THE SINO-INDIAN BORDER

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP62-00680R000200010001-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 9
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 8, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Content Type: MISC

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THE SING-INDIAN BORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page
Both India and China have cited maps, treaties, and
natural features to support territorial claims along their
undemarcated border. Neither country can make a conclu-
sive case for its claims; nor is either likely to submit
its claims to arbitration. The disputed areas--totaling
a-pproximate,ly' 40- 000.square miles-are ,sparsely :populated,
are characterized by;.h':igham:ouhtarinp and.plate#aus-,~--andi;are
compapatively,,dnacaete'ibl?w=+parti~ularly from India. (Con-
fidential)
THE WEEK IN BRIEF
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CURRENT INTELLIGENCE WEEKLY SUM&RY
17 December 1959
THE SINO-INDIAN FRONTIER
The current border dispute
between China and India is the
outgrowth.of a long period of
growing tension along China's
2,400-mile frontier from Af-
ghanistan to Burma. Only one
small section--the 110-mile
Sikkim-Tibet border--has been
demarcated. For the remainder
the basis for the alignment is
"historical tradition" in the
west and the McMahon line in
the east.
The dispute is over an
area of generally uninhabited
high mountains and desolate
plateaus. Access to the fron-
tier is difficult, particularly
from the low plains of the In-
dian subcontinent; long, dif-
ficult ascents must be made
to the frontier, where the
passes are at elevations of
more than 13,000 feet. In con-
trast, the Chinese side of the
frontier is backed by plateaus
and mountains generally 14,000
to 16,000 feet high, and access
to the border is less arduous.
Minor border disputes have
punctuated the history of sec-
tions of the frontier, but con-
flicting territorial claims
heretofore have been important
only locally. Following the
occupation of Sinkiang and
Tibet in 1950-51, Peiping es-
tablished military garrisons
near the frontier, built roads,
and began surveillance of traders
and pilgrims entering Tibet.
India reacted by establish-
ing a limited network of fron-
tier posts and beginning the
construction of roads into the
mountainous frontier lands,
Traditional trade relationships
became more formalized as Chi-
na signed agreements first with
India (1954) and later with
Nepal (1956) by which traders
and pilgrims were required to
enter western Tibet only.by
certain designated routes and
to trade at specified Tibetan
markets.
This activity by both
sides, accompanied by armed
patrols along many sections of
the frontier following the.
March 1959 Tibetan revolt,
eventually culminated in armed
clashes along the McMahon line.
In early September, New Delhi.
published the texts of Sino-
Indian notes on the border and
related issues since 1954,
thereby focusing attention on
the undefined nature of the
frontier, the conflicting car-
tographic representations of
the border, and the various
sectors and areas in dispute.
Kashmir-Sinkiang-Tibet Sector
The China-Kashmir fron-
tier in the northwest is an
extensive northwest-southeast-
aligned region extending from
Afghanistan to Tibet, a dis-
tance of some 300 miles,with the
massive Kunlun and Karakoram
Ranges on the north and south
respectively. Between these
great mountain barriers lies a
belt varying in width from
about 50 miles in the west to
about 150 miles at the Tibetan
border. There are no permanent
settlements, and only in a few
valleys is forage sufficient
to attract nomads.
Both Chinese Nationalist
and Communist maps show a bor-
der generally following the
crest of the Karakoram Moun-
tains. On the latest official.
Indian and Pakistani maps, the
border from Afghanistan to the
Karakoram Pass agrees in gen-
eral with the Chinese version.
Farther east the boundary align-
ments differ markedly, with
Indian maps showing a boundary
following, in part, the crest
of the Kunluns to about 80?20' E;
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 NOf)R ' J \_ r%
RA
Baia ba Basti Gora khpo'
U.S.S.R. '\ 76
RINAGAR ~` Leh
KASHMIRPANGXGVLAR~
talus in disprttei lK hhu
Ch~~ v by
Jammu
Bhatinda
ratAm
SINKIA
MADHYA
PRADESH
Gwalior
NGGUR
LAKE
Taklakhar
yg,.jtANAS WtAR O
'I N
50 100 150 200 MILES
L
50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS
Boundaries ore not necessarily those
recognized by the U.S. Government.
Giran
Dzon
Matsong
Tingri
Dzong
HIV yalam uzw i3
urkha Y A I `rte,,.
`7~? .NamcFe
ATMANDU
Bazar`/`
L
An{Iekhganl
.R,lulpura
aynaga
Da nanga l
China - India Frontier: Western Area
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES SHOWN,
ON MOST US AND WESTERN MAPS
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AIRFIELDS
0 Runway 50001 or more
Cl Runway under 5000'
For the location of the
border segment east of the
Karakoram Pass, Indian offs
CURRENT INTELLIGENCE WEEKLY SUtMARY
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES SHOWN ON
COMMUNIST CHINESE AND INDIAN
GOVERNMENT MAPS
(shown only where they differ
from US and Western maps)
boundary shown on Indian maps (1958)
Boundary shown on Soviet maps (1959)
Boundary shown on Pakistani maps (1953)
^ Designated market for I I~
Indian traders
from where the line passes
southwestward: across the Aksai
Chin area and joins the Chi-
nese version of the border near
the Indus River.
tt
.23184
National capital
State, Union Territory, or
Protectorate capital (India only)
Road
Track or trail
Railroad, broad gage
Railroad, narrow or meter gage
Pass
Spot elevation in feet)
NILANG-BARA HOTI
AREA MIL\
? ? ? ? . ? ? ? ? Boundary of Jammu and Kashmir
-------------- Cease-fire line in Jammu and Kashmir
------- Inner Line
--- Internal administrative boundary
cials..apparently have -advanced
the watershed principle as the
chief criterion. The Aksai
Chin area, however, consists
of a series of interior-drain-
age basins with circular water-
sheds, which are nearly mean-
ingless for boundary marking.
Soviet maps and the 1953 Survey
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CURRENT INTELLIGENCE WEEKLY SIR
17 December 1959
of Pakistan Political Map show
a boundary between the Chinese
and Indian versions but some-
what closer to the Chinese.
The dispute over the deso-
late Aksai Chin area involves
about 10,000 square miles of
uninhabited plateau generally
above 16,000 feet. Fuel,
fodder, and drinking water are
difficult to find. In 1958
an Indian patrol sent to in-
vestigate the road built by
the Chinese the previous year
between Sinkiang and Tibet was
detained, and in July 1959
another Indian patrol was held,
In October patrol clashes oc-
curred to the south, with a
number of casualties.
The Indians maintain that
the 1842 treaty between Kash
mir and Tibet, following Kash-
miri annexation of Ladakh, es-
tablished the fact that the
border in this area was "well
known," the treaty stating in
part that "the boundaries of
Ladakh and its surroundings
(have been) fixed from ancient
time." Since a Tibetan with
Chinese rank signed the treaty
and the Emperor of China was
nominally included as one of
the negotiating parties, the
Indians argue that China has
accepted the "old, established
frontier."
Chinese Communist Premier
Chou En-lai has denied that
China was a party to the 1842
treaty. He agrees that there
is a "customary line derived
from historical tradition"
separating Ladakh from China,
but he insists that the bor-
der shown on Chinese maps--
past and present--correctly
reflects this tradition. The
lack of population and adminis-
tration in the Aksai Chin ten-
tatively suggests that the
1842 treaty may not have been
intended to apply to this area
but only to the remaining sec-
tion of Ladakh's border with
Tibet.
Although Indian Prime Min-
ister Nehru has maintained New
Delhi'e claim to the..Aksai Chin
area, his remarks to Parliament
indicate that it is in a cate-
gory different from other dis-
puted areas. On 12 September,
Nehru stated, "It is a matter
for argument as to what part
of it belongs to us and what
part of it-- belongs to somebody
else...... This particular
area stands ay itself. It has
been in challenge all the time."
Pan opg- Spang ur : Lake ' Area
Several Ladakh-Tibet bor-
der areas just south of Aksai
Chin also are disputed, the ma-
jor problems being the inter-
pretation of the "customary
line" cited in the 1842 treaty
and the determination of major
watersheds.
About 750 square miles are
in dispute in the Pangong -
Spanggur Lake area, which prob-
ably is inhabited only season-
ally by nomads with their flocks?
North of Pangong Lake, Chinese
maps--and most other maps ex-
cept those of Indian and Paki-
stani origin--show a boundary
generally following the water-
shed between the upper Shyok
tributaries and the interior
drainage basins of the Tibetan
plateau; Indian maps show a
border some 10 to 15 miles to
the east. At the ancient ruins
of Khurnak Fort and at Spanggur
Camping Grounds at the western
end of the lake, border inci-
dents have occurred recently.
Chinese troops west of Spang-
gur reportedly are but eight
miles from an Indian landing
strip at Chushul.
Considering only physical
geography, the Chinese version
of the border north of Pangong
Lake and in the immediate vi-
ciriity of Spanggur Lake would
appear logical. A 1924 British-
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CURRENT INTELLIGENCE WEEKLY 'SIfIJNARY
17 December 1959
Tibetan conference over dis-
puted pasture areas did not,
however, challenge Indian juris-
diction over Khurnak Fort,
thus supporting the Indian
version of the boundary at
Pangong Lake.
Demchhog Area
In southeastern Ladakh,
Indian and Chinese maps vary
in showing where the border
crosses the Indus, with Indian
maps placing the border about
20 miles farther upstream than
the Chinese and most other maps.
A Swedish explorer's notes.
(1908) indicate a Ladakh-Tibet
boundary near Demchhog, roughly
in line with the Indian Claims.
Thus far no clashes have been
reported in this area, but the
divergence noted on the maps
suggests that the Demchhog
area is a ,likely trouble spot
--particularly since the cara-
van trail following the Indus
Valley is one of the routes
of entry specified in the 1954
Sino-Indian Trade Convention.
Southwestern Tibet-India Sector
From Ladakh to Nepal, the
India-Tibet border follows gen-
erally the water-parting range
between the two countries. The
border disputes-here have had
their origin in ancient Tibetan
claims and in uncertainty as
to which passes are on the
water divide. India cites as
support for its claims--based
on tradition and the water-di-
vide criterion--the acceptance
by China of the six passes
specified in-the 1954 Sino--In-
dian Trade Agreement as the
only ones to be used by Indian
traders and pilgrims; this
leaves in doubt, however, the
border alignment in other parts
of the frontier.
The Chinese claim that
the delimitation of the bor-
der is subject to negotiation,
since frontier disputes have
occurred in the past and the
border has never been formally
demarcated. Although Chinese
and Indian maps differ signifi-
cantly only in the Nilang area,
Chinese incursions and recent
disputes have occurred in sev-
eral other places--notably at
Shipki Pass, Lapthal, and in
the Spits'. area.
The immediate frontier
area is inhabited only during
summer and fall, when alpine
pastures can be grazed, the
high passes are open, and the
Bhotias, Tibetan-related groups
on the Indian side of the moun-
tains, cross on trading missions
to and from Tibet. Traditional-
ly, Tibetan officials levied
taxes on Bhotia traders and
the Bhotias on Tibetans who
ventured south of the passes-?-
a practice continued even dur-
ing the period of British ad-
ministration.
Nilang Area
The largest area in dis-
pute in this sector is north
of Nilang, a small, semiperma-
nently inhabited village about
20 miles south of the water-
divide passes. Indian maps
mark the border along the pass-
es~ on the line of water part-
ing, whereas Chinese maps show
a line running northwest to
southeast just north of Nilang
village. The uncertain status
of the area is reflected on
older maps of India.produced
by the British and the recent
1957 London Times Atlas, and on
US-produced maps; these show
a border approximately in
agreement with Chinese maps.
The Indians maintain that a
meeting between British and
Tibetan officials in 1926 pro-
duced considerable evidence of
past Indian ownership of this
area.
Bara Hoti Area
The Bara.Hoti area, called
Wu-je by the Chinese, is a small
upland pasture a few miles
rv " ON r%
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CURRENT INTELLIGENCE WEEKLY OURY
17 December 1959
southeast of Niti Pass. Numer-
ous notes have been exchanged
between India and China since
1954 over its ownership, and
both Chinese and Indian patrols
have alternately occupied the
area, India claims that the
border follows the major water
divide--the Niti, Tun Jun, and
Shalshal passes; the Chinese
view presumably is that the
border runs south from the
Niti Pass through the Chor Hoti
China - India Frontier: Eastern Area
0 50 100 150 00 MILES 88
0 00 100 150 200 KII -, Cbc _._.2 I
Boundaries are not riecessarilp Aose
recognized by the U.S_ Government.
_O 4 o,
Dzong
}
N. r -Nyalam Dzong
'Namche A
ATTMANDUT eazar
A llekhganl
Bilulpura
Dhankuta
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES SHOWN
ON MOST US AND WESTERN MAPS
Demarcated
Undemarcated
Indefinite
SIKKI
c. r G
ir4r. an 0e_
Inner Line
Internal administrative boundary
Division boundary in the Northeast
Frontier Agency of Assam
National capital
State, Union Territory, or
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES SHOWN ON -'-'- Protectorate capital (India only)
CHINESE COMMUNIST AND INDIAN Road
GOVERNMENT MAPS, 1958 ------Track or trail
Chinese Communist claim
Indian claim
--`- Railroad, narrow or meter gage
Scene of border incursion (approx.)
Pass, several miles south and
west of the Indian line.
Curiously, however, Chinese
maps showing the boundary de-
lineation agree with the In-
dian maps. Part of the trouble
arises from the nature of the
water divide, which is rela-
tively inconspicuous, with no
high peaks or difficult passes
marking its crest. Such fea-
tures do exist along the Chi-
nese-claimed.; border.
The dispute over India's
North-East Frontier Agency
(NEFA) involves an area of
about 26,000 square miles in-
habited by roughly 500,000
to 800,000 primitive hilltribes-
men. The area is a belt of
steep hill and mountain tor-
y=n6 -21
^ Indian Trade Agency
^ Designated market for
Indian traders
0 Nepalese 'Trade Agency
A Designated market for
Nepalese traders
AIRFIELDS
0 Runway under 50001
rain 50 to 100 miles wide that
rises sharply from the Brahma-
putra plains to the crest of
the Great Himalaya and associ-
ated ranges, which coincide
with the McMahon line. The
Chinese-claimed border general-
ly runs along the southern
margin of the hills~+
This is by far tthe most
difficult of the Himalayan
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C N' M D'O
* ~ _iy.. FROM;tr.
nglu DIVIS10
FYI \
pAcFA/c'1i?_ imekin8
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p1V151014 0
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AMENG V P r
F`. ~Oruu
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ng
Dion V1510N/ I
 Sanitized - Aplproved For Release : CIA-RDP60680R000200010001-5
CURRENT INTELLIGENCE WEEKLY SUHMAllY
17 December 1959
areas to penetrate from the
plains. Heavy rains continue
from June through October; dense,
tangled forests choke the val-
leys and cover much of the hill
country; landslides are common,
and earthquakes are not infre-
quent. The various tribal groups
have little outside contact, be-
yond petty trade with one another
or with Tibet and Assam. Al
though groups in the northwestern
part of the Kemeng Division
have close ethnic and cultural
ties with Tibet, most of the
hill tribes appear-to have
little kinship with either the
Assamese plains dwellers or
the Tibetans.
accord with most Chinese maps--
or no boundary at all.
In 1943-44 the British at-
tempted to "make good" the Mc-
Mahon line, a policy continued
after 1947 by the Indian Govern-
ment. Administrative control
was slowly extended; airstrips
were built to supply outlying
valleys; and, more recently,
roads have been constructed link-
ing the plains with the headquar-
ters of the Kameng and Subansiri
Divisions. In 1954, India was
able to install a pro-India
abbot at the important Towang
Monastery, thus reducing Lhasa's
religious ties with the area.
The dispute over the NEFA
area concerns the validity of
the tripartite 1914 Simla Con-
vention--signed by Great Brit-
ain and Tibet but not by China
--and the appended convention
map, on which the Tibet-Indian
border--McMahon line--was drawn.
The primary purpose of the con-
vention was to clarify Tibet's
relationships with British In-
dia and China. India points
out that subsequent Chinese pro-
tests over the Simla agreement
were concerned with these re-
lationships--particularly the
delimitation of Inner and Outer
Tibet--not with the McMahon
line. Chou En -tai, however,
holds the McMahon line to be
"illegal," since China did not
sign or ratify the Simla Con-
vention.
With the possible exception
of the Towang area, most of the
NEFA appears to have had no ad-
ministration from India, Tibet,
or China. Before 1900 the Brit-
ish had made pacts with the vari-
ous hill tribes designed to
keep them from raiding the plains
dwellers; but civil admihistra-
tion of the area was left large-
ly unattended. Despite the
drawing of the McMahon line in
1914, almost nothing was done
thereafter to extend administra-
tive control into the hills.
Until shortly before World War
II, most British maps continued
to show either a boundary at the
line separating hill. .,.-ibes from
the plains dwellers--- hich is in
Chinese occupation of Tibet
resulted in improved communica-
tions within Tibet and in an ex-
tension of Chinese military and
civil control to areas adjacent
to the McMahon line. After the
March 1959 uprising in Tibet,
several Indian posts were moved
to the border vicinity--Longju
outpost was occupied in April.
Border clashes occurred at Longju
and Khinzemane in August.
Maps of various dates and
by different authorities have
been used by both China and
India to support their versions
of the border alignment. These
maps, however, merly reflect the
lack of border surveys and the
poorly mapped nature of some
frontier sections. As indicated
by the exchanges between Nehru
and Chou En-lai, Indian and Brit-
ish maps could be used to support
both Indian and Chinese claims;
and, conversely, some Chinese
maps could be cited to support
either position.
Neither India nor China
can make a conclusive case for
its position on all disputed
areas; nor is either likely to
submit its claims to arbitra-
tion, Negotiations over many
of the disputed areas will be
hampered and confused by the
lack of basic surveys and ac-
curate maps. (CONFIDENTIAL)
(Prepared by ORR)
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PART IV
OTHER INTELLIGENCE ISSUANCES
Published during week of 9-15 December 1959
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ESTIMATES
Prospects for Iraq: the short-term outlook
for the Qassim regime--factors favoring
the Communists; prospects of another coup
attempt by nationalist groups and chances
of success. U.S.I.B. SNIE 36.2-5-59.
Dec 15'59. (Sec)
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE SURVEYS
Arabian Peninsula: Political dynamics. Bib-
liography. NIS 32, chapter V, section 53.
29pp. May'59. (Conf Noforn)
Bulgaria: Subversion, i.e., domestic and for-
eign activities against Bulgaria. NIS 23,
chapter V, section 57, revised. l3pp.
July'59. (Sec)
Honduras: Military geographic regions. Il-
lustrations, maps, table. NIS 73, chapter II,
section 21. 21pp. June'59. (Conf Noforn)
Iraq: Ground forces. Illustrations, map, ta-
bles. NIS 30, chapter VIII, section 81, re-
vised. 37pp. Apr' 59. (Sec Noforn)
Rumania: The constitutional system. Bibliog-
raphy. NIS 22, chapter V, section 51, re-
vised. 19pp. June'59. (Conf)
Turkey: Structure of the government. Bibliog
raphy, illustrations, map, tables. NIS 27,
chapter V, section 52, revised. 25pp.
June'59. (Conf)
Uruguay: Naval forces. Illustrations, tables.
25X
91, chapter VIII, section 82. l9pp.
'59. (Sec Noforn)
Note:
The date on an NIS listing is the date the ma-
terial was approved for use in the NIS by the
producing agency, not the date of publication.
RESEARCH REPORTS AND REFERENCE AIDS
China (Communist)
China: provisional atlas of Communist ndmir-
istrative units. Maps, tables. O.I.F?. Ci/~
RR GR 59-20. 1 vol. 1959. (Uicrass)
Sino-Soviet Bloc
Satellite views in areas of Sino-Soviet di-
vergence as reflected in propaganda on
CPR National Day: comparison of state-
ments by spokesmen for the ten Satellites
during the period from Sept 2-i through
Oct 5'59. F.B.I.S. Radio Propaganda Re-
port, Research Series RS.35. 42pp. N 30
'59. (Conf)
U.S.S.R.
Debate over reorganization of the U.S.S.R.
Academy of Sciences: nature of the re-
organization proposals, development of the
public debate, and lineup of scientists for
and against major changes. Table. F.B.I.S.
Radio Propaganda Report, Current Develop-
ments Series CD.158. 14pp. Nov 20'59.
(Conf )
Planning data on the Soviet guided missile
program: basic organization of the program,
policy planning review and decision, opera-
tional planning and control of production
and construction of missile systems. Ta-
bles. O.R.R. Research Aid CIA/R.R R.A
59-14. 38pp. Nov'59. (See)
Soviet outer-space projects and programming
as depicted in U.S.S.R. propaganda, Aug-
Nov 1959. F.B.I.S. Radio Propaganda Re-
port, Current Developments Series CD.159.
pp. Dec 9'59. (Conf)
Soviet training program for automation anti
computer specialists: quality, emphasis,
courses offered, and institutions involved.
Bibliography, table. O.S.I. Scientific In-
telligence Memorandum CIA/SI 108-59.
9pp. Dec 11'59. (Conf)
State structure in the U.S.S.R., Feb'58-Sept '59:
all-union and union republic government or-
ganization and changes effected during the
period. Bibliographic footnotes. F.D.D.
Summary 2396. l4pp. Dec 15'59. (Off
Use Only)
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