SOVIET EDUCATION IN GEODESY AND CARTOGRAPHY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-01083A000200030001-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 119
• Document Creation Date: December 21, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 10, 2008
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: December 1, 1954
• Content Type: IS

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EXTERNAL RESEARCH INTELLIGENCE STUDY
SOVIET EDUCATION IN GEOLESY AND CARTOGRAPHY
office of Research and Reports
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This report is one of a series prepared for an external research project
entitled "The Problem of Soviet Capabilities in Geodesy and Cartography,"
which was sponsored by the CIA as an element of the research program of the
Geography Division, Office of Research and Reports.
Inadequate knowledge concerning the status of Soviet developments in
geodesy, photogrammetry, and cartography has been recognized as an intelli-
gence deficiency, and intelligence reports in these fields are extremely few
in number and limited in topical coverage. For these reasons, the project
was initiated to assess Soviet capabilities on the basis of a systematic
study of all available published information on Soviet developments in geodesy,
geodetic gravimetry, geodetic astronomy, geodetic and photogrammetric instru-
mentation, and cartography. The resulting reports are derived almost entirely
from an exhaustive search for and an analysis of published Soviet scientific
source materials.
The reports of the project are designed not only to provide provisional
information on the current status of Soviet capabilities in surveying and
mapping
The opinions and conclusions presented in ER-U, therefore,
do not represent final CIA evaluation of Soviet capabilities in surveying
and mapping. Comments by users of the reports are solicited by the Geography
Division.
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This report provides a survey of Soviet education in geodesy and
cartography. The report is arranged in three parts. Part I gives a brief
(summary of the essentials of Soviet education and training in general as
la background for the detailed description of geodetic and cartographic
jinstruction, educational facilities, and training programs in Part II.
Part III discusses research institutes for geodesy and cartography, most
of which also provide education and training in these fields.
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CONTENTS
Page
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Sources ? ? ? ? . ? ? ? ? ? . . . ? . . . ? . ? . . . . ? ? . . . 8
I. Education and Training in General . . . . . ? . . . . . . . . 11
A. Lower Education . . . . . . . . . . . . ? . . . . . . 16
B. Intermediate Education . . . 18
C. Higher Education 20
II. Cartographic and Geodetic Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . 28
A. Universities ? . . ? ? . . ? . . . . . ? . . . . . . . . 28
B. Other Institutions of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . 141.
C. Special Schools of Higher Education 145
1. Moskovskiy Institut Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aerofotos"yemki
i Kartografii (MIIGAiK) . . ? . . . . . . ? . ? . . . 45
2. Novosibirskiy Institut Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aerofotos-
ttyemki i Kartografii (NIIGAiK) . ? . . . . . . . . . 56
D. Entrance Requirements to Institutions of Higher Education 57
E. Textbooks of Geodesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
F. Intermediate Education in Geodesy and Cartography . . . . 62
III. Research . . . . . . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 72
A. Central Scientific Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying and Cartography (TsNIIGAIK) . . . . . . . . . . 73
B. Academy of Sciences U.S.S.R. . . . . . . . ? . . ? . . . 80
C. Other Academies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
D. Main Administration of the North Sea Route (Glavsevmorputt) 92
E. Military Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 95
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Appendixes
Page
A.
Examined Sources .
97
B.
Rules of Admission to Institutions of Higher Learning of the
U.S.S.R. for 1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
C.
List of Russian Textbooks of Higher Geodesy . . . . . . . . .
107
No.
Figure
1
System of Training U.S.S.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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0010W51018
1. The status of Soviet training and research in the fields of geodesy
and cartography ought to be considered in a historical perspective. It is
not the status of the Soviets in these fields in 1953 that is significant
but the rate of progress from almost absolute zero in 1920 to a very large
and elaborate structure in 1953 that surprises and impresses an unprejudiced
investigator.
2. The outstanding feature of Soviet organization of research and
training in our field of interest is the perpetual changes by no means re-
stricted to the early period of Soviet reorganization of the country. It
was found, for instance, that instruction in geography and cartography in
universities underwent drastic changes in the period between 1950 and 1952.
In view of lack of continuity of the records and especially in view of paucity
of information relating to the period after the war, most of our conclusions
refer to the years 1945-46.
3. The Soviets evidently experienced lack of competent ordinary workers
and some drastic moves were made to train such workers in the system M.
Professional papers in geodesy and cartography are full of complaints on this
score. Instructions for workers in field work and cartographic factories are
extremely detailed and presuppose a very low technical level of workers. The
Soviets are evidently aware of this situation and are trying their best to
improve it.
4. In the intermediate training in geodesy and cartography, the Soviets
by 1948 had nine topographic technicums and one school of aerial survey. The
programs for these institutions have been found to be on a rather high level
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and' in professional subjects these technieums should be considered as fully
equivalent to the first two years of American universities. The enrollment
in these schools in 1945 was about 2,000 students, and it is estimated that
thelSoviets by now should have at least 10,000 technicians available.
5. The highest level of training in geodesy and cartography is given
in two specialized institutes, one in Moscow and the other in Novosibirsk.
The program of instruction for the Moscow Institute of engineers of Geodesy,
Aerial Survey and Cartography was considered in detail and was found to be
on the highest level. The existence of this institute alone with an annual
enrollment of over 400 students would make the Soviets exceptionally strong
inspecialists in geodesy and cartography.
In addition to the Moscow institute and the smaller one in Novosibirsk
they training of geodesists and cartographers is given in the Military engineer-
inn Academy, in 27 universities (mostly geographers) as well as in a few other
specialized schools. It is estimated that by 1953 the Soviets should have
101!000 highly trained specialists in geodesy, aerial survey and cartography,
of;which the Moscow institute alone accounts for 6,000.
The emphasis put by the Soviets on the continuation of training after
graduation is also noteworthy, The engineers in production are not allowed
to~become committed to familiar methods and apparently are forced in some way
toll take refresher courses and become acquainted with new developments in their
specialties. The large number of engineers taking these refresher courses
(7Q0 in 1938 in the Moscow institute alone) indicates either direct compulsion
orlsome benefits in advancement in their service. At any rate it is clear
that the Soviet government expects their engineers to be fully abreast of the
newest developments in their profession.
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The conclusion seems inescapable that the Soviets have the best train-
ing system in geodesy and cartography in the World. As for the large number
of highly trained specialists in these subjects there cannot be any doubt
and It is possible that the Soviets produce more of them than the rest of
the World put together. As for the quality of these experts, the conclusion
is less certain. The instruction programs, published textbooks and the amount
and character of research published by the Soviets along these lines definite-
ly indicate a level of training fully comparable to that in Western schools.
6. Research in the U.S.S.R. In geodesy and cartography is carried
on in all institutions already mentioned. In fact considerable emphasis
is on the desirability and necessity of research by instructors whose pri-
mary duty is teaching. However, by way of research the Soviets have a large
institution wholly devoted to this problem. This is the Central Research
Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Survey and Cartography in Moscow (TsNIIGAit).
As early as 1935 there were 172 persons on the scientific staff of this
institute. No later figure is available but one may expect a considerably
larger staff at the present time.
Some research on specialized problems of geodesy and cartography is
done in other research institutes, of which the Research Institute of Military
Topographic Service should be especially mentioned.
The evaluation of Soviet research is done in other reports on specific
problems of geodesy and cartography. A few general features of Soviet research
may be mentioned heret
(a)
A very large volume of research. It is evident that a comparative-
ly small fraction of openly published Soviet research papers and
books ever reac.w s this country. There must be also a considerable
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amount of classified research, of which we know almost nothing.
There can be little doubt that in the bulk of research on the
problems of geodesy and cartography, the U.S.S.R. exceeds any
other country, and perhaps even all other countries combined.
(b) The quality of research is difficult to estimate, owing to
conspicuous gaps in our information. One is impressed with
the amount of attention paid by the Soviets to comparatively
trivial subjects. However, there is much excellent work being
done in the U.S.S.R.. of which the determination of the reference
ellipsoid. (Yrasovskiy and Isotov), and application of gravimetry
to geodetic problems, (Molodenskiy, Zhongolovich and Zagrebin),
should be mentioned. Such work requires participation of many
persons. Since it is by its nature very expensive. this indi-
cates the realization of its importance by the Soviet govern-
ment.
(c) The Soviet writers invariably display a very thorough and
up-to-date acquaintance with results obtained in their field
of effort in the West. Many articles and whole books have been
published in the U.S.S.R. on the state of geodesy and cartography
(d)
in foreign countries, including the U.S.A.
There seems to be very little political interference in research
so far as geodesy and cartography is concerned.
7. The conclusion is t'-at the Soviets have a very much better organi-
;nation of training and research in geodesy and cartography than any other
,nation in the World. They are now nearly, if not quite, the leaders in the
World in such branches of geodesy and cartography as gravimetrie geodesy and
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and mathematical cartography. The situation is lose clear in photo-
grammetry and eupecially radiolocation, but it has been established
that the Soviets pay great attention to these subjects.
In other words, the Soviets have the capability to forge ahead
of the rest of the World in the general subjects of geodesy and carto-
graphy. Whether this will actually happen will depend on two factors
which could not be considered in the present report;
(a) Whether the Soviets will succeed in raising the cultural,
scientific and technical level of the whole population
to keep up with the striking development of training on
the higher level sad of research.
(b) Whether research and training will be spared serious
political interference.
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Adequate analysis and evaluation of any aspect of both the Soviet
scientific actuality and potential must be prefaced by as complete a com-
prehension of the basic fundamentals of Soviet life, philosophy, mores,
and history as is humanly possible. Many investigators have already become
aware of the extreme complexity of Soviet science and industry and the many
difficulties attendant to the problem of solving the Soviet riddle. Perhaps
thelgreatest obstacle, however, encountered by all American scientists and
technicians is a lack of appreciation or knowledge of certain more or less
intangible or little understood factors which are integral parts of Soviet
development in all fields. Of vital and urgent importance are the answers
to such questions as, - "How is it possible that tho Soviets have been able
to ;develop the 'A' bomb so rapidly?", "How is it possible that Soviet techno-
logy and industry have produced the MIG-15?" - and more specifically related
toour present field of investigation, - "What conditions made the extensive
mapping and geodetic programs of the U.S.S.R. during the past twenty years
possible?". The answers to these and similar questions being asked by many
intelligence, scientific, research and development groups in this country
invariably are to be found, in whole or in part, in these so-called "intangible"
factors.
Time, space, or scope of this project - or knowledge of or research by
the staff of this project for that matter - do not permit exhaustive descrip-
tion of these intangibles. Indeed, except in so far as they specifically
relate to the more or less definite problems of analysis of Soviet scientific
achievements in geodesy, photogrammetry and cartography or in the technological
phases of development in these fields, no report can be made on them at this
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time.
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A thorough knowledge of the educational and training programs of the
U.S.S.R. is absolutely essential for complete and accurate evaluation of
Soviet science or industry potential. A tendency to compare numerical
statistics - U.S. ton to U.S.S.R. ton, U.S. ships or plaros to U.S.S.R.
ships or planes - has been carried over into the scientific field too often
by some analysts. Such analyses fail to take account of the underlying
significance of Soviet programs in the educational and training fields or
to realize what has been and is still being accomplished in the matter of
developing scientists and technicians in many fields. That geodetic or
cartographic knowledge and "know how" in the United States equals or exceeds
that of the U.S.S.R. may be a true statement. However, this fact, by itself,
would be a most dangerous one on which to base our own future geodetic and
cartographic programs, smug in the belief that ours is a superior ability.
The really significant part involves the answers to such questions as, Will
the Soviets produce scientists capable of not only equalling the work of
scientists of other nations, but who can also make those original contri-
butions on which the further development of science and technology depend?"
"How many scientists and technicians are being graduated in each field per
year" "What are their educational and training requirements as compared with
ours?" "What is the quality of their work?" "How many schools teach these
subjects?" "What are the Soviet plans for future programs and what fields
of science and technology are being emphasized, and why?".
The following report, data for which was obtained from open-source
material only, is an attempt to answer, at least in part, some of these ques-
tions as they pertain to the problem of evaluating and defining the Soviet
potential in the fields of geodesy and cartography.
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SOURCES
Experience gained by the staff of this Laboratory during the last
five years has indicated that certain general conditions always obtain
in all phases of the study of Soviet science and technology. These
conditions
are sufficiently well-known now that exhaustive treatment and descrip-
tions are unnecessary for the purpose of this report. Major items, how-
ever, may be stated briefly, as follows:
1. Difficulties encountered in the collection of Soviet data.
a. Incompleteness of U.S. library holdings of Soviet
scientific books. serials, periodicals, etc.
b. Lack of consistent library cataloging procedures.
c. Lack of competent personnel, - translators, ab-
stracters, or scientists who read the Russian
language.
d. High security classifications attached to several
projects and materials dealing with the various
phases of the Soviet problem have resulted, per-
haps necessarily, in further complicating the
collection of basic material.
2. Difficulties caused by the Soviet modus operandi.
a. Lack of competent editing in Soviet publications.
b. Existence of Soviet decrees pertaining to the dis-
semination of their scientific data.
e. Frequent changes in names and character of research
educational and production facilities, involving
publications.
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d. Changes in scientific or scientific-political
emphasis in the Soviet Union.
e. Difference between United States and Russian
definition of IScienoe" (Nauka) and associated
differences in classifications of sciences,
educational and research programs.
Items (a) and (b) apply to all scientific effort in the Soviet Union.
Items (c) and (s) also always apply but, of course, vary considerably in
detail with the particular sciences under investigation.
3. Difficulty in distinguishing between and categorizing research,
training, and industrial facilities. along with associated personnel and
publications.
Tedious and painstaking work over an extended period by many hundreds
of individuals, both here and abroad has resulted in the collection of a
considerable amount of information on various aspects of Soviet science.
Various groups and agencies have prepared partial or complete translations
and abstracts. This report will attempt to correlate and digest all opez-
source materials made available
or discovered by its own
staff, which pertain to the fundamental problem of scientific education and
training in the Soviet Union with specific emphasis on educational programs
in the fields of geodesy and cartography.
Perhaps one of the most obvious and consistently representative state-
ments that can be made concerning the availability of scientific source
materials is that, prior to the year 1941, detailed information of both a
theoretical and specific nature was available to all those who sought and
read it. Publications of nearly all types could be had for the asking.
From reports of this period (1919-1940 inclusive) a rather complete history
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of the development of theoretical and applied science and educational
programs, curricula, etc. can be reconstructed. After 1940 (1941-1947)
there followed a period in which Soviet science went through considerable
political and scientific change, new programs resulted from war experiences
and sciences not previously supported by the government received new impetus.
Some curtailment in the amount of scientific and educational work resulted,
although not to the extent that might have been expected as a result of
occupation, destruction and re-location.- During this period, publications
of a scientific nature, though still available to this country, were not
Obtained in as great abundance here and those that were available were of
a less specific and comprehensive nature.
The most serious hiatus, however, resulted from the Russian ban on
the export of all scientific data affecting defense in 1947- From this
time to the present, specific scientific data are almost entirely lacking.
that information which has been obtained by us is of a general or theoretical
nature, and is fragmentary and often contradictory or otherwise confusing.
Additional data published between 1941 and the present continue to trickle
into this country. As more and more of this information becomes available,
some of the uncertainties mentioned in this report may perhaps be removed.
For the period prior to 1941 the best source of information on geodetic
and cartographic programs and methods is the Russian professional journal,
fGeodezist", which contains many articles on the subject of training and
research as well as the chronicle of events in the system of the Main Ad
Ministration of Geodesy and Cartography (Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i
Itartografii and denoted as GUGK henceforth in this report). The military
counterpart of the GUGK, the Military Topographic Administration (Voyenno-
Topograficheskoys Upravleniye, VTU) also participated in the publication
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of the "Geodezist," although even before the war very little was being
published on the activity of the VTU in the "Geodezist" or elsewhere.
In December 1940 this journal was discontinued and was supplanted by the
"Sbornik Nauchno-Tekhnicheskikh i Proizvodstvennykh Statey po Geodezii,
Kartografii, Aeros"yemke i Gravimetrii"- (Collection of Scientific, Technical
and Production Articles on Geodesy, Cartography, Aerial Survey and Gravim-
etry, henceforth as Sbornik NTPS) published by the GUGK alone. Simultan-
eously the VTU began publishing its own Sbornik (Voyenno-Topograficheskiy
Sbornik). No definite statement has been found to date as to the reasons
for this change. However, so far as we are concerned, the change was for
the worse since articles are much less detailed and the chronicle of events
is almost absent.
Another valuable source of information for the period up to 1940 is
the two-volume work, "XX Let Sovetskoy Geodezii I Kartografii," (20 rears
of Soviet Geodesy and Cartography) published in 1939 in which detailed
reviews of various branches of geodesy and cartography are given.
After 1940 we must rely on the less comprehensive information pub-
lished in the Sbornik NIPS as well as information found in reference
books, textbooks, encyclopedias, miscellaneous periodicals, monographs,
etc., to which reference is given in the text of this report.
I. ELUCATION AND TRAINING IN GENERAL
Training in geodesy and cartography is part and parcel of the compre-
hensive Soviet system of training and it is necessary before we treat the
specific problems of geodesy and cartography to say something about the sys-
tem as a whole. The purpose of this section is to provide a general back-
ground to readers not acquainted with the Soviet educational system. It is,
therefore, not to be construed as a definitive study of the Soviet system
as a whole.
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The central theme of Soviet education has always been the NkadryN.
Thejimportance of the NkadryTM, (that is, cadres) scientific and technical
personnel, was realized by Lenin immediately after he assumed power.
Imperial Russia was relatively poor in scientific and technical personnel.
Moreover, such of the existing pre-revolution personnel was opposed to the
Coal istie government and therefore was either annihilated or driven
abroad. Lack of suitable personnel made speedy recovery and industrial-
isaution of the country after the ravages of World War I and the revolution
very difficult. In fact, it appears that only the liberal employment of
foreign engineers and technicians saved the situation. However, the Soviet
government clearly realized that it could not depend forever on foreign
he]ip and very consistently carried forth a program of providing the country
with native expert personnel. A most striking expresesion of this attitude
was given by Stalin in his report to the 17-th Congress of the Communistic
Party, January 26, 1934. Speaking of the development of Soviet industry the
preceding three years. he saids
NBut of all aehievements'of industry during the period covered by this
report we must count as the most important achievement our success in educa-
ting and training thousands of new workers and new leaders of industry. We
have produced a whole new generation of engineers and technicians and hundreds
of thousands of qualified workers who have mastered the new technology and
advanced our socialistic industry. There is no doubt that without these
people our industry could not achieve the results of which we are so proud.
W have the data to show that during this period factory and mill schools
produced $00,000 more or less qualified workers, and universities, techno-
logical schools and technicums graduated more than 180.000 engineers and
technicians. If it is true that the problem of the cadres is the most ser-
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ious problem of our development, we meet admit that our industry is begin-
ning to solve this problem.N
This is not a chance quotation from Stalin. One can collect dozens
of similar quotations from his speeches, as well as from speeches of other
leaders of the U.S.S.R. With such an attitude prevalent in the ruling cir-
cles, rank and file educators took up the theme and published innumerable
books on general and technical education in which the experience of other
countries was analyzed, criticized and compared with the U.S.S.R. experience.
There were (and perhaps still are) several periodicals specifically devoted
to the problem of the cadres, such as NZa Promyahlennyye EadryN (For indus-
trial Cadres), NSadry Sovetekoy Promyshlennosti' (Cadres of Soviet Industry),
etc.
The general features of the scientific and-technical personnel in the
U.S.S.R. may be summarized as follows:
(a) The social position of scientists or technicians in the U.S.S.R.
is extremely high. They are the elite of the country regardless of their
political faith so long as they do not commit an overt act hostile to the
regime. During the war they were given special privileges in regard to
food, clothing, shelter, etc. Many of then were exempted from military
service. During the siege of Leningrad young scientists were evacuated
to Lake Ladoga, while the rest of the population was left to starve.
The government evidently takes the attitude that scientists and engineers
are of the greatest importance to the national economy. Yet the slightest
criticism of communism is severely punished regardless of the status of the
scientist. This was especially true during the great purges of 1935-37 when
many outstanding scientists were shot.
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(b) There is a very elaborate and apparently effective system of
supplementary training no matter how high the position of the scientist
is, such as refresher courses, periodic reviews of activity, etc. No
scientist or engineer is allowed to."go to seed".
(e) There is a very efficient system of competition in science
and technology, excellence of performance being highly rewarded by
various prises, medals, decorations, etc.
(d) Teaching and research in science and technology are very
closely connected. In various universities and instructional institutes
a great deal of research is being done. In many purely research institutes
some training is offered in post-graduate work.
(e) All research, teaching and training is closely connected with
political life. There is no such thing as neutral science.
The organization of Soviet education and technical training is a
very complex subject not to be fully explained in a few pages of a report.
We can hope here to give only enough background for the discussion of
training in geodesy and cartography in Soviet institutions. Comparison
of Soviet sources of 1946 and 1950 shows that considerable changes in
Soviet education took place in this interval, and undoubtedly are still
taking place.
In general, the Soviet system of training has three subdivisions:
1. Bachal'naya Shkola, (the "Beginning" School) more or less equiva-
lent to the American Elementary School.
a Shkola, (literally the "biddld'School) the last four
2. Srednya
3?
years of which may be considered as equivalent to the American
High School.
T s a Shkola, (literally the "Higher School) of university
and college level.
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SYSTEM OF TRAINING U.S.S.R.
Suvorov
and
Nakhimov
Schools
(Military)
26
27
Universities
Instructional
Institutes
Instructional
Academies
POST GRADUATE
Candidate
Instr.Institutes
POST GRADUATE
Doctor
POST GRADUATE
Candidate
POST GRADUATE
Candidate
POST GRADUATE
Doctor
Academies of Sciencd
Research InRtitntAR J
POST GRADUATE
Doctor
Night School
and
Correspondence
Courses
at
Universities,
Instructional
and
Special
Institutes
up to
Age
45
represents normal flow of students
Figure 1.
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There are, however, in the U.S.S.R. many schools for which no precise
American equivalent can be found. In this category for instance, are the
t echnicume (about 3,500) which exist for almost every industry and technology
which the Soviets include in the system of Sre a Shkola.
Fig. 1 shows the various types of schools in the Soviet Union, the
age groups represented in each, the political unit to which each age
group is assigned, and the normal flow of students from one type of school
to another.
A. LOWER WJCJTION
The level of compulsory education in the U.S.S.R. in 1946 was the
elementary school of four years for children of 7 to 11 years of age.
However, this level was supposed to have been raised to the seven year
s!,chool; that is, up to the age of 14. In 1946 this educational level
was obligatory in cities and towns, but apparently not in the whole
country
In this report we are concerned only with those aspects of lower
education which supply skilled workers for factories and industrial es-
tablishments. After a very complicated history involving many stages
and plans for the training of skilled workers the Soviets have finally
developed a system known as the FZO (Fabriohno-Zavodskoye Obucheniye);
that is, Factory and Kill Training). A special ministry, Ministerstvo
~rudorvykh Rezervov (Ministry of Labor Reserves)*, is in charge of the
FZO, and publishes a periodical, "Proizvodstvennoye Obucheniye" ("Pro-
4uction Training').
Ministry of Labor Reserves since March 15,1953 i- I.% the sew xiaistry of
Culture (Ministerstvo Kul'tnry).
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Adolescents of 16-18 years of age not attending the regular high
school or any other specialized school, are drafted for a period of from
half a year to one year depending on the character of the training. They
are assigned to training schools at factories and mills, are supported by
the government and, after graduation, distributed according to their
specialties.
In addition to the FZO schools, there are two other types of schools
also administered by the Ministerstvo Trudovykh Rezervov (Ministry of Labor
Reserves). They are: Remeslennyye Uchilishcha (Trade Schools) and
Zheleznodorozhnyye Uchilishcha (Railroad Schools). Most of these schools
have courses around two years in length.
Up to 1946, some 4,530,000 workers had received this training. The
goals were enlarged for the Fourth Five-Year Plant, but they were not
achieved. The numbers of graduates from labor reserve schools has declined
since 1948. This decline appears to be a consequence of the raising of
the level of compulsory education to 7 years and the extension of 10-year
education, which reduced the number of students available for training
in special trade schools. The table shows the planned and actual numbers
of workers trained as skilled workers.*
Planned
Actual
19146
450,000
---
1947
760,000
---
1948
980,000
1,000,000
1949
1,090,000
723,000
1950
1,250,000
494,000
1951
1400,000
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B. INTZRMIATB ZDUUTION IN GEMUL
In addition to the ordinary middle school (Srednyaya Shkola) there
are in the U.S.S.R. numerous schools of specialized training known as
"tekhniku (Technicums), Muchilishcha5 and MshkolyM (both latter terms
meaning schools). Generally speaking, technicums give technical and agri-
cultural training, uchilischa offer instruction in education and art, and
shkoly in public health. However, there are many exceptions to this rule.
General supervision of this system is given by the Ministry of Higher
Education, but financial and administrative aspects are handled by the
corresponding ministries and directorates.
Young people enter these schools with a seven year record of middle
school; that is, at the age of 14 or over. The term of instruction is
usually from 3 to It years. However, students with a complete middle school
record of 10 years may also enroll in a technicum. In this case, the
length of instruction is shortened.
Nothing definite can be stated as to the status of these schools.
The situation varies considerably in different branches of science and
technology. The eleven technicums in the system of GUGK are discussed
in detail later in this report. The conclusion derived from a study of
these is that they are certainly above the level of the American high
school and correspond better to the American Junior College of specialized
training. Whether this statement is true of technicums in general is im-
possible to decide without detailed study. It is to be noted that the
Srednyaya Shkola is administered by the Ministry of Enlightment, whereas
technicums, etc., belong to the system controlled by the Ministry of
Higher Education. Therefore, it would seem that the Russians themselves
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consider technicums on a somewhat higher level than ordinary high
schools.
The purpose of technicums is to supply technicians to carry out work
under the direction of engineers. Soviet educators assert (Me ski ,
ref. It pp. 157-159) that intermediate technical education is not a blind
alley out of which there is no exit. A graduate of a technicum can, for
instance, enter an institution of higher education by passing a special
examination after serving three years in the practice of his specialty.
Especially talented young people (up to five percent of the total) may be
released from this compulsory service to institutions of higher education
immediately after graduating from a technicum. (See Appendix B).
The list of technicums, uchilishcha and shkoly as of 1948 is 2 as
follows:
Number of Technicums
1.
Mining and. Fuel Industry
96
2.
Metallurgy
58
3.
Power and Electrical Engineering
167
4.
Chemical and Rubber Industry
34
6
Light and Textile Industry
56
.
Food Industry
110
7.
Lumber and Paper Industr
8.
y
Labor Reserves
53
21
9.
Polygraphic Industry
4
10.
Construction
11.
Transport
151
12.
Communications
148
13
Geolo
G
19
.
gy,
eodesy and Meteorology
21
14.
Industrial Technicums of Various Types
51
15.
Agriculture
16.
Forestry
550
17.
Economics and Law
22
18.
Education
235
19
C
lt
701
.
u
ural - Educational Institutions
73
20.
Art and Crafts
194
21.
Public Health
22.
Physical Culture
635
4_
3,442
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0. RIQM pp4A.TIC
According to the latest data 3 there were 949 institutions of higher
education (Tysshaya Shkola) in the U.S.S.R. In 1950 and 985 in 1952. Another
e)uroe,4 gives for 1946 only 792 institutions. This means that in a six-year
period the number of institutions of higher learning in the U.S.S.R. increas-
e by 93. This is a very significant fact requiring no further comment.
None of these sources mentions the institutions of higher learning
connected with various defense and military organisations. There are at
li ast 30 of these.
The primary task of all these institutions of higher education is,
of course, instruction and training of students. Nevertheless, considerable
research is also being dons, obviously differing in amount and quality from
institution to institution. The main decree pertaining to research work at
the institutions of higher education is that of 8U of February 19, 1944,
No. 179, supplemented by several others. This decree defines the purpose
of research work as follows&
(1) Development in the institutions of higher learning of scientific
ersonnel who are not afraid to depart from the old, conventional, scientific
ethods and who are able to strike out in new directions.
(2) Participation of professors in research necessary for national
conomi and defense of the country and in further progress of science and
culture in the Soviet Union.
Soviet Narodnykh Komissarov - Council of Peoples Comissars, now the
Council of Ministers.
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(3) Improvement of scientific status of professors.
(4) Instruction of students in the formulation and solution of
scientific and technical problems and the selection of the most promising.
students for research work.
There are many forms of encouragement given for research work per-
formed at institutions of higher learning, such as prizes, citations,
additional remuneration, etc. The general idea seems to be to prevent
professors from scientific stagnation and make them participate in the
scientific and industrial life of the entire country.
Decree No. 2000 of SIX dated November 1, 1937, defines the normal
working day for the teaching staff of institutions of higher learning as
six hours. Out of these six hours professors and teachers depending on
this status must devote from 2.25 to 3.550 hours to working with students
with remaining time to be devoted to research and improvement of teach-
ing.
There is. no question that research in institutions of higher educa-
tion is encouraged in every way by the government. There is also no ques-
tion that in some institutions a great deal of research is being done as
is evidenced by the fact that many such institutions publish their own
serial or serials. Some of these, such as the publications of the Moscow
and Leningrad Universities, are very imposing. However, it may well be
that even with the best of intentions professors simply cannot find time
for research because of the demands of their primary responsibility of
teaching.
Recent discussions in Russian literature distinctly indicate that
the amount of research done in the institutions of higher learning is not
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 as great as envisaged by the government. For instance, in discussing the
training of geographers at universities, Y.B. Sementovskiy 5 states that
duties connected with teaching take 90 to 90 percent of a professor's time,
not the 50 percent planned. For research an average professor has only 10
to 20 percent of his time. On the other hand, N. I. Aleksakov,6 reviewing
the situation at the Moscow Institute of Mechanical Engineers, comes to the
conclusion that lack of research simply means lack of organization. Describ-
iig measures taken to increase research at his institute, he states that in
1 scientific personnel had been working on only four topics, but that in
151-54 research projects were underway.
The detailed organization of these numerous institutions of higher
education underwent many changes during the 1917-1950 period. At present
the most important institutions are under the supervision of the Ministry
of Higher Education, U.S.S.R. (Ministerstvo Vysshego Obrazovaniya, SSSR).*
This Ministry has eleven main administrations (Glavnoye Upravleniye) to which
the corresponding institutions are assigned. Thus 33 universities and six
institutes are in the Main Administration of Universities, etc. For the year
of 1950 they were divided as follows:
Administration of
1.
2.
3-
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Total 282 Schools
No. of institutions
39
25
28
22
17
23
8
12
71
27
10
* in the reorganization of March 15, 1953 Ministerstvo Vysshego Obrazovaniya
was combined with two other ministries and various other organizations into
new ministry known now as Ministerstvo Kulttury (Ministry of Culture).
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Universities
Polytechnical Schools
Machine Building Schools
Mining and Metallurgy Schools
Chemical Technology Schools
Civil Engineering Schools
Light Industry Schools
Forestry and Wood Techn. Schools
Agricultural Schools
Economic Schools
Law Schools
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There are many other ministries and administrations in the U.S.S.R. as
well as ministries of individual republics to which other institutions of
higher education are assigned. Of these, at least from the point of view
of numbers, ministries of enlightment to which 377 pedagogical and teachers
institutes are assigned (in 1952). and ministries of health which account for
74 medical institutes (in 1952), are especially important. Regardless of what
Ministry the educational institution is listed under, the Ministry of Higher
Education exercises definite control over programs of instruction, the gen-
eral educational setup and especially in the award of advanced degrees.
In contrast to this network of educational institutions there are some
1,000 research institutes whose primary, and often the only, activity of the
staff is research. Such institutes are attached to the
(a) Academy of Sciences U.S.S.R.. or to the Academies of Sciences
of individual republics. In this system alone there are some
200 research institutes, the main Academy accounting for some-
thing like 60 institutes.
(b) Other Academies (such as the Academy of Agricultural Sciences)
and universities.
(e) Individual ministries, independent bureaus and directorates.
The research institute attached to the Main Administration of
Geodesy and Cartography is known as the Tsentral'nyy Hauehno-
Issledovatel'skiy Institut Geodszii, Aerosoyemki i Kartografii
(that is, Central Scientific-Research Institute of Geodesy,
Aerial Survey and Cartography). The organizational scheme of
such institutes is a very difficult thing to unravel due to
frequent changes and lack of recent Soviet sources. In 1935
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for instance there were 127 research institutes in the
Comissariat of Heavy Industry. This comissariat was re-
placed in 1946 by a number of ministries and the institutes
were accordingly redistributed. It should be noted that
research institutes connected with various ministries of
defense have only identifying numbers and not even mutes.
Such, for instance, is Research Institute No. 108 which was
attached in 1946 to the Comissariat of Electrical Industry.
The highest number so far encountered is No. 627, also assign-
ed to the Ministry of Electrical Industry. The whole problem
of numbered research institutes is part of the system of secrecy
in science and technology which is such more striking in the
U.S.S.R. than in any other country. One might say that science
in the U.S.S.R. is an iceberg, the larger part of which is hidden
from sight.
almost any research institute would have a secret department,
the work of which is not known to the general staff of the insti-
tute. Indeed, references are made to this secret work in official
publications. Projects are sometimes listed in which work has
been carried out but the results withheld from publication.
The Ministry of Higher Education exercises control over
some research institutes, regardless of their affiliation, through
a system of advanced academic degrees and professional titles.
This is done through the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya Komissiya
(Supreme Attestation Committee) of the Ministry.
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Although Soviet degrees were established in 19314, decree No. 464s of
March 20, 1937, re-affirms the following academic degrees:
(1) Candidate of Science,* and
(2) Doctor of Science.
These degrees can be taken in 18 specified branches of study, the
official designation being not simply Doctor of Science, but Doctor of
Technical Sciences, Doctor of Geographical Sciences, etc.
People (aspirants) working for the advanced degrees are assigned to
various specified institutions of higher learning as well as to some
research institutes. The list of these institutions and research insti-
tutes is given in decrees of SNK No. 1464 and No. 558. In 19116 there were
216 institutions which could grant degrees of both candidate and doctor,
and 130 which could grant only the degree of candidate. The number of
these institutions is rapidly increasing. From a report7 on the activity
of the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya Komissiya for the academic year of 19149-
50, it is seen that the number of institutions in the first group was
1470 and in the second, 278.
The fact that the university or research institute does not award the
Doctor's degree, but merely recommends its awarding which is actually done
by the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya Komissiya, is also noteworthy. On the
other hand, the award of the Candidate's degree is made by the institution
in which the study was carried out, but must be confirmed by the Vysshaya
Attestatsionnaya Komissiya.
In 19149-50 the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya Komissiya conferred 484
Doctor's degrees and 14,536 Candidate's degrees-were awarded by different
institutions.
Fora comparison with American degrees, see footnote on p. 22.
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Rules governing training for advanced degrees (aspirantura), lists
of institutions and specialties in which aspirants may work for a degree,
etc'',., may be found in a special publication
Decree No. 464 also establishes professional titles in a two-fold
sequence, one for institutions of higher education and the other for
research institutes. They are as follows:
institutions of Hi er
Education
Research Institutes qualifications
Professor Professor
Doctor's degree
Dotsent Starshiy Nauchnyy Sotrud- Candidate's degree
nik (Senior Scientific
Aide)
Assistent Mladshiy Nauchnyy Sotrud- Diploma Showing
nik (Junior Scientific Completion of
Aide) Higher Education.
The title of Professor. Dotsent and Starshiy Nauchnyy Sotrudnik are
conferred by the Vysshaya Attestatsionnaya Komissiya upon recommendation
of the institution of higher education or of the research institute. The
other titles are conferred by the particular institutions to which the
person is attached. In 1949-50 the Commission conferred the titles:
Professor 571
Dotsent 1811
Starshiy Nauchnyy Sotrudnik 1546
This description, of course, does not give the complete picture of
the Soviet educational and research organization. Besides the official
titles described above there are many employees who are simple called
teachers (prepodavateli) of various types as well as special assistants.
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The peculiar difficulty in following careers of Soviet scientists
is the fact that they are connected with several organizations. One and
the same person may be listed on the staff of half a dozen institutes.
This is to be explained by the low pay of professors who had to have
several jobs in order to stay alive as well as by the rapid expansion
of the educational and research institute system and consequent lack of
qualified personnel.
However, with the introduction of a standardized system, this multiple
employment is to be permitted no longer according 9 to the decree of March 6,
1944. It would appear that the Soviets consider that they have finally solved
the problem of sufficient scientific personnel.
Footnote: A comparison of Soviet and American academic degrees is not
simper The Candidate of Science degree has been variously equated with
the American Master's and Doctorate degrees. On the basis of formal
requirements, the Candidate degree is conferred after the completion of
three years of post-graduate study and the defense of a dissertation.
This would appear to make it comparable to an American Master's degree
plus the completion of pre-doctoral requirements. On this basis the
Soviet and American Doctorate degrees are more nearly comparable since
both require only the preparation and defense of a Doctoral dissertation.
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II. CARTOGRAPHIC AND GEODETIC INSTRUCTION
Cartographic and geodetic training in the U.S.S.R. is offered in such
general schools of higher education as universities and technical institutes
as cell as in specialized schools of geodesy and cartography. The difference
in he point of view between these two types of schools is the emphasis on
theory in the first and on practical applications in the second.
At universities the larger subdivisions are known as "faculties"
(falkul'tet) each of which has a number of "chairs" (kafedra). The chair
consists of a chairman, usually a senior professor with a doctor's degree,
andla number of other professors, dotsents, teachers, etc. Generally,
cartographic instruction is given in the faculties of geography, instruction
in geodesy in the physical-mathematical faculties. Detailed data concerning
university training in geography is available, but our information pertaining
to eodesy is less voluminous. Although it is probable that some instruction
in geodesy is given at all universities, only two of them (Voronezh and Lenin-
grad) are listed as offering advanced degrees in that science. In addition,
three universities (Moscow, Kazan' and Leningrad) offer advanced degrees in
grarimetry.
A. UNIVERSITIES
The search for data concerning the training of geographers in the
U.SI.S.R. takes us back to 1994 when geography first began to be taught at
uni*ersities. In 1910 at St. Petersburg a Geographical Bureau was estab-
lia ted to coordinate the teaching and research in geography. In 1916 an
institute of Geography was opened in St. Petersburg and existed until 1924
when it became the Geographical Faculty of Leningrad University. Even then
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the institute was a very large organization. In 1920 it had 16 chairs,
22 laboratories and 715 students 10 At the present time there is no special
institute of geography for training of students outside of universities. It
is interesting to note that the re-establishment of such a central institute
is now advocated 11
The contribution made by universities toward the mapping and charting
of the U.S.S.R, can by no means be neglected. They train teachers of geo-
graphy for schools of higher education, research workers for the Academies
of Sciences and research institutes, as well as professional cartographers
for organizations engaged in mapping activities. In addition to training
of students, an impressive amount of research is being done at universities
on the problems of geography, cartography and astronomy in its geodetic
application.
The necessity for employment of trained and experienced geographers to
collect and edit cartographic materials was realized as early as 1924, and
in 1936 professional geographers were added to the staff of various aerogeo-
detic establishments. Since then several orders have been issued by the GUGK
finally culminating in No. 321 order of October 29, 1945. This order defined
the character and contents of geographic work in connection with the mapping
of the territory as follows 121
The work of the geographer would consist of
(1) Preparatory investigation, collection of available materials, etc.
(2) Field work for the purpose of interpretation of aerial photographs,
editing of maps and compilation of geographic descriptions.
(3) Collection and transcription of geographic names.
(4) Laboratory interpretation of aerial survey material.
(5) Editing of compiled sheets.
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(6) Preparation of geographic descriptions.
In regard to the last item it should be noted that by order No. 101
of the GUGK of May 9, 1944, geographic descriptions must accompany all
topographic surveys and be uniformly arranged according to headings on
climatology, geology, relief, hydrography, soil and vegetation and animal
life. Source (12) states that in 1948 all aerogeodetic establishments pos-
sessed a large number of such descriptions.
Soviet writers maintain that the training of geographers can be done
only at universities. Indeed, one of the resolutions of the conference of
senior workers of the GUGK on May 23-26, 1945 called on universities to
establish the necessary facilities to train geographers required by the
GtJGK 13.
Although exact data are unavailable, the number of geographers directly
connected with the GUGK must be rather large, at least 100. In 1945 there
were five geographers at the Moscow Aerogeodetic Establishment. This number
w s considered to be "utterly inadequate"14. Even in 1945 the total number
o geographers in the system of the GUGK, judged by the above figure, must
have been 50 to 60. In addition, it is known that other mapping agencies
such as the Voyenno-Topograficheskaya Slushba (Military Topographic Service),
the Glavsevmorput' (Main Administration of the North Sea Route) and many
o''ther local agencies employ geographers for cartographic purposes. Therefore,
it is probable that the total number of such geographers may be at least 500,
and probably many more.
Can the country furnish so many professional geographers? There cannot
be much question that it can and does, although exact figures of enrollment
and staff at individual universities are not available. We do know, however,
that 1,113 degrees in geography were granted at Moscow University during the
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period of 1917-1950. Of these, 479 were conferred during the last five
years or approximately 100 per year. In 1950 5,250 students were enrolled
in the faculties of geography of all universities. The annual output of
geographers must be then in the neighborhood of 1,000 per year 15. It is
to be remembered that the period of training in Soviet universities is now
five years.
These estimates are in fair agreement with those of the attendance at
the 2nd All Union Congress of Geography, January 25-31, 1947. At this
meeting 544 delegates attended, 90 percent of whom were university teachers
or research workers. Among these were 34 members of the Academies, 140
doctors of science and 226 candidates of science. The present membership
of the All Union Geographic Society is over 4,000, most of whom are pro-
fessional geographers.
Sofar as the university training of geographers is concerned we must
distinguish two cases: simple instruction :n geography and intensive training.
The latter case is indicated by the existence of "specialties" in geographic
sciences and usually means that students can work for the advanced degrees of
candidate or doctor at such schools.
Statistics concerning the university training of geographers are note-
worthy. Of the 33 universities in the U.S.S.R., 27 offer geographic training
in six general specialties. The following table gives the notations adopted
for these specialties:
Specialties ?pecializations
1. Physical Geography a. History of Geography
b. Physical Geography
c. Geography of Polar Regions
d. Geography of Soils
e. Geography of Plants
f. Geography of Animals
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3.
Economic Geography
Cartography
a.
b.
Economic Geography U.S.S.R.
Economic Geography of Foreign Countries.
4.
Climatology and Meteorology
5?
Hydrology
a.
Hydrology of Land
6.
Geomorphology
b.
Oceanography
Specialties it 2 and 5 are further broken into several specializations
of! which Moscow University offers all, exception specialization if and Lenin-
grad University offers all, except specialization le.
A recent discussion by one of the most outstanding cartographers in the
U.S.S.R. is availablei6. It discusses the entire problem of training carto-
graphera in the U.S.S.R. The author maintains that the training given to
f.ture cartographers at special institutions such as the Moscow Institute
Of Engineers of Geodesy, Aerial Survey and Cartography produces good tech-
nicians able to make a good map if furnished the necessary material but that
the selection and analysis of material can be done only by geographers train-
e at universities. The difference, then, between the two types of training
ii that of form and content.
We have at our disposal the official handbook 3 for entrants to the
S viet institutions of higher education of edition 1950 and 1952. A coan-
ison of these two editions reveals many changes indicating lack of ata-
P
b lity of Soviet educational system. Macey new schools were established in
these two years, others chamged their naass and programs.
Sofar as the universities are concerned, there were 32 of them in 1950
and 33 in 1952. Between 1950 and 1952 the Kaunas University became Kaunas
Pclytechnieal Institute, and two new universities were organizedt Kirgizskiy
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(in Frunze) and Turkmenskiy (in Ashkhabad).
The training in geography in Soviet universities is given either in
special faculties of geography, or in faculties combining geology and geo-
graphy (Geologo-Geograficheskiy F'akul'tet). At two universities (Vil'no
and Tartu) students can become specialized in geography in the faculties of
natural science. The trend in geographic training between the years 1950
and 1952 can be represented by the following tablet
TRAINING IN GEOGRAPHY IN SOVIET UNIVERSITIES
LM
1 m
Separate Faculties of Geography
18
14
Combined Faculties of Geology and
Geography
6
2
Total
26
27
It would seem that geography is not as strongly emphasized in 1952
as in 1950, but very little can be asserted on the basis of this table alone.
The combination of geology with geography is quite natural, and such subjects
as geomorphology, considered by the Soviets as a geographic discipline, can
as well be included in the cycle of geological sciences. However, further
comparison of the sources of 1950 and 1952 indicates rather definitely that
the training in geography was not as well provided for in 1952 as in 1950.
The data of these two sources are combined in Table I. It includes 28 univer-
sities of which one (Uzbekskiy. No. 21) ceased to offer specialty in geography
between 1950 and 1952. Those universities that had separate faculties of geo-
graphy in 1952 have an asterisk after their number. In the list of specialties
those abolished by 1952 are put in parenthesis. Furthermore, for many univer-
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sities the specialties physical geography and economic geography, distin-
guished in 1950, are called simply "geography" in 1952. For such cases
specialty No. 2, physical geography, has an interrogation sign.
The most remarkable reduction of training is in cartography. Instead
of nine universities offering this specialty in 1950, only five continued
to do so in 1952. The reason for this situation could not be established.
It may indicate an abundance of cartographers produced by the professional
schools, or simply lack of competent instructors.
TABLE I
SPECIALTIES IN GEOGRAPHY
1950-1952
University
Specialties
1
2
3
4 5
1. #zerbeydzhanskiy (Baku)
2. Belorusekiy (Minsk)
*
* Voronezhakiy (Voronezh)
3
*
7*
(*)
(*) *
.
4. Dnepropetrovakiy (Dnepropetrovsk)
*
7*
5.* Yerevanskiy (Yerevan)
*
*
6. Irkutskiy (Irkutsk)
*
7
(*)
7.* Kazanskiy (Kazan')
*
*
(*)
8. Kazakhshiy (Alma.-Ata)
*
7*
9.* Kiyevskiy (Kiyev)
*
*
*
* *
*
10.* Latviyskiy (Riga)
*
7*
11.* Leningradekiy (Leningrad)
*
*
*
* *
*
12.* L'?sovskiy (L'vov)
*
*
*
13. Molotovskiy (Molotov)
*
t
(*)
*
14.* Moskovskiy (Moscow)
*
*
*
* *
*
15. Odeeskiy (Odessa)
*
7*
* *
16. Rostovskiy (Rostov)
*
7*
17.* Saratovskiy (Saratov)
*
*
*
*
18.* Sredneaziatekiy (Tashkent)
*
7*
(*)
*
19. Thilisskiy (Tbilisi)
*
7*
* *
20.* Tomskiy (Tomsk)
*
7*
*
21. Uzbekekiy (Samarkand)
(*)
22.* Ural'skiy (Sverdlovsk)
*
7*
+
* Khar'kovskiy (Khar':cov)
23
*
7*
.
*
*
24.* Chernovitskiy (Chernovitsy)
25. Vil'n'usskiy (Vil'nyus)
*
+
*
7
*
*
26. Tartuskiy (Tartu)
*
7
27. Kirgisskiy (prunse)
*
7
28. Turkmenalciy (Ashkhabad)
*
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The most striking characteristic of Soviet geography, as of Soviet
science in general, is its directness, a directness toward a single
goal. xway samples may be offered to illustrate this point. At the
above mentioned 2nd All Union Geographic Congress almost every paper
(of which there were over 200) dealt with specific applications of
geographical methods for mapping of natural resources, exploration of
marginal territories, cartography, etc. Special emphasis is placed
on the interaction of man and nature, and pointed toward Soviet attempts
better to control nature. Volume 23 of the serial, "Voprosy Geografii0
(1950), is devoted entirely to the subject of "Nature of the Steppes and
of forest-Steppes and its Transformation." The theme appears to be to
define the role of geographers in this national project. The Institute
of Geography of the Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., is bitterly criti-
cized for its detachment from this problem of the control of nature.
The character of training in geography given at universities is
best known for Moscow University. Here emphasis is on practice.
Large and small expeditions are sent to all parts of the country.
After the war these included large expeditions to Eastern Siberia,
the Caspian Depression and the Central Chernozem Region. The re-
sults of these expeditions were published as follows;
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Eastern Siberia - 12 papers, totaling 500 pages.
Caspian Depression - 12 papers, totaling 400 pages.
Central Chernozem Region - 15 papers, totaling 1,000 pages.
In 1950 16 aspirants, 127 senior students and 55 members of the
staff participated in these expeditions. Response of local agencies
to the results of such expeditions appears to be quite enthusiastic.
In 1949 the ispolkom (governing body) of Irkutsk Oblast' petitioned the
Ministry of Higher Education and the Moscow University administration to
allow the Geographic Faculty of the university to continue its work of
exploration in that province "since the complex study of nature and economy
carried out by university expeditions is necessary for the rapidly expanding
industrial economy of Eastern Siberia" 11~
Much the same picture of activity could be drawn for the Faculty of
Geography at Leningrad University, although perhaps on a somewhat smaller
kale.
The relative strength of various geographical faculties can be judged
by their right to accept aspirants for the degree of doctor or candidate
Of science. The list of subjects in which aspirants can do work reads
somewhat differently from the list of specialties given in Table I. The
following (Table II) represents information extracted from source (g) of
1949 and gives a list of universities authorized to give training for both
doctor's and candidate's degree (D) in specified subjects or only the Degree
Of Candidate (K). The number gives to each university is the same as that
Of Table I.
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AIWAKM 4iBai8 iH SOGRAPiiS
An Rs' Sit ali
1.
Azerbaydzhanskiy
K:
Physical Geography; Economic Geography
2.
Belorueskiy
K:
Physical Geography; Economic Geography
3.
Toronezhskiy
D;
It
Economic Geography
Climatology; Cartography and Geodesy
7.
Kazanskiy
D$
Kt
Physical Geography; Gravimetry
Climatology
9.
Kiyevskiy
K:
Physical Geography; Economic Geography
10.
Latvivskiy
K:
Geography of U.S.S.R.; General Physical Geography
11.
Leningradekiy
Dt
Physical Geography; Economic Geography;
Botanical Geography; Geomorphology; Hydrology
of Land; Cartography; Climatology; Oceanography;
Geodesy and Gravimetry
12.
L'vovekiy
K:
Physical Geography
13.
Molotovakiy
K:
Physical Geography
14.
Mostovskiy
D:
Physical Geography; Economic Geography;
Cartography; Gravimetry
16.
Rostovskiy
K:
Economic Geography
17.
Saratovskiy
K:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
13.
Sredneaziatakiy
D:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
19.
Tbilisskiy
D:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
20.
Tomskiy
K:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
23.
Khar'kovskiy
K:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
25.
Vil'nyusskiy
It
Physical Geography
27.
Mosk. Pod. Institut.im. Potemkin. D:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
28.
Mosk. Ped. Institut in. Lenina D:
Physical Geography;
Economic Geography
Except for the scale the structure of the Geographical Faculty of Moscow
University is probably typical of all universities. The faculty consists of
14 chairs under chairmen who are not necessarily the strongest specialists in
the subject. Each chair has, in addition to a chairman, four or five pro-
fessors, dotsents or teachers. The total number of persons in the teaching
and research staff was 95 in 1950. The faculty is headed by the dean (K. K.
Markov) who is also chairman of the paleogeography section.
In 1949 there was the following organization of the Geographic Faculty
of Moscow University 17.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5-
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13-
14.
General Physical Geography (Professor B.P. Orlov).
Physical Geography U.S.S.R. (Dotsent A.I. Solov'yev)
Physical Geography of Foreign Countries (Professor A.S. Barkov)
Economic Geography of the U.S.S.R. (Professor Yu. G. Saushkin)
Economic Geography of Foreign Countries (Professor I.A. Vitver)
Geomorphology (Professor I.S. Shchukin)
Geodesy and Cartography (Dotsent P.V. Dentin)
Hydrology (Professor S.D. Muraveyskiy)
Climatology (Professor H.P. Alisov)
Botanical Geography (Professor V.R. Sukachev)
Geography of Soils (Professor I.P. Gerasimov)
Paleogeography (Professor I.K. Markov)
Geography of the Arctic (Professor V.G. Bogorov)
History of Geography (Professor K.A. Salishchev)
The faculty of geography also includes a research institute of geo-
graphy (Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut Geografii) and three geographic
stations for student training.
The relationship between the research institute and the faculty of geo-
graphy is not quite clear. Apparently, personnel is much the same for both
with a few additional people assigned to the institute with research duties
only. Of the 65 participants in expeditions of the Moscow University organ-
i;Iled by the faculty of geography and by the research institute, 13 hold the
title of "sotrudnik", implying research duties only 18.
Detailed information on the structure of geographic education is not as
available for Leningrad University as it is for Moscow University. In a
discussion of the work of the faculty of geography at Leningrad 19 17 members
of the faculty are mentioned. The total number of the members of the faculty
must, therefore, be more than 17, perhaps 30 or 40, but, at any rate, smaller
than at Moscow. The dean of the faculty is Professor S.S. guznetsov. The
Leningrad faculty of geography has its own research institute known as "Geo-
giafo-Economicheskiy Institut", the work of which apparently emphasizes
economic geography. One of the participants in the discussion was a "Starshiy
NNuchnyy Sotrudnik" (Senior Scientific Aide), a research title.
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The problem of geographical education in the U.S.S.R. is apparently
now quite acute. The Ministry of Higher Education established a commission
to look into the matter and some of its recommendations are available 1 5.
One difficulty is undoubtedly the lack of qualified personnel to give proper
instruction to so many students. In 1951 the staff of geographical faculties
of universities included 61 doctors and 131 candidates, of which one half
were either at Moscow or Leningrad universities. Assuming the same ratio of
doctors and dotsents to other instructors as at Moscow University, the total
number of instructors in geography at all universities must approximate 340.
This gives the ratio of students to instructors as between 15 and 16, which
is considered quite "inadequatee. The suggested remedy is to separate in-
struction at universities into two categories, one for teachers and another
for prospective workers in research institutes and production establishments.
This latter training will be given only at the strongest universities - Moscow,
Leningrad, Kazan' and Tashkent.
Table II lists degrees in gravimetry and geodesy which are conferred by
faculties other than those of geography. The contribution of universities
to the subject of gravimetry has been very large, especially before the war.
The universities of Leningrad, Moscow, Kazan' and Tashkent (Sredneaziatskiy)
are especially important in this respect. In 1949 the chairman of gravimetry
at Moscow University was Professor L.V. Sorokin, one of the outstanding gravi-
metrists in the U.S.S.R., especially known for his undersea measures of gra-
vity.
Another connection of Moscow University with geodesy is through the
Aetronomicheskiy Institut in. Shternberga (Sternberg Astronomical Institute)
where an amazingly detailed study of the methods of determination and of
variation of astronomical time is being carried on.
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The problem of research versus teaching is as acute in Soviet univer-
sities as anywhere also. In large centers like Leningrad and Moscow a great
deal of research is accomplished by the university staff. In provincial
universities the situation is probably not as favorable for research. At
least we have the complaint of a geographer 5 from Kazan$ that much more
,time than the stipulated 50 percent must be devoted to teaching activities
and less to research.
In order to give a rounded picture of Soviet training in geography
mention must be made of the Pedagogicheskiy Instituty (Pedagogical Insti-
tutee). These institutes are primarily designed for the training of
teachers for middle schools (Srednyaya shkola) but considerable research
of local significance is carried on in some of them. This research re-
sults in such items as gQide-books, detailed investigations in the geo-
graphy of individual regions, compilations of bibliographies, etc.
Of the 137 pedagogical institutes, 65 had specialties of geography
in 1952. Two of them is Moscow (Table II) can even accept aspirants for
,the degree of doctor of geographical sciences.
Teachers' institutes (Uchitel'akiye instituty) prepare teachers as
elementary school instructors. Of these institutes, 162 offer specialties
in geography (1952)..
The total number of students majoring in geography in both types of
institutes in 1951 was 22,500 15.
Soviet authors attach extraordinary significance to the availability
of so many persons with a geographical background. The two volumes of
Voprosy Geografii', No. 23 (1950) and No. 25 (1951), are largely devoted
to a discussion of the role of teachers of geography in regional studies
(krayevedeniye) and in inculcating students with the idea of man's mastery
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over nature. In the words of S.Y. Kalesnik, a noted glaciologist at
Leningrad University, "geography used to mean the study of landscape;
with us geography is control over landscape."
B. OTHER INSTITUTIONS 07 HIGHCR EDUCATION
1. Khar'kovskiy Inzhenerno-Stroitel'nyy Institut (Khar'kov Institut
of Civil Engineers), Khar'kov, Sumakaya No. 40.
Prior to World War II this Institute was very active in the training
of geodesists. Its faculty of geodesy was described as being one of the
three geodetic schools in the U.S.S.R. 20, along with the Moscow and Novo-
sibirsk Institutes of Engineers of Geodesy. In 1940 the Kharkov Institute
of Civil Engineers graduated 89 geodesists. For the school year, 1940-1941,
the following enrollment figures were sets
Moscow 400 students
Novosibirsk 150 students
Kharkov 75 students
Perhaps prior to 1939 there existed an independent institute of geodesy
in Khar'iov. For 1939 we have 21 a definite statement that the Kharkov
Institute of Civil Engineers had faculties of (a) architecture, (b) construc-
tion and (c) geodesy. The latter was subdivided into departments of geodesy
and gravimetry, and of photo-geodesy (apparently photogrammetry). In the
official reference books of 1950 and 1952 the geodetic faculty is not mention-
ed, whereas faculties (a) and (b) with two other faculties are described 3.
As to the reasons for this change, nothing definite can be asserted.
Obviously it was connected with the re-organization of training in the Ukraine
after the disruption produced by the war. As a similar change occurred in the
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school described in Section 2, perhaps we may infer that the Soviets consider
the two professional schools of geodesy in Moscow and Novosibirsk adequate
2. L'vovskiy Politekhnicheskiy Institut (L'vov Politechnical Institute)
Lvov, Ulitsa Staling, No. 12.
The reference book 3 of 1950 lists a separate geodetic faculty with
specializations in astronomy-geodesy and in surface field geodetic work.
The 1952 edition of this book does not mention this faculty. Instead of
it we find specialties astronomy-geodesy and engineering geodesy in the Geo-
i logic Prospecting Faculty. It would seem that general training in geodesy
is no longer given in this school.
3. Moskovskiy Institut Inzhenerov Zemleustrosystva (Moscow Institute
,of Land Surveyors), Moscow, Ulitsa Kazakova No. 15.
This institute has two faculties, one of land surveying and the other
of geodesy. The description of its training in geodesy reads, "the engineers
should be able to conduct land and aerial photographic surveys of large farm-
ling territories and prepare special maps". The training in geodesy appears
to be restricted to practical application of surveying.
4. Leningradskoye Vyssheye Arkticheskoye Uchilishche (Leningrad Hii er
Arctic School), Leningrad, M. Okhta, Zanevskiy, No. 5.
Nothing is known about this school beyond the fact that it is in the
it
system of the Glavsevmorput' and offers candidate degrees in hydrography,
'astronomy and geodesy. The training of geodesy is obviously connected with
Arctic surveys. The contents of the publications of this school ("Uchenyye
Zapiski", Vol. 1, 1949) reveal the existence of the chairs of astronomy and
geodesy.
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5. Timiryazevskaya Sel'skokozyaystvennaya Akademiya (Timiryazev
Agricultural Academy)* Moscow, Novoye Shosse, No. 51.
Very little is known about the geodesy curriculum of this Academy
except that in 1946 a Kafedra Geodezii was included in a description of
the Academy's activities 22. In a later reference 23 the subject of geo-
desy is not mentioned. Presumably, geodetic work had been restricted to
land use surveys of some sort but nothing is definitely known at this
time.
6. L'vovskiy Sel'skokhozyaystven Institut (L'vov Agricultural
Institute), L'vov, ploshchad' Bogdana Khmel'nitskogo, No. 1.
A source 24 of 1948 lists this institute as offering a "Speciality"
in geodesy. A later reference 23 does not include the subject in its
curriculum. Geodetic work of the institute probably was much the same as
that of (5) above.
7. Voronezhskiy Sel'skokhozyaystvennyy Institut (Voronezh Agricultural
Institute), Voronezh, U1. Lornonosova, 29.
Information on the geodetic activities of this Institute is exactly
the same as for (6) above.
8. Omskiy Sel'skokhozyaystvennyy Institut (Omsk Agricultural Institute
Omsk, Staraya Zagorodnaya Roshcha.
A reference 3 of 1950 states that this Institute still offered a spec-
ialty in geodesy at that time.
9. Voyenno-Inzhenernaya Akademiya imeni V.V. Sybysheva. (Military
Engineering Academy) in Moscow.
This institution trains engineers for the army. It is known that it
has a department of geodesy and cartography, but very little about its de-
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1 tailed activities has been found. Several books, however, published by
this academy have been found and they indicate considerable research in
geodesy, cartography and photogrammetry.
This and the following academy is listed among those institutions
authorized to train students for advanced. degrees.
10. Toyenno-Tozdushnaya Akademiya imeni N. E. Zhukovskogo (Military
Air Academy) in Moscow (not to be confused with a similar academy in Lenin-
grad).
This academy publishes a MTrudyN of which No. 102 appeared in 1944.
None of this serial is available. The notice describing its contents, how-
ever, indicates considerable interest in the problems of geodesy and photo-
grammetry.
11. Voyenno-Topograficheskaya Shkola (Military Topographers School)
in Leningrad.
This training school for topographers has a status lower than that of
the Military Engineering Academy.
Total enrollment in these three military schools in geodesy and carto-
graphy must be rather large, of the order of about 500 people. Annual
graduation of engineers specializing in geodesy should thus be in the
neighborhood of 100.
A total number of engineers in geodesy, cartography and photogrammetry
in the U.S.S.R. is undoubtedly large, approximating 10,000. This would ex-
clude civil engineers carrying out cadastral work, ordinary surveyors, tech-
nicians, etc.
If we restrict our attention to the post-revolutionary period we can
offer the following estimates:
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Graduates of the MIIGAiI
6,000
Graduates of the NIIGAil
1,000
Lhar'kov Inzh.Stroit.Inst.
500
Other civilian schools
500
Military schools
2,000
Total 10,000 graduates
C. SPECIAL SCHOOLS 01 JUGAU EX-CATION
GEODESY A CARTOGRAPHY
At the present time there are two institutes for engineers of geodesy,
aerial surveying and cartography, one in Moscow and the other in Novosibirsk,
which we designed primarily for the training of scientific personnel in the
fields of geodesy and cartography. Until 1946, both institutes were directly
under the GUGY but are now listed in the system of the Ministry of Culture.
In organization they are very similar but the Moscow Institute is such larger
and of a higher standing than the Novosibirsk Institute.
1. Moskovskiy Institut Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aerofotos"yemki i Lartografii
(MIIGAig)
Moscow, Gorokhovskiy Persulok, No. 4.
This institute has a long history. It was founded in 1799 as 1Constantiaov
skiy Mezhevoy Institut (Constantine Institute of Surveying) which name it re-
tained until 1917. Between 1917 and 1930 it was known as the Moskovskiy Mezhevoy
Institut. In 1930 the part of the Institute dealing with Cadastral Surveying
became the Institut Inzhenerov Zemleustroystva (Institute of Land Surveyors,
described in Section B) and the faculty of Geodesy of the Mezhevoy Institute
was reorganized into a new institute called the Moskovskiy Geodezicheskiy In
stitut, with five departments: astronomic-geodetic, photo-geodetic, cartographic-
geodetic, geodetic instrumentation and municipal planning. In 1936 the institute
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was given its present name and largely its present structure.
The history of this institute is, of course, very involved and need
not be dealt with here. It is enough to say that the emphasis between
1799 and 1917 was almost exclusively on practical surveying. There was
vary little research work in, or even teaching of, higher geodesy. Never-
theless, as is true of almost any institution of higher education in Russia,
after 1905 rapid development toward the improvement of both the quality and
quantity of teaching and research took place in the institute.
Despite this inadequacy in teaching facilities the institute, before
the revolution produced such first class geodesists and cartographers as
F.N. Krasovskiy, A.S. Chebotarev, M.D. Solov'yev, V.V. Danilov, and many
others who were able later to organize and direct teaching and research in
geodesy on a much larger scale. This situation is typical of Soviet reality.
The few scientists and engineers of the old school who remained loyal to the
government were given the means and opportunity to organize teaching and re-
search in their specialty and were able to produce an entirely new generation
of scientists and engineers.
a. PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION
Programs of instruction, revised several times, were finally consolidated
in 1939. These programs, with but few changes, are still in force. These
changes were due largely to the introduction of additional subjects to be
taught which in turn necessitated an increase (in 1949) of the length of
the period of instruction from 4 years, 8 months to 5 years, 6 months 240
The list 25 of 62 subjects taught in 1939, is organized under four
faculties, of which the cartographic faculty has three departments. They
are as follows:
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L. Geodetic faculty
2. Aerophotogsodetic faculty
3a. Cartographic faculty, cartographic-geodetic department.
3b. Cartographic faculty, map compilation department.
30. Cartographic faculty, polygraphic department.
4. Optical-mechanical faculty.
In the following table this information is condensed into 18 areas
of instruction and the number of hours of instruction is given in each
faculty or department according to the above scheme.
PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION
Subjects
Departments
Ja
3b
3c
4
Political Science
380
380
380
390
380
380
Foreign Languages
250
250
250
250
250
250
Physical and Military Training
290
290
290
290
290
290
Mathematics
741
612
417
417
527
702
Physics
196
290
164
164
173
299
Chemistry and Photography
99
242
152
152
563
126
Drawing
136
122
253
344
536
164
Geodesy and Astronomy
1022
677
755
524
-
207
Geography and Geology
159
95
664
664
-
-
Cartography
149
150
505
937
367
-
Applied Optics
-
69
-
-
-
439
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TABLE III (cont'd)
1 2 a 3b 3c 4
Radio 68
Geophysics and GraTimetry
256
Photogrammetry and Aerial
Surveying
295
962
200
81
-
132
Statistics and Economics
119
-
-
Map Technology
1060
Technology of Metals
-
-
-
-
222
1529
anisation of Production
Qr
179
102
136
95
140
100
g
Total
4197
4230
4168
4317
4508
4606
hours
This program of instruction was somewhat modified in 1943, but the
number of the faculties remained four. The change amounted only in taking
the department of cartographic geodesy from the Cartographic Faculty and
putting it into
,specialty being
ed the Geodetic
the Geodetic Faculty as one of the two specialties, the other
Astronomic Geodesy. The Optical Mechanical Faculty was renam-
Instrumentation Faculty.
In 1950 a reorganization 43 more or less reverted to the 1938 scheme.
!The four faculties were the same as in 1943, but the Geodetic Faculty had
two specialtie3j Astronomic Geodesy and Surface Geodesy; the Cartographic
Faculty also had two specialties, May Compilation and Map Production (corres-
ponding to the Polygraphic Department of 1938).
The scheme of instruction of 1936 is the latest detailed scheme available
at the present time. The plan of 1943 introduced, not a change of emphasis,
but an overall increase of instruction hours in key subjects according to
specialties. The percentage increase of the hours is described by Zubakov
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and Zakatov 26 as follows:
Geodetic Faculty: Astronomic-Geodetic Specialty
Gravimetry: increased 37 percent
Geophysics: increased 100 percent
Cartographic Geodes Specialty
Geodesy: increased 28 percent
Higher Geodesy: increased 14 percent
Field Astronomy: increased 66 percent
Compilation of maps: increased 23 percent
New subjects introduced: Field cartographic-geodetic work
Application of geodesy to engineering
Aerophotogeodetic Faculty
Mechanics and Instrumentation: increased 62 percent
Aerial Photography: increased 58 percent
Physics and Applied Optics: increased 15 percent
New subject introduced: Applications of Aerial Surveying
Cartographic Faculty
Geodesy: increased 50 percent
Geography: increased 12 percent
Map Editing: increased 50 percent
Geodetic Instrumentation Facult;
Geodesy and Practical Astronomy: increased 70 percent
New subject introduced: Geodetic Instrumentation 186 hours.
Aspirants for the degree of "doctor" or "candidate" of technical
sciences may work in the following specialties 8:
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1. Astronomy
2. Geodesy
3-
Higher Geodesy
4. Gravimetry
5. Field Cartography
6. Mathematical Cartography
7. Compilation and Editing of Maps
8. Map Production
9. Map Design
10. Photogrammetry
11. Aerial Surveying
12. Instrumentation
13. Applied Optics
14. Specialized Technology
15. Physical Geography
Each of the above-named specialties requires the existence of a chair,
involving one professor (chairman) and several other professors, dotsents,
assistants and teachers. In fact, in 1939 ten of the chairs in the list
(No. 1-3; 6-7; 10; 12-14) are mentioned in addition to the chair of math -
matics in which no aspirants were allowed, and a general statement is made
of the existence of 24 chairs 25.
In 1949 two new chairs were established 24, one in applied geodesy and
economics and another in the organization of geodetic and cartographic pro-
duction. The number of chairs at the present time may well be 30.
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b. DEFINITION OF AIMS
The latest statement concerning training aims 23 reads somewhat differ-
ently from that appearing in the same handbook of 1947- Apparently no stabil-
ization in the definition of aims of geodetic and cartographic training has
yet been achieved and further changes are possible. In 1950 we have the follow-
specificationsi
Geodetic Faculty, Astronomic-Geodetic Specialty. The training of engin-
eers is based on the fundamental study of the problems of higher geodesy,
theory of the figure of the earth, geophysics, gravimetry and practical
astronomy.
Geodetic Faculty, Surface Geodetic Work. The training of engineers is
based on a study of physics, mathematics, geography and engineering.
Engineers of this specialty should be able to conduct investigations
for large engineering projects, such as railroads and highways, canals, hydro-
electric stations, irrigation and drainage systems, etc.
Aerophotogeodetie Faculti. In the training of engineers in this group,
much emphasis is placed on physics, applied optics, mechanics, geodetic instru-
mentation, geodesy and photogrammetry.
Aerophotogeodetic engineers are expected to conduct both field and lab-
oratory geodetic and photogrammetric work for the purpose of preparing large
scale maps.
Cartographic Facult - Compilation of Maps Specialty. In the training
of engineers in this specialty much attention is paid to cartography, as well
as to geodesy and geography. The engineer must be able to deal with already
available material which should be selected, analysed and used for the com-
pilation of maps. He should also have a sound foundation in chemistry, physics
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and polygraphy. Such engineers usually find employment in the map com-
pilation departments of cartographic factories.
Cartographic Faculty, Production of Maps Specialty. In this group,
the emphasis in training is on cartography as well as on colloidal chemis-
try and polygraphy.
Geodetic Instrumentation Faculty. Here, training is based on the
general engineering course, obligatory for all engineering schools, as
well as on courses specifically dealing with geodetic instruments.
The engineers are expected to be highly qualified experts in the
construction of geodetic instruments and other optical and mechanical
apparatus used in cartographic and geodetic production. Such engineers
are generally employed in factories making precision instruments.
c. ENR0LLJ NT
Detailed figures for
1919-1939 are 25.
for the period
1919
66 students
1926
67 students
1933
125 students
1920
70 students
1927
50 students
1934
175 students
1921
185 students
1928
53 students
1935
190 students
1922
246 students
1929
80 students
1936
125 students
1923
256 students
1930
220 students
1937
260 students
1924
105 students
1931
250 students
1939
310 students
1925
no data
1932
175 students
1939
420 students
The above figures total (assuming an average enrollment for 1925 and
including 100 students in night classes) about 3,500 students admitted. It
is stated that in the period between 1919-1939, 2,500 engineers were grad-
uated from the institute, a figure representing about 70 percent of those
entering. This may be considered a good record.
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Annual enrollment for the years of 1940-41 was planned to include
400 students, and this figure probably remains about the same at the
present time. Adopting this figure as the number of entrants, and 70
percent of these as graduated, the annual graduation would amount to
about 280 engineers, or 3,640 for the period 1940-1952. With the definite
figure of 2,500 for the period of 1919-1939, it is evident that the Moscow
Institute alone has contributed to Soviet geodesy and cartography no fewer
than 6,000 highly qualified engineers.
These figures, imposing as they are, constitute only part of the pio-
tore. The system of correspondence training (zaoehnoye obrazovaniye) and
night schools is very well developed in the U.S.S.R. Correspondence train-
ing was especially prevalent before the war when the lack of experts was
keenly felt, but even now there are some institutes of higher education
which give only correspondence training. The idea behind these schools
is, of course, to provide technical education for those who for some reason.
cannot become full-time students. Paralleling this training for advanced
degrees, special courses were established for fully qualified engineers
wishing to become acquainted with newer methods and developments in their
specialty.
The Moscow Institute of Engineers of Geodesy, along with other in-
stitutes, established such courses in 1938. The response was immediate and
overwhelming. In less than two months over 700 applications were received.
and the enrollment had to be closed. These correspondence courses existed
for some time and then were discontinued and have not been mentioned since
the war. Apparently the lack of engineers was relieved by the establishment
of another institute in Novosibirsk in 1940.
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The number of higher degrees conferred by the MIIGAi$ must be rather
jlarge and probably exceeds 100. The only definite evidence in this respect
is for the year 1950. In that year five doctor and 14 candidate disserta?-
tions were submitted Among the doctoral dissertations we see that of
A.I. Mazmishvili who in 1940 was director of the institute. His dieserta-
ition was on the adjustment of geodetic measurement.
Among the 14 candidates four had dissertations on the application of
gravity to geodetic problems, an evidence of great attention paid to such
(problems in the U.S.S.R.
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d. FACILITIZS
The MIIGAiX appears to be very well equipped. It has a special library
of over 240,000 books, an astronomical observatory, applied optics and print-
ing shops and 28 laboratories and exhibit rooms. It is emphasized that. all
available publications in foreign languages are systematically acquired by
the library, and there is a special staff of consultants on duty in the library
to assist students in the English, German, French, Italian and Spanish lang
cages.
The institute has its own serial publication "Trudy" of which none has
reached this country. In 1950, Vols, 3-9 were issued, comprising altogether
about 500 pages.
The difficulty in establishing the exact identity of each member of the
staff of the MIIGAiK is that it overlaps very largely the staff of the TsIIIGAiK,
(Central Research Institute of Geodesy, etc.), even now despite the decree of
1944 prohibiting such overlapping. During the period of 1939-1950, 66 persons
were definitely connected with the MIIGAiK in either a teaching or research
capacity. How many of these people are still at the institute and how many
new people have been added since, is impossible to establish. The reason for
this is very simple and applied equally to all sciences. Soviet authors, by
design or by habit, very rarely indicate their academic or institutional con-
nections when they publish a paper. This information may or may not be con-
tained in the text of the paper, and in many cases the precise connection of
individuals is unknown.
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During this same period the staff of the TeNIIGAiK consisted of 155
people, 18 of whom also appear on the staff list of the MIIGAiK.
The latest available reference 23 is not helpful in this respect,
stating simply that the teaching staff is large and includes five dis-
tinguished workers of science and industry, and 17 doctors of science.
This would total 22 people, probably mostly chairmen. The entire teach-
ing staff is certainly not less than 60 or 70 persons.
In 1940 the director of the MIIGAiK was A.I. Mazmishvili, not a dis-
tinguished figure in Russian geodesy. It is not known whether he is still
director. The strongest figures in research on the staff are invariably
also connected with the TsNIIGAiK and will be discussed in that connection.
Novosibirsk Institut Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aerofotos"yemki i Karto-
grafii (NIIGAiK), Novosibirsk, Ulitea Potanina No. 27.
As has been stated before,this is a much smaller institute than the
KIIGAIK. It is listed as conferring higher degrees in the following spec-
ialties:
Higher Geodesy
Astronomy
Photogrammetry
The-Institute publishes its own "Trudy" of which Vol. 1 (1947) and
Vol. 2 (1948) are known to be in existence. The editor of these "Trudy"
is Professor V.V. Popov, probably director of the NIIGAiK.
In all probability the NIIGAiK grew out of the Geodetic Faculty of
the Novosibirsk Institute of Civil Engineers (Novosibirskiy Inzhenerno-
Stroitelinyy Institut). This Geodetic Faculty was added to the institute
in 1932 and by 1937 had an enrollment of 175 students. The Geodetic Fac-
ulty was to replace an independent Astronomic-Geodetic institute in Omsk
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which was abolished at about that time.
D. ENTRANCE REQUIRRMENTS TO INSTITUTIONS 01
HIGHER EDUCATION
No report on the educational aspects of Russian training would be com-
plete without some reference to requirements for admission to schools of
higher geodetic and cartographic education. A book published in 1950 by
the Ministry of Higher Education 3, gives a comprehensive list of such re-
quirements. Appendix B of this report is a detailed translateci abstract
of these rules. bor the purpose of this paper, however, only those features
of most significance to geodetic and cartographic training are included in
the body of the report, as follows&
I. Accepted in YUZY*- Citizens of U.S.S.R. of both sexes from 17 to 35-
- in Correspondence and Evening WZY (divisions) - without
definite age limit, provided they have completed an intermediate education
and successfully passed the examinations set up for those entering these
educational institutions.
Note: - (a) Persons who have graduated from tekhnikums or other
intermediate specialized educational institutions comparable to them, will
be accepted in VUZY provided they have completed the 3 years' production
experience established by law after completion of the intermediate educa-
tional institution. Such experience is not required of those enrolling in
correspondence and evening VUZY and divisions nor from those included in
the upper 5% of those graduated from each tekhnikum as well as from those
people who, at the close of a tekhnikum, are participating in the three or
more years program of active military service.
* YUZ Y is the standard abbreviation of Yyssheye Uchebn ye Zavedeniya
(Institutions of Higher Education) used in Soviet literature.
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(b) In accordance with decree No. 426 of the Sovet of Ministers of
the Union of SSR of Feb. 1, 1949, it has been decided to accept temporarily
for a period of 5 years, for the first course of teachers' institutes with-
out preliminary experience by the enrollees those who have completed pedar-
gogical training schools under the direction of the Ministries of Education
of the Union Republics.
II. Those people who, at the close of intermediate schools, have been
awarded gold or silver medals, for outstanding successes and exemplary con-
duct", will be accepted in institutions of higher education without entrance
examinations, provided that, first of all, there shall be admitted those
awarded the gold medal and next those awarded the silver medal.
Also without entrance examinations will be accepted those persons who
have completed tekhniknms with a rank of MexcellentS, who are included with-
in the upper 5% of those graduated from a tekhnikum or a three-year inter-
mediate medical school and who enroll in institutions of higher learning
according to their specialty within 2 years, including the year of comple-
tion.
III. Those enrolling in higher educational institutions, with the ex-
ception of those mentioned in paragraph 2, shall take entrance examinations
depending upon the specialty of the higher educational institutions
1. in SUZY and faculties of machine-construction, metal-work,
metallurgy, mechanics, electrical mechanics, electrical technology,
energetics, communications, mining, geology, coil, aviation, geodes ,
~ydrometeorology, hydrography, auto-transport, railroad, water transport,
forestry, chemical technology, cinema-engineering - in the following
subjects:
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a. mathematics, b. physics, c. chemistry, d. Russian language and
literature, e. one foreign language (English, French or German);
2. in VUZY and faculties of history, jurisprudence, geography, library
science, and also in pedagogAal faculties of pedagogical institutes - in
the following subjects:
a. history of peoples of the U.S.S.R, bo geography, c. Russian
language literature;
3. those enrolling in teachers' institutes shall take entrance exam-
inations in the following subjects:
a. in the natural science - geographic division - a. in Russian
language and literature, b. geography, co chemistry;
b. in the physics-mathematics division - as in Russian language
and literature, bo mathematics, c. physics.
IV. Entrance examinations shall be given in accordance with the
programs approved by the Ministry of Higher Education of the U.S.S.R.
1. Persons who have received an unsatisfactory grade on the written
examination in the Russian language or the language, in which the instruc-
tion in the given VUZ is carried on, shall not be admitted to further
examinations.
E. TEXTBOOKS OF GEODESY
(Exclusive of Gravimetric Textbooks)
A large collection of Russian textbooks of geodesy has been made at
An itemized list ire given in Appendix C of this report.
A study of these and a comparison with American, British, German and Swiss
texts, reveals some rather significant and illuminating facts.
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Soviet geodesists have published at least,
1. five textbooks of higher geodesy, four of them between 1945 and
195 and written by such outstanding geodesists as Rabinovich, Chebotarev
and Krasovskiy;
1 2. a tremendous nine-volume set of reference books dealing with the
higher aspects of geodesy, photogrammetry and cartography (1941-1949);
3. four textbooks of "Lower Geodesy";
4. ten "special type" textbooks, dealing with such subjects as
naval geodesy, agricultural geodesy, engineering (several types) geodesy,
architectural and aerial geodesy, geodesy for auto road construction, and
geological geodesy (1948-1950);
5. a book outlining the "norms" for each phase of geodetic work
(1049); and
6. numerous field instructions, manuals for triangulation, gravi-
melltry and photogrammetry.
7 In addition to the above, has located six geodetic
textbooks of both "higher" and "lower" geodesy published since 1947 by such
"ron-curtain" countries as Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia.
This is an impressive array of the scope of Soviet educational activity
ie this field and appears even more impressive when it is remembered that
the two most famous, but outdated, F,nglish language geodetic textbooks (by
Roemer, 1930 and by Clarke, 1880) used by present day English speaking geo-
desists, have only in the last year been brought up-to-date by Brig. Bomford's
new text. The only possible way to make direct comparison between Soviet and
American geodetic texts of "higher geodesy" is to collect, analyze and con-
tine the numerous monographs, books, and scientific papers published on
arious aspects of the geodetic sciences by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
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Survey and other federal and military mapping agencies. The additional
fact that until 1951 there was no U.S. university or institute teaching
advanced courses in geodesy, of course explains, in part, the paucity of
American textbooks (or even textbooks written in the English langxage)
and makes the task of comparing with Soviet work that such more difficult.
The problem of inter-comparing American and Soviet textbooks of the
"lower geodesy" type is somewhat easier, if we assume that American text-
books on surveying (civil engineering, route surveys, railroad right-of-
way surveying, etc.) are essentially comparable to Soviet textbooks of
"lower geodesy'.
A detailed discussion of a feature-by-feature comparison between
American, British, German and other foreign texts of geodesy with Soviet
textbooks is beyond the scope of this paper. However, several general im-
pressions and comparisons may be briefly outlined as follows:
1. Soviet textbooks are written in great detail - to a far
greater degree than those of any other nationality.
2. Descriptions of all types of geodetic instrumentation are ex-
haustively treated in Soviet texts. Such subjects are merely touched on
in the American literature.
3. The type of material presented in Russian texts suggests that
students of the subject in the Soviet Union are subjected to a much more
rigid indoctrination in such allied sciences as mathematics, physics, and
astronomy then is usual in the United States. In this respect, indeed,
their education at least equals and, in some respects, even exceeds that
of German training.
4. Soviet textbooks in all sciences offer valuable clues to trends
in both Soviet science and Soviet education. They also occasionally give
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concrete data not published in other media available in this country.
F. INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION IN GEODESY AND CARTOGBAPRY
The necessity of having personnel intermediate between a skilled
worker and an engineer has always been felt keenly in Russia. Gradually
schools something like junior colleges of specialized training have been
developed. It is worthy of notice that the Soviets do not consider these
as institutions of higher learning. Their organizations, programs, length
of instruction, however, leave no doubt that they are on a much higher level
than U.S. trade-schools. Students graduating from these schools receive
diploma as a technician (tekhnik). In 1945 there were ten such schools
generally known as "topografieheskiy tekhnikum" under the direct super-
vision of the GUGK (Main Administration of Geodesy and Cartography).
1. Kiyevskiy Topografieheskiy Tekhnikum
Kiyev, Glubochinskiy Per. No. 6
2. Leningradskiy
Leningrad, U1. Saltykova-Shchedrina, No. 45-a
Specialties: topography, cartography
3. Moskovskiy
Moscow, Klimentovakiy Per., No. 1
Specialties: topography, cartography
4. Novosibirskiy
Novosibirsk, Ul. Krylova, No. 24
Specialty: topography
5. Semipalatinskiy
Semipalatinsk, U1. Uritskogo, No. 19
Specialty; topography
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6. Tashkentskiy
Tashkent, Shakbriaabskaya ul., No. 1/3
Specialties: topography, cartography.
7. Tbilisskiy
Tbilisi, Ul. Marra, No. 27
Specialties; topography, cartography, road construction.
9. Tomskiy
Tomsk, U1. Rosy Lukeemburg, No. 13
Specialty: topography
9. Chkalovskiy
Chkalovs UL. 9-go YanTarya, No. 23
Specialties: topography, cartography
10. Moskovskoye AerofotosNyemochnoye Uchilishche
Moscow, Gorokhovyy Per. No. 4
Specialties: photography, photogrammetry, photo-topography.
The history of these tekhnikums is very involved 25. In 1920 only
two such schools existed, one in Leningrad and another in Moscow with an
enrollment of 100-120 in each. At the and of 1930 the following tekhnikums
were in operation:
Moscow
Tbilisi
Semipalatinsk
Leningrad
Saratov
Omsk
Kharkov
Sverdlovsk
Khabarovsk
Novocherkassk
Tashkent
Mogilev (since 1932)
This network was designed to take care of geodetic and cartographic
needs but was, nevertheless, soon almost wholly destroyed (1932-33). The
purely geodetic and topographic tekhnikums were absorbed into a larger
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system of geological and hydrological prospecting tekhnikums. Geodetic
service was merged with hydro-geologic service (1933-44). All this is
*scribed in Soviet literature to "sabotage of the enemies of the people".
Later in 1935 geodesy and cartography were again separated from hydro-
.ogy and geology, merged into an independent service and incorporated in the
system of FKTD. By that time the only four geologic-hydrologic tekhnikuae
remaining in operation were re-organized into independent topographic tekh-
ikums:
Leningrad Tomsk
Tbilisi Tashkent
In 1939 these four tekhnikums gave instruction in the three following
~,apecialties: topography: graduates (-tekhnik-topograph) were expected to be
'able to conduct theodolite surveys, to establish simple geodetic control
for aerial photography, to analyze relief from photos of all scales and to
carry out leveling of IT-order. geodes : graduates (tekhnik-geodeziet)
!should be able to execute field observations and computation of coordinates
,of II-order supplementary triangulation networks, to handle traverse work
of II and lower order and
photography.
!compile maps
of maps.
to establish all the necessary control for aerial
cartography: graduates (tekhnik-kartograf) should be able to
from available material and to substitute as technical editors
The length of instruction for these specialties was three years, ten
months (or 11 months, depending on the specialty). Enrollment was open to
persons with seven years of elementary and middle school (that is. generally
115--16 years of age, corresponding to the American junior high school level).
,All students in topographic schools took the following general subjects:
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History of the U.S.S.R.
Leninies
Political science
Total
180 hours
60 hours
100 hours
340 hours
Instruction in basic subjects was organized as follows:
Topographic
Mathematics 440 hours
Physics 246 hours
Chemistry 85 hours
Russian 324 hours
Economic Geography
208 hours
60 hours
Total 1,363 hours
Instruction in professional subjects:
Geodesy
Topographic
516 hours
Photography and 270 hours
photo topography
Geography, geology, 303 hours
geomorphology
Topographic and 409 hours
cartographic
drafting
Cartography
Organization of 40 hours
Production
Practical Astronomy
Technology of Map
Production
Geodetic
440 hours
246 hours
85 hours
324 hours
208 hours
60 hours
1,363 hours
Geodetic
556 hours
150 hours
330 hours
409 hours
40 hours
Cartographic
384 hours
227 hours
146 hours
328 hours
208 hours
60 hours
1,353 hours
Cartographic
270 hours
85 hours
404 hours
474 hours
302 hours
54 hours
227 hours
Total 1,638 hours 1,565 hours 1,816 hours
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In addition to all this, students were supposed to take field work
land training in production practice, as follows:
1st year
2nd year
3rd year
YIELD WORK
Topographie Geodetic Cartographic
10 weeks 10 weeks 10 weeks
11 weeks 11 weeks 6 weeks
Ii weeks 11 weeks -
PRODUCTION PRACTICE
13 weeks 15 weeks
3rd year 13 weeks
Total 45 weeks 45 weeks 31 weeks
There is no detailed breakdown of this instruction according to years.
If we consider the reasonable schemer
Academic work 36 weeks
Field work 10 weeks
Vacation 6 weeks
52 weeks
we find that the student mist take from 3,341 to 3,529 hours of academic
work in three and one-half years or 126 weeks. This would mean a load of
26 to 28 hours per week. If this figure is accurate, the intensity of
training in academic subjects at these levels is very much higher than in
any American Liberal Arts college where the normal load for students is
supposed to be 18 hours per week.
Such thorough and long training programs conflicted with the urgent
demand for technicians and in 1938 an attempt was made to condense the
course of instruction in geodetic technicians into two years. This was
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found to be possible only if matriculating students had the full ten-year
high school credentials (that is, 18 years of age). In 1939 two groups of
topographers at the Leningrad tekhnikum were being trained to test this
plan.
Apparently this attempt was abandoned 28 for in 1947 it is definitely
stated that the acceptance of students to all tekhnikums is based on the
7-year high school certificate.
Since, in 1937-40, the supply of technicians was inadequate to supply
the rapidly developing economy, at least two short-cuts were attempted in
the training of geodetic technicians, both of which were abandoned by 1939
as not meeting the requirements.
First, some promising young people were assigned as apprentices to
learn one particular branch of geodesy or cartography in a period of 6 to
7 months. This attempt resulted in one-sidedness and confusion of students.
Secondly, at the end of 1937, in order to supplement the number of
technicians produced by the schools in Leningrad, Tbilisii, Tomsk and Tash-
kent, special training centers were established at Aerogeodetic Establish-
ments (Predpriyatiya) with three years of training to be added to the nine
or ten years of the middle school (Srednyaya Shkola). Graduates of these
centers could take special examinations and qualify for the certificate of
a technician. The advantage of this system was the participation of the
student in actual production. It was found, however, that this idea did not
work because of a dearth of qualified teachers, equipment, textbooks, etc.
In 1939 all of these training centers were either abolished or developed in-
to independent geodetic tekhnikums.
In perusing the literature one is struck with the Soviet desire to
change the situation overnight. The late thirties and early forties were
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times when not only complicated geodetic instruments were hard to get,
but ordinary paper and pencils were scarce. Yet under the whip of the
five-year plans geodetic education had to be provided no matter what the
cost, and the cost was human life. Obviously mistakes were unavoidable
because of lack of knowledge, experience and general chaos. Yet the
immediate reactions to all of these failures was to "hunt for the culprits
who deliberately sabotaged geodetic training". Such culprits are named on
ellIery page, as "enemies of the people". .....??"in the pay of capitalistic
ountriea", ....."the ones who suggested the merger of geological, hydro-
logical and geodetic service into one unit", etc. What happened to these
unfortunate individuals is impossible to ascertain. It is safe, however,
to assume that Soviet geodesy, as well as other sciences and industries,
oat many talented and devoted people.
In 1944 seven topographic tek~+ s (not named) and the Moscow School
of Aerial Photography (organized in 1939) are mentioned 26. In the seven
tekhnikums the total enrollment was 1,267 students and in the Moscow School
of Aerial Photography the enrollment was 306 students.
The description of training agrees with that of 1939, except that gravi-
metry is mentioned. Emphasis is on practices theory being taught only to the
extent that practice might be better understood. The amount of training was.,
Theoretical Work
1,156 hours
Practical and
Laboratory
1,196 hours
Total
2,352 hours
Field Work 43 weeks,
,closely agreeing with the schedule given for 1939. Evidently this training
,,was administered in a 3 years, 10 months period since a fourth year term is
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specifically mentioned.
For 1947 we have the following information 28 concerning the two
Moscow tekhnikumsi
In the Moscow Topographic Tekhnicums the length of instruction was
3 years 7 months, except for students who had completed the full "middle0
school curriculum. Apparently both persons with the 7-year credentials
and 10-year credentials of middle school were admitted, but the latter
were credited with general subjects as described above. There were only
two specialties, one in topography and the other in cartography.
In the Moscow Aerialphotosurvey School the length of training is
said to be 2 years, 8 months but-no further details were available. Appar-
ently this means a requirement of a 10-year middle school certificate for
admission.
In the 1947 list of tekhnikums a very interesting development is
apparent. The specialty mentioned most often is either that of topography
or cartography. What has become of the geodetic specialty? Apparently it
was abolished between 1944 and 1947 and geodetic technicians were trained
in some other way. This gap in our information is important and every
possible effort should be made to fill in this loose end.
The same source gives general rules of admission. The limiting ages
for both sexes for admittance to tekhnikums are 14 to 30 years for full time
students. For part time students (that is for students already working in
production) there is no age limit. There are entrance examinations in the
Russian language and literature, mathematics, in the constitution of the
U.S.S.R. and special examinations depending on the character of the tekhnikum,
such as drawing for architects, etc. Prerequisite education must be the
certificate of 7 years of middle school, but apparently students with educa-
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ton obtained in the 10-year period of the middle school are also admitted
with corresponding credit in general subjects.
Students must pay tuition with the exception of veterans, children
of veterans, etc. The amount of tuition is unknown. However, all students
in tekhnikums are given scholarships of one of two categories. According
to a description of this system, topographic tekhnikums should be in cate-
gory (a) (Higher paying) with scholarships amounting to
1 year - - - 125 rubles per month
2nd year - - 150 rubles
3rd year - - 175 rubles
4th year - - 200 rubles
These scholarships are cancelled if the student's grade is less than
(corresponding to "C" in the American system) in any subject. For students
having a perfect record of grade 5 (corresponding to "A"), all scholarships
are automatically increased by 25%.
It is stated that the ruling of February 10, 1943 dealing with the
,improvement of instruction of students is also applicable to tee s.
ghat this ruling is, is not known at the present time.
Practically all tekhnikums have dormitories, dining rooms, etc. The
,only limitation for women so far discovered is that they are not accepted
in the aerial photography department of the Moscow Aerophotographic School.
The system of incentives is strongly developed in tekhnikums just as
it is in all Soviet schools. Apparently the ".appeal of work for the re-
construction of the beloved fatherland", etc., is not enough and definite
'financial encouragement is provided.
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There is no evidence here, or anywhere in the Soviet system of
education, of assignment to any particular institution. The student is
apparently free to enter any school he chooses where he can meet basic
requirements. But what prevents the student after completion of the
course in a topographic tekhnikum from leaving that profession? Appar-
ently nothing except the requirement that the student must serve for
three years in the profession he chooses and in which he graduates.
After that, if he has a certificate of the 10 year middle school, he can
enter any university or technical college just as any other student might
It would seem then, that a number of the better graduates from topo-
graphic tekhnikums go on to improve their education elsewhere and are thus
lost to the system as technicians. It is impossible at the present time
to establish the number of such departures but a figure of 10% of graduates
seems to be a reasonable one. This might be considered as a leak in the
Soviet geodetic education system.
We have then, as of 1949, a total of
9 tekhnikums with enrollment of 1,629 students
Moscow Aerial Photography School 306 students
Total 1,935 students
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About one-fourth of these would presumably graduate each year, making
the total production of geodetic-topographic-cartographic technicians approxi-
mately 500 per year. This system has been in operation since 1937 and has,
in those 16 years, produced something like 9,000 technicians. Between
.920 and 1937, also a period of 16 years, the number of schools was roughly
one half of the present. We might expect, therefore, something like 4,000
technicians to have been produced during those years. All told, the number
of graduated technicians should be in the neighborhood of 12,000. Consider-
ing the 10% leak, losses during the war, natural death, etc. we arrive at
final figure of 10,000 technicians in geodesy and cartography working at
the present time in the U.S.S.R.
The tremendous scope of work being carried out at the Aerogeodetic
~stablishnents, Cartographic Factories, etc. would require that many, and
probably more, technicians. In fact, various devices have been used in
he Establishments and Factories to raise the professional level of those
porkers already employed. This may be considered as evidence that techno-
logical personnel are still not considered adequate for the smooth running
of the machine.
III. RESEARCH
As has been pointed out before, the boundary between research and
teaching in the U.S.S.R. is deliberately obliterated. University pro-
fkasore are not only encouraged but, to some extent, are forced to parti-
cipate in research, and many purely research institutes train students for
advanced degrees. Research relating to geodesy and cartography is being
carried out in many institutions in the U.S.S.R. This is especially true
tioday since the introduction of electronic surveying methods which for
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the most part are being developed in research institutes of physics and
astronomy. If our attention is restricted specifically to the problems
of geodesy and map making, research institutes to be considered fall into
four categories;
I. Central Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying and Cartography.
II. Academies of Science
III. Main Administration of the North Sea Route
IV. Military Organizations.
A. Ts_IIGAi_
Tsentrallny.v Nauchno-Issledovatel!skiy Institut Geodezii, Aeros"yemki
i Kartograf'ii (Central Scientific Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Sur-
vey and Cartography). TsNIIGAiK.
The Institute was founded in 1929 in Moscow under the name of the
Institut Geodezii i Kartografii with a section of Aerial Surveying located
in Leningrad. In 1931 the Leningrad section (Fontanka 33/35) became an
independent Institute of Aerial Surveying (Nauchno-Issledovatel?skiy Institut
Aeros"yemki). In the fall of 1934 both Institutes were again merged into
TsNIIGAik located in Leningrad. In 1936 (t) the main Institute was again
transferred to Moscow, the Leningrad section remaining at the old address.
Apparently the Leningrad section was closed during the war, although no
direct reference to this fact has been found. The latest available reference
to the Leningrad section appeared in 1940 29
The purpose of the Institute as outlined in 1935 30 was as follows:
the TsNIIGAiK was to investigate and improve methods of geodetic, carto-
graphic and aerial surveying and to design new apparatus for the improve-
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ment of this work.
This statement is so general
that it could be accepted as defining
the work of the Institute even today. Later, work on gravimetry and the
determination of precise time was included in the program of the Institute.
the
was
The first director and organizer of the Institute was F.N. Krasovskiy,
leading Soviet geodesist.
replaced by I.A. Fishman,
4 figurehead.
In 1930 he resigned from this position and
a man quite unknown in geodesy and apparently
Krasovskiy remained at the Institute as deputy-director in
charge of scientific work. From 1937 until the time of his death in 1948
be remained on the staff of the Institute as a consultant without adminis-
trative duties.
The scientific organization of the Institute, its program and the
character of its work should be ascribed to Krasovskiy. This is emphasized
in numerous obituaries published in connection with Krasovskiy's death 31
The Institute immediately became a rather large organization. By
1935 the number of scientific workers 30 on the staff numbered 172 and the
total number of people connected with the Institute, 330. The framework
of the Institute included five divisions with numerous sections, as follows:
LIST NO. 1
I. Division of geodesy.
1. Astronomic-gray imetric section.
2. Geodetic Section.
3. Geodetic Instrumentation Section.
II. Division of Cartography.
1. Pedagogical and Special Maps Section.
2. Topographic Map Section.
3. Field Cartography Section.
4. Stereophotogrammetry Laboratory.
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III. Division of Scientific Methods.
IV. Division of Aerial Photography.
1. Bureau of Design and Construction of Instruments.
2. Bureau of Design and Construction of Optical Apparatus.
3. Laboratory of Optics.
V. Division of Laboratories.
1. Laboratory of Photochemistry.
2. Laboratory of Photophysics.
3. Laboratory of Photometry.
4. Laboratory of Industrial Photography.
This organizational scheme was undoubtedly revised more than once,
but on the whole it represents the activity of the Institute even at the
present time.
In 1939 the following laboratories in Moscow are mentioned 32 some
of which can be identified in the former scheme.
a. Laboratory of Photogrammetry (probably development of the
former Laboratory II-4).
b. Laboratory of Astronomy. Gravimetry and Geodesy.
c. Laboratory of Field Cartography and Map Compilation (11-3 ?)
d. Laboratory of Measurement of Long Distances by the
Interference Method.
e. Laboratory of Spectrophotometry (former V-3)-
f. Time Service.
Optical Mechanical Shop.
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The Leningrad Department (filial) had:
h. Laboratory of Optics.
i. Laboratory of Aerial Topography.
3. Laboratory of Aerial Photographic Apparatus.
The description of the framework of the Institute for 1939 is obviously
incomplete since it does not include a very impressive amount of theoretical
work underway at that time at the Institute. However, a more up-to-date
,scheme of organization has not yet been found. In 1943 the work of the
'entire Institute is described 29 without reference to subdivisions.
At the present time the Institute is included in the system of the
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii (GUGK) which is subject to the
direct control of the Council of Ministers; that is, not forming a part of
any particular Ministry. Control of the Institute by the GUGK is executed
through the Collegium (Kollegium) of the GUGK, the main directing body of
that organization. This control is very close as may be inferred from the
following examples:
In June, 1948 the Collegium of the GUGK examined the results of the
work of the TsNIIGAiK carried out the previous year. A number of the
reoearch workers at the Institute were praised for the excellency of their
work. Some serious defects in the work of the Institute were discussed,
and the Collegium adopted a resolution for the further development of its
work and of closer connection between this work and production 33. This
latter recommendation of closer connection with practice is the perpetually
reiterated topic of all scientific institutions in the Soviet Union.
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In the same year 34 the Collegium also discussed and approved a
five-year plan of work for the TaNIIGAiK with working topics as follows:
Geodesy .... ..................... 21 topics
Astronomy ....................... 6 topics
Aerial Surveying and Photo-
grammetry ....................... 8 topics
Cartography ..................... 11 topics
It is obvious from the above examples, and many others of the same
type could be quoted, that the Collegium of the GUGK exercises a very
definite and strict control over the activity of the TeNIIGAiK. Speci-
fications developed at the Institute for geodetic control, instrumentation,
methods of surveying, etc. are considered by the Collegium and some of them
are adopted for practice throughout the U.S.S.R. regardless of what agency
is involved.
Such close inter-connection between practice and scientific research
can produce good results only if the governing body, in this case the
Collegium of the GUGK, is competent. The detailed composition of the
Collegium is not known. The present head (and of the whole GUGK) is
A. Baranov, not known for his scientific work. However, it is known
that F.N. Krasovskiy was for a long time a member of the Collegium
(1939-1948) and the participation of other prominent geodesists in the
Collegium is quite likely.
Reports on the scientific work carried out at the Institute are
published at the present time in the Sbornik NTPS as well as in the
Trudy, TaNIIGAiK which was first issued in 1931 and the current volume
of which is 80 (1953). This serial contains a tremendous amount of
material, yet it is evident that not all of the Institute's work is pub-
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lashed there. For instance, in all of the available issues of the Trudy,
here is not a single reference to the work of the Laboratory of Radio-
Waives as applied to the problems of geodesy (Laboratory D of list No. 2).
It is not even mentioned in the very detailed account of the Institute's
activity in 1940 29. Yet, from other sources 35 it is known that during
the period of 1936-1939, A.I. Gruzinov and L.I. Mindlin of the Radio-Geodetic
Laboratory of the TsNIIGAiK conducted very significant experiments concerning
the radio-location problem using apparatus made in the U.S.S.R. We can,
therefore, assume that some of the work of the Institute never finds its
w~y into print.
Major activities of the Institute can be as described only briefly in
t4is report for to dic=ss them thoroughly would mean writing the report on
each of the subjects covered by the entire project. The most important
futures, however, are as follows;
1. General theory of the elliysoid. The treatment and adjustment of
all known triangulation and the use of the gravity survey was the life work
of F. N. Krasovskiy. From 1940 onward Krasovskiy's pupil, A.A. Izotov, now
olie of the outstanding geodesists in the U.S.S.R., carried out most of the
work in this field. Numerous papers on this subject were published by him,
his final paper appearing in Vyp. 73 of the Trudy TsNIIGAiK (1950).
2. Theory of photogrammetry and design of photogrammetric equipment.
T sere is a large group of scientists working on these problems under the
leadership of F.V. Drobyshev. M. D. Konshin and G.B. Romanovskiy are also
well known. Drobyshev is undoubtedly an outstanding man in design of all
sorts of equipment, and a multiplex of his construction is widely used in
the U.S.S.R.
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3. TheorZ and design of photographic lenses. In this field the
leader is considered to be M. M. Rusinov, a man whose numerous cameras,
such as LIAR-6 (before 1934) and Russar-1, and Russar-22 are used in
photogrammetry.
4. Gravity in application to geodetic krpblems. The geodetic signif-
icance of gravity measurements was realized very early in the Soviet Union
and gradually the so-called gravimetric geodesy became one of the main
activities of the Institute. Present leaders in this field are I.A. Kazan-
skiy, M.S. Molodenskiy, N.N. Pariyskiy, M.E. Kheyfets and G.I. Rudakovskiy.
The latter is also well known for his design of gravimetric apparatus.
Trudy TsNIIGAiK Vyp. 11, (1936). 17 (1937) 29 (1939), 36 (1940), 42 (1945),
51 (1945), 66 (1949) and 75 (1950) are wholly devoted to this problem. The
gravimetric group must be rather large for in the above-named publications,
13 different authors are involved and reference is made to many more partici-
pating in the design of instruments, expeditions, theoretical work, etc.
5. Time Service. The attention paid by the Soviets to the organiza-
tion of a satisfactory time service is extraordinary. A large group is
working on this problem at the Institute, a rather remarkable fact consider-
ing that there is also a very large and active group engaged in the same
research at the Shternberg Astronomical Observatory (Moscow University),
as well as at Pulkovo, Tashkent and Poltava Observatories and the Institute
of Weights and Measures in Leningrad. Apparently the Soviets are convinced
that the world system of longitudes in not as reliable as is commonly assumed.
For purely practical purposes it was deemed necessary to establish a network
of longitude stations where observers, before setting out on expeditions,
could determine their personal equation. Such stations are known to exist
in Moscow, Sverdlovsk and Tbilisi.
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The leader and organizer of the time service work at the TsNIIGAig
,,was N.P. Dolgov, but the present director of the service is A.N. Kuznetsov,
,very active in his field. P.S. Popov is recognized as a leader in the
;design of clocks and other apparatus for this work.
6. Cartography. Senior leaders in cartography before 1940 were
V.V. Kavrayskiy, M.D. Solov'yev and K.A. Salishchev, none of whom appear
to be connected with the TsNIIGAiK at the present time. The cartographic
,group is undoubtedly very large, the number of different authors on carto-
graphic subjects in the TruU being at least 18 in number. Al]. aspects of
cartography are considered and very detailed investigations on such involved
subjects as the $load" for maps of different scales (V.I. Sukov), methods
of geographic description in cartography (A.A. Borzov), precision of maps
(N. M. Volkov), etc* were considered.
B. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES U.S.S.R.
The strongest Academy of Sciences, that of the U.S.S.R. has been en-
gaged in surveying and mapping the territory of the U.S.S.R. since its
foundation in 1726. In its new charter of November 23, 1935, the respon-
!ability of the Academy for the investigation of all of the natural re-
sources of the country is again emphasized. If we recall that the main
task of the Academy is the development of science (which in the U.S.S.R.
paeans all organized intellectual activity) it is clear that the work of
the Academy has an immediate and important bearing on the problem of
mapping and charting.
The Academy is divided into eight sections as follows:
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1. Physical and Mathematical Sciences
2. Chemical Sciences
3. Geological and Geographical Sciences
4. Biological Sciences
5. Technical Sciences
6. History and Philosophy
7. Economics and Law
8. Literature and Language
In 1949 there were in these sections:
56 Research Institutes
15 Laboratories
4 Observatories
7 Museums
5 Stations
51 Committees and Commissions
These establishments were scattered all over the U.S.S.R. in various
branches of the Academy, with greatest concentration in Moscow (the seat
of the main Academy) and Leningrad.
In regard to the committees and commissions the following should be
noted. These are essentially temporary organizations set up for a specific
purpose. Thus, the Yakutskaya Komissiya, for instance, (Yakutia Commission)
existed for a period of five years (1925-30). After publishing its results
which included very valuable geographic and geodetic studies, it was dis-
continued. On the other hand. the Mongol'skaya Komissiya (Mongolia Commission),
organized in 1926 for the study of Mongolia, is still in existence. The
number of expired commissions runs into several hundreds.
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In 1949 there were only 146 members and 255 corresponding members
of the Academy. Part of the members and all of the corresponding members
are on the staff of other research and instructional institutions and. their
connection with the actual work of the Academy is often very tenuous. The
tremendous amount of research accomplished at the Academy is done by a
special staff which consisted of 6,053 workers in 1949. Of these, 918 had
the degree of Doctor of Science, and 2,455 were Candidates of Science.
Th!e total number of people connected with the Academy, including technical
and administrative personnel, was 20,100 in 1949.
It should be noted that some of the research institutes of the Academy
have a right to accept aspirants for the doctor's and candidate's degree.
In1949 the number of such aspirants was 1,734.
The president of the Academy at the present time (1953) is A.N. Nes-
me~anov, an organic chemist by education.
Several organizations involving the entire academy were created for
the study of the natural resources of the country. This resulted in,
among other things, much cartographic activity, the occasional determination
ofastronomical positions, gravity measurements and even local triangulations.
Such were, for instance,
Osobyy Komitet po Issledovaniyu Soyuznykh i Avtonomykh Respublik
(Special Committee for the Investigation of Federated and Autonomous Repub-
lice), 1926-1928, replaced by the Komissiya Ekspeditsionnykh Issledovaniy
(Commission for Expeditionary Investigations) in 1928-1930. Both organi-
zaiions published numerous reports.
In 1915 another type of organization was developed within the Academy:
Komissiya po Izucheniyu Yestestvennykh Proizvoditel'nykh Sil Rossii, known
asiKEPS, (Commission for the Study of the Natural Productive Potential of
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Russia), which had a special geographical department. In 1930 this commission
was divided into several research institutes, one of which became the Institute
of Geography. This commission was replaced by the Sovet po Izucheniyu Proiz-
voditelinykh Sil, known as SOPS (Council for the Study of the Productive
Potentialities) which exists at the present time.
Both KIPS and SOPS have been exceedingly active in the study of natural
resources with special emphasis on geography and cartography. The total num-
ber of volumes printed by these organizations is over 1,000.
The above-described organizations involve not only many members of the
Academy but also many outsiders. In addition to such organizations there are
a number of research institutes attached to the Academy. Some of these insti-
tutes have a definite connection with geodesy and cartography:
1. Institute of Geo ra (Moscow, Staromonetnyy Per. No. 29)
This institute went through several transformations and changes
Promyshlenno-Geograficheskiy Otdel .CEPS, 1918-1931.
Geomorphologicheskiy Institut, 1931-34
Institut Fizicheskoy Geografii, 1934-37?
Institut Geografii 1937-present.
The work of the Institute is both of theoretical and applied character.
Numerous expeditions of the Institute have been sent out to all parts of the
Union, and have supplied detailed geographical information of such regions as
Kamchatka, Altay, Kola Peninsula, etc.
The Institute is engaged in the compilation of a large reference work,
"Geography in the U.S.S.R.", which is designed to embody all that is known
of the physical and economic geography of the country.
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The present director of this Institute is A.A. Grigor'yev;' now about 70
years old. Grigor'yev has been rewarded for his work by many decorations
and distinctions, but of late he and the entire institute have been bitterly
criticized in the Soviet press.
The circumstances of this controversy are so typical of Soviet scientific
lice in general that it. may be worth while to discuss it in detail. The
attack began with an article by a certain Vasil'yev in the newspaper, "Kul'-
tuna i Zhizn'", of March 31, 1950, which condemned the work of the Institute
as1well as the work of Grigor'yev himself. This resulted in a welter of
articles in Russian geographic literature, mostly of derogatory contents.
Horever, a few writers had the courage to come to Grigor'yev's defense.
Finally on June 7, 1950, the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences released
a statement in which the reasons for the unsatisfactory situation in the
Institute were given as follows:
1. Detachment of scientific work from the practical demands of
socialistic construction.
2. Errors in a number of theoretical postulates of A.A. Grigor'yev.
3. Absence of critique and self-critique in the Institute.
4. Incorrect methods of organization and planning of scientific work.
5. Absence of necessary connection with other geogrep hieal institutions
of', the country.
The most important accusations are (1) and (3). Any research must be
directed toward the problem of the development of the country. By critique
4 usually meant emphasis on Soviet achievements as contrasted with foreign
achievements. Grigor'yev was particularly accused because he paid homage
to,, the German geographer, Ritter, and failed to sufficiently emphasize the
*!According to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia Vol. 10, 1952 the director
of this institute since 1951 is I.P. Gerasimov, a much younger man
',(born 1905).
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work of Russian geographers. Self-criticism generally means watchfulness
lest one's theories be in conflict with dialectical materialism as inter-
preted by the communistic party.
This Institute, organized to direct the theoretical development of
geography in the U.S.S.R. is particularly vulverable to such accusations.
Any attempt to generalize scientific experience must run the gauntlet of
"critique and self-critique". This is very obvious in every science, be
it astronomy or zoology. The particular results of a science are consider-
ed in an entirely different light with a strongly pragmatic approach to
the subject. Thus, the work of the Institute was condemned not because it
was not good in a scientific sense but because it did not apply to the
"practical" problems of building canals, developing reforestation, location
of natural resources, etc.
Apparently Grigor'yev weatbersd this storm. In 1951 we find him as
editor in chief of the very vitriolic book published by the Academy,
"Bourgeois Geographers in the Service of American Capitalism".
The Institute of Geography is currently publishing its results in
two serials; "Trudy" (1931-1951, about 50 volumes printed) and "Problemy
Fizicheskoy Geografii" (1934-1951, 13 volumes), as well as in general
Academy publications. Of special interest is the development of carto-
metry at the Institute. A book by N.N. Tolkov on this subject was pub-
lished by the Institute in 1950.
Special cartographic work is being done in several other institutes
of the Academy such as the
a. Institute of Soils (Pochvennyy Institut). where a soil map on the
scale of 1:2,500,000 has been compiled covering all of the U.S.S.R.. and
a map on a 1:1.000,000 scale is in the process of preparation.
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b. Institute of Geolog- (Institut Geologieheskikh Nauk), Institute
of Permafrost (Institut Merzlotovedeniya) and Institute of Forestry (Insti-
tut Lesa) are also engaged in the mapping of the territory of the U.S.S.R.,
each for its own specific purposes.
2. Laboratory of Aerial Methods (Laboratoriya Aerometodov), Moscow,
Staromonetnyy Pereulok, No. 35.
This Laboratory was established in 1944 as a further development of
the Commission for the Application of Aerial Surveys.
The basic tasks of the Laboratory are the development of methods for
the utilization of results of aerial surveying, aero-visual observations
and aerial magnitometry.
Major results of the Laboratory are published in a serial, "Trudy
Laboratorii Aerometodov", Vols. 1-2 (1949-1950), which consist of theoreti-
cal papers on photogrammetry as well as of application of aerial surveys.
Especially interesting is the emphasis of the Laboratory on spectral photo-
graphy. In 1947, a special book was published on "Spectral Reflectivity of
Natural Formations" by E. L. Krinov which gives a large number of data on
this subject.
During the war the Laboratory was engaged in the development of a
system of photo-interpretation for aerial photographs of important objects
photographed in the enemy's territory.
The director of the Laboratory was P.I. Stepanov (1945)-
3- Institute of Geophysics (Geofizicheskiy Institut). Moscow,
Pyzhevskiy Pereulok, No. 3-5-
This was formerly the Institute of Seismology, founded in 1928. At
that time it had a central seismological station in Moscow and stations at
21 other points of the Union and its work was largely of a seismological
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character, with some attention given to the problems of gravimetry. In
1947 this Institute was combined with another Institute of the Academy,
the Institute of Theoretical Geophysics, to form an Institute of Geophysics.
Under the new director, G.A. Gamburtsev, the Institute of Geophysics (In-
stitut Geofiziki) has greatly enlarged the scope of its activity. It pub-
lishes the Trudy Geofizicheakogo Instituta (Vol. 1-13, 1948-50) which are
a continuation of the Trudy Seysmologicheskogo Institute, as well as num-
erous papers in the publications of the Academy.
There is also a section of gravimetry and geodesy in the Institute
under the leadership of Yu. D. Bulanzhe, one of the well known Soviet gravi-
metrists. The work of this section consists in determination of gravity
points as well as in the interpretation of that data. In other sections
of the Institute such problems as the movements of the earth's curet and
their effect on geodetic measures are considered. Considerable attention
is also paid to the structure of the atmosphere of the earth and the pro-
pagation of radio-waves.
4. Institute of Physics (Fizieheskiy Institut), Moscow 3-ya Niusskaya,
No. 3. This Institute is engaged in research in various phases of physics
and, as such, is of no particular interest in the present connection. How
ever, one section of it under L.I. Mandel'shtam and N.D. Papaleksi, was very
active in research on the problems of the propagation of radio waves and
their application to the problems of geodesy and of radio location.
In 1938 at the Academy an All Union Scientific Council of Radio-Physics
and Radio-Technology was established (Vsesoyuznyy Nauchnyy Sovet po Radio-
fizike i Radiotekhniki) under Papaleksi, the task of which was to coordinate
all such research. Both Mandel'shtam and Papaleksi are dead now and the
president of the Council in 1951 was B.A. Vvedenskiy, one of the outstanding
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radio-physicists in the country. He is also chairman of a section for the
acientific development of the problems of radiotechnics (Sektaiya po Nauchnoy
Razrabotke Problem Radiotekhniki) which is apparently a newly established
organization, not existing in 1945-
5- Institute of Theoretical Astronomy (Institut Theoreticheskoy
Astronomii), Leningrad, Universitetskaya Naberezhnaya, No. 5.
This Institute (the present director is K.T. Subbotin) was organized
In 1943 to replace the former Astronomical Institute which had existed since
]92O. The Astronomical Institute was very active in the gravimetric survey
of the U.S.S.R. At the present time the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy
is publishing in its Bulletins and Trudy many papers on the theory of gravi-
letry, the shape of the earth, etc., as well as almanacs for the Navy and
Air Forces.
6. Pulkovo Observatory was formerly the training center for military
geodesists and has in the past contributed very substantially to the develop-
ment of geodesy in Russia. At the present time its only connection with good-
lay is the fact that it is the initial point for all triangulations in the
U.S.S.R. (Pulkovo Datum) and one of the five fundamental points for gravity
surveys. Indirectly, however, it still contributes to the problems of good-
say through its study of the variation of latitude and time, and in furnish-
ing star positions for geodetic needs. Its present director, A.A. Mikhaylov,
is a noted authority in gravimetry.
7. The (eogrUhic Societ (Vsesoyuznoye Geograficheskoye Obshchestvo),
Leningrad, Demidov Pereulok, No. Sa.
This is a tremendous organization which had a membership of 4,244 in
1950 and 36 sections scattered over the U.S.S.R. In the past the Society
was famous for the organization of expeditions to central Asia such as those
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of Przhevallskiy, Zozlov, Potanin, Pevtsov, and many others. At the present
time its role appears to be restricted to theoretical discussions of the
problems of geography. Nevertheless, its publications, "Izvestiya" and
"Zapiski", are among the most valuable serials published on Russian geog-
raphy.
The Moscow section of the Society is very active. It is publishing
its own serial, NVoprosy Geografii", consisting mostly of contributions
submitted by the geographers at Moscow University.
8. The Astronomic-Geodetic Sow (Vsesoyuznoye Astronomo-Geodezichs-
skoye Obshchestvo) is mentioned here only because of its misleading name.
This is an amateur society which directs amateur astronomical activities.
Its connection with geodesy is restricted to discussion of geodetic prob-
lems.
9. Expeditions of the Academy. The Academy has organized many expedi-
tions to little known territories. These expeditions are usually of the
"complex" type; that is, a region is studied from every.point of view.
Even if the expedition has a primary aim of anthropology or botany, some
cartographic material is usually gathered. The number of such &peditions
is very large (certainly over 1,000) and some of them have lasted for years
and employed hundreds of people.
Of the most important expeditions from the cartographic point of view,
the following should be noted:
a. Tadzhik-Pamir Expeditions of 1928-35, a whole series of
expeditions resulting in more than 100 volumes of printed
material.
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b.
Yakutia Expedition, 1925-30. published in "Trudy" and "Materia.ly"
of the Yakutskaya Eomissiya, the first reliable data on the geog-
raphy of that region.
c.
Kamchatka Expedition (1936-37)-
d.
Karakalpak Expedition (1931-32)-
e.
Far East Expedition (1933)?
The results of more recent expeditions are generally published in the
Trudy SOPS, arranged regionally in 21 series. such as Seriya Ural'skaya,
Seriya Kazakhakaya, etc.
C. OTEEH ACADEMIES
The Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., has a ncmber of regional sections
known as "filialy", such as Kazanskiy Filial at Kazan'. In 1949 there were
16 such sections to which 34 research institutes; were attached. The work
of such "filialy" is largely, but not wholly, o61 local significance. some
"f ilials" in other republics of the Union attain a certain status of activity
and become independent Academies of Sciences.
The largest of such Academies is that of tae Ukrainian 'Republic which
had. 82 members, 88 corresponding members. and 1,300 people on its research
!staff in 1949.
The activity of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in geography and
mapping is not very significant. However, it organized several geographic
expeditions, one of them to Tyan'-Shan' (1935). It. has a unique Gravimetric
Observatory at Poltava which, under the direction of A. Ya. Orlov, has been
very active in gravimetric surveys, studies in variation of latitude, move-
ments of the earth's crust, etc.
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Other republic Academies are as follows:
1. Azerbaydzhanskaya, founded in 1945 in Baku, has an Institute of
Geography which published a detailed study of the geography of Azerbaydzhan
in 1945. Scientific staff of the Academy in 1949: 444 people.
2. Armyanskaya, founded in 1943 in Yerevan. Scientific staff is
1949: 569 people.
3. Belorusskaya, founded in 1929 in Minsk. Scientific staff not
known but probably does not exceed 500 people.
4. Gruzinskaya, founded in 1941, in Tbilisi. The scientific staff
in 1949 consisted of 908 people. There is an Institute of Geography and
a very active Geophysical Observatory at Tbilisi. now a part of the Institute
of Physics and Geophysics.
5?
Eazakhakaya, founded in 1946, in Alma-Ata. Scientific staff:
about 1,000 people. Considerable research is done on the problem of
scattering and visibility in the atmosphere.
6. Latviyskaya, reorganized in 1940, in Riga. There is an Institute
of Geology and Geography here.
7. Litovskaya, founded in 1941, in Til'nyus.
8. Uzbekskaya, founded in 1943, in Tashkent. The academy has the
Tashkent Astronomical Observatory, the Latitude Station at $itab, and the
Seismological Station in Samarkand. There is also a Cartographic Bureau.
Nothing is known about the activity of the latter.
9. Estonskaya, founded in 1946 in Tartu.
10. Tadzhiskaya. founded in 1951, in Stalinabad.
11. Turkmenskaya, founded in 1951, in Ashkhabad'.
All these Academies publish a tremendous amount of material in their
special serials, Some of this material may be of considerable interest
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from the point of view of geodesy and cartography.
D. GLAVSEVMORPUT1
Glavnoye Upravleniye Severnogo Morskogo Puti (abbreviated Glavsevmorput1,
)~ain Administration of the North Sea Route) is a very large organization
created in 1932 for the purpose of securing the passage from the White Sea
ports to Vladivostok along the north coast of Siberia. This task involved
a thorough study of the Arctic from every point of view for which purpose
a research institute was organized. It is known as the Arkticheskiy Nauchno-
I!,seledovatel'skiy Institut (Arctic Scientific Research Institute). There
are also several other organizations in the system of the Glavoevmorput'
which are engaged in mapping activities, as will be explained below.
1. Arctic Institute
The Arctic Institute began in 1920 as Severnaya Nauchno-Promyslovaya
Zkapediteiya (Northern Scientific and Industrial Expedition). In 1925
it was transformed into the Institut po Izucheniyu Severa (Institute for
the Study of the North). In 1930 it received its present name and 0. Yu.
Shhmidt was appointed its director. In 1932 the Glavsevmorput' was organized
and the Arctic Institute became its research organ. 0. Yu. Shmidt was
appointed head of the entire Glaveevmorput' and was replaced at the Arctic
Institute by R.F. Samoylovich, a noted authority on the Arctic. The present
director of the Institute is V. Kh. Buynitskiy.
The activity of the Institute up to 1940 was very impressive. All as-
pects of the Arctic, north of the 60th parallel, were studied and a tremen-
dous number of volumes published. Many expeditions were organized and
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hundreds of astronomical positions and gravimetric measures were made,
as well as thorough studies of terrestrial magnetism, ionosphere, climate,
hydrography, etc.
Up to 1945 the Institute compiled 185 maps of the Arctic of which only
72 were published. The general map of the Arctic on the scale of 1:6,000,000
was considered in 1945, as the most reliable of the existing maps. Detailed
maps of Yamal-Gydan' and Chukotskiy peninsulas, and of the Lena-Khatanga,
Lena-Indigirka, Nizhnyya Tunguska regions, etc. were compiled.
In 1940 the activity of the Institute was much circumscribed 36 and
confined to three main avenues of investigation: ice and weather service,
marine hydrology and geophysics. All cartographic activity was to be assumed
by the hydrographic section of the Glavsevmorput'.
The main publication of the Arctic Institute is "Trudy" of which over
250 volumes are in existence. Since 1940 great secrecy surrounds Soviet
operations in the Arctic and only volumes of the "Trudy" devoted to biology
are permitted outside the Soviet Union. Up to 1940 many volumes contained
astronomical determinations, topographic maps, climatological studies, etc.
Especially important was the gravimetric work organized mostly by I.D. Zhon-
golovich of all the Soviet Arctic including the North Pole region. In his
47
report of 1940 he gives the location of determinations but not the values
of gravity itself. It appears that between 1936 and 1940, 328 such deter-
minations were made, very few of which were published. In the new Great
Soviet Encyclopedia, 1950, the Arctic Institute is not mentioned at all.
2. Hydrographic Administration
The Hydrographic Administration of the Glavsevmorput' (Gidrograficheskoye
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Upravleniye Glavsevmorputi), not to be confused with the Hydrographic Direc-
torate of the Marine Navy (Gidrograficheskoye Upravleniye Morskogo Biota)
has been very active along the coasts and inland waterways of the Arctic.
No comprehensive report covering its activity is available. However, from
its serial, "Severnyy Morskoy Put'", we gather that practically every large
and small river in the Arctic has been surveyed and atlases on a scale of
1:50,000 and 1:25,000 have been prepared. Volume 1 (1937) of another serial
published by the Hydrographic Directorate is available. It contains about
700 astronomical determination and triangulation positions made along the
coact of the Arctic.
3. MinimGeological Administration
The Mining-Geological Administration of the Glavsevmorput' (Gorno-
Geologicheskoye Upravleniye Glavsevmorputi) is chiefly engaged in studying
mineral deposits in the Arctic. It publishes its own serial, "Trudy" (Vol.
30, 1947) from which it is evident that considerable cartographic activity
is also carried on by this Administration.
4. Arctic Intelligence
The only reference to the "Arktikrazvedka" (Arctic Intelligence) so
far found is in the list of participants of the 2nd Conference on the
Problems of Latitude Variation, held in Moscow in 1950. A person, other-
wise unknown, V. Kh. Galeyev, represented this organization, the head-
quarters of which are in Moscow. Apparently it is interested, among other
things, in purely geodetical problems.
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E. MILITARY ORGANIZATIONS
Some research in geodesy and cartography for specific purposes is
undoubtedly conducted in military institutes, but very little is known
about the activity of these organizations.
The Scientific Research Institute of Military Topographic Service
(NIIVTS in Moscow) has been publishing monographs and instruction books
on the subjects of geodesy and cartography, paralleling the work of the
TsNIIGAiK.` It is in all probability a much smaller institution than the
TeNIIGAiK. None of the publications of NIIVTS have been found in this
country, and they are known only from reference to them in open sources.
The connection of the military with research projects in the U.S.S.R.
is rather carefully concealed and it is not easy to obtain even the rough-
est outlines of work along these lines. In the award of the Stalin prizes
for 1950, the authors of the Volume 1 of the Marine Atlas (Morskoy Atlas)
were enumerated. Among these we find Professor I.S. Isakov. In the Great
Soviet Encyclopedia Vol. 18, 1953 we find that this Professor Isakov is an
admiral of the navy and head of the Military Naval Academy.
This academy even though being primarily a training center, is rather
strong in cartographic research. One of the best known Soviet cartographers
V.V. Kavrayskiy is an admiral and is chairman of Geodesy and Astronomy in
the academy.
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APPBNDI% A
EXAMINED SOURONS
1. Medynakiy, E.N., Narodnoye Obrazovaniye v SSSR, 1947, p. 20.
2. Sredniye Spetsial'nyye Uchebnyye Zavedeniya SSSR, 1948.
Spravochnik dlya Postupayushchikh v Vysshiye Uchebnyye
Zavedeniya, 1950. After the compilation of this report
the 1952 edition of this handbook became available. It
is, however, much less detailed and less revealing than
the 1950 edition.
4. Titul'nyy Spisok Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedeniy, 1946.
5. Sementovskiy, V.N., Voprosy Geografii, Sbornik 25, 1951, pp. 56-82.
6. Aleksakov, H.I., Vestnik Vysshey Shkoly, 1951, No. 5, pp. 34-36.
7. Zemskova, Yu. A., Vestnik Vysshey Shkoly, 1951, No. 6, pp. 21-41.
8. Aspirantura Vysahikh Uchebnykh Zavedeniy, 1949.
9. Vysshaya Shkola, Osnovnyye Postanovleniya, 1945, P. 299-
10. Markov, K.K., Tridtsat' Let so Vremeni Organizatsii Vysehego
Geograficheskogo Uchebnogo Zavedeniya v Nashey
Strane, Voprosy Geografii, Vyp. 3, 1947,
pp. 200-209.
11. Baranakiy, N.N., Geograficheskiy Printsip v Organisatsii Geografi-
cheskogo Izucheniya Territorii, Voprosy Geografii
Vyp. 23, 1950, pp. 19-56-
12. Podobedov, N.S., 0 Postanovke Geograficheskikh Rabot, etc.,
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 16, 1948, pp. 57-69.
13. Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 13, 1946.
14. Podobedov, N.S., Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 8, 1945, p. 92.
15. Salishchev, K.A., Podgotovke Ladrov Geografov, Vestnik Vysshey
Shkoly, 1951, No. 7. PP- 5-14-
16. Salishchev, K.A., 0 Postanovke Vysehego Kartografichego Obrazovaniys
v SSSR, Voprosy Geografii, Vyp. 25, 1951, PP- 93-97-
17. Spravochnik dlya Poatupayushchikh v*Moskovekiy Universitet v 1949 g.
18. Voprosy Geografii, Vyp. 25, 1951, p. 11.
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19.
Vestnik Leningradakogo Universiteta, No. 5, 1951-
20.
Geodesist No. 8, 1940.
21.
Tekhnicheskaya Ucheba, Vol. 8, 1939-
22.
Sel'skokhozyaystvennaya Akademiya imeni K.A. Timiryazeva, 1946.
23.
Kuda Poyti Uchit'sya, 1950 and 1951-
24.
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 24. 1949, pp. 83-84.
25.
XX-Let Sovetakoy Geodezii i Kartografii, Vol. 1, 1940.
26.
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 6, 1944. pp. 49-56-
27-
Sredniye Spetsial'nyye Uchebnyye Zavedoniya, 1948, pp.
107-109-
29.
Kuda Poyti Uchit'sya, reference book for prospective students in
Moscow region, 1947-
29.
A series of 15 articles in the "Geodez et" No. 5, 1940, reviewing
the work of the TsNIIGAiL.
30.
Armand, A.A., Nauchno--Iasledovatel'ski~ye Inetituty Tyazheloy
Promyahlennosti, 1935, Pp). 747-762-
31.
Danilov, V.V., Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 22, 1948, pp. 13-25-
32.
Sukhov, A.I., IX-Let Sov. Geodezii i Zartografii, 1939, pt. 1,
pp. 254-270-
33-
Sbornik NTPS. Vyp. 21, 1948, p. 30, Chronicle.
34.
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 16, 1948, Chronicle..
35.
Mandel'shtam, L.I. and Papaleksi, editors,Noveyshiye Issledovaniya
Rasprostraneniyn Radiovo.n vdol' Zemnoy Poverkhnosti,
M.L., 1945-
36.
Problemy Arktiki 1940, No. 7-8, p. 106..
37.
Zhongolovich, I.D., Problemy Arktiki, 1.940. No. 2.
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APPENDIX B
Rules of Admission to Institutions of Higher Learning of the U.S.S.R. for
1`LO.
(Confirmed by the Ministry of Higher Education of the U.S.S.R. 28 January,
1950).
I. Accepted in TUZY - Citizens of U.S.S.R. of both sexes from 17 to 35?
in Correspondence and Evening SUZY (divisions)
without definite age limit, provided they have completed " intermediate
education and successfully passed the examinations set up for those entering,
these educational institutions.
Note: - (a) Persons who have graduated from tekhnikums or other inter-
mediate specialized educational institutions comparable to them, will be
accepted in VUZY provided they have completed the three years' production
experience established by law after completion of the intermediate educe-
tional institution. Such experience is not required of those enrolling in
correspondence and evening,TUZY and divisions, nor from those included in
the upper 5% of those graduated from each tekhnikum, as well as from those
people who, at the close of a tekhnikum. are participating in the three or
more years program of active military service.
(b) In accordance with decree No. 426 of the Sovet of Minis-
tors of the Union of SSR of Feb. 1, 1949, it has been decided to temporarily
accept for a period of five years, for the first course of teachers' institutes
without preliminary experience by the enrollees, those who have-completed
pedagogical training schools under the direction of the ministries of Education
of the Union Republics.
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II. Those people who, at the close of intermediate schools, have been
awarded gold or silver medals MYor"outstanding successes and exemplary con
duct," will be accepted in institutions of higher learning without entrance
ezwiinations, provided that, first of all, there shall be admitted those
awarded the golden medal and next those awarded the silver medal.
Also without entrance examinations will be accepted those persons who
have completed tekhnikums with a rank of Mexcellent*# those included within
the upper 5% of those graduated from a tekhaikum or a three-year intermediate
medical school and who enroll in institutions of higher learning according
to their specialty within two years, including the year of completion.
Note: - Those persons awarded gold and silver medals, and outstanding
graduates who have completed tekhnikums (intermediate specialized educar-
tionai institutions), who enroll for architectural and construction specialties,
shall take examinations in drawing and drafting; those enrolling in art, music
and'physical culture higher educational institutions shall take examinations
according to their specialty.
III. Those enrolling in higher educational institutions, with the ex-
ception of those mentioned in paragraph 2, shall take entrance examinations
depending upon the specialty of the higher educational institution:
1. in 1UZY and faculties of machine-construction, metal-work,
metallurgy, mechanics, electrical mechanics, electrical technology,
energetics, communications, mipjM, eog logy, oil, aviation, geodes
,
hydr'ometeorology, hydrography, auto-transport, railroad, water transport,
forestry, chemical technology, cinema-engineering - in the following sub-
mathematics, b. physics, ce chemistry, d. Russian language and
literature, e. one foreign language ( lish, French or German);
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2. in TUZY and faculties of architecture and building - in the
following subjects:
a. mathematics, b. physics, c. drawing and drafting, d. Russian
language and literature, e. one foreign language (English. Trench or
German);
3. in YUZY and faculties of philology, linguistics, philosophy -
in the following subjects:
a. Russian language and literature, b. history of peoples of the
U.S.S.R., ce geography, d. one foreign language (English, Trench or German);
4. in institutes and faculties of physics - mathematics, chemistry,
land exploitation, agricultural construction, peat textiles, light industry,
trade, automobile-roads, polygraphy, mechanization and electrification of
agriculture, forest economy, forest improvement and hydromelioration - in
the following subjects;
a. mathematics, b. physics, c. chemistry, d. Russian language and
literature;
5. in YUZY and faculties of biology, soil science, agronosyr, zoo-
technics, veterinary medicine, asdigine, stomatology, pharmacology, physical
cutlers, - in the following subjects;
a. physics, b. chemistry, c. Russian language and literature;
6. in YUZY and faculties of history, jurisprudence, eo rw , library
science, and also in pedagogical faculties of pedagogical institutes -
in the following subjects:
a. history of peoples of the U.S.S.R.. b. geography, c. Russian
language and literature;
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7. in institutes and faculties of economics and engineering-economics -
in the following subjects:
a. mathematics, b. geography, c. history of peoples of the U.S.S.R.,
Russian language and literature;
8. in higher musical, theatrical and art educational institutions
and institutes of cinematography - in the following subjects:
a. history of peoples of the U.S.S.R.. b. specialties, c. Russian
language and literature;
9. those enrolling in teachers' institutes shall take entrance
examinations in the following subjects:
A. in the division of language and literature - a. in Russian
language and literature, b. history of peoples of the U.S.S.R., c. geography;
B. in the history division - a. in Russian language and literature,
b. history of peoples of the U.S.S.R.. c. geography;
0. in the natural science-geographic divic ion -- a. in Russian
,language and literature, b. geography, c. chemistry;
D. in the sacs-mathematics division - a. in Russian language and
literature, b. mathematics, c. physics;
Note: 1. Those enrolling in TUZY, where the instruction is carried
on not in the Russian language, shall also take an examination in the
language in which the instruction in the given YUZ is carried on.
2. Those enrolling in universities shall take an entrance
examination (in addition to the aforementioned, depending upon the faculty)
in one foreign language (English. Drench, German) independently of the
specialty.
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IT. Entrance examinations shall be given in accordance with the
programs approved by the Ministry of Higher Education of the U.S.S.R.
In the case of the Russian language and the language in which the
instruction of the given higher educational institution is carried on,
as well as in the case of mathematics both written and oral examinations
will be given, in the case of all other subjects only oral.
In the case of the Russian language and the language in which the
instruction in the given higher educational institution is carried on,
separate grades both for the written as well as for the oral examinations
will be posted; in the case of mathematics one overall grade shall be
posted on the basis of the written and oral examinations.
Notes Separate grades for written and oral examinations in mathematics
will be posted at physics-mathematics faculties of universities and peda-
gogical institutes.
Y. Persons who have received an unsatisfactory grade on the written
examination in the Russian language or the language, in which the instruc-
tion in the given YUZ is carried on, shall not be admitted to further
examinations.
TI. From the number of those passing the entrance examinations, i.e.,
receiving a grade of not lower than "second-rate," those having the highest
grades shall be enrolled in institutions of higher learning. Persons who
have passed the examinations but are not accepted because of lack of vacant
places in that faculty (fakul'tet) in which they. have passed the examinations
may be accepted in another faculty, where there are open places after enroll-
ment of the candidates who have passed examinations in that faculty, on com-
dition that they pass additional examinations set up for those enrolling In
that faculty.
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VII. Applications for enrollment in higher educational institutions
will be received from June 20 through July 31.
In applications for enrollment the Nfaculty" and specialty chosen by
the applicant must be indicated. Applications shall be turned in to the
name of the director of the higher educational institution with the addition
of s
a. an autobiography
b. an affidavit of completed work (diploma) from an intermediate
educational institution (in the original),
c. a passport (presented personally),
d. three photographs (snapshots without hats, size 3 x 4 centimeters),
e. statements of military status (for those subject to military duty),
f. statements from the place of work, together with indication of the
duties and specialties of occupation (for correspondence and evening
TUZY and divisions).
TIII. Under the director's personal chairmanship there shall be organised
an admissions commission composed of the vice-director on educational and
scientific work, the deans of the faculties and two professors.
The director and members of the admissions committee are obliged
personally to become acquainted with each applicant and to verify personally
all the documents of the applicants.
The director is obliged, within five days from the day of receipt of
the application, to notify the applicant of the results of the preliminary
consideration of his application.
IX. Entrance examinations shall take place from the first through the
twentieth of August.
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X. Enrollment in the student body shall take place from the 21st
through the 25th of August, and the enrollment of students indicated in
paragraph 2 from the 21st through the 31st of July, according to the
receipt of their applications.
XI. Entrance examinations shall be given by specialized examining
commissions, appointed by the director.
XII. For each applicant an examination paper together with a photo-
graph card shall be handed in.
XIII. The results of the entrance examinations shall be indicated
separately for'each subject with the following grades (marks): "otlichno"
(excellent), "khorosho" (good). "posredetvenno" (average), "neudovlet-
voriteleno" (unsatisfactory).
XIT. The director of the higher educational institution shall
organize the medical examination of all applicants. The list of ill-
nesses which prevent admission to the corresponding higher educational
institution shall be confirmed by the Ministry of Health of the U.S.S.R.
and the Ministry of Higher Education of the U.S.S.R.
XT. The results of the examinations and of the medical examination
shall be submitted to the admissions commission, which makes the decision
about admission into the higher educational institution. Enrollment in
the higher educational institution takes place at the order of the director.
XVI. Persons. enrolled in the higher educational institutions who do
not enter in their work before September 10th without good reason, shall
be excluded from the student roster.
XTII. The directors of higher educational institutions may determine,
in the case where vacancies arise, to accept on the roster of students those
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people who have passed the examinations in another higher educational in-
stitution, but who were not admitted to it because there is-no vacancy or
in view of the lack of correspondence between requirements of the given
specialty and a health condition, and also he (the director) shall admit
to':the entrance examinations persons who did not pass the examinations in
another TUZY in subjects not provided for by the rules of admission in the
given TUZ. The acceptance shall take place after passing of the examina-
tions set up for the given TUZ, taking into account the examinations passed
in'',the other TUZ.
The last day for enrolling these people indicated above shall be
September 10th.
The same period shall be established for enrolling of the student men-
tioned in paragraph 2, and not admitted into another higher educational in-
stitution because of no vacancy.
XTIII. Complaints about refusal to enroll may be submitted from the
first of the school year to the administration of the educational institutions
of the corresponding Ministry (office) together with documents (autobiography;
copy of attestation, excerpts from the protocol (minutes) of the examining and
admissions commissions).
The administration of educational institutions shall be obliged to give
an answer to the complaint not later than three days from the moment of
receipt of the complaint.
XIX. As for persons not admitted to higher educational institutions,
their documents shall be returned to them not later than three days after
the' corresponding notice or the decision of the admissions commission con-
cerning refusal is given.
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APPENDIX C
A. List of Russian Textbooks of Higher Geodes
1. Rabinovich, B. N.: Osnovy postroyeniya opornykh geodezicheskikh setey.
(Principles of the Construction of Fundamental
Geodetic Networks)
Dopushcheno Min. Vyssh. Obrazovaniya SSSR v kachestve
uchebnogo posobiya dlya kartograficheskikh fakul'tetov
geodezicheskikh institutov, Moskva, 1948, 323 pp.
2. Chebotarev, A. S.: Geodeziya. Chast' pervaya; chast' vtoraya.
("Geodesytl - Part I, 1948; part II, 1949)
Dopushcheno Ministerstvom vysshego obrazovaniya
SSSR v kachestve uchebnika dlya institutov geodezii
i kartografii, Moskva, 692 pp. and 636 pp.
Virovets, A. M.
Kutozov, M. N.: Geodeziya. ("Geodesy")
Izdatel'stvo geodezicheskoy i kartograficheskoy
literatury, Moskva, 1948, 467 pp-
4. Rabinovich, B. N.: Praktikum po vysshey geodezii.
(Manual of Higher Geodesy)
Dopushcheno Ministerstvom vysshego obrazovaniya SSSR
v kachestve uchebnogo posobiya dlya geodezicheskikh
vuzov i fakul'tetov, Moskva, 1951, 304 pp-
Krasovskiy, F. N.: Rukovodstvo po Vysshey Geodezii
(Textbook of Higher Geodesy), Chast' I.
Izdaniye Nauchno Tekhnicheskoy Sektsiyey Gosudarstvennogo
Uchenogo.Soveta Dopushcheno v kachestve rukovodstva dlya
Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedeniy, Moskva, 1926, 463 pp-
6. Krasovskiy, F. N. Rukovodstvo po Vysshey Geodezii.
Danilov, V. V. (Textbook of Higher Geodesy)
Chast' I, Vypusk 1, Izdaniye Redbyuro GUGSK NKVD SSSR,
Moskva, 1938, 419 pp.
Chast' I, Vypusk 2, Izdaniye Redbyuro GUGK pri SNK
SSSR, Moskva, 1939, 401 pp.
Chast' II, Izdatel'stvo Geodezicheskoy i Kartografi-
cheskoy Literatury GUGK pri SNK SSSR, Moskva, 1942,
551 pp.
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B. Reference Books on Geodesy
7? Bonch-Druyevich, M.D.: Kazanskiy, I.A.: Geodeziya, Tom I.
8.
Bonch-Bruyevich, M.D.: Stepanov, N.N.: Geodeziya, Tom III.
(Editor) (Geodesy - Surveying and Leveling, Vol. III).
Izdatel'stvo Narkomkhoza RSFSR, Moskva, Leningrad,
19111, 3614 pp.
Editor) (Geodesy - Supplements, Vol. IX).
Izdatel'stvo 11iinisterstva Kommunal'nogo Khozyzy-
stva RSFSR. Leningrad, Moskva, 1949, 5140 pp.
(Editor) (Geodesy, Vol. I).
Izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Kommunal'nogo Khozyay-
stva RSFSR. Leningrad, Moskva, 19149, 1422 pp.
Bonch-Bruyevich, M.D.: Stepanov, N.N.: Geodeziya, Tom IX.
10. Baranov, A.N.(Editor): XX Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii, 1919-1939.
(XX Years of Soviet Geodesy and Cartography, 1919-
1939).
Sbornik Statey 1 and 2. Glavnoye Upravleniye
Geodezii i Kartografii pri SNK SSSR, Moskva, 420 pp.
Co List of "Special Type" Geodetic Textbooks
U. Bobylev, G. Z.: Geodeziya (Geodesy)
Gosud. Arkhitekturnoye Izdatel'stvo, Moskva, 1950,
2145 pp.
12. O rlov, P. M.: Zemlemeriye (Geodeziya) Uchebniki i Uchebnyye
Posobiya dlya Sel'skokhozyaystvennykh Tekhnikumov.
(Land Surveying (Geodesy) Textbooks and Training
Manuals for Agricultural Technikums)
Gosud. Izdatel'stvo Sel'skozyaystvennoy Literatury,
Moskva, 19149, 327 pp.
13. Popov, V. V. (Prof): Uravnoveshivaniye Seti Poligonov.
(Adjustments of Polygonal Ne two rks )
Posobiye dlya inzhenerov i tekhnikov, vypolnyayu-
shchikh geodezicheskiye raboty. Izdatel'stvo
geodezicheskoy i kartograficheskoy literatury GUGK
pri SNK SSSR, Moskva, 19141, 1148 pp.
114. Shchavelev, A. F.: Geodeziya (Geodesy)
Dopushcheao GUUZom Ministerstva Rechnogo Flota SSSR
v Kachestve Uchebnogo Posobiya dlya Rechnykh Uchil-
ishch i Tekhnikumov, Leningrad, Moskva, 1950, 360 pp.
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15. Stepanov, N. N.: Inzhenernaya Geodeziya (Engineering Geodesy).
Vyssheye inzhenerno-tekhnicheskoye uchilishche VMF
Izdatel'stvo Narkomkhoza RSFSR, Moskva, Leningrad,
19143, 328 pp.
16. Vydrin, F. I.: Geodeziya i marksheyderskoye delo.
(Geodesy and the Mine Surveying Service)
Ugletekhizdat. Moskva, 19148, 263 pp.
17. Platon, V. M.: Spravochnoye posobiye po geodezii dlya tekhnikov-
stroiteley.
(Reference Manual in Geodesy for Engineering Con-
struction)
Izdatel'stvo Ministerstva Kommunaltnogo Khozyzystva
RSFSR, Moskva, Leningrad, 19149, 211 pp.
18. Gusev, M. I.: Kurs marksheyderskogo dela.
(A Course in Mine Surveying)
Chast' I. Dopushcheno Ministerstvom vysshego
obrazovaniya SSSR v kachestve uchebnika dlya VTUZov.
Ugletekhizdat Ministerstva Vostokuglya. Moskva,
Leningrad, 19148, 267 PP.
19. Bakhurin, I. M.: Kurs marksheyderskogo dela.
Pyatlin, M. P. (A Course in Mine Surveying)
Krotov, G. A. Chast' II. Dopushcheno Ministerstvom vysshego
obrazovaniya SSSR v kachestve uchebnogo posobiya
dlya gornykh vuzov.
Ugletekhizdat. Moskva, Leningrad, 19149, 259 Pp?
20. Shilov, P. I.: Geodeziya (dlya avtodorozhnykh vuzov).
(Geodesy (for auto road construction)).
Izdatel'stvo geodezicheskoy i kartograficheskoy
literatury. Moskva, 1950, 4014 pp.
Aerogeologicheskiye Raboty. Vypusk VIII.
(Aero Geological Works)
Ministerstvo Geologic.
Gosudarstvennoye Izdatel'stvo Geologicheskoy
Literatury. Moskva, 1950, 208 pp.
D. List of Textbooks of "Lower" Geodesy
22. Fedorov, N. V. (Prof): Geodeziya. (Geodesy)
Dorizdat. Moskva, 19149, 279 pp.
23. Belikov, S.: Kurs topografii ili nizshey geodezii.
(A Course in Topography or Lower Geodesy).
Moskva, 18814.
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Kurs nizshey geodezii.
(A Course in Lower Geodesy).
Akademii Nauk. Sanktpeterburg, 1897.
Elementarnaya geodeziya.
(Elementary Geodesy).
Amerikanskoye izdatel'stvo. Berlin, 1924,
Orlov, P. M.s Kurs Geodezii. (A Course in Geodesy).
Nauchno-tekhnicheskiy Otdel VSNKh.
Moskva, 19211, 191 pp.
27. Motornyy, A. D.: Nyzhcha geodeziya. (Lower Geodesy).
Chastyna 2 - Menzul'ne zdiymannya
Tekhnichno-teoretychne vydavnytstvo
Kharkiv, Kyiv, 1933, 103 pp.
28.
29.
30!11.
E. Field Instruction Manuals
Instruktsiya po Sostavleniyu Kroki Geodezicheskikh
Punktov.
(Instructions for the Compilation of Sketches of
Geodetic Points)
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii pri
Sovete Ministrov SSSR, Moskva, 1949, 16 pp.
Instruktsiya po Triangulyatsii, II, III i IV
Klassov.
(Instructions for Triangulations of II, III and
IV Class).
Obyazatel'na dlya Vsekh Vedomstv i Uchrezhdeniy
SSSR. Izdateltstvo Geodezicheskoy i Kartografi-
cheskoy Literatury GUGK pri SNK SSSR. Moskva,
19113, 128 PP?
F. Geodetic and Topographic Norms
Yedinyye Normy Vyrabotki na Topograficheskiye i
Geodezicheskiye Raboty.
(The Only Nonns for the production of Topographic
and Geodetic Works)
Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii pri
Sovete Ministrov SSSR.
Izdatel'stvo Geodezicheskoy i Kartograficheskoy
Literatury. Moskva, 1919, 255 pp.
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G. "Iron Curtain" Textbooks of Geodesy
31. Grossmann, Walter Geodaetische Rechnungen and Abbildungen in der
Landesvermessung. Buecher der Technik.
(Geodetic Computation and Representation in the
Land Survey. Technical Library)
Wissenschaftliche Verlagsanstalt K. G. Hannover
v. Schroedel-Siemau and Co. im Gemeinschaft mit
Wolfenbuetteler Verlagsanstalt G.M.b.H. Wolfenbuettel.
Hannover, 1919, 166 pp.
32. Dimov, L.: Geodeziya (Lektsii). (Geodesy (Lectures)).
Berzhaven Universitet "Kiril slavyanob"lgarski"
Fond "Nauchni izdaniya," No. 91.
Universitetska pechatniksa, Varna !ulgaria7, 19118.
33. Georgiyev, Georgi: Geodeziya. Chast II.
(Geodesy. Part II).
Odobreno of Ministerstvoto na obshchestvenite
sgradi, p"tishcha i blagoustroustvo s zapoved
No. 149214 of 7. XI 1947 g?
Biblioteka na Derzhavnite sredne tekhnicheski
uchilischa v Belgariya. Sofiya ulgaria7, 1948,
212 pp.
34. Rysavy, Josef: Ni's1 Geodesie. (Lower Geodesy).
6eska matice technicka. Ro'nik Liv (1949).
Naklidem Ceske Matice Technicke s podporou
Ministerstva gkolstvi Veda Umeni.
Praha fc-zechoslovakia~, 1949
35. Rysavy, Josef: Vy611 Geodesie. (Higher Geodesy).
6eska matice technicka.
Nakladem 6eske I atice Technicke s podporou
Ministerstva Skolstvi a 0svety
V Komisi Knihkupectvi Fr. ,ivnase v Praze.
Praha /zechoslovakia7, 1947, 522 pp.
36. Venedikov, M.: Geodeziya. II Chast'. (Geodesy. Part II)
Universitetska literatura.
D"rzhavno izdatel'srvo "Nauka i izkustvo."
Sofiya /ulgaria7, 1950
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O FI 62M 150610
SECRET Copy No
EXTERNAL RESEARCH INTELLIGENCE STUDY
SOVIET EDUCATION IN GEODESY AND
CARTOGRAPHY
December 1954
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
DOCUMENT NO.
NO CHANGE IN CLASS. 7
L) DECLASSIFIED
CLASS. CHANGED TO: TS S cc)
AUTH: HR 70.2
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