr after 20
Lug (or carlior); ico-margins tho first of Sop will probably form
north of tho Novosibirskiye Isltnds; ico has accumulated in tho
western part and especially in the northwestorn part of thc Laptev
Soc., becoming quitc dense, in plrcow, this ricay bring nbout poor ico
conditions at Vil'kits15iy Straits."
Forocast for 10 Jul 1932: "Ico conditions comparatively
good during Lugust in thu northeastorn part of Kara Son and in the
wcstorn arca ,of Sovornaya Zomlye; oven ordinary ships can ronch
Sorgoy Kamonov Island;ito conditions on tho Laptev Son coast
seom bettor than usual."
, Whon we compero those forucasts with thc rosults of thc
Sibiryakov veyago, wo soo ossontial agrooment oxcopt in tho case
of thc Chukotsk Sea. In the futuro whon sufficiont data can bo
obtained more comploto ice forocasting can probably be carried out .
4. Froczos and Thaws of thc Son off Dickson Island
r-
LDB 302467: Motoorology of thc KrasnoyarskiDickson Island Lir
RoUtot Roscarch Soction, South Manchurian Rail-
road, 1939/
First Lppoarnnco of Thin leo; 20 Sop
Latost Lpponranco Of Thin Ice: 22 Oct
First Lppoarance of Drift Ice: 28 Sop
Latcst .4pcarancc of Drift Ice? 26 Oct
First Date cf Froozing: . 30 Scr
Latest Dato of Froozing: 6 Nov
? ?
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First Movement of Ice::
Latest Movement of Ice:
23 May
. 29 Jul
Completely Thawed (Earliest): 10 Jul
Completely Thawed (Latest): 30 Lug
? Barents and Adjacent Seas
1. Barents Sea
277Data on Ice Conditions on the Soviet Lrctic Coasts in the
Winter of 1233-34," Transactions of the Arctic instituto
Vol 45,1936/ ?
a. Tikhaya Bay, Franz Joseph Land (80?201 N, 520481 E)
Until 8 Oct 1933 the water surface was free of ice
within the range of visibility, i.e.,about 10 miles. On 8 Oct
slush appeared, increasing on 10 Oct whon young ice pieces
drif.ted into the bay from the sea. On 11 Oct slush was observed
in the strait changing into pancake ico, and on 14 Oct young ice
was formed. On 15 Oct Melenius Strait was clear of ice, and the
young ice remained only in the bay. On 16 Oct the strait and the
bay were piled-up with young ice, and th6 formation of slush in the
water continued, The British Channel was clear.
On 17 Oct snow blown by an off-shore wind formed
sludge which, along with the young ice, completely covered the
surface. On 18 Oct the ice pieces froze together, and formed a
fast ice cover. North of Hooker Island and beyond Scott-Kelty
Island, drift icc was observed. On 19 Oct the melting ice in
the bay was partly broken up and in the vicinity of the station
clear water appeared. Meanwhile, the British Channel was massed
to the horizon with floating ice. From 21 to 22 Oct the bay was
completely cleared of ice, but in the strait and in the British
Channel beyond, the water remained filled with ice as before.
'On 23 Oct 10-ball hummocky young ice came into the
bay in which there were seven icebergs. Between the' flocs slush
and sludge wore observed. On 24 Oct this ice began to freeze,
and on 28 Oct. the bay and the strait within the range of visibility
were covered with a sheet of hummn,cky fast Ice with single ice
fragments piled-up edgewise on a relatively even ice surfaco.
L-water reflection was observed on'the western part of tho harizon
until 28 Oct. On 29 Oct the depth of the ice in the bay reached
12 centimeters.
During the course of the winter, the Melenius
Strait ice cover presented a uniform picture in the bay, and
not until 5 Jun 1934 loas,a strong water reflection observed
over Hooker Plateau. On the some day wide crachs.appeared
beyond Cape Dundee. From 'S to 23 Jun a continuous fast ice
cover wes observed from the station.
From 23 to 24 Jun it W3S established by plane re-
connaissance thRt the southern edge of the fast ice passed near
Northbrook Island and I:cClintock Island, and proceeded further
east. West of the British Channel the fast ice edge passe:. frcm
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Cape Chad? to the wostorn extrerity of Luigi Island. Tho Sea side
of tho edge, about 4.-6 5 milos wide,- was covorcd with, a groat many
cracks. Beyond the edge of the land floc large and Small ice pioces
wore massed in fields -hich extended north ithin tho limits of
visibility to the h6ight of 600 Motors. .
On 27 Jun pools of melting snow wore formed on the, land
fico. On 30 Jun air reconnaissance to the north indicated that cracks
in ti-Ci cdgc of the land floe wero opening up, rnd beyond tho land
floe there were large nrd small ice-PieS'," driVdn-t-ainstthe west-
ern islands, The edge of the land floe advancod bcyond Luigi Island
at the western oxtremities of Salisbury Island, Jackson 161=1 and
Llexandor Island.
On 2 Jul in Molonius Strait off Scott-Kolty* Islrnd,
largo gap wai formod nnd the entire surface of the land floo was
covercd ith pods. Lirreconntlissanco on 3 Jul showod,that the outer
part of tho southorn edge of tho fast ico was beginning to disintograto
in places, and south of Hooker island it projected into the sea. This
was probably because of tho drift ice that was frozen to it. On 2
'Jul caps appcared in the land floc and grew larger. On 11 Jul in
Melonius Strait betwcon Cape Sodov and the eastern paint of Scott-
Kelty Island, a broad oxp-nsc of clear water appeared. The dis-
integration of the land floe wasgroatly hastoned by the impacts
of floatinc icebergs which wane partially visiblp.
.
On 14 Jul air roconnaissanco indicated that tho,south-
ern shores of Bruce Island, Northbrook Island, and Hooker Island wore
free of the land floo, and ir tho strnit botwcen Cape Sedov and
Scott-Kelty Island larre and small !cc piccos wore floating.
On 15 and 16 Jul tho fast ice rLmained in tho bay, though in clonius
Strait it was partly broken up. It was discovorod by air roconnais-
sane? on 16-17 Jul that a markedly crodod land fico with cracks
remind fast in thc central part of tho British ChaLnel, joining
the islan's southeast of Hookor Island and extending furthor oast.
Between Georg? Land and Kotlits Island, sevoral cracks wore formed
again at tho odLo of tho land flee. Beyond tho odge of the land
floc there was a conglomerate of ,large and small ico-piocos.
Until 26 Jul the bay was covered , ith 10-ba11 fast ico, and in the
strait between Kotlits Island and Hooker Island, largo and small
ice places floated in n broad gap in tho ice.
O r 25 Jul air rocornaissance indicated tli-t the south-
ori approachos to tho archipelago were piled with heavy pnck ice,
and tho fast ice in the British Channol and lelonius Strait wns
riddled with fissures. Fran 27 to 30 Jul the ice was partially
brokon tp in the bay and had a density of 9 balls; tho sheet ice
and ice, pieces in the strEit ha a dcnsity of 5 balls.
Lt night from 29 to 30 Jul air roconnaissanco indicated
that .a strongly corrodod shoot of fast leo with cracks, chaniols,
and caps ronaincd bctwoon Northbrook Island and Hooker Island, ox-
tending into the contral portion of the British Channel and further
north,. L small accumulation of large and small ico piccos was
driftinL south of Hookor Island and Northbrook island.
' On 31 Jul the thorougny eroded fast ico romainod only
northwebt of Hookor Island in Ulcn Yrunc Strait and further oast
among tho islands. Tho strait botwcon Hookor Island cull Northbrook
Island was clear of cc, and only south of Hcokor -Island woro there
any soparato fields or parts of ficlds left. Between Goorgo Land
dnd Ketlits 'Island thcre wcrc combi,nod larc.,e and small ico pieces
which loft zone of clear wator about a milo wide off Gecre Land.
,
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In the strait between Alexandra Land and George Land there was a
conglomerate of largo and small ico pieces, forming a large
coastal gap in the bay at Lloxandra Land.
The bay was not opened until 2 Lug, and the density of
tho ice was reduced to 3 balls. Air reconnaissance on 2 Aug show-
ed that the sheet of ico remained north of 'Hooker Island and ex-
tended into tho middle of the British Channel and between the
islands north of Hooker Island. Tho northern and north-western
parts of the British Channel, however, were piled with largo and
small ice pieces which changed into heavier forms to the north.
The strait between Alexandra Land and George Land was full of large
and small iee pieces. Between Hooker Island and McClintock there
were separate accumulations of large and small ice pieces.
fast ice sheet remained in the bay until 10 Lug,
when its steady disintegration began. By 19 Lug its density
had diminished to 2 balls. Lir reconnaissance on 4 Lig showed
that thoroughly eroded fast ico continued to remain northwest
of Hooker Island and in the cast among the islands. Beyond the
northern edge of the'land floe wore large and small ice pieces,
and in tho strait between Northbrook Island and Rooker Island
several accumulations of ice were floating. In Molenius Strait,
on tho south side of Scott-Kolty Island, there remained an ice
barrier blocking the entrance to tho strait from the south.
On 8 Lug the British Channel was observed fret a
plane. It was covered lith largo and small ice pieces from
the north. The passages botwGen George Land, Bruce Island, and
Northbrook Island wore blocked with ice. The barried south of
Scott-Ko4y Island romained. There was open water between North-
brook Island and Hooker Island,
On 9 Aug large and small ice pieces in separate fields
were driven against George Land, which resulted in the formation
of a wide an,'1. straight channel from south to north in the eastern
part of the British Channel. The land floc remained only north
of Scott-Kolty Island and around Ka-tilts Island. In 2.11en Young
Strait separate, easily avoided ice accumulations floated. The
barrier south of Scott-Helty Island disappeared, and tho approach
to Tikhaya Bay from tho south was quite free of ico.
On 14 Au _a few small ice pieces remained northeast
of Hooker Island, and in places there were still barriers of fast
ice between the islands. The main mass of drift ice was observed
21(')rth of Cape Chado, leaving clear water about 5 miles :,ldo along
the western shores of Luigi Island and Salisbury Island.
b. Russkaya Gavan, Novaya Zemlya (76?141N, 62?39'E)
Observations in the bay of Russkayr Gavan wore
not of a systethatic nature, and were mado by: a meteorologist who
was the station head at the same time. Tho usual place for
observations was a rise to the south of the st-;tion with a height
of about 30 motors above sea level (range of visibility about 11
miles). In some cases the observer vent to tho Shokalskiy :lacier
and the camp at Voronin Bay from which points it was possible to
soo tho northern part of Otkupshchikov Gulf and the open son.
The observations were noted down in the observer's log, from which
notes voro taken, and on them was based the following description
of the ice cover.
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The first date of observations was 7 Dec, when ice fields
which had, been fro.pen together during a calm, wore afloat in the bays.
During Deco ber and January t.e. ice cover changed frequently duo to
4,1so, ice from the sea would fill the bays and freeze to
-
Other, and then wp4,break 41 and, be carried out to so:. On 14
? Dec a piece broke ,q.ff, .?he glacier, prpducin2 c large iceber. Small
pieces Ile re continual? y bra akin: off, leaving Otkupshchikov Gulf
always full Cf small co;L floes. ,
On 23 Jan 1934 in the deeper part of the bay, a fast
ice sheet WOS .formed, the sea ,sidte of which had several cracks. Be-
yonel this was a larF4e gap, and: farther out to sea floated a mass of
small ice pieces. The gap wa.s closed at timys by young ice, which
wits .1,re1erl T.1.P agai,t.. by the winds. On 24 Jan the northern half of
the bay -was clear f? floating ice; ice remained only around the ice-
bor.& and in the, ertstern part of Otku-,shchikev Gulf.
,Ir Fbruary sheet ice about .50 centimeters thick cover-
ed the bays, ?and the part facing the sea was at timus covered with
cracks. Drift pie remained in the sea for the whole month, in most
oaso;s up to the-)aorizon.
Duthing i1arch the' cuter part of the land floe was broken
up from time to time, and then it would form r.-:ain by freezing to-
gether with the. ice coming in from the sea. Poycnd the land floe
there were instances of the formation of 1ar7e expanses of clear
water between the land floe and floating ice.
iOn 4 ilpr many cracks formed in the ice floe, and on
6 4,pr the ser.pard part of the land floe disintegrated under the
pro of, ice. Until E l'iny there was ice to the horizon with
no Signs of clear water, and only on 9 May did a zone of clear
wto appeet? en the horizon. On 21 Mav- thinning fragments of
ice fields we.re floating over a 'id C expanse at the horizon.
' On 25 May so much water PDponrod on the ice of the
land floof, that the ice looked blue, and having lost its former
Solidity, became more susceptible te disintegration. The edge of
the land floe approached Begatiy Islan(.1 from the sea. On 26 May
the 144 floe becarhe still more blue, and many cracks appeared in
it.
On 2 Jun the land flee loft :ocatiy Island which was
aUrrelnedod by ice pieces and clear water. On 12 Jun fast ice remain-
od it; ,the interior of the bays, .'nol all the r:;mainin surfaces of
the gys and the sea wore cleared of ice to the horizon by the south
winc0. The ice cover remained the some with few changes, as far as
Crit'ice was concerned, until 25 ,Tun, when patches of water cleng
UN/ shore and washouts on the land floe' appeared. '.rator came up
th."..eu_h these on the surface of the ice.
Up to 28 Jun the washouts and the patches continued to
tncrease, and the edge of the remaining land floc began to break-
up intensively. Thc ice was carried out to sea by the wind rricl the'
currents, and the inner ncrtions of thc bays wore cleared of drift.
ice from time to time. The le,nd floe disintegrated greatly during
the calm weather of 2,9 Jun due to the swell from the sea.. The foot
of the ice floe remained only in the bays and shore inlets. Pieces
were: chipped off the glacier acre froquo.ntly, protruding porticns of
the icebergs were broken off, and the latter' s contours were even-
ed off.,
On 1 thawing ice sheet remained pnly in the deep-
er part of the bay. Otkupshchikov Gulf, as a result of the inten-
.
sive chipping of the glacier, was almost completely covered with
small ice flocs from the icebergs, and fast ice remained at its
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eastern shore. Only detached flocs were noted out at sea.
, On 4 Jul the sheet lee was completely broken u, and
the remains of the land floc, stayed only on tic eastern shoro rf the
Gulf of Otkupshchikol, and in Voronin Bay. At the end of the
day the floating ice began to be carried out to sen by the tide
and, on 5 Jul the bay was completely cleared of ice by the south
winds. On 6 Jul Voropip By was cleared, and a small ruantity
of fast ice remaf nod on the eastern shore of Otkupshchikov Gulf.
On 18 Jul the schooner Onega, arrived.
.Ship Observations of Ice Conditions in the Arctic. Sees,
1934
DD 303474: 41:1224.0rvations cn Ice C( nditions in the Arctic
t c Period of Navin.ation in 19349
,9r"40, liotQorelrogical Observatory, Aug 1943,
translated fropi the Ru5sian of A. F. Laktionov,
Trc, a t'ens o the z?ctic Institute, Vol 32,
All-Union 4retie InPtitute l9.7
The area of the ice-covered surfaces observed by the
Persey in the Greenland sea in Ugust was similar to the stand-
ard ice-covered surface, calculated accordinr to the data of
the Netherlands Meteorological Stations (The State of the Ice
in..the Arctic Seas). That is, the boundary of ice et .75? North
latitude, cast coast of Greenland, lay barely 5 to 10 miles east
from the average eastern boundary for .august. Also, the boundar3r.
of the ice situated at 80? Forth latitutc in the northern Green-
land Sea, lay, similarly, 30 to 40 mile's west of the August
average boundary.
Although navigation along the coasts of Spitsbergen was
very easy, the passage from Greenland Sea by detouring around the
north coast of Spitsbergen to the Barents Spa was quite difficult
because of the ido which had_arrived along the coast of Northeast
Land on the north. In the seas north of 80? N latitude, between
Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen, the obsorvations of the Taipyr,
Loninc,rad Soviet, porsoy, cnd planes showed that the passages
wore completely free, from Greenlano See via Hinlopen Straits
,to Barents Sea, with oven large gaps broken open in tho compact
ice. .
s LS a result of the exploratory vo- ages of the Persoy and
N. Enipovich in 'Par-Oct 1934, there has boon clarifyinE inform-
ation regarding freezing in the Barents See in 1934, and the
recessiem of the northern and eastern boundaries of ice during
the summer.
The iee boundaries in the Barents Sea Move the,
farthest southwards and westwards in April. Ls indicated by
Professor N. N. Zubov, the averaco area of ice at this time is
74 percent of the total area of the Barents Sc. ("Hydrographic
Survey Operations by the Destroyer Persey in the SouthweStorn
Part of the Kara Sea in 192,8", by N. N. Zubov, Vol II, No 4 of ?
National Marine Studios Research Laboratory Publications). Accorol-
ing to reports of the N. Knipovich and the Persey which navigated
the Barents Sea in March and Lpril, the area of the ice increased.
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rathor slOwly until the, end of Lpril.
Locordin- to data from tho Porsoy, tho southorn limit of
ice in tho 'seas noar Medvozhi Island reachod, for tho most part,
74?16'N,, 206001E. Tho N. Knipovich, hovovor, which explored this
samo arca' 24 Lpr, distove'red that tho boundary of drift ico was
further south, at 74?031N,20?301E. Theroforc, we !mow that between
16 Mar ana 24.4r, the boundary of drift ico movod 13 miles south-
ward alonE; 20u East lOngitudo with an average, speed of 0.33 miles
por day. Similarly, when we comparo the two voyages of the N.
Knipovich, we sec that tho marin of the drift leo, for to 32 days
tip to 12 Lpr, movcd southward with an avorago speed or 0.5 miles
per day. From 14 to 25 Lpr tho Porsey sailed along the margin of
the drift ice, but when vo comparo the ice margin survoyed at that
'imo and thc average boundary of the Barents Sea drift ico, we see
that thc arca covcrod by the drift ice was remarkably smaller than
tho average area in the mpnth of Lpril. (For tho comparison we
eAployod-tho monthly nvorabo'boundarics of the Barents Sea ice,
prepared by tho Nuthorlands fletebrological Station.
Only thc ice margin at 20?E near Modvozhi Island was
lying rather -far southward, as c'emparod with aver -R:0 positions.
Llso, in thc roGion between' ?I0c and 409E it vas 57 milos north-
ward from trc vera boundary.
It is worthy of note that in the boginning of Lpril the
ico boundary movos from tho averego boundary lino towards the
northeast, east, and towards the Kara Soa entrance. Espocially
wide inlots indent the ice masses rathor deeply in tho northeast
direction. Furthermore, the ic: boundary comes 225 miles northeast
of the avorage nosition. It go :s without saying that those inlets
or indentations arc formod bccauso tho sca watoF tomporaturc of the
Atlantic Ocean rises and falls, and one of the currants heads to-
warae tho northwcst cot of Novr.ya Zemlya. Even in the direc-
tiollof the Kara Soa ontrancc rater doop inlcts aro produced.
Llthough horo diff:ronco in position of tho ice
boundary in Lpril 1934 and position of thc average ico boundary
for Lpril was 160 Milos (towards the oast), thc ice boundary db-
served in 1934 betwoon Kola Poninsula an Cape Kanin was remark-
ablY.far south of the average leo boundary.
The investigations of tho Forscy chowod that there wore
rather vide protuberances which projected southward betwoon'359and
40? E. Those projections are related to the central elevations in
tho-13aronts Sc, Tho formation of ico in the Baronts Son '.ivos
sufficiont proof to Zubovis contention thrt in cortin places
,
whore thoro arc shoals this phonomonon is ?specially noticoablo.
Furthormore, from 12 Apr to 14 May, tho boundary of ico
along the Kola Peninsula lonc,itude, accordin7 to the 49th voyago of
the Persey rocodca northw-rd 42 milos gra(7.unl1y with tho arrival
of tho poriod of thaw. Thcrefore, thc vclqcity of rocossion of the
ico in this period is 1.3 miles por day, and this valuo agroos
with tho velocity civon by Zubov (1 milo a day).
' In Jun -ccordin- to 'ho N. Knincuich (24-25 Juno) and tho
Porsey (25 Jun - 4 Jul), thc ico-bcun4arY shifts quit? romarkal-ly
northward, and actually the'amis below 77?N latitudo,,thc southorn
and central serts Of the, Baronts-Sca? are soon to be complotely free
from ice untiX asol when wo comparo,tho ice margin in Juno
and tho averae boundcry of June, wo aoo a prmsiderablo northward
retreat. This almost a-,rocs with .thc aver-f7o boundary of Lu-ust.
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This recession is given in tho following table (condensed): 200:
105 miles; 300 : 120 mile;: :4Q?: 182 miles; 500: 210 miles.
Ls ships can call at the various ports in Franz Josef
Land in mid-June, the Pcrsoy headed northward from 78?34'N along
47?501E and cut across a bolt of ice 85 miles wide, which wos
split considerably. Then on 30 Jun the ship entered the sans
near Franz Josef Land ,and took almost a similar course on the
return trip; it relched clear water on 2 Jul.
Although the width of the ice in a bolt south of Franz
'Josef Land becomes broader in the cast, on 5 Jul, the Persey
oasily entered port near Cape Zhclaniya whore there was no ice.
According to the observations of the Loningrad-Soviet? which was
hunting marine animals, the width of this icg did not seem to contract
very much oven by July; the margin of 8-ba1l ice stretched to tho
line 79006IN longitude.
In mid-August the whole of the Barents,Sea was free of
ice. The, icebreaker Taimyr, headed from Archangel to Franz
Josef Land, made port on 19 Aug, but saw no drift ice during
all that time. F4rthormore,j_n the northeastern part of the
Barents Sea, the ice boundary ran from alczek Island toward
the southeast (toward Zholaniya). At 78?13'1% 61?211E, the
ice boundary had completely disappeared. Only a very sm-.11
part north of 78? N and west of 43?00'E, which is tho north-
western tip of Barents Sca, was covered with ice; south of
79?30' and 80?N the drift-ico boundary was rather difficult
to record on maps. This was because of tidal currents which
flow south along the c'ast coast of Spitsbergen, and because
of winds, and because, the ice in tho lover sons was project-
ing in tongue shapes toward the south.
At any rate, it can be said.that the Barents Sca was free
of ice by the end of August. The drift ice, which was encountered
by tho Persey headed towards tho northwestern part of the Barents
Sea. Even when the ship reached 79?N, 43?E, it was very small in
mount and were furthermore separated by ice-belts. Therefore,
it can be said that ice conditions in the Barents Soo for 1934
were very good.
rinally, it is necessary to touch upon the October
voyage of the N. Knipovich which navigated along the Kola
Peninsula longitec. This voyage revealed clearly the conditions
of beginning thaw in the region north of 76?N latitude. According
to the various explorations of the Persoy and the N. Knipovich, the
boundary of drift ice recedes from the monthly average boundary
(not the midmonthly boundaries of tho ice margins as determined
by the ships in 1934).
Although the various straits between the islands of
Franz Josef Land wore already navigable by the end of Juno as
previously montionod, navigation became difficult in July and
AuL;ust because of drift ico. Furthermore, as shown by ship
and plan, observations, the only navigable places were the
various southern and central straits of Franz Josef Land, and
there are stmc places which never complotely thaw even in
summer; the northern and western straits and the British
and Austrian Channels wore broken by continuous ice fields. One
is forced to say that the bad ice conditions, in the British
Charnel, the northwestern parts of Franz Josef Land, and the
Austrian Channel are crnsidorably influenced by wind directions.
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Tho following shows the peroontagos of wind direction, tho
avorago temperaturos rocordod in Tikhaya Bay from May to the end of
July:,
Wind Direction
May :
N 15,
NE 13, E
22;
SE 19,
S , .SW
3, W
9, .PW 11
Juno
N 33,
NE 11, E
4,
gg 13,
S 9, SW
7, W
TW 18 ,
July :
N 13,
N8 1,-E
4,
SE 12,
S 4,, SW-
26,.W
22, VW 18
Lvcrago Tomporaturev
May : -8.80
July:
Juno :
Thus, we soo that ice conditions wore not too good in 1934, in the
various straits of Franz Josof Land.
Next, in oxamining ico enditions f_n the Kara Sea, we sco
that tho southwestorn part of the Kara Sc- was completaly filled up
with drift ico by the end of July. It seems that only Baydaratskaya
Bay, Ob' Bay, and tho Gulf Of Yonisoy, for the most part, wore froo
of ico. Furthermore, there was hard, thick, immovablc coast icc at
many places in tho doastal arcas of naydaratskaya Bay, Bolyy Island,
and also in Malygin Straits (by 6 aug, flaly,;.in Straits had already
thawod and bocomo cloar water).
Rather largo holcs, not rt frozen over, wore soon along tho
wostorn coast of Yana' Poninsula, and their northern linit was soon
to extend farthcr towards the northwest. Howovor, similar unfrozen
halos, rathr smallor than thesc, oxtendod along the cast sea coast
of Novaya Zemlya from Yur.;orsklyshar Straits towar:d natochkin Shar
Straits, as Ear as 74? N.
4 narrow strip of clear water was observed at the ond of
July along tho oast coast of Dickson, nnd gencrally as far as the
ontranco tO the Pyasina Rivor. Farthor east alonc the coast, thero
continuod a wido belt of coast ico, hard, thick, and immovable.
By tho end of July the northoastorn part of the Kara Sca was covered
for tho most part, with compact ice; oniT oast of Zhelaniya was split
ice seen.
' In tho southrostern Kara Sc,
oxtended southward from the Tlatochkin
? During tho navigation of the
during lator spring and early sunmor;
in and bocame compact nnd hard. Wind
May and July were as follows:
Matochkin Shar (Straits):
ico of 8 to 10 bails in density
Shar Straits latitude,.
Kara Soa, northwinds pre:valid'
thOroforo, icb. was often blown
conditions (percentages) between
May: 17 6; NE 26; E
19;
SE 10;
S
2;
SW 2;
W
NW 28
June:N 5; NE 17; E
17;
SE 20;
S
6;
SW 2;
1;
10;
NW 23
July:N 1; NE 8; E
2;
SE 12;
S
12;
SW 3;
7a 20;
NW 42
Yugorskiy Shar (Straits):
, 9; NE 7;, E 19; SE 11; S 14; SW 14; W 9; NW 17
Jun ;N 15; NE -20; E 25; St ' 2; 'S 0; $17 14; W 17; NW 7
Jul:N 32; NE 22; E 11; SE -3; S 3; SW 14; 10.; NW- 5
. ,
Dickson 'Isiand:
?M4y ;N 25; NE 15; E
7; SE
8;
S 18; pw 8; W
7; 1\it7 12
.71,14 .:N" 11; NE 23;
6;
8;
S 16; SC11;
14; .NW. 10
Sul :N 40; 11E E
1;- SE
0-
S I; .5; W , 3; NU 15
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However- at the oamo.time, it must be pointed- out tIlat
the temperature in 1934,.in.tho Kara Sea os higher than tho average
temperature for the Whele year. This, is shown below:
Cape Zhelaniya
May -7.0;
Jun
-1.2;
Matochkin Shar
May -3.8;
Jun
*0.9;
Yugorskiy Shar
May -2.8;
Jun
+0:0;
Dickson Island
May -6.6;
Jun
+0.0;
Jul
Jul +6.2
Jul 4-5.3
Jul 4./.7
1s c, if WO comare the average temperature over many
years, wo have the following:
Mat ochlan Sher May +1.7;
YugorskiY Sher May +2.0;
Dickscn Island : May 42.3;
Jun
+0.4;
Jul
+0.9
Jun
-0.3;
Jul
-0.8
Jun
4-0.3;
Jul
-1.5
Is is clear prom tho abovo'comporisons2 in the south-
western part of Kara 8La, iCe conditions .proved to be good in
early Lugust, in spite or the prevalent north winds. This was
due to the fact that tht late spring and early summer wore
somewhat warmer than usual.
The course at the end of July and in early Lugust from
the parents Sea to Dickson Island was via Yugorskiy Shar (Straits
In the area from Natochkin Shar to Belyy Island there were
aOcumulatiens of drift ico composed of ice fields and fields of
ice flows, making passage to Dickson Island via Matochkin Shar
remarkably difficult.
Durinc the end of July, the areo between Cape Zhelaniya
and Vie Island, ice that is comparatively broken up, is en-
countered. This is because thc warm water of the Barents Sea melts
the ice which is north and northeast of Cape 2helaniya. Tho
influence of this warm wator,as related proviously, does not extend
very far. The fields of ice floes in the southwestern part of
Kara Sea gradually become smaller, but those ice fields melt
very rapidly, especially from the south towards the north. The
followinc shows the conditions of contraction of those icc fields
in the line botwoon Matochkin Shar and Bolyy Islands.
The first figure gives the l'iidVI.of the ice fields; the second figura
gives the amount of contraction in one day.
17-25
Jul:
165 miles; 10 miles
26
Jul:
155 miles; 3.5 miles
5
Lug:
120 miles; 2.5 miles
13
Au
100 miles; 6.2 miles
.29
LIT:
clear water
Thus, between 25 Jul and 29 Lug, the ice which had movecl
deeply into the Kara Sea completely disappeared. The width of t'le
ice floes extol:1,114c 165 miles between Matochkin Shar and. Bolyy
Island contracted on average of 4.7 miles per any.
' -The area covered by ice in the southwestern part of thu
Kara Sea (the area southwest from the line of Dickson Island and
Cape Zhelaniya) cntraeted romarkably in the period 5-13 Lug; for
exanplo, the ice at the latitudinal line of Matochkin Shar on 13
Aug, projected below the sea area. The protrudin7 part of this
ice, however, was no+ t?oe large.
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, 'As the area of dri4 4 rapidly contracted because of the
melting, it became obvious by mid-AuguSt tl-at the regions between
Yugorskiy Shar and Dickson Islan'd and Matochkin Shar and Dickson
Island had already become navi,able.
Llen we compare (1) the boundary cf drift ice shown here;
and (2) the boundary of strl'ice 131 t/u Kara Sea durinL mid-August?
according to.the data of V.'Yu?Vizo (Drift Ice Conditions in the Kara
Sea) then the ice-ce1A-recl'Sa4'fal49 of th9 southwestern part of the '
Kara Sea in 1934 is seen to be remarkably smaller .than the average.
, The northeastern Part of the Kra Sea was covered, for the
most part, with ice by the first part of August, Only between
Dickson Island and PYasinn Bay, along the coast, was a strip of
clear water observed. FrQm,thero towards CaPe Chelyuskin there was
a wide strip .o ccast ice, hard, thick, and immovable. '
At the end of.thc, first part of August, the ship onccunt-
?red a wide belt of ice (1 to 4 balls in density) which was split
near .77?N and 7?40'E. As a,r0Otillt Of the inflUeneC of the warm
water of the Barents Sca,ait,Was,greatly affected after the ond of
July. Similarly, in the area east of 80? E it freezes even in
early Lugust.
The area north of the thick laard immovable land floc) near
the Laptev coast was completely buried under ice) which made the
.courso to, Cape Chelyuskin very difficult. '-rowever? there was a
rather narrow strip of clear 'water lying between this hard, immov-
able land flee and the heavy drift ice. In mid-August, ice conditions
between.'Dickson and ohelyuskin become somewhat bettor. The bard
and thick) immovable coast ice along the shor& contracted, and oven
the ice northeast of Dickson began to crack to some degree. Further-
more, toward Cape Chelynskin, some clear water started to form.
On le Aug the first steamer arrived at Cape Chelyusl-in, but at that
time ViVkAskiy Strait had a long belt of unbroken ice, 19 miles
wide, which blocked threugh-passa[Le. According to observations of
the Sibiryakov? this ice finally broke up 27 Aug.
Other data ccncernin,-, thawing in Vilikitskiy Straits follows;
Villkitsktr Straits wore almost free of ice in early Aug 1933. The
straits began to thaw 14 Jul 1933, and 24 Aug 1934. Furthormore,
to indicate the temperatures in Viltkitskiy Straits, the following
are the average monthly temperatures at Cape Cholyuskin: !lay, -8.5;
Jun, -0.9; Jul, *0.9; Aug, +0.5.
Xn early August the ice between Dickson Island and Cape
Chelyuskin showed many changes. In the eastern half of the
course between these two places from Russkiy Island to Cape
Chelyliskin) there was a rather wide bolt of clear water, but the
western half showed no great change from mid-Aucust. At the same
time, now ice began to form at the end of August in a bolt several
miles west of Russhiy Island and Bryuzevits Island. Furthermore, in
the course from Dickson Island tc Cholyuskin, the places of Freatest
difficulties yore in.t.o area west and southwest of Russkiy Island..
Thore?ice of 8 - 10 balls densit.: was encountered.
Locking at the ico:cfnditions at thci middle and encl'ef August,
in other places of the northcasturn Kara Sea, it is necessary first
of all to preSui o, that tbo ice density was not greatly different
from that cf early August. The warn water of the Barents Sea has
influence only northeast and. east'of Cape-Zhelaniya, and ow,cat-ox-
poet a crnsiderablc decrease in the area of the ice-covered gea there,
Because of the effect of this warm wtor the ice near Uyedineniya
Island, is sometimes around 2 balls in density by the end of August.
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lho area cast of aQ?1]. and, generally north Of the Cape Cholyuskin
?
'latitude wasocompletely locked in ice,in,the middle and end of
August. In the region west and northwest of Sergdy Kamenev Island,
navigation was very difficult oven for an icebreaker. The only
excepdon was tho strip alongtho west coast of. Severnaya Zemlya
and aCcerdin to aerial obseryatinns on 30 1,11g; tile could use tho
coast to navigate from Cape Cholyuskin to Sergcy Kamenev Island.
Similarly Shokalfskiy Straits apparently had no ice by the and
of'Lugust. In yillkitSkiy Straits there was a rather wide belt
'of land floe, hard and immovable.
When we look at the weather conditions of the eastern
half of the Kara Sea, especially at the wlnd direction, we note
that July has mostly west winds, with east and southeast '!inds
prevailing in Lugust. Therefore, ice conditions along the
west coast o Sovornaya Zemlya were very bad, and even at the
end cf July and in august, in Severnaya Zemlya, it was difficult
for icebreakers to approach from the west. By the and of Lur,ust,
when east and southeast winds prevail, the ice in the eastern part
of the Kara Sea shifts towards woot, BOtWOCn to wost sea coast
of Severnaya Zemlya e.rn the drift ice, the coast strip of ico
which is considerably broken is formed, One can use this in order
to reach Sergei Kamonev Island from the pouth.
The followig table shows wind conditions (percentages)
near Severnaya Zemlya Island and Cape Chelyuskin, indicative of wind
directions in the northeastern Kara Sea for 1934:
Sergey Kamenev Island:
May: N 21; NE 31; E 6;SE 11; S 11; SW
Jun: N 13; IE. 23; E. 17; SE 10; S SW
Jul: N 21; NE 7; E 5; SE 10; S 9; SW
Aug: N 14; NE 5; all; SE 42; S SW
Cao Chelyuskini
May:
N
2;
1E 17;
E 20;
SE 9;S
(-s;
Jun:
N
-;
I\E 15;
E 34;
SE 10;S
5;
Jul:
N
2;
NE 9;
E 30;
SE 6;S
2;
Lug:
N
3;
NE 10;
E 40;
SE 23;5
3;
SW
SW
SW
SI;
2;17 2; NJ 16.
7; W 14; NW 11
2; W 36; N1110
4;
17
0; NW ,8
9;
1,
27;
NU 10
3;
W
23;
DIV 10
3;
44;
NW 4
4;
W
9;
NU 8
The comparatively low temperature in July at Severnaya
Zemlya seems to influence the ice on the west sea coast. The following are the average temperatures recorded at Scrgoy Kamoncv Island
in 1934: May) -9.2; Jun, -0.5; Jul,+0.1; tug, 4-0.4.
The hard and immovable ice along the west son coast of Severnaya
Zemlya in 1934 began to thaw finally by the end of August.
During the latter hnlf of 4.ugust the areas north and
northwest of Viz? Island , in the northeastern Kara Sea,. and also
the arca northeast of Liyedinoniya Island wore frozen. , However, the ice
here was noi to thick, and, as V. Yu. Vize.has already indicated,
the comparative shallowness of the Krra Sea has some relation to
icing conditions in this sea. ,
,The region between tho ?two longitudes of Vize Island and
the eastern limit of thu islanas in Franz Josef Land north of 780 N
was loced in ice completely by the ,end of Lugust. Furthermore, the
piled-up ice lay north of 80?N, west of. 720E, but it seemed to ex-
tend along the eastern sea coast of these islands.
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Thu passage eastward, that is, toward the'oastern son coast
of Franz ,T,sof Lar2.,frem Vizo Island, was extremely difficult, even
for an icebreaker. This re-irn 1-ad "already begun to freeze over with
now ice in mid-Lugust
4.
In *Ole region between cape Chelyuskin and Dickson Island in
the northeastern Kara Son, ice conditions be Came fairly good around
Sop 10. The strip Along the Oast which is not frozen at that
time extends generally from DiWsbn to Taimyr Island. Yrrth of here,
that is, north and northeast of zvestiya Island :and west of
Russkiy Island and BryuzevitS 'Island, there is a region of piled-up
ice (density: 8 to 10 balls). sometimes cracked ice can be soon, but
generally navigation is impossible. Tho, straits between the various
islands of Fordenskjold Lrchipolago were completely frozen by 10
Sep. ',long the entire course frcm Cape Chclyuskin to Lrkticheskego
Institute Island and north of it new 'Co was o d I -e d
. sc ?yore . s
the oast from Cape telaniya a bay of clear water extended into thc
Kara Sea, but not beyond 80?E. The part of the Kara Sea that came
under the influence of therwarn water coning frcn the Obi and Yenisiy
Rivers did not have good ice:cOnflitions'during the entire period of
navigation. In mid-September, clly Sverdrup Island had practically
no ico; the ice boundary as soh of the standard position. Even
by the end of September, this ice b-undary did not extend beyond
4rkticheskogo Instituta Island, iut to the west and northwest, ice
of 4 to 6 balls in density was seen.
Even the Sudov investigated this rej.on, but ice ccnditiom
wore poor. From its report we can presume that in 1934 the force
of the warm water frpm the Obi ,-2,,n1 Yonisoy Rivers was comparatively
weak, and furthermore, tho temperature of the warm water was rather
low.
LdcordinL to observations of recent years, it is clear that
the boundary of ice north of'Dic'kson Island, and the general condi-
,
ttriof ice depend upon the force of the previously-mentioned warm
water. For example, in those ro,ions there was absolutely no ice
in 1932, and the ice boundary reported in 21 Lug 1930 at 76? 54IN,
. 79?17'E shiftod to 76?52fr in 19 Sop 1933. Furthermore, in 1934,
au ptc,louely stated it seemed not to exceed the Lrkticheskoco
Instituta Zslaric latitude. .
Lt the end of September, from Cop:. Zholaniya almost to
Matochkin Shar Straits, ice rem mod hero and there along trio whole
coast, but this is in agreement with the standard conditions for ice
in this area. It 16 well to note that ice con.2iticns an 1031 along
the eastern sea coast -2.f ilovaya Zemlya and tn the east, were
rmatkably more difficult than in 1933. .
In early Octoihr ice bdginS to form rather suddenly, oven
in Yenisey Bay, and also, possibly, even in the southwestern
Kara Sea, and Obi Bay. The new ice in early Octobe- extends along
the course fromTickson Island tO Yugorskiy Shar? generally up
to 65?40'e.
'Upon completion of the investi;ation into ice conditions
in the northeastern Earn Sea durinc: tho 1934, season, the question
is raised regarclinc the influence of the warn water of the Barents
Sea on the ice in the Kara Sen. -1though all the Brirents Sea is
free of ice by mid-Lugust? its influence is noticeable only in a
vor, small regien north of the Kara Sea, and does not extend south
Of 40 Cape Zhelaniya'latitude. 'That is, the influence of the warm
water of Barnts Sea is chiefly directed 'east of Cape Zholaniya.
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In 1934) however, this influence was rather wealc and. did not roach
farther than 80?E. _
The'petiods when hoW ice aPpeared in the Kara Seo arc as
follows:
..??.....a._0
Date. TosNon
:.19 Lug '80 281N, 71 061E
29 80006IN, 84?03'E
29 77?37'N, 91?20.1E
30 76?00'N, 87?40'E
30 Sameylovich Island
31, 76(510N, 91?201E
3
9
11
11
18
23
23
27
Lug
Aug
Lug'
Aug
Lug
Sp,P
Sop.
Sep
Sep
Sep
Sop
Sop
Sop
Sop'
Ship_
Sodov
Sadko
Yormatsk
Malygin
airplane H-.9
Tsirkul
Uyedincniya Island Sedov
770041N, .78949'E Yormatsk
Scot Hanson Island. airplane H-2
Betwoon Russktr'I and'Cape Cho lyuskin
Medvezhi' Bay (Novaya Zemlya)
75051'111 880521E Sodov
Cape Pyaty Palets (Novaya Zemlya)
Capc*MMINtEN4 Sedov -
73?09% 65c40'E Rusanov
1 Oct Tonisoy Bay Rusanov
8 Oct /20091 anov
Yermatsk
Lrktik
As is clear from the above list, new ice first appears
north of 80?N in the northeastern part of the Kara Sea. Lisa, it
appears rather early even in the eastern part of the Kara Sea; for
example, in 1934 new ice appeared in the area west of Russkiy Island
10 days earlier than in 1934271c/.
a In 1934, because the temperature of the surface enter in
the Kara Sea approachod the treazing point, new ice began to form
rather oarly and seemed to freeze very quickly. Furthermore, the
following will show the increase in now ice in the southwestern
Kara Sea fGr the years 1933 And 1934: the ice limit between
Dickson Island and YugorskiY Straits was observed on 8 Oct 1934
at 73?09(N 65?401E, and on 15 Oct 1933 at 73?00'N, 670001E.
Thus, although the date on which new ice was observed
was carlier, the new ice in 1934 in this area was 30 miles
farther west than usual.
a
The ice in the southern part of the. LeTtev Sea i; no
hindrance to navigation, and oven ordinary steam or sailing
vassals can sail in this sen in early and mid-Lugust; only
occasionally, does a ship encouter ice, exceeding 1 ball in density ?
Laptcv Straits in early Lugust, and'Sannikev Straits in mi:-
/IIK;ust (12 Lug) could be scan only northeast of PIYOTORN* Island.
Furthormoic, even cast of Degichcv Island, there waF only a small
quantity of ice at the end of mid-Lu-ust but that caused no
hindranco to navigation. Howavcr, the natural passagc frcm Laptev
Sea to Kara Sea was not open until the end of Lugust.
In the region around Xcmisomolskaya Pravda Island, the
ice lasts for a considerable length of time, until mid-September.,
, Ice conditions of 1934 in the East Siberian Sea and
especially in the Chukotsk Sea were much bettor than in 1932 an-1
1933. The poor ice conditions experienced by the icebreaker, Litko,
cast of 180?E from mid..July to 25 Jul wore purely temporary in nature.
?
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The most important elements which determine ice conditions
in the East Sibcrian? Sea are wina diroction durin3tthu navigation
soason? and wind direction durin the spring befeFothe navigablo
soon. The north and thu ?northylcst wind which blow chiefly in
July are a very good influence on ice conditions in the Chukotsk
Sea. However, after the end of ,ucust? the region from the Kolyma
River mouth to tho,4ring Str,-?t? is, completely free of ice. In
early September, cast of '10% ice 'disappears even in t.Chukotsk
Sea south of Wrangel Island latitude. The following _table shows
wind directions (percentages) dur.',11: May- July in this area:
Schmidt Islam:
May: N 3; NE -; E 1; SE 45; S 1; SW 4; 1: 18;
Jun: 1q4; N ,4; E 22; SR 47; S 2; SW 1; W 10;
Jul: N -; NE 7; E 9; SE 2(); S 3; SW -; W 26;
NW 28
NW 10
NV.T 33
Urani3e1 Island - ?-
ilay: N 18;tE:Y -.18-E /r d ' 4").2, S 7; SW 244 W 9; NW 15
o
r _ r? , r,
-Jun: N 3,3;1'7.33; E 9.,; SE' 5; S 9; SW 14; W 3,5;R7 2
'Jul.: N.-170E 6;..E, 8; SE'. -;.S 13; SW 26; V: 4; NW 26
Cape Dozhnov
N 3441E 6, SE-; S 26; SW 14?; W , 5; NW 7
'Juni N 1708 17; E 8; SW 1; S 32; SIT 20; W. -; NV 5
Jul: N 21,4t:10; E 1; 1; "S 31; SW 17; IT 7; NW 19
The reason that broad areas wore formed between the continent
and the DerinE'Straits and Wrangel Island is that the warm water,
from the Perinc, Straits was higher in temperature than usual, and
oven the ice from Chukotak Sea was rcmarkab4 influenced. Furthermore,
In 1934, the tomporaturo of Chukoisk Soa and the East Siberian Sea
was eomp^ratively hic,h, and can be said to havo influoncoe thawing.
,Tho fellowin- shows the ay-craze temperatures for various
months:
Schmidt Island.:
11Ni -6?.0; Jun 4.1.9; Jul1 *2.5
Wrangel Island
.May:., Jun, #0.1; Jul,*2.6
May,: Jun,+-,?.7; Jul, +5.1
Below U,n .,00mparisen botween the j;ce forecasts for the
re-6i6 teach as paiciaated by V. Yu. V. e cf.tho.RYdroraphic Institute
and by R.N. GulipiJEN:-onclosiod in quotes), and: the results of
on-tho-spot e obServationi (EdEr:,unclosed in paren).
_ _
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z"4.CRET
-"Franz Josof Ind can bc reached b ordinary vessels
after mid-August or'bef6r6 tEi,t-date".V.I(Tki.s.forocast was correct.
The,Persey'reafchod:nort pl.39 .jun. Furthermore;loy mid-Ju,ust
the ,Barents Sea vas froo of .co.)'
The ice oi-ulditions in the :various str.nits between,
the aslnds of Franz Josef Lard era fairlygood." (This forecast
was incorrect. " Only the straits 1ii the southern part were free
of ice; the others were generally blocked by ice that was un-
1
cracked,)
,",The northwestern sca coast of Novaya Zemlya and the
.ea near papa Zhelaniya will probably thaw by mid-July," (This
fprocast,was: cbmpletoly correct. The Persoy easily arrived at
Cape Zhelaniya on 5 Jul; on 23 Jul the boundary of ice was 7
miles north of Cape Zhclaniya.)
-- "In the sollthwostert Kara 'Sea, i.e.Isouthwest of the
line, Cape Zhelaniya-Dickson Island, ice donditions are probably
'good. Moreover, after 20 Aug, the sea should be free of ice.
Although much ice may be still encountered in early August, this
ice will ,probably be ,already greatly weakened." (This forecast
was perfectly correct for the arca south of the llatochkin Shar
Straits latitude. This area was free of ice by 20 Aug. Although
ice'romained north of here, it did not hinder navigation.
"Ice conditions betl'leen Cape Chclyuskin and Dickson
Island in the northeastern Kara Sea shculd bo better than in 1'33,
but worse than in 1932." (This forecast was correct,)
e '
"It is bclicved
thnt Vilikitskiy Straits should be
ice-free in.carly August," (This forecast was not correct. The
western part of the straits wore finally free on 27 Aug.)
"Thor?. are places vest of Novaya Zemlya where the
A
ico is :17if hard. Although mid,-August will see no,change,,in
lato,August and in September,..the.westorn pea coast:can.prObably
be reachedAy icebreakers. ?It is necossary to conclude that the
thawing of the hard and immovable land floe along the western
sea coast of Sevornaka Zemlya will be late, Probably by- mid,-Lugust."
(This forecast was not correct. West of Severnaya Zemlya. huge
pieces of ice remained during the summer.: It was not impossible
fpr icebreakers to approach Sergey Kamencv Island froll-the west.
By the -end of Aucust ships wore able to use the coaetal 'Strips
which contained ice that was cracked. Finally, they wore able to
arriTo from the south.)
"Uyedineniya and Vizo Islands probably carl be reached
after mid-August by ordinary vessels." (This forecast was correct.
.Theicebreakor, Sedov, reached Vize Island on 30 Jul. On 8 Aug,
in the, Uyedineniya Island latitude, ice which was considerably
cracked was observed towards the west.)
"In late August and in-September ice conditions in
the southern part of the Laptev Sea, i.o.osruth of 75?N, will
probably be good." (This forecast was correct. In the area. south
of 75?N there was no hindrance to the free navigation of ships.)
"Ice conditions between the Boring Straits and Kolyma
should be bettor in August than they were in 1932 and 1933." (This
forecast was correct. Ships returning to the Bering Straits from
the mouth of the Kolyma River saw no ice at all in late Lugnst.)
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PoRzBT
at for N. N. Zubov
" ?
'111)Fing navigation in 1934, the ice density will probably
?be fond te'be gteate r than in 1933 in most of the Arctic Ocean east
of Spitsbergen. Ice density in the.area up to'the Bering Straits,
east of Wrangel Island, will probably be, for the most part, the same
88 in.1933, that is quite low". (In Chukotsk Sea, it was remarkably
lower than in'1933;.in the Kara Sea, it was greater than in 1933)
"Ordinary vessels will be able to reach Franz Josef
Land 60 percent of the time, and icebreakers, 90 percent of the
time." ( After late July, ordinary vessels were able to reach Franz
Josef Land.)
"Icebreakers will be a ble to reach Cape Zhe1an1m160
percent of the time, and KURANSHIN* type icebreakers, 90 percent
the time." (After July, Cape Zhelaniya could be reached 100 percent
of the time, even by ordinary vessels.)
"Icebreakers will be able to reach Sergey Kamenev Island
60 percent of the time, and KORANSHIN* - type icebreakers, 90 percent
of the time; icebreakers will be able to reach Cape Chelyuskin 6C
percent of the time, and KURANSHIN* - type icebreakers, 90 percent of
the time. The relief for those passing the winter at Lyahov will be
carried out at the mouth of the Lena River." (Sergey Kamenev Idland
was able to be reached only from the south by icebreakers. Further,
even icebreakers were able to reach Cape Chelyuskin; Lyahov Island was
easily reached from the mouth of .he Lena River; the relief was carried
out at the mouth of the Lena River but passage was actually possible
even from the west via the Villkitskiy Straits.)
llordinary vessels Can reach Wrangel Island from the
Bering Straits by taking a coUrse towards Herald Island with ice
boundary to thc west-- 90 percent of the time, while the icebreaker
Litke can reach it all the time, (This torebust was incorrect. The
KDRANSH/N*,easily'made a direct passage from the Bering Straits.)
"With the aid Qf the icebreaker KURANSHIN* crdinerY
vessels will be able to reach the Lena RiVer from Archangelsk 60
percent of the time, and icebreakers, 90 percent of the time; for the
return, ordinary steamers, 40 percent, icebreakers, 70 percent."
(This forecast was incorrect. with the aid of the icebreaker Yermatsk,
ordinary steamers were able to go as far as the Lena River from Murmansk
and back at?all times.)
- "Although there, difficulties may be encountered by the
4are Sea.Survey txpedition, it should be possible to proceed with the
aid Of the icebreaker Lenin and KURANSHIN*." (This statement was
incorrect. after mid-August there wete no difficulties encountered
oy the Kbra Se& Survey Expedition because the area south .or the
Wi?claki)Shar Strat in the southwestern !care Sea was free of be at
3, Murmansk Harbor (68?571N 3?107E)
, r
B 368798: Stud of Sea I e and the Freezin of HarbOrs
,HAYAPHI TakeShie-and Kt.TRATSUKA'YoshiO, 1941
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IttontT
Murmansk isa, river pouth il.arber, and is the only ico-
froo harbor of European USSA, Ice ip prevented from becoming
thick by tho dulf Stroan airrent. In addition to acting as the
winter harbor for Loningrad,-it is tho wostorn starting point
for the Arctic sea routes,land is the base of oporations for
tho Arctic Ocoan icobroakors. In a very severe winter a certain
amount of ice is,encountored, but thore is no nood for iccbroakors
throughout tho ontiro yoar. Froightors.ontering the harbor can
break up the ico with their own hulls.
D. alle_goa
1. General
2501'shaya Soviot Encyclepodia Vol 5., 19227
According to Mualyug Lig'hthuso, data for the years' 1888-1920,
ice in the Lhito Sea appears close to the estuaries of tho North
Dvina on thu averao of 26 Octobor? with fluctuations betwoon
11 Octcbor and 18 Novenbor. fco appears latest at Cape Svyatoi
No (68?101 - 39?501), on the avorago, on 5 Fobruary (the car/iest
on 11 January); in some winters thorc is no icc at all at Svyatoi
Nes. Tho sca at Mudlyug Lighthouse is cleared of ice, on the
avorago, by 20 May, with fluctuations botweon 6 Nhy and 9 Jun.
The opon laite Soa'is novor covered, with continuous stationary
ice; usually there is only ice along the coast, extonding placos
to 50-60 kilomotors from shore. On thc othor hand, gulfs, bays,
and small straits froezc solid; largo, gulfs, howevor, do not
frcczo completely. tvidontly "duo to strong tidos the Mozen Gulf
is not covcrod vith firm ice at all. Thc thicknoss of tho coastal
ice and of the ice fields an the alito Sca doos not 0=00(1. MO
motor;- usually it is 45-60 centimotors. Pack ice ana ice flocs
usually co not riso more than 4-6 motors above the water. it tho
estuaries of tho North Dvina, tho ice attains its 'p,ruatest
thicknoss in the period from tho socona half of Janury to the
middle of April. During this timo, tho ontire visiblo strotch
of sca is covered with ice; in 'Other places of the Lalito Sea the
leo doos not attain such thicknoss. Tho 1:hite Sea is complotcly
froo of ice, on the avorace, during tho poriOd fron_l Jun to 26
Oct when navigation, even fox'. sailing craft, becomo6 pcssiblo.
2. Harbors
?
/BB 368798: Studof Sc. Ice and Froozinr: of Harbors.,
H M
AYATskoshiel'KURATSUNA7OrShio, 19417.
a, Umbn Harbor
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(1) LocatiOn: 66?381N, 34?20" E
(2) Type of Harbor: River routh harbor
(3) Ice Conditions one Freczing Period
Freezing period: End of October
Thaw: till of May
b. Korn Harbor
(1) Location: 64?58N, 340451 E
(2) Typo of Harbor: Sca Harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Harbor open: Beginning of May
Harbor closed: Late November
c. Soroka Harbor
(1) Location: 64040t N, 34?301 E
(2) Type of Harbor: River harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Onoga Bay is normally open from the middle of May.
The routes from the ocean to the White Sem, however, may bo closed
until the middle of Junta,-cr oven later. Navigation of the area
becomes impossible between 15 Oct and 1 Nov, but the passage of
ships normally ceases at the 6nd et Septembor or the becinning
of October.
d. Ilrkhangelsk Harbor
(1) Location: 64?33' N 40?331 E
(2) Type of harbor: River harbor
(c) Ice Conditions and Freezing Poricd .
The'Dvina River and the White Sea aro frozen
for at least six months in the yoar. Ships cannot reach the
town for three weeks after the ice has boon broken. In 1913, the
harbor was open on 16 May and closed on 28 Oct. Ships normally
begin to leave at the end-of May and stop at the end of Octcber.
Lrkhanuelsk has two extremely powerful icebreakers,
the Stepan Makarov (4570 tons) and the Fe odor Litke (2570 tons).
Lith the Stalin, Kaganovitch, Leonid, Krasin, and Ermak, it would
be possible to Lengthen the period during which the harbor romains
opcn. Lith Murmansk, this harbor acts as the wostorn stortinr
point for the Lrctic sea routes ane as a baso of operaticns for
ice breakers lathe isctic Ocean.
o. Mozon Harbor
(1) Location: 65051t N, 44'17tE
-(2)- -Type of Harbor_;.-, RiverJaarbor
(3): Freezing PeriOd:- qflid October to late May.
f. Potchora Harbor
(1) Lcceticn: 68c30'N, 54?01 E
(2) Type of Harbor: River mouth herber
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Harbor open: 1-20 Jul
Harbor closod: End of September
The river is (-pen before July, but the river mouth
remains frozen till July.
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III ICE CONDITIONS IN OTHth SEAS
A. Baltic Sea
1. General
1222Esee.t,Zn_v_22..22g...jlia. Vol 4 1921?7
Ice usually appears at the beginning of November in the north
of the Gulf of Bothnia where it remains longer than anywhere else in
the Baltic Sea, disappearing, on the average; only at the beginning
of June. The Baltic Sea attains the greatest development of ice
covering at the beginning of March. At that time when important
parts of the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia are covered with stationary
ice, ice appears at the Kurland Peninsula and in the region of Got-
land and Oland Islands. The central part of the Baltic Sea, even at
this time of the year, is usually free of ice.
In general, the quantity of ice in the Baltic Sea varies greatly
from year to year. Ab Kronstadt the appearance of ice takes place,
on the average, on 13 Nov, freezing on 11 Dec, breaking up on 12 Apr;
ac6 May the Baltic is free of ice.
The duration of the ice covering of the Baltic Sea is distributed
by regions: the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia is covered by
ice an average of 210 days a year; the central part of the Gulf of
:dothnia, 185 days; Neva Bay, 145 days; the western part of the Gulf
of Finland, 130 days; Noon Sound (between the Gulf of Finland and the
Gulf of Riga), 100 days; off the Stockholm Cliffs, 70 days; the Gulf
of Riga, 30-40 days. The sea does not freeze south of the latitude
of Libau.
2. Harbors
LTB 368798: Study of Sea Ice and Freezin. of Hafacla,
'HASHI Taikeshio and KURATSUKA Yoshio, 19417
,
Danzig Harbor
(1) Location: 54? 22'N 18? 39'E
(2) Type of Harbor; River harbor .
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period:
The east wind causes the temperature to drop to -6?C
in October. The temperature of the entire surface of the river will
normally drop to 2?C. With any fall in the atmospheric temperature
in hid-November, the water temperature of 2? to 40C will drop suddenly
to approximately zero, and ice will form. The movement of ships is
only very slightly hampered by the ice.
Freezing begins in late November. The thaw begins in
mid-March.. The freezing period is 110 to 115 days long.
Routes to the sea are kept open by harbor ice-breakers.
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SECT-Z..11;T
?
b. NeufahrwasserrHarbor
(1) Location: 54? 24'N, 18? 391E
(2) Type of Harbor: River Mouth Harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period: Sane. as for
Danzig.
Shipping chaarels are kept open by harbor ice-
breakers.
'Konigsberg Harbor
'(1) Location: 54? 42'N; 20? 30,E
(2) Type of Harbor: River harbor
(3) Ice conditions and Freezing Period
Period of Observation 1870-11194
No of days of freezing 1221
during this period
Average no of days per 51
annum
Freezing Peri"18 from 1870/71 to 1b89/90
Month No of Days 1-5 6-10 71-15. 16-20 21-25 26-31
of Freezing
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
Oct-Apr
8
1
1
90
21
?
>
2
255
33
14
3
301
35
8
3
256
30
10
3
128
28
5
1
3
2
1041
150
41
12
3
1
1
1
6 5
Average annual maximum 15.8 days
number of days of freezing
Absolute maximum nuinber'
of days of-freezing
1
30 days (19 Dec 1870-
17 Jan 1871)
The harbor .is kept open .the year round by peverful
freshwater lake ice-breakers.
d. Pillau Harbor
(1) Location: 54? 4092, 19 56'E
(2) Fresh-water lake harbor .
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Beginning of Drift Ice in the Offing
Earliest 20 Nov
Latest 24 Jan
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1 End of Drift Ice in the Offing
11 Jan
23 Apr,
The route betweenipillaU Harbor and Konigsberg is
kept open during the wi.ter by powerful ice-breakers.
Stettin Harbor
(1)
(2)
(3)
?
IecatiOn 53?. 27'N 10-33'E
Type of Harbor: River harbor
Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
;
The amount of drift ice on the 'Oder, especially on the
lower reaches nea.St.etttj.41 H4Itgr, 4 insignificant. The.freezing
of a fresh-water ;a4e 4 the Paille 0,0 that of a normal lake, changing
with, a west or northwest wind.
Period of Observation 1850-71.890:
Number of days of freezing 1278.
during this period .
Annual average number of days
of freezing '32'
Freezing Periods From 185q/51 to 1889/90
Month No of Days 1-4
of Freezing
Oct 2 1
NOV 90 30 ,5
Dec 333 72 13 3
Jan 409 57 21 4 3 2
Feb 306 63 10 2
Mar 138 ' 33 9 1
Oct-Mar 1278 256 58 10 11 41
5-9 10-14 1571 20724 25-on
Average Annual Maximum
:Number of Days of Freezing
11.3 days
Absolute Maximum Number.
- of Days of Fieezing , 28 days (19- Dec.1860
I 15 Jan 1861)
The route to the sea is kept open by powerful ice-breakers.
f. Gdynia Harbor'
(1)
(2)
(3)
Location: .540 32,'N, 18?' '34E
of Harbor: Sea harbor
Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
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CPYRGHT
When there.is a.continuous east wind, either floe
ice or pack ice wiftaccamulate in the Southwest section of the bay.
The harber:iS kept open by ice-breakers and tow-boats.
. Memel Harbor
(1) Location: 55?42'N, 21? 10'E
(2) Type of Harbor: Fresh-water lake harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
The violent, northwest wind causes ice to accumulate
in the harbor mouth, preventing access.
Beginning of Ice (earliest) 1 Jan
End of 'Ice (latest) 31 Mar
The harbor is generally kept open throughout the
minter by harbor ice-breakers.
h. Libau Harbor
(1)
(2)
(3)
Location: '56? 30,N, 21? l'E
Type of Harbor: Sea harbor
Ice Conditions And Freezing Period
There is very little ice along the southern shores
of the Baltic Sea, and there are occasions during winter when there
is no ice at all. With a few exceptions, it is possible to navigate
the year round.
During the freezing season the lanes are kept
-
open byice breakers.'
i. Riga Harbor
(1) Location: 56? 57' N, 24? 3'E
? (2) Type of Harbor: River harbor
(3) Ice Condition's and Freezing Period
Ice is very prevalent in Riga Bay. The bay freezes
in mid-December and thaws gradually in early April.
Beginning of Ice 29 Nov
Harbor closed Mid-Jarl
Thaw 7 Apr
Harbor open Mid-Apr
The powerful ice-breaker, Krisjanis Valdemrs,
(2670 tons), Constantly stands by, With a few exceptions, the harbor
cane kept open throughout the year.
j. Tallinn (Reval) Harbor
(1) Location: 59?,27'N,24? 291E
(2) Type of Harbor: Sea harbor
'.(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
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The north and northeast winds cause drift ice to
accumulate and form an icefield during January and February. Small
vessels can enter the 'harbor for a period of about three weeks dur-
ing these two months with the help of ice-breakers.
The very powerful icebreaker, Suur Tool (3620 tons),
constantly stands by, and the harbor can be kept open the year rralnd.
k. Narewa (Narva) Harbor
1 Location: 59?22'N, 28? 111E
2 Type of Harbor: River mouth harbor
3 Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
.Ice is extremely prevalent in the Gulf of Finland,
east of-280E, fromNove41179r t'.0.parly- May, forming an ice field dur-
ing January and February. During 1913, the harbor was actually open
from 19 Mar to 19 Nov but was formally declared open on 15 Apr and
closed on 13 Jan.
. ? The, period when the port is open can be prolonged if
supplementary powerful icebreakers .are employed.
1. Pernau (Parnu) Harbor
Location: 58? 22'N, 24? 31tE
Type of Harbor: Sea harbor ?
Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Ice is extremely prevalent in Riga Bay. The bay
normally freezes in mid-December and thaws at the end of April. The
passage of shipping is normally stopped in mid-December and begins
again in mid-April.
. Leningrad Harbor
(1) Location: 590 56N, 300 18'E
(2) Type of Harbor: Sea harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and.Freeing Period
Begin freezing 4 Nov
Earliest 3 Nov
Latest 20 Dec_
That 2 Apr.
This is one .othe areas of-the Baltic where salinity
is lowest and the freezing most severe. The ice field stretches from
Leningrad to Gottland Island, covering the entire breadth of the Gulf
of Finland. During the extreme cold of winter, it reaches as far south
as Revel. Leningrad Harbor remains open for about seven months from
May to December.
With the help of very powerful icebreakers, (see
paragraph on Kronstadt below).,ethe season during which the harbor re-
mains open could be prolonged easily till January, and when there is
a yarrh winter, till February. Until the present, however, the plan
to keep the harber open throughout the winter by icebreakers has not
met with the least succebs.
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CPYRGHT
n. Kronstadt Harbor
(1) Location 596 .59'14, .30?'5!E
,(2) Type of :Barber: Sea'harbOr-
_ ,
(3) Ice'donditionS.and.Freezing Period
(See paragraph .con ice conditions for Leningrad.)
Freezes
Earliest freeze
Latest, freeze
Thaw
21 Nov
Mid -Oct
12 Dec
Earliest date for
ship to entr
Latest
3 May
20 Apr,
20 May
Kronstaqt is the outer harbor for Leningrad and
has more icebreakers than any other harbor in the world as well as
the most powerful icebreakers in the world, the J. Stalin and the
L. Kaganovitch (both with a displacement of 11,000 tons), the
Leonid Krasin (8,870 tons), the Ermak (7,875 tons), the Lenin
(6,000 tons), and the Trouvor (1,450 tons). There are also some
smaller icebreakers which are used for ice-breaking in the Arctic
Ocean north of the White Sea on the Far East route.
B. Black Sea
1. General
/o1'shya Vol 61, 1937
Ice covers the northern shore of the Black Sea every year but
*never lasts long. This is especially true in the northwest part.
The Dnepr-Bug estuary freezes solid every year. At Odessa there
is ice yearly; during heavy freezing it extends to Ochakov. The
estuary of the Dnestr also freezes every year. Karkinitski Gulf
freezes at times. In Crimea there is usually ice in the closed
bays, but it does not last long.
2, Harbors
LEB 368798: Stud of Sea Ice and Freezing of Harbor's HAYASHI
TakeshiO nd KURAMKA Yoshio, 1941
bdessa Harbor
.(1). Location; 460 29' NI 300 461E
,(2) Type of Harbor: Sea harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period'
Ice is ,only present for one month and some yars
does not even occur at all.
Even during the freezing period, vessels can dnter
the harbor with the help of powerful icebreakers
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b. _Nikolayev Harbor
(1) Location: 470 71N, 32?E
(2) Type of Harbor: River harbor
(3) Joe Conditions and Freezing Period
? .
Freezing period About four months
Beginning of ice tate Nov-late Dec
Thaw Mid Mar-late Mar
? .
'with the help ohicebreakers, ships can, with a few
exceptions, enter the harbor throughout the year.
c. Khorson Harbor
(1) Location: 460 39'N, 320 32'E
(2) Type of Harbor: Itiver harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Freezing period About three months
Harbor open Late Feb
? Harbor closed Late Dec
? ,
d, Mariupol Harbor
" (1) 'Location: 470 N, 37? 35tE
(2) Type of Harbor: Sea harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
The area is frozen for a Minimum of one month and a
maximum of five months, normally from mid-December to early March.
The sea lanes are kept open by icebreakers. In a
year of heavy ice, vessels would be damaged when breaking through the
ice, but normally vessels can enter the harbor throughout the year.
e. Taganrog Harbor
(1) Location: 47? 131N? 38? 561E
(2) Type of Harbor: Sea harbor
(3) Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
*
Freezing Period 3-4 Months
Zeginning. of ice 15 Nov-15 De.c
Harbpr open Late Apr
Average period
during Which '
harbor is open, 8 months 10 days
Thickness,of ice
in harbor Average 20 am
Maximum'30 cm
f. Rostov Harbor ,
1 Location: 47? 12'N, 390 421E
2 Type of Harbor: River harbor
3, Ice Conditions and Freezing Period
Froezing Period 3-4 months
Harbor Open Late Mar
Harbor closed Early Dec
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Sources:
IV, LIST OF ICE OBSERVATION STATIORS.
(a)
DB 273908:
(b)
DB 356872
(c)
DB 303556:
(d)
DB 302097:
(e)
DB 302468:
(f)
DB 357487:
(g)
DB 244833:
(h)
DB 368798:
East Asia keteorolo ical Data: 'Vol IV Siberia
Central Metebrological Observatory, "Confidential",
Jan 1942
Weather ol_p....a.a.E.r.LESSE.j.talarkhalint
and the Kur les Hydrographic Office,'Confi-
dential 4, 0i1 J939
Outline of the Central
Meteorological Observatory, "Confidential",
Jun 1941.
Arctic Sea Routes, Research Section, Foreign
Ministry, Oct 1939
New Data 04L0Qqa.g.phy of Fap Eastern U3Sii, South
'Manchurian Railroad, Mar 1935
Classified Heather Reborts No 13, Hydrographic
Office, "Confidential"; Jan 1938
Weather of Central Kuriles KAKI? Hideji,
:R4Pert N0-47, Kobe Oceanographic Observatory,
Jun 1932
Sillly_pf Sea Ice and the Fre uLaa of Harbors
KURATSUKA Yoshio and HAYASHI Takeshi?, 194i--
(*) Indicates that
than documents
Sakhalin
coordinates
listed,
wore obtained
tat. long
from sources
fla211.2E1111
other
Sources
Alexandrovskiy Post
50
50
142
07
28?
a, c
Alexandrovskiy
.
Sakhalinsky,
50
54
142
09
15.7
b
Ambetsu
49
59
142
09
82.1
b,
Galkino Vrasskoye
.(Ochiai)
47
20
.142
44
15
a, b, c
Honto
46
40
141
52
5.5
b
Korsakovskiy Post
(Otomari)
46
39
142
48
,29.9
a, b, c, f
Kririon Phare
45
54.
142
05
44.3
a
Maoka
47
03
142
03
29.6
b, f
Nayasi
49
30
09
lb ?
a
Okha
53
30
,142
143
00
b
Onor
50
14
142
35
150
a
Pogobi
52
10
141
35
b
Rykovskoye
50
47
142
55
125
a, c
Seraroki
47
54
:142
31
10
a
Shikuka
49
14
143
07
.3.5
b, f
Tymovskaya
50
49
142
39
105
a, b
Voskreseakoye
46
44
142
33
20
a
Zhonkierskiy Light
50
53
142
07
62.9
a, b
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Kuriles
Buroton Bay,
Shimushiru Island
Harumukotan Anchorage,
Harumukotan Island
Kita Island,
Ushishiru Island
Kobune Bay,
Uruppu Island
Mishima Bay,
Uruppu Island
Minami Bay,
Ketoi Island
Nakatomari
Shimushiru Island
Nemo Bay,
Onnekotan Island
Paramushiro
Shana
Shimushiru Bay,
Shimushiru Island
Sonraku Bay,
Rashowa Island
Tokotan Bay,
Uruppu Island
Yamato Bay
Kamchatka
Klyutchevskoye
, ?
.Lat Long Elevation (m) Sources
47
49
47
45
46
47
46
49
50
45
46
47
45
48
Lat
_56 20
08
30
152
15
30
09
35
154
30
00
32
30
152
50
05
56
30
150.10.
30
12
30
150
26
40
18
10
152
29
00
59
20
152
02
20
31
25
154
49
00
29
156
08
14
147
53
51
30
151
52
00
42
00
152
58
00
51
20
149
48
30
05
00_
153
15
40
Mirkovo
p444
Petropavlovsk Light
52
53
Tigil
57
45
Ust Bolsheretsk
52
40
Ust Kamohatsk
56
12_
uaz
,160 48
158 20
158 47
158 19
156 14
162 26
22
70 b, g
Elevatim_1211 Sources
30 a b
111.1 a b,c
22 a b,c
20 a?b c
2 a,b,c
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Gulf of T4rtarj
'Belkina Light
Cape Dzhaore
De Kastri Bay
(Klostakempsk
Light)
1
Langr
Nikolayevsk
Nikolayevskiy Light
Pronge
Sovetskaya Gavan
Okhotsk Sea
Lat Long
Lat
Long
Elevation (m)
Sources
I: ?
45 49
137 41 .
52 40
141 17
51 26
140 53
5318
141 28
53 08
140 45
48 58
140 22
63.9
52 51
141 15
4.9
48 58
140 17
17
a,b
AYan
Chumikan
Gizhinsk
Nayakhan
Okhotsk
Ola
Tauislc
Vorovskoye
Yamsk
52.-2Y4L-2.r.LLT../'
56
28
138
17
10
54
43
135
18
62
02
160
40
12
61
55
158
59
29
59
21
143
17
3.9
59
35
151
13
5
59
44
149
22
54
14
155
49
59
35
154
21
Sources
a,b;c,e
a,b
a,b,c
a,b,c,e
Bering Sea Lab Long 'Eleation(m) Sources
4nackYr 64 44 177 32 d, (*)
(Anadyr Gulf)
Bering 65 00 1413
Cape Dezhneva 66 12 190 21
(Bering :Strait)
Karaga 59 10 163 02
kreata Gulf 65 33 181 44
RYneerkhym 64 44 177 32
(Anadyr Gulf)
? 110 ?
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Berin Sea contid) Lat Long E1evation.10). Sources
Nikolskoye
Novo Mariyinskiy
Post
Olyutorskoe
PreobrazhenskoYe
Provideniya Bay
Vladimirskiy Post
Uelen
55
12
165
64
45
177
60
37
168
54
49
167
64
25
190
64
25
186
'.
49
00
143
59 6.8 a,b0c
33 3 a,b,c
17
28 15, a,c
21 die
50 die'
,
00
Chukotok Sea Lat .1.,414 ,Elevation(m) Sources
. .
Ambarchik 69 40 162 20 d 1 (*)
_
Cape Billings 69, 53 176 08 d,(*)
Cape Dzhenretlen 67 07 173 38 d,(*)
Cape Serdtse Kamen- 66 55 174 24
,
Cape Shalaurova 69 52 174 38
(On Bolshoy Island
.,
in the Lyakhovskiye
' Islands)
Cape ShelagSki 70 06 170 26 d,(*)
Cape Vankarem 67 51 175 48
Chetyrekhst;o1bovoi 70 40 162 08
.Islands? Medvezhi
Islands
(
: Nizhne Kaymsk 68 30 161 00 - 5 cid,(*)
Russkoye Ustye 71 01 149 26 6 a,c,d
,
Kara Sea
,
laagopoluchiya
Gulf
,Cape Bolvanskiy Nos
Cape Chelyuskin
Cape Sool_i
Cape Sterlegova
75
Lat
Long Elevation(m)
Sources
40
63.40
d,(*)
70
30
59
00
77
43
104
15
do(*)
70
00
61
00
di(*)
76
51
100
56
? 111 ?
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'SECRET
Sea0cont'd
Lon
Elev21121:1111..,
Damashni Island
69
30
16153
Dic/con Tpland?
73
24
8026
12.5
Golchikha
71,
43
8332
Kazache-
66
00
151 30
-Khatanga
71
30
102 CO
Kamsomolskoy 77.28 107 12
Pravdy Islands
Kotelny Island '75 30 158 50
Mai4'0'-$4q-P 69,43 66 0
Matc;ohkin Shar 73 15 56 30
Nor.,161c 69, 20 88.04
PronchishchevOy 75 30 112 30
Bay
Vedineniya Island
Nygach Island
Yugorskiy Char
Yugorskiy Shar
Straits
Yuryung Tumus
Pennsula
75 30
70 00
69 50
70 00
14.1
0.15
5939 11
60 45 13
60 30
74 01 111 23
13
SourcesH
d,(*.)
?a;c,d
d,(*)
d,(*)
d,(*)
Long Elevation(m) Sources
Gape Svyatoy Nos 68 10 . .:39 45
Kanin Peninsula 68 00 45 30
Kola 69 00 . 33 06 7
ga;ye Karmakuly 72 30 53 00
Murmansk 68 57 33 10
670 37(30
13
,
. .
Port Vladimir 69 30 1,33 00 10
,Russkaya Gavan 75 20 160 15
75
48
112 ?
a,ECRT
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CPYRGHT
Sgc4gT%
,
White Sea ,Lat igza Elevation(m) Sources
Arkhangelsk
Kandalaksha
Km'
kezen
Morshovets Light
64 33
67 90
64 58
65 51
66 43
40,33
32 30,
34 45
44 17
42,30
6
14
9
13
20
c,h
0)(*)
c,h
c,h
c(*)
Qnega
64 00
38 00
8
cl(*)
OrloiCi'Light
67 11
41 20
72
c, (*)
Soroka
64 49
34 30
h
Sosnovka
66 30
40 00
18
c (*)
Umba
66 38
3420
h
Zhizhgin Light
65 12
36 50\
27
c (*)
Paltic Sea
Lat.
Long
E1evatiori1
Sources
?4--
Danzig
54 22
18:39
h
Koenigsberg
54 42
20 30
h
'Kronstadtr,
59 59
30 05
Leningrad
59 56
30 18
Libau
56 30
21 01
Memel
55. 42
21 10
Narowa
59 22
28 11
Neufahrwasser ,
54 24
18 39
Parnu
58 22
24 31-
Pi1lau
?54 40
19 56
Riga
56 57
24 0,3
Tallinn
5? 27
24 29
Travemunde
53 57
10 51
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Ble4 Sea
BatUpi,
Fcodoplya,.
erch
Kherson
Mariupol
Nikolayev,
NoVorOssisk
Ode'ssa
Rostov
SeVastopol
Sochi
Sudak
Sukhumi
Taganrog
Tarkhankut Light
Yalta
aaall.rL22.4
Baku
.C1-44shlyar,
tat ./02.121: Elevation(m) Sources
41_
40
41
37
.45
35
23
45
23
3639
46
39.
32
32
47
06
37
35
47
07
32
00
442
37
42
46
29
30
46
47
12
3942
44
38
'33
30
43
35.
39
44
44
52
34
59
00
47
13
38,
56
45
21
3230
44
30
34 20
, 3
37
23 (*)
78
41 cl(S)
9 c)()
4 ?
41
I.,at tons MevatiOn(m) Source
???????sam.????????S
40
37
Fort Shevohenkp 44
.(Fort Aleksandrov-
,
ski)
KrasnOvodsk
40
LenkoraA
38
Makhaohkala
43
30
49,
57
-13
c;H
35
53
54
-23
32
50
14
23
04
53
00
_15:
cp (*)
45
.48-
40?
-19
c ( ):
00
49
5?
-13
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La 302476:
V LIST OF HYDROLOCICAL SURVEY STATIONS .
"Hydrologicai'SurVey and Drift,.Ice.Conditions from
the East Siberian Spa, to 'Bering Sea.0.11 Far Eastern
USSR and Outer" Mongplia 'Research Data No 54, Re-
search Section, South lianchUrian.Railroad? Dec 1939,
from the Russian,of I. A. Kireev,"197
A. St4ions in the East Siberian Sea
(Compiled by Survey Ship, F.. Litke 1932)
Station No
Locatlon
Depth
. (m)
,Ice Conditions
Transparency
(m)
1
.70?05'N, 170?221E
28.
4.75
2
69044'N? 162?24'E
8,4
3
.690461N, 1620241E
11
1.2
4
25
Fresh Ice
2.0
5
700051N, 170018'E
16.5
Compact .Ice
4.0
6
70?14'N, 1700181E
tt .
B. Stations in Chukotsk Sea1 Bering Seal, and Bering Straits
(77771ed by Survey Ship, Dal'nevostochnik? 1932) .
Station No
Location
Depth
(m)
1
52024'N, 1580361E
96
2
52?49'N, 1580031E
156
3
52?42/N, 159?031E
830
4
52031.6IN, 159?31.71E
1500
5
55?241N, 165?431E
120.
6
55?411N, 164?331E
690
7
56?05.4IN,163?261E
800
8
58?25.5N11650571E
1530
9
60?00.5'1\1,170008.8'E
12.7
10
59054'N, 170?361E
62.4
11
59?44.51N1171?09.2'E
2000
12
59?27.9'N,172?121E
2000
13
59?13N, 1730171E
3800
14
60?08IN, 172?55.71E
3000
15
60?55IN, 172?41'E
74
16
61?11.51N? 172?30'E
12.8
17
61?39'N, 175?49'E
73
18
62?13'N,'179?15'E
49,
19
63029.51N,176037'd
74
20
64?16.7'1\1,173?50'h
55
21
65?08.1IN,171?021W
42
22
65?38.5'N,168?15.5'W
42-15
23
65?41.1IN, 16802414
48
24
65?43.51N, 178?47.5'W
35-36.8
25
65?44,3N, 168?52IW
36
26
65044.21N, 168?331W
51-53
Ice. ' ? .
Conditions - Transparency
4.0
20.0
7.0
10.5
5.5
8.0
'11.0
?10.5:- 12.0
11.6
8.2

11.5
4.0
14.5
13.0
7.5
5.5
4.0-5.0
8.5
11.5-15.0
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Station No Location
Depth Conditions Transparency
,
:.
27.,05?43,...4.!Np168.?4$"?1_,.., 32 12.5-15.0
28 6552,: 51\
1L;169 c00t -464,8 ' 5.0.-. 9.0
., . , , , _.
29 65?55.3 IN:169?15'K . 49,4,
30 66008'11;1.69?27.5 ' rW 46-49 4.0- 4.9
31 66031.5 t N,169012? W 45.5 10.0
32 66?44.511\1,169?35.5'W 45y,
33 67008'1.10168039' Vi . 46.2. 'a:6:05: '
34 ' 67? 2711\1,167038 t id 49 0
? 35 67?36.41N,166? 27.5 ' 2' 53 10.0
. 36 66?39.5,1N01.67051.1.17.i1 29 3.5'
.37 1 65?49. t li 168?51.51W
. , ) 9 8.5
38 65?44..211\1,168?331V-1 51
39 65? 38.5 tN,168015.5 TT"; 50 . 4.0
40 64?39.51N,167?40111 3 7.0
41 63?49.7 t N11.67? o3 t tiT . 28
42 62? 47.21N, 166?12 t Tvli 20 4.5
43 6'g' 57, hrla.670181w . 32
44 63?02.2tN,1690o9tv! 27-29 6.5- 8.0
' 45 62?58.6 t N468?32'71 47 12.0
46 63? 53.54 N1171?45 I 7i 35 8.0
47 : 64? o5 I N, 1_720?2 I w 53-56 11.0-15...0.
48 64?15.511\11172? 27' ig 27.5 7.5 .-
49 64?25.9'N,173?17.6 I TAr 144 4.0
; 50 64?18.31N,174?01.5? i- 65
51 64? 20' N.,176? 23.91 ..1 81 16.0'
52 64?2.1.2 t N0178?45.6 t7.4 66
53 64?221 N1179?461 E 44 7.5
54 ' 64? 45.21N,177? '_31.5 t E 11
55 64?11.91N,1790051 E 27 ? 11.0
56 63?34.4!1\11179?491W 49
57 62?46 t N.,179?35 i E 81
,58 62?13' N0179?15 t E 34
59 61?53.8 tN,179?59.8TE 130
, 60 6233.511\1,179?0911,T 128 12.5
61 61?22.51N, 178?03 t E , 360 .
62 61?10 t N,175?17.5tE . 292 7.5
63 90?51/1\1,173?051E. 92 ,
64 59?51tN,1700421E 123
65
66 .59?43.1,N,171?14tE
175050 ' ?
59?28111,172?141E 4 12.0
67 ,9?.1.0 t N, 173?27 I E 3867 16.5
68 58?59.1111,174?24'E 1200 10.5
169 55'21.9011,165058.31E 22 , 12.0
70 55? 24.71N,165?44.5 1 E 200 -10.0 '
71 55?02.4'1\1,163?51.81E 500
72 54?46.5tN,162?261E 500
73 52?43.3 , N,15ocool E 500
74 52949.9' N,158?50.7t E 114'
75 52?59.37N1158039.3t E 19.5...
12,0
. 11.0
Y5.0
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CPYRGHT
C. Stations in Chukcitsk Se, Bering_Sea, and Bering Straits
.-'(Compiled by Survey Ship, K7snoarme,ye%l933)
e
HStatio?9 Location D6 th ?GonditiOns
Transparency
(111)
, 1
2
, 3
4
6
7 ?
8
\ 9
10
11
12
, 620307, 1806001E
62P151N, 178026,51W
62?021N, 177?05'W
, 61?40'N, 175?24'W
, 61?03/N, 1730381W .
.61?2'N, 173?11.51W
62?29':N, 1720271W
63.?84'N, 171?42'W
63?31'N, 171?52'w
63?091N, 175?00'w
?J:)2?45'N? 174?10'W
,63?08'N, 175?34'W
? 87
98
'410
99
81 .?
:66'
? 49
30
67
74
85
13
63?245'N1 176?46'w
91
14
62?531N, 177?00'w
93
15
,62059'N, 178?21'w
93
16
63?161N, 179?16'w
78
17
63?42'N? 179?531W
,48
18
640031N; 178?481W
66
-19
64?29'N, 177?37'.W
75
20
, 64?46'N, 176?32tW
59
21
64?30'N, 175?15'W
69
22
64?121N, 173?58'W
5
23
63?581N, 172?521W
63
24
64?18'N, 73?34'W4-
36
25
64?09.5'N? 171?58'W
40
26
64037,51N, 171009'w
43
27
.64?58IN, 170000lw
49
28
65?1$,N, 1680521a
51
29
65039IN, 168?18'W
52
30
65643g\i, 168?20'W
53
31
65.?44.51N, 1680381W
51
32
65?521N, 169?00'w
48
' 33
650571N, 169?151
49
34
66?021N, 169?27.51w
43
35
65?58rN, 169?52'w
37
36
66?17'N, 169?30w
45'
37
66?24% 170000'w
36
38
66?39,N, 170050'w
25
9
7?05,5,N, 171027.5'w
35
40
.67?15.5,N, 171?27.5'w
42?_;
' 41
67.?35.51N, 171?27.5'w
471.
42
.6e05.5'N, 171?27.5'w
47.
,43
6e05.5'N, 173?14'w
48',
I, 44
.6,8929'N, 1750061w
50
45
699021N 175?1222'N,) w
51 :
46
6,0, 175-35w
46:"'
47
69945'N, 175?45'4
57
48
70?14'N, 174?35'w
-53
49
70?49,N, 173057'W
.
72
50
7117N, 173?47'V?T
68
' ? '
?
10.0
15.0
14.5
14.2
14.7
14.5
15.n
12.5
,15.5
14.5
16.0
14.0
15.8
2.5
10.5
11.0
11.0
10.5
11.0
7.0
12.5
14.5
4.0
5.0-7.0
6.0
4.0
9.0
9.0
6.0
?
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Station No
Ice
Location .De,pth Conditions
Trans ars,94
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
71?05'N, 172?51W 45
70054'N, 1.719301W - 45-
70?41'N, 170?23'W 41
70?25'N, 1720111W 31
69?36,N, 173012'W 52
691'12'N, 171?35'W 53
68?52'N, 169?50W 53
. 68?41'N, 168031'W 52
. 680271N, 167015W 49
. 68?10.5'N, 168002W 13.5
67?54,N, 1680461W 57
:67?36.51N,:169?37W 47
25.0
14.5
. 29.5
30.5
24.5
10.5
' 13-.5
.? 12:5
18:0
63
.670191N, 170?15W
48
64
-67004'N, 171?22'W
35
65
-66?53,N, 16?40'W
47
66
69?30'N, 168048'W
56
, 8.5
67
.66?02'N, 1690271W
38
8.5
68
65?571N, 169?20r-7
52
69
65?55/N, 169?12/W
51
70
95?52IN, 169?32'W
45
3.5
71
65?341N, 170?14/W
40
72
65?201N, 169?431W
43
73
-:.64?50,N1 168?40'W
47
7.5
74
64?311N, 167?42.5'W
33
9.0
75
64?231N1 166?251-W
31
76
64?051N, 167??31W
33
77
63?461N, 167?44W
31
9.5
78
63?251N, 168927'W
34
. 8.0
79
63?46'N, 169?43
37
10.0
80
64?161N, 169?45,W
38'
81
64?00'N, 171?45,
36
10.0
82
640091N, 171?58W
44
14.0
83
64?21,N, 172?12'W
36
8.0
84
64?091N, 172?32'6
45
14.0
85
640261N, 173?17.6'W
147
4162:5
86
87
63?411N, 175?301U
63?15'N, 176?52'Ti
81
89
5
88
.
62?51IN; 178?09fl:T
93 .
12:5
89
,
63?00'N, 179?351
73
11.0
90
63?03N, 179?48
53
.
91
62?35N, 179?36'
41 ,
. 5.0
92
62?26T, 180000'E
88
-15.5
93
62?00N, 175?15IE
82
,9.5
94
Outlet of Imatra Bay
40
.6.0
95
59?06T, 172?161E
500
. .
96
97
59.c18IN, 171?30rE
59?38'N, 170?58'E
560
500
.139:5
5
98
59?48.5'N, 170?321E
87
8.5
99
599531N, 170026E
32
,
. 9.0
100
5,.?32:5'N, 164?35IE
500
101
559.46'N, 163?53'E
500
:
102
?
55?58IN, 163?12.5'E
500
,12.5
103
52?34N, 159?32.5/E
500
. ,. .
104
52942'N, 159?12E
500
12.5
105-52?46.5IN,158n57.5IE
143
12.0
106
;
52050'N, 158051/E
.
126
13.0
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D.
Statioll
Stations in Chukotsk Sea, Bering Sea, and Bering Straits
(Compiled by Survey Ship, F. Litke, 1932)
.Ice
No Location.,.. Depth Conditions Transparency
(m)
:-1
2
669131a, 169C341W
66?521N,,, 171?041W
52'
41
Open ice
13.75
3
66?201N, 1690364W
33
8.0
4
65?38.21N? 171?01/W
5
66?281N, 170?18'W
43
6
67?01/N1 172009IW
12
Very open ice
7
67?08N, 173?261W
10.5
Open ice
5.0
8
: 67?301N, 175?06IW
9
Very open ice
9
' 67?47.51N, 175?441W
12
Open ice
10
68?211N, 177?4411'\
10
Open ice
11
68?551N: 179?261W
9
Open ice
. .Hydrological Survey Stations in
-Chukotsk Sea,. Bering Sea, and Bering Straits
(Data compiled by survey ship, Suchan, 1932),
Station
1
2
E0.
Station
No Location
66?241N, 170?27IW
66?311N, 170?221-6
,
Stations in Chukotsk Sea, Bering
Depth Ice ' Transparency
(m) Conditions (E)
30 Close ice
42
Sea, and Bering Straits
1932)
Depth CondilionsTransparency
(Compiled by Survey Ship, Soviet,
No Lecation
:)
(m) (m)
1
48?27.21N, 154?4651E
2
64?37.8/N, 178?12.5IE
3
64?261N? 173?101W
4
64023.2IN, 172?21'W
5
64?251N, 172016Id
6
65?081N, 171?00'W
41.2
7
65?39'N, 170?45'
Small ice pieces
C
656361N, 170?47'W
It H
9
66?011N, 1690501W
Growlers
10
_670021N, 1670581W
11
680001N, 168000'W
12
s 680331N, 1696111W
54.8
13
69?22.5IN, 1710241
53
14
70?071N, 173?21'W
47.8
15
70?461N, 174?301W
62 Small and large
ice Pieces
16
7106.2N, 176?051W
46 Close ice fields
17
70031N, 176?44IW
45.3 Close ice pieces
18
71003.21N, 1760231W
Open ice pieces
19
70051.21-N? 177025'W
38.8 Hummocky ice
20
700311N? 1780381d
Large ice pieces
21
70024.2N, 178?341W
42 Ice fields
22
700081N, 178?15.11W
Large ice pieces
23
700091N, 177022.5IW
52
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Station No
?_--------
Location
Depth
Ice
Conditions -Transparency
(m)
(11)
24
70?55.2'N, 1.76?211W
46.7
Large ice.
pieces
25
71?10.91N, 175?49'W
44.5
Open ice
26
71?04.1'N,,l77?0015
36.5
27
70?56.5'N, 177?00'W
37.1
Large ice pieces
28
70056.5'N? 177?00T
Ice fields
29
70?29.8'N, 176?41'W
53.1
Open, large ice
fields
30
67940'N, 172020'W
31
66013.5'N, 169o39tvi
Open small ice pieces
32
66005'N, 169024'W
ir ti
33
65041.5,N, 170012.5,
33.5
Small And large pieces
34
64025.6fN, 172019'W
15.2
35
64025.1'N, 173?14'
26
[End of DOCUIENTS BTU:ICH TPANSLAT ION No 77:1
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