CULTIVATION OF CHINESE PADDY RICE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP04-01460R000100050001-2
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 628
• Document Creation Date: December 21, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 19, 2008
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: June 1, 1979
• Content Type: REPORT

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to encourage the wild-grown rice plants to grow quickly, then,
they may be raked and eliminated, the yield of the upland rice
may be greatly improved.
b. Prevention and Elimination of Insects in the
Soil
Such insects as Lema flvipes and Gryllotalpa
alfricana reside under the soil, and they may harm the young
sprouts and seedlings. Drugs may be used to kill them.
Two to three chin of 666 powder may be mixed in
6% solution and 50 chin of soil to apply to one mou of the
field before the rice seeds are planted. This must is effect-
ive as well as lasting.
In areas where damage from Gryllotalpa alfricana is
serious, then 2 Jiang of arsenic or 3 Jiang of sodium silica-
fluoride per mou may be used a bait. These drugs are mixed
with cakes of fertilizer or grain, and scattered in the field
at night. Or, 2 chin of 669 powder may be mixed with 100 chin
of half cooked millet, and the mixture may be dried in the
sun,to about 70% dry. Then, 3 to 4 chin per mou of this mix-
ture may be mixed with the seeds at the planting time.
c. "Hug" the Sprouts
Sometimes, due to too much rain or too thick soil
cover, the soil surface may become too hard for the your
sprouts. In the north, when the spouts are about 20 to 30%
above the soil, a small-toothed rake is often used to pick
off a thin layer of.soil to get rid of the weeds as well as
to loosen the soil.
(2) During the Seedling Stage
After all the sprouts are above the ground, the
following measures are important:
a. Inspection:
The sprouts should be inspected to see if any are
missing. supplements must be made immediately. Seedlings
may be transplanted after a rain, or the soil may be irriga-
tbd before the supplements are planted. The newly added seed-
lings should be watered frequently to encourage rapid growth.
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b. Cultivation and Weeding:
Timely cultivation and weeding may loosen the
soil for more ventilation, raise the soil temperature, and
preserve -soil moisture, so as to create better conditions for
the growth of the rice plants. The first cultivation and
weeding should be done when the seedlings are three ts'un
tall. The second cultivation should be done 10 days later.
Then, there should be a third or a third and a fourth after
two weeks. Aside from the hand rakes and cultivators, the
five-toothed or seven-toothed cultivating machines may also
be used to improve efficiency. During the early stage,
cultivation should be done very carefully so as not to crush
the young seedlings. Later, while cultivating, effort should
be made to pile soil around the plants so as to control in-
effectual tillering, and to prevent the plants from falling.
The saline soils of the north must be cultivated
more often to keep the salts from rising to the surface.
According to Chi-wei Irrigation Management Bureau of Honan,
the soil of Yen-chin-hsien contains 0.127% of salts in the
0-20 cm layer, and 0.31% of chloride; the 20-50 cm layer con-
tains 0.98% of salts and 0.22% of chloride (Table 1908). If
the soil is cultivated after a rain, the surface salts may
be effectively reduced.
Table 19-8 The Effect of Frequent Cultivation
After Rain or Irrigation on the
Saline Content of the Soil
1V 2
M03 / FO
-k 3 9 A I It 4
20-50
_k 3 4 40
4/1 (22)
1.27-
0.31
0.98
0.22
4/9
0.39
0.01
0.95
0.04
6/29
0.40
0.01
0.56
0.04
7/21
0.46
0.02
0.98
0.03
8/11
0.46
0.01
0.68
0.03
9/18
0.24
0.02
0.49
0.02
1. Soil layer (cm) 2. Cultivation time (month/day)
3. Salts 4. Chloride
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c. The Prevention of Insections and Diseases
The soil must be inspected for insects and the
plants be inspected for diseases. The drugs and poisons may
be applied again. Or horse manure may be piled and scattered
in the field to attract the insects. If the soil is extreme-
ly acid or alkali, the plants may be affected by the disease
of yellow blight due to lack of manganese of the soil. The
plants may be sprayed with a - ferromanganese fertilizer, and
more compost and manure should be applied.
(3) Field Management During the Later Stages
Aside from the early measures, fertilizer appli-
cation during the head development stage and watering may
increase the number of seeds and the weight of the seeds.
Fertilizer application must be timely and in proper amounts.
During the later stages of growth, the field should still be
inspected for insects and diseases, and proper and timely
measures should be taken if any is discovered so as to insure
a high yield.
5. IRRIGATION [p 547]
Although compared with the paddy rice, the up-
land rice is more drought resistant, it is not as drought
resistant as the other dry crops. It is more drought resis-
tant during the early stages of growth. After the head evo-
lvement time if there is a drought, and the soil becomes dry,
then, the yield will be seriously reduced. As we have men-
tioned before, the yield of the upland rice increases with
the soil moisture content. The rainfall during the growing
period of the upland rice is fairly sufficient in the various
areas, but it is not distributed evenly;therefore, a reduc-
tion in yield due to drought may easily occur.
In 1955, there was a bad drought in Wu-ch'uan-hsien,
Kwangtung, the upland rice was irrigated five times during
its growth period to keep the soil constantly moist and the
average yield was 618 chin per mou, an increase of 47% over the
yield of the year before.
In the First Agricultural Cooperative of Hsi-hsien,
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Honan, the field that was irrigated during the head develop-
ment stage produced 480 chin per mou, 35% above the field
that was not irrigated.
Pai-ch'eng Special District of Kirin is in an arid
region. The year s average rainfall is only 300 mm. From
1958 to 1959, Pai-ch'eng Special District Institute of Agri-
cultural Sciences cultivated upland rice an'irrigated fields,
and the yield was about 800 chin per mou.
The irrigation method for upland rice varies with
the fainfall. According to Hui-ch'eng Experiemental Station
of Shantung, the soil should be maintained at 70 to 80% of
saturation, and the total amount of water needed is about
556 c.m, of which 238.7 c.m of water is from irrigation (over
and above the rainfall.)
According to Pai-ch'eng Special District Experi-
mental Station of Kirin, when the rainfall was 227 mm, the
irrigation water used was 319.3 c.m per mou.
As far as the upland rice is concered, the need,
for water is most urgent at about 20 days before heading time.
The soil moisture content at that time has great effect on
yield. Of course, in areas where spring drought is frequent,
the field should be irrigated early also.
The source and the quality of irrigation water
are very important. If well water is used, we must also pay
attention to the water temperature. If the water contains
a great deal (as much as 0.1%) of sodium chloride, it should
not be used to irrigate upland rice.
6. MULTIPLE PLANTING AND INTERPLANTING [p 547]
In order to make maximum use of land and grow-
ing season, the method of repeated pnd mixed planting is of-
ten used. In North China, during the recent years, upland
rice is often used to grow repeated crops with wheat, barley,
potatoes, Pisum sativa, and corn. If upland rice is planted
after the summer crop, as a rule, more than 200 chin per
mou of rice may be obtained; sometimes, as much as 500 chin
per mou. The growing season is, by then, quickly coming to
a close, therefore, with this method, the early ripening
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varieties should be used in order to obtain maximum-yield.
If upland rice is to be planted in the potatoC field, or
wheat field, it is usually planted in the space between the
rows (20 ts'un) in the end of May or the beginning of June
before the potatoes and wheat are ready for harvest. Accord-
ing to the information of Tientsin Special Bureau, planting
upland rice in the potato field is the best, because it is
well ventilated, with high soil temperature. Planting is
easy, and the yield may reach 700 chin per mou. If planted
in the wheat field, the yield is about 330 chin per mou.
In Szechwan, the general practice is to plant upland rice in
the space between the rows of oil cabbage. After the harvest
of the oil cabbage, a row of corn is planted in every seven
rows of upland rice. Sometimes, instead of corn, sweet po-
tatoes may be planted in the same manner. In some cases,
after the upland rice is harvested, another crop of rice is
planted again to form three harvests. In northern Kwangtung,
sometimes upland rice is planted in alternate rows with
watermelon. This method may reduce insect damage of the
watermelon.
7. CROP ROTATION [p 548]
Practice proved that growing upland rice
year after year is not good for the soil. The weeds begin
to multiply; so do the insects and plant diseases. And the
yield of the upland rice will drop. In Lo-ping-hsien, Kiang-
si, a field was planted with upland rice for three years
consecutively. The yield of the first year was 350 chin per
mou; that of the second year was 300 chin, and that of the
third year was 180 chin, a 49% drop of the first.
Crop rotation is a good method for nurturing soil
fertility, saving fertilizer, improving soil structure, re-
ducing weeds, preventing insects and diseases, and raising
the yield of the rice crop. In the rice growing areas of
our country, the major crop rotation systems of the upland
rice take the forms of. one, two, or five year cycles.
One year crop rotation system:
a. upland rice ,forage legumes
(Astragalus sinicus,
Shao-tzu)
Practiced in Hunan
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b. Upland rice ___),turnip
(oil cabbage)
Practiced in Kiangsi
c. Upland rice ___wheat
(beans)
Practiced in Hopei, Shantung
d. Upland rice-wheat
(barley,oil cabbage, lima beans)
Practiced in Honan
e. Wheat ~Upland rice )celery cabbage
(three harvests)
Practiced in Honan
Two-Year Crop Rotation System:
First Year Second Year
a. Upland rice sweet potatoes; Peanuts (flax)_sweet po-
tatoes
Practiced in Kwangtung
b. Upland rice__*soybean; Dioscorea japonica
Practieed in Kwangtung
c. Upland rice_*sweet potatoes; Upland riceEleusine
corcana
Practiced in Hunan
d..Fallow sweet potatoes; Tobacco upland rice
Practiced IN Kweichow
e. Upland rice Corn (kaolian )sweet potatoes,
peanuts
Practiced in Hopei
Three-Year Crop Rotation System:
First Year Second Year
Third Year
a. Upland rice Soybean(Colocassia antiquorum) Corn
Practiced in Yunnan
b. Corn wheat Tobacco Upland rice
Practiced in Kweichow
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c. Upland rice Soybean Corn (kaoliang, mixed
corn and soybean)
Practiced in Liaoning, Kirin
d. Upland rice Corn (kaoliang) Soybean
Practiced in the Northeast
Four-Year Crop Rotation System:
First 'tear Second Year Third Year Fourth Year
Upland rice Soybean Corn (kaolian , Kaoliang(corn,
corn, soybean or mixed corn
and soybean)
practiced in the Northeast
Five-year Crop Rotation System:
First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth Year Fifth Year
Upland rice Soybean Kaoliang Corn Soybean
(corn) (Kaoliang)
Practiced in the Northeast
As a previous crop for upland rice, soybean, peanuts,
oil cabbage, Pisum sativa, and turnip are the best; sweet po-
tatoes, wheat, kaoliang, and corn are the next best; millet
and Eleusine corcana are the worst. When a rotation system
is being designed, attention should be given to the problems
of soil. fertility, insects, and diseases. Crops of the Legu-
minosae family, such as soybean and peanuts are good for nur-
turing soil fertility. Crops requiring deep plowing, such as
turnip, are good for improving soil structure. Broadleafed
crops, such as Setaria virdis and Phaseolus var. radiatus,
or crops that require cultivation are good for eliminating
weeds. Tuber type crops, such as potatoes, when rotated with
upland rice may help eliminate the diseases and insects for
one another. In the south, Dioscorea japonica is used to ro-
tate with upland rice so as to adjust labor for field pre-
paration. If a field is always bothered with weeds, then, it
is not suitable for upland rice. Crops that absorb a great
deal of fertilizer, such as barley and wheat, are not suitable
for rotation with upland rice.
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8. TRANSPLANTING [p 5491
In the north, in the wheat field, or in the
lowlands, transplanting method is sometimes used to cultivate
upland rice. It is usually planted in the middle or hater
part of April, in the same manner as the paddy rice. The
seedlings are left to grow in the seed beds for 40 to 50 days,
until there are five leaves. A thin ammonium sulfate.solu-
tion is applied a few days before transplantation to insure
a high survival rate for the seedlings.
The seedlings are transplanted in the early part of
June, on a cloudy day with temperatures about 18?C. The
work is usually done early in the morning or at dusk to avoid
high temperature which may harm the seedlings. The plants
are watered immediately after being transplanted. The field
is prepared first, with the initial fertilizer applied. The
space between the rows is about 6 to 7 ts'un, and the space
between the groups is about 4 to 5 ts'un. The seedlings are
planted about 1.5 to 2 ts'un deep, and mud is pushed to cover
the roots. After they are planted, they are watered once a
day for three days. Then once every other day for another
three days, to help the seedlings to become green again.
Sometimes, a round stick about 4 cm in diameter, is used to
poke a hole for fertilizer application, transplanting, and
watering. Then soil is used to cover the seedlings. After
transplanting, the field management is the same as direct
planting.
Moreover, the seeds of upland rice may also be
planted into the space between the rows in the wheat
field before the wheat is harvested. At the time of the wheat
harvest, the rice plants are generally several ts'un high.
After the wheat harvest, the rice seedlings are moved over to
the wheat rows on a rainy day, or after the soil has been
irrigated. The masses believe that when the transplanting
method is used, the land utilization rate ,is higher, and
the spring drought may be avoided. Besides , they also believe
that there are less weeds when this method of planting is
adopted.
9. HARVESTING [p 550]
The upland rice is ripe about 30 to 40 days after
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it comes to a head. The ripening time may vary with the
area, the variety, and the temperature. In the south, when
the upland rice is ripening, the temperature is high; then,
the ripening stage is shorter. Generally, when the leaves
turn yellow, the tip of the head is yellow, and not a single
green seed may be found in the head, except very few green
seeds in the lower part of the stalk; then the crop should
be harvested immediately. If harvest is too early, some
seeds may still be green, and the quality of the harvest will
suffer. If the crop is harvested too late, the seeds may be
blown off by the wind, and the harvest will suffer too. In
Kwangtung, the harvest is generally in the early part of June;
in the early part of September in Yunnan,and the latter part of
July or the early part of October in some cases; in North
China and the Northeast, it is from the middle of September
to the early part of October.
Harvest is best done in the morning before the dew
dries. The portion of seeds which are kept for next planting
should contain less than 1370 (south) or 147. of moisture.
Especially in the Northeast, if the temperature is low during
the harvest time, the seeds should be sunned in time. After
they have been dried properly in the sun, they should be kept
in a place that is high, dry, cool, well ventilated, and not
directly exposed to sunlight.
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[p 553]
SECTION 4. TRIPLE SEASON RICE [p 568]
Triple-seasoned rice culture in our country is
distributed primarily in Hai-nan-tao. It is located in the
tropical zone, with high temperature and plenty of rainfall.
The coldest month of January has a temperature above 18?C.
Frost is often not seen all year long, and rice plants can
grow anytime. Ya-lin Kung-she of Ya-hsien has had over 60
years of history of cultivating triple-seasoned rice. Areas
of Wan-ning and Ling-shui have also cultivated triple-season-
ed rice for more than 30 years. Recently, in order to taise
the index for repeated crops and land utilization rate, triple-
seasoned rice culture is being introduced to other areas of
high temperature and sufficient water supply.
1. SEASONAL ARRANGEMENT AND COMBINATION OF VARIETIES [p 568]
The first key to high yield in triple-seasoned
rice culture is a reasonable arrangement of the seasons. In
the plain areas of Hai-nan-tao, the temperature may satisfy
the needs of the rice plants all year long. After the early
part of March, the daily average temperature rises steadily
to about 20?C. After the later part of October, the daily
average temperature drops to a possible below 20?C. There-
fore, to be safe, the early crop of rice must come to a head
after the early part of March, and the late crop must come
to a head before the end of October. Among the varieties
currently used, the early crop usually grows in the paddy from
100 to 120 days; the middle crop 85 to 90 days; and the late
crop more than 100 days. Therefore, the early rice must be
transplanted from the middle to the later part of December,
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and harvested in the later part of April. The middle crop
must be transplanted in the early part of May and harvested
in the early part of August. The late rice must be planted
in the early part of August, and harvested in the middle to
later part of November.
All the varieties used in the triple-seasoned rice
culture must be high yield ones. The early varieties must
be able to withstand low temperature. At present, in the
eastern and the western part of the island, there are P'eng-
lai-chung type of keng subspecies, which are the varieties
of Chia-nan No.2, Kao-hsiung No.10, and others. The old local
varieties of Lien-chou-tzu and Ku-heng cannot withstand too
much fertilizer, and therefore, do not have potential for
high yield. In the south, in such areas as Ya-hsien, Ling-
shui, and Kan-en, there are, besides the P'eng-lai-chung type,
Taiwan Pai, Pai-mi-fen, Kuang-ch'ang No.13, and Lu-yu 132.
The middle crop requires the varieties to have re-
sistance to high temperature, and the growth period must be
steadily within 85 days. The shortage of this type of var-
ieties is the weak link of the triple-seasoned rice culture
of this island. Such varieties as Wan-ning-hsien 60-Days,
and Hsin-lai-pai have to grow 90 days in the paddy. Kua.ng-
ch'ang No13 is suitable for Tung-fang-hsien, but when planted
in other areas, the growth period is more than 90 days. At
present, the most hopeful varieties are the newly introduced
Nan-t'e No.16 and Ai-chiao Nan-t'e.
The late crop requires the varieties to be sensi-
tive to light exposure. They should be able to withstand
the wind, and should be fall resistant, and must have a grow-
ing period of more than 100 days. Among the current varieties
T'ang-p'u-ai is the best. Wan-pai-chan No.3 is the most
popular. Besides, in the eastern part of the island, there is
also Chiu-chan, but its yield is not high.
2. SEVERAL PROBLEMS IN CULTIVATION OF TRIPLE SEASON RICE [p 5691
(1) The Problem of Low Temperature during the
Growing Period of the Early Crop
Although Hai-nan-tao is in the tropic zone, it
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is often affected by the cold waves of the continent in the
early spring, and the temperature may drop suddenly. Accord-
ing to the weather. information of Hai-k'6u-shih from 1951 to
1960, the temperature dropped seven times from the 26th of
March to the 5th of April, and the daily average temperature
reached the level below 20?C. In 1953, the temperature of
the 1st of April averaged only 16?C. This kind of tempera-
ture may be dangerous for the fertilization of the early rice
crop. According to survey, the low temperature had once
caused the rate of empty hulls in Liang-hai-hsien to be 20
to 30%. Since from the early part of March 60 the end of that
month, the temperature regularly stays at 20 C, if the early
crop may came to a head during this period of time, yield
should be more assured. To solve this problem, we must select
suitable varieties and emphasize field management. The seed-
lings should be transplanted as soon as it is warm. A water
level should be kept before and through the cold wave, and
fertilizer should be applied after the cold wave, so that
the seedlings will be strong enough to resist low temperature,
and will come to a head on time.
(2) The High Temperattire during the Growing Period
of the Middle Crop, and the Problem of Insects
and Diseases
According to surveys, the major rice field in-
sects such as the leaf bugs, the stalk borers, and the weevils
have all caused serious damage before. All field insects
should be eliminated during the growing period of the early
crop, so that they may not become more serious a problem for
the middle and the late crops.
(3) The Problem of Typhoons during the Blooming
and.Ripening Stages of the Late Crop
The late varieties, the local ones or the newly
introduced ones, especially T'ang-p'u-ai and Teng-ch'iu No.5,
must bloom and seed in the early or middle parts of October,
while September and October is the typhoon season in Hai-nan-
tao. The seeds of most of the varieties will fall in a ty-
phoon. This is a problem-:which we must solve through scien-
tific studies of the various varieties.
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CHAPTER 23. MECHANIZATION OF PADDY RICE CULTIVATION [p 633]
Since the liberation, the farmers and the farm tool
research agencies of our country have improved and created
many tools which are suitable for the rice paddies. In this
chapter, we shall discuss mainly the types and the character-
istics of the many major mechanized and semi-mechanized tools
being used for production in the rice paddies, with a des-
cription of our achievements and experience in the subject
of mechanization, and the direction of its future develop-
ment.
SECTION 1. MECHANIZED POWER [p 633]
Tractors fueled with gasoline and diesel oil and the
internal-combustion engine are the most common machines
used in the farms of our country. Besides, charcoal, firewood,
and coal are also used in some instances as fuel for the mo-
tive power. In rice culture, the work of irrigation and drain-
age, and milling and processing of the grain are usually done
by electric power in the areas where elerc,tricity is available.
In the future, as the electric capstan Lrope propeller7 is
further improved , electric power will be used more and more
in rice production.
1. TRACTOR [p 633]
The best advantage of the tractor is its mo-
bility and its wide applicability. It may be used to pull
the plow, the rake, the planter, and the harvester, or it may
be used as the motive power for the pump and. the
milling machine. The ordinary tractors are fueled with gaso-
line or diesel oil, but some are fueled with charcoal and
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firewood also.
Tractors are usually designed for dry land. They
may skid, sink, and have difficulty in turning around if they
are operated in the rice paddy. Certain conversion is neces-
sary. After years of research, this conversion problem has
be more or less solved, and the converted tractors have been
used in production practice.
The fmllowing are the important aspects concerning
the conversion problem of the tractor.
(1) The moving parts must be such that the tractor
can move around in a paddy, be the motive power for deep,wet
plowing, and provide transportation between the paddies.
(2) With regard to weight and efficiency, any trac-
tor of 25 to 40 horsepower with an effective power of 50 to
60 kg per horsepower may be effectively used in a rice paddy.
As long as the efficiency is sufficient, the tractor should be
as light as possible so that there may be less trouble from
slipping and sinking.
(3) The tractor must be highly movable so as to be
suitable. for the small rice paddies, and it must be equipped
with a hydraulic lift.
(4) The weight of the tractor must be distributed
properly so that the back wheels will not sink in the mud.
The parts of the engine must be tightly sealed and
the body of the tractor must be at least 40 cm above the
ground.
In the past the conversion studies concentrated on
the problems of the moving parts and the protection from water
and mud. At present, on the basis of the successfully con-
verted models, new models are currently being engineered and
tested.
(1) The Wheel Styled Tractors
This is the most widely used type at present.
According to the experience in the south, the models Feng-
shou No.35 and Feng-shou No.27 are very suitable for the paddies.
Each of the tractors of these two models can take care of
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700 to 1,000 mou. Aside from field work, they are also use-
ful to provide transportation and do such work as irrigating
draining and milling.
To be used in the rice paddies, iron wheels must be
placed on the wheel stjrled tractors. The cogged style and
the lugged style of Kiangsi Province are the more popular ones
at present. Generally speaking, if the plowing layer is not
so deep, and if the plow sole is rather hard, then the cog-
wheeled tractor is quite efficient. It moves around steadily,
with very little friction. However, it has the disadvantage
of leaving deep tracks.
The lug-wheeled tractor has very good traction , and
can work in paddies with-a soft and deep plowing layer. Mud
does not accumulate on the wheels and they do not leave deep
tracks. The traction (that means the largest tractive effort
as a percentage of the working weight of the tractor) is
generally a little more than 50%. The tractive efficiency
that means the largest traction as a percentage of the en-
gine efficiency) is generally about 50%, with some as high
as 68%. Its disadvantage is the tremendous vibration on the
road, and at the same time, the lugs are also found to be bad
for the plow sole.
After these iron wheels are placed on the tractors, their
usefulness in the rice paddies is found to vary with the soil condition
of the paddy. According to actual experience, the currently available
ones are useful when the plowing layer is less than 6 ts'un. If the
plowing layer is as deep as 8 ts'un, then the economical efficiency of
the tractor drops sharply. They cannot work in the paddies which are
called Ou-tien, that is the paddy which has no obvious plies sole. There-
fore, further improvement is needed before the wheeled tractors are use-
ful for the rice paddies with deep plowing layer.
In order to raise the efficiency of the tractor (the
percentage of pure working hours in the total working hours),
the paddies should be made longer. It has been calculated
that for every turn it makes, the tractor runs 20.to 30 se-
conds withouth working. In a paddy of less three mou, the
pure working period amounts to only about 50 If the
paddy is made 150 to 200 m in length, and a width of about
10 mou, then, the efficiency of the tractor may be more than
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doubled.
Although at present the wheeled tractors are still
not completely adapted to work in the rice paddies, they are
useful in most of the rice growing areas. With regard to
labor efficiency and the quality of work, the tractors are
far superior to animal power.
(2) Caterpillar Tractors
In the north, the large state-operated farms
do all the field preparation work when the'paddy is dry, and
they use caterpillar tractors for most of the work. The
primary model is Tung-fang-hung No.54.
In the south, Tung-fang-hung No.54 and K'o-te No.35
are adapted to work in the paddy. These tractors can do the
basic field preparation work such as plowing.befotre.the seed-
lings are transplanted.
When the caterpillar tractors are put to work in the
paddies, the moving parts must be sealed against mud, and a
'shield must be attached to the caterpillar tread to prevent
skidding and to increase adhesion.
Compared with the wheeled styled tractors, the ca-
terpillar tractor has the following advantages:
a. It is adaptable to the various types of soils.
It has been used in the sandy soil of the Pearl
Riker Delta of Kwangtung (there are some clay paddies in the
delta.), with the plowing layer as deep as 30 cm sometimes,
the caterpillar tractor has proved to be able to perform the
work, while the wheeled styled tractors cannot.
b. It has large tractive efficiency and is able to
do deep plowing.
c. If it is used in large paddies, the labor ef-
ficiency is higher.
The largest disadvantage of the caterpillar trac-
tor is the fact that the caterpillar treads and the axles
are easily broken when the tractor is used in a paddy. Accord-
ing to the experience of Chung-shan-hsien, Kwangtung, the
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repair cost was very high even for the tractor to work for one
hour in a paddy. It becomes impracticable to use it for any
prolonged period of time. Besides, a wider space must be
kept for the tractor to move about. and as it turns around
the ground surface is seriously disturbed. Before it can be
widely adopted for use in the rice paddies, it must be made
considerably lighter, with less friction in its moving parts,
and able to perform more varied forms of work.
(3) Small Single-Cylinder Tractor
A single-cylinder tractor of three to ten horse-
power(it was called a cultivator in the past, or a garden
tractor) is small and inexpensive. It is very suitable for
the work of cultivating and weeding in the sugar cane field,
the orchard, and the vegetable garden. Besides, it may also
be used to pump water, to remove husks, or to spray. Accord-
ing to its use in Tzu-ch'i-hsien, Chekiang, if a seven horse-
power, diesel powered single-cylinder tractor is used to plow,
it may finish the field preparation work of 10 mou in 8 hours.
Thus, the diesel oil consumed amounts to 1.23 kg per mou, and
the productivity is no worse than the wheeled large tractor.
Its utilization rate may be as high as 95%, because it is
less affected by the small size of the field.
The largest disadvantage of a small single-cyliLnder
tractor is the fact that the plowing can only be about 4 ts'un
deep. The labor efficiency is low, and the work is harder
fbr the farmer. Therefore, it is not suitable as the major
machine in our country's rice growing paddies. It may very
well be adopted as a supplementary machine , and with some
improvement, it may also be used in the terraced fields.
2. CABLE DRAWN FARM EQUIPMENT [p 636]
The capstan is a machine used by our laboring
masses three hundred years ago. However, its productivity is
rather limited if it is to be propelled manually or by animals.
Therefore, in the current tool reform movement, scientists
everywhere are studying various froms of motive power for the
capstan.
The mechanized capstan has obvious advantages with
respect to the development of automation and economical
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utilization. This fact is demonstrated concretely in the
following aspects:
(1) Due to the fact that the capstan is not placed
in the paddy, its use is not limited by the soil condition.
It may be used for dry fields,and soft or hard paddies alike.
(2) It may propel various types of farm tools to
perform the work of planting, transplanting, and others with-
out destroying the leveled state of the paddy.
(3) It will not destroy the plow sole as the trac-
(4) When it is used to perform work in the paddy,
its efficiency is higher than that of the tractors, usually
above 75%.
Figure 23-1 The Capstan
1. capstan bar 2. the front pulley 3. the back pulley
4. the vertical beam 5. the round axle 6. the spindle or
barrel 7. the crosswise beam 8. wooden peg
9. the track
In 1959, many types of mechanized capstan were
created in the various areas of this country. Wherever there
is electricity,'the capstan was driven by electric power;
wherever there is. no electricity, internal-combustion engines
are used to propel the capstans. At present, the more popular
models in use may be divided into three types:
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(1) The stationary, single-engined, four-point
propelled capstan:
This type may be represented by the improved
58-2, which may be converted for electric or mechanical power,
and is called the South 41102 model.
(Note: these capstans may be divided in accordance with the
number of stationary pulleys which are placed on the corners
of the padd , into three-point propelled, or. four-point (or
four-corner) propelled styles. There are also two-point pro-
pelled capstans, the cable of which is the shortest.
(2) Semi-automatic moving, four-point capstan:
This type may be represented by Chiang-tung-2
of Nanking and Che-nung-3 models.
(3) The automatically moving type:
This type may again be divided into the single-
engined and the double-engined.
The automatically moving, single-engined, two-
point propelled type may be represented by the 59-10 model of
Shanghai and the 59-4 model of Fukien. The automatically
moving, two-engined, two-point propelled type may be repre-
sented by the 58-4 model of Nan-ping, Fukien.
These capstans may be used to perform such work as
plowing, raking, planting, and transplanting. After several
years of study, the work they perform is becoming more and
more dependable. To be able to use them, the small fields or
paddies should be 120 m long and 25 m wide. The paddies or
field should be arranged in a row, with a road and electric
cable on the short side of the field, so as to save the time
spent on transfer of equipment from one field to another.
At present, with the improved models, the station-
ary platform is no longer needed. The machine can rest by
itself, or it is a movable style. The semi-automatic, and
the automatically movable styles are improved to the extent
that they no longer requre a considerable time and energy
to transfer from point to point.
At present, the major disadvantage of the capstanf
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is the fact that its transfer is. still a time consuming job.
With the road uneven, and the existence of the various high
and low dikes, the small engine is not sufficient to take on
any transport jobs. When used over a large area, its effi-
ciency cannot match that of the tractors.
3. STATIONARY POWER MACHINE Ep 638]
a
Aside from the tractors and the capstans, the
motorized machines currently used in rice production also
include the stationary machines such as electric motors,
the steam boilers, and the various forms of internal-combus-
tion engines, which are used to pump the water, to remove the
husks, and to mill the rice.
(1) Electric motors
The electric motors are used primarily for irri-
gation and drainage. Then, they are also used to a certain
extent in the rice processing work. They are dependable,
easy to operate, and inexpensive to maintain. Their effi-
ciency is low in the processing work, but in the irrigation
stations, they are very efficient.
The electric powered motors made in our country
are in various styles. The irrigation stations often use the
small ones of less than 100 kw. There are also some
between 100 and 300 kw. These are J, JS, JC, or JR series.
The larger ones over 300 kw are usually the JSQ series
(the Q represents the heavier insulators). The JO series
(which is the sealed watertight type) should be used, when
the work requires the machine to be in constant contact with
water. The electric motor which propels the capstan is usual-
ly less than 10 kw, and the JS, or the JC series are very
suitable.
(2) The Steam Engine
The technique of utilizing the steam is very
simple, and the machine is sturdy and long lasting. It may
be operated by the inexpensive fuels such as coal, firewood,
straw, and husks. Its disadvantage is the fact that it re-
quires a great deal of metals, and is very heavy. It is not
easily moved, and its heat efficiency is low. To operate
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it consumes 1.5 to 3.5 kg of coal per horsepower hour. The
steam engines made in this country are usually 5 to 300 horse-
power models, and are usually used for irrigation and rice
processing work.
(3) Internal-combustion Engines
The fuels used in the internal-combustion en-
gines are gas, diesel oil, and gasoline.
If gas is used, the fuel may be obtained locally.
For each horsepower hour, it consumes half a kg to one kg of
smokeless coal or charcoal, or one and half to three kg of
firewood. Husks and other fuels may also be used. In some
instances, natural gas or marsh gas may also be utilized. The
disadvantage is the maintenance and repair. A-different fire-
box must be used for the different fuels. Recently a 'brick
and porcelain firebox is being built in the farm villages.
This is a great creation of the masses, because it means a
large saving of steel for the state. The gas engines made
in this country have many specifications varying from 3.5 to
135 horsepower.
The diesel engine is an internal-combustion engine
using using very inexpensive fuel. It may be used for the
stationary motive power of irrigation and draining work, and
f6r propelling the capstans or the single- cylinder tractors.
There is no need of accessory equipment. It is easily moved
about, and the heat efficiency is high. For each horsepower
hour, it consumes 0.18 to 0.25 kg of diesel oil. High level
skill is required to repair the diesel engine. The ones
made in this country now have standardized parts, so that
the more than 20 different models of farm machinery from five
to three hundred horsepower may have interchangeable parts.
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SECTION 2. FIELD PREPARATION MACHINERY [p 6391
The field preparation work may be divided into the
two steps of plowing and leveling. At present, for the paddy
the same mechanized plow is used as the dry field. This is
really not the ideal practice, but the work quality is not
too bad.
1. PLOWING MACHINERY [p 639]
(1) The Animal-pulled Plows
In the past the old plow broke easily when used
in the rice paddy. The new ones have been designed on the
basis of the advantages of the old. With improvement, the
new ones, however, have reduced friction, so that plowing may
be done deeper, and the work quality is made more stable.
The new ones may be represented by.eua-tung 15 paddy plow,
Kiangsi Paddy Plow, and Kwangtung-51 Plow. They may be used
to plow as deep as 17 to 20 cm, with more than 100 kg of pull.
With one ox, three to four mou of paddy may be plowed in one
day. Many provinces (regions) have their own designed and
manufactured paddy plows using animal power.
In March of 1959, the Ministry of Agriculture and
the First Ministry of Industrial Machinery called a national
conference on deep plowing tools. Eleven different types of
deep plowing plow using animal power were recommend in the
conference.
To use it for deeper plowing, the plow may be ad-
justed in three methods:
a. Using the double plowing method
The Hunan-55 Paddy Plow and the deep plowing
shovel may be pulled by an animal each.
b. The share may be made narrower, and the landside
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longer, and only one animal is needed.
c.Add an additional center plow or shovel, and use
to animals. Plowing may thus be done as deep as 30 cm. In
the rice paddies, the major animal power is the water buffalo
and the ox. For continuous work, a water buffalo may pull
about 110 kg, and on ox about 80 kg.
'ine ctoubie bottom plow may be usea for dry plow-
ing in the rice paddies. It makes a flat furrow and covers
the soil well. After some adjustments, it is just as effi-
cient in the paddy. The remodeled types are currently adopto
ed on a large scale in Chekiang. The remodeling is mainly
for preventing the mud from clinging to the moldboard, and
to reduce the pulling resistance. With two oxen and a
double bottom plow, seven to eight mou of paddy may be plowed
in one day. If the soil resistance is minor, then one ax-is
sufficient. If one plow blade is removed, and one center
shovel is added, then deep plowing may be performed with this
plow.
(2) The Caterpillar-pulled Plow
The state-operated farms of the north use the
LS-5-35 Model five bottom plow for dry plowing of the rice
paddies. The plow used in the double-seasoned rice culture
regions of the south may be used for both dry and wet plowing.
The plows pulled by the caterpillar tractor may be divided
into three major types:
a. The three bottom plow with 30 cm wide shares
and similar sized four bottom plow are pulled by Tung-fang-
hung-54 or K'o-to-35. They may plow to a depth of 20 to 25 cm.
The productivity of each shift is about 70 mou. However,
they do not plow deep enough for the fall and winter; there-
fore, some farms exchange the plows from one season to the
next.
b. The rack of the aforementioned plows may be used
with disks to turn the straw under to be used as fertilizer.
In this manner, the straw will not interfere with the action
of the shares. Of course, if the straw is laid flat on the
ground facing one direction, the multi-bottom plow may be used
to turn it under also, but this method is not as convenient as
the disk.
(3) The Wheeled Tractor Plow
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Currently plows may be'hung on the wheeled tractor
with a hydraulic lift to do dry or wet plowin . The plow
thus used is generally the five bottom plow. (Figure 23-4)
The shares are generally the same as those used on the double
bottom plow, but this plow plows the soil fine and thorough,
and it also raises the productivity of the tractor. Each
shift can take care of 40 to 60 mou. However, these small
but numerous shares have their limitations also. They do not
plow deeper than 16 cm. The plow is not strong enough to
plow any deeper. When a paddy full of forage legumes is to
be plowed and turned, and the plowing level is to be deepened
every year, this five bottom plow is gradually found to be
insufficient.
The three bottom plow with shares about 20 cm wide,
and pulled by a wheeled tractor of more than 30 horsepower
will actually plow a furrow over 1 m wide, and as deep as
20 cm. It is not easily stopped by the forage legumes. When
this is combined with a paddy rake, each shift may accom-
plish 40 to 60 mou. However, for the regions requiring good
sunning, this plow plows too wide a furrow.
The paddy disk designed by Hua-nan College of Agri-
culture is very efficient, especially when it is used in the
paddy where the stubble is turned over as fertilizer.
The plowing resistance of a paddy is less than
the dry field. If wet plowing is required, then, the capstan-
pulled plow should be used for wet plowing. If a tractor is
used for wet plowing, then, wet plowing may not be such an
economical procedure. For dry plowing, rubber wheels may be
used to cut down resistance; the oil consumption is far less
than wet plowing. If the plowing layer is very deep, dry
plowing is more suitable. However, if the soil is to be
finely broken, then, wet plowing is more suitable.
When pulled by the singleocylinder tractor, a, double
direction plow is generally used. The work of very small
paddies can thus be done very efficiently. It is easier to
turn around than the ox-pulled plow. However, the plowing is
shallow. The productivity is about double that of the ox.
(4) The Harrow
In parts of the double-seasoned rice growing
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regions, after the harvest of the early crop, the late crop
is immediately planted. It is the tradition to use the
animal-pulled harrow (Figure23-3 ) to work the rice paddy over
without draining it first. The harrow is used to turn the
stubble over and mix it into the soil, and to make the soil
loose. Many farms and stations of the southern provinces
designed harrows pulled by mechanized motive power instead
of animal, and they are being welcomed by the masses.
Figure 23-2 A Small, Hanging Type
Five Bottom Plow
Figure 23-3 Harrow
The harrow currently used in Kiangsi is the wide
type. Its major parts are two parallel steel tubes of dif-
ferent sizes in diameter, with round disks on one, and wide
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blades about 10 to 12 cm long on the other. The harrow is
hung on a wheeled tractor, and it may reach as deep as 12 cm.
It is able to turn the stubble into the 5 to 10 cm layer of
soil. The quality of the work is better than the harrow
pulled by an animal. According to the experience of Kiangsi,
with this harrow, the seedlings of the late crop turn green
again faster. The roots reach deeper, and the plants are more
drought resistant. There are less weeds. The harvest is
three to four days earlier, and the yield is about 10 to 15%
higher. If a tractor of about 30 horsepower is used to pull,
and the raking is done twice, then, each shift may accom-
plish 60 to 80 mou, which is about 10 times as many as that
pulled by an animal. This type of harrow is also being developed in
the Autonomous Region of the Chuang Nationality of Kwangsi.
2. POWERED CRUSHERS [p 642]
(1) The Dry Field Leveling Tools
In the north, the winter plowing and the spring
raking of the mechanized rice paddies are worked over with
such dry field tools as the disk, the toothed rake, and
the drag. They are pulled by the caterpillar tractors. When
the disk is used, the plate should be thee-proper weight with
a rather large diameter. In the south, after the harvest of
the winter wheat, or a summer dry crop, the paddy should be
dry plowed, and if the farm work has been mechanized, a disk
should also be used for raking.
(2) The Wet Paddy Leveling Tools
For the wheeled tractor, the currently most po-
pular wet rake is the simple knife rake, which is based upon
the original knife rake pulled by animals. The knife rake
used with the Feng-shou-27 Model tractor in Kiangsi, is
220 cm wide, with teeth about 19 cm long, forming a 300 angle
with the bar. This tool may reach 8 to 11 cm into the soil,
and the resistance is about 200 to 400 kg. In Chekiang and
Kwangtung, the hanging disk harrow is used, with a rolled
around or curved blade. The axle is perpendicular to the
direction of the motion; therefore, the resistance is perhaps
less than that of the knife rake. The Autonomous Region of the
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Chuang Nationality of Kwangsi is currently experimenting with
a claw-shaped paddy rake, the structure of which is similar
to the disk harrow, except that the claw-shaped plates are
used instead of the round plated, so that the soil clods may
be broken with more force. A rolling pin, or a board is
generally attached in the back of the rake to level the soil.
Based upon the rake (the horizontal bar with teeth)
pulled by the animal, a same-shaped rake is designed to be
pulled by a tractor. This tool can work a width of over 4 m
in one operation. However, for a good leveling quality,
another tool must be used to drag the soil.
Figure 23-4 A Paddy Rake Pulled by
An Animal
1. the handle 2. tooth 3. soil leveling board
4. ;tithed disks
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SECTION 3. SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING MACHINERY [p 6431
1. PADDY RICE SOWING MACHINERY [p 643]
Generally speaking, the tools which are used
for direct planting, may be divided into the two types of
dry planting tools and wet planting tools.
(1) Dry Planting Tools
With the dry planting method, the seeds are
generally planted in rows. The tobls currently being used
are are modifications of the original 24-row planter or the
animal pulled 10-row planter. The primary modification is
an extension of the width and an added depth control to meet
the needs of dense planting.
Normally, the modification is done by adding an
extra planter in the center, which makes the planting row
4 cm wider. In some areas, such as Po-hai Farm, the round
plate is replaced with a shoe-shaped cutter, and 5 cm is add-
ed to the planting row. However, with the shoe-shaped cutter,
the land leveling must be of very good quality.
A thick iron ring may be attached to the round plate
of the planter tb control the depth at which the seeds are
planted. A depth control device may also be attached to the
shoe-shaped cutter.
If the wide-row wheat planter is used to plant
rice seeds, the result can also be very satisfactory.
(2) Wet Planting Tools
When the wet planting method is adopted, the
land leveling work is easier. Moreover, the frequenter
rains of the south make dry planting very difficult. There-
fore, in many areas, the wet planting method is still pre-
fered.
In the south, the wet planter is a modification of
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the row planter. The method is to remove the cutter and other
lifting mechanism which is not needed, and retain the.seed
tube. A cross bar is placed to stabilize the seed tube, and
to adjust the distance between the mouth of the tube and the
ground surface. The seeds fall from the tube directly onto
the ground. This tool may plant 24 rows in one operation,
and the space between the rows may be easily adjusted.
The wet planter of P'an-ching Farm of Fo.hai Dis-
trict can use the seeds that have been soaked to hasten
sprouting, and sunned after soaking. The soil should be irri-
gated and damp. The width of the row, and the space between
the rows should both be 15 cm. Four rows may be planted in
one operation, and 20 mou may be planted in one day, about
1.5 times faster than manual planting. There is a cross bar
attached to this machine; as the seeds are planted, the cross
bar clears out the foot tracks.
Spot planting is a good method. It makes weeding
and cultivating easy, and the seedlings may thus develop well.
Pao-li -designed a simple, manually operated planter for spot
planting. It is to be pulled by two people, and when the
machine is lifted,it automatically stops the seed depositing
action. About 30 to 40 mou may be planted with this planter.
The :spaces between the rows and the groups are both 18 cm.
The two planters mentioned here are both simply
constructed and easy to operate. But neither of them plant
enough in a day. Further improvement is awaited for 'these
tools.
2. TRANSPLANTING MACHINERY [p 644]
Transplanting the seedlings is very heavy manual
labor, and a highly efficient tool is generally considered impossible to
design. Under the direction of the party five different models were
selected for consideration at the national conference of transplanting and
semi-mechanized farm tools in February of 1960. The following is a brief
description of these:
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(1) The General Theory of a Transplanting Machine
Many theories of operation and utilization are
being adopted in the many different models of transplanting
tools currently being used in our country. The operation
process of these tools may be divided into the following:
the preparation of the seedlings, the lifting, the delivery,
the dividing, and picking, and the transplanting of the
seedlings.
The preparation of the seedlings is actually a
combination of pulling out the seedlings,. washing them, arrang-
ing them, and transporting thetrr. At present, the entire pro-
cess is not mechanized. The study is concentrated in the
simplification of the work procedure and the organization of
labor, so as to raise the labor efficiency of every step of
the process. After the Nan-105 Seedling Box was made, the
seedlings are pulled and washed at the seed bed and then imme-
diately put in the boxi they are no longer tied into bundles.
The work efficiency is raised 1/3.
Lifting the seedlings means putting the seedlings
into the seedling box of the transplanting machine. The
seedling box of the transplanter should be made replaceable,
so that a boxful of seedlings may be placed in the machine
to replace the empty one without the machine being stopped.
For example Nan-105 model makes use of the original seedling
box which is filled with seedlings at the seed bed,and after
being transported to the paddy, it is directly placed in the
transplanter.
The delivery of the seedlings from the seedling box.
must be even and continuous. If the delivery depends upon
the weight of the seedling, the process is not very depend-
able. The transplanter designed in Kiangsi in 1959 makes
use of a knocking action, and is. an obvious improvement. The
recently designed friction method makes the process automa-
tic and even. The Lai-yang model of Hunan and the P'ing-
yang--model of Chekiang make use of the swinging motion for
seedling delivery. Nan-105 model makes use of a rolling pin.
The Nan-wei model of Shanghai and the Lung-ching model of
Kirin use a belt conveyor, which not only delivers the seed-
lings evenly, but also holds more seedlings at -Wtime.
Dividing the seedlings is accomplished either with
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a comb method or with a pair of.prongs. The comb method has
been experimented by the Nanking Institute of Farm tools of
Cflitae Academy of Agricultural Sciences and found to be
applicable.
At present, the straight transplanting method is
generally prefered. The rows are straighter, the holes are
smaller, and the seedlings are planted more firmly with this
method. The rolling method is simpler.; and easier for con-
tinuous operation. It is more efficient, but the seedlings
are usually tilted. The two methods may be combined in such
models as the Nan-105 and the Che-nung No.4 transplanter.
Mbst of the existing designs are manually operated,
because the structure is thus simpler, and the machine may
thus be used in the small paddies with various types of soil.
When the seedlings are being transplanted, the machine does
not move, and the space between the rows is controlled by the
worker. The disadvantage is the fact that not much is im-
proved in the matter of labor efficiency over manual trans-
planting. Aside from a few models with an attachment for
controlling the distance between the rows, the other models
depend upon the skill of the worker.
The transplanter may be pulled by an animal, a trac-
tor, or a capstan. When pulled by an animal., the steps are
usually not even, and the animal tramples the soil and des-
troys it levelness. Those pulled by a capstan are not limited
by the depth of the plowing layer as those pulled by a trac-
tor do, and the soil is not disturbed..A small motorized auto-
matic transplanter has already made its appearance; instead of be-
ing operated by two people as the other motorized models, this
small machine requires only one person.
All of the current models have automatic 4eedling
dividing mechanisms, and all of them have the seedling box.
All of them are mounted on two runners to convey the load.
In one operation, a certain number of seedlings per group,
and certain groups-per row, are transplanted all at once.
(2) Models of Transplanters
At the liational conference of transplanting and
semi-mechanized farm tools in February of 1960, seven models
of transplanting tools were selected and recommended. They are
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Kiangsi-59, Kwangsi 59-3, Han-ch'uan-59 of Hupei, Li-ling-
No.2 As Nan-wei-No.1 of Shanghai, Nan-105 B, Che-nung No.7,
Another 13 models won hornorable mention. The following is
a brief description of five of these models:
a. Li-ling No.2 A of Hunan (Figure 23-5)
This machine was created by a young farmer named Ho
Chi-sheng (6320 4949 3932), with the support of the party,
in July of 1958. It has been improved with the experiments
of the various regions. The machine does the work of a
widbh of 135 cm. With one operator, it can transplant the
seedlings for one to two mou a day.. The work efficiency is
about 2 to 5 times (a skilled farmer can only transplant
12,000 groups a day) that of a manual worker. The machine
iveighes 11 kg. It may be used on the plain, the hilly areas,
the large paddy, or the small paddy. It is made entirely of
wood and bamboo. It is easy to manufacture, and the cost is
low.
Figure 23-5 Li-ling No.2 A Model Transplanter
of Hunan
1. Handle 2. Elastic split bamboo 3. Transplanting prongs
4. string 5. seedling presser 6. front of the seedling box
7. Seedling box holder 8. boat-shaped runners
This machine is operated and controlled 1ujinually
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and the prongs are operated intermittently. The prongs and
the seedling box are two independent structures. A whole
row of seedlings are picked up by the prongs in one operation.
The worker operatesthe prongs by the handles, and after the
row bf seedlings are dropped into the soil, he withdraws the
prongs by the handle, and as he uses the prongs to pick up
seedlings once he pushes the seedling box forward one step
before he repeats the operation.
b. Kiangsi-59 Model Transplanter
This is designed by the Kiangsi Provincial Insti-
tute of Agricultural Sciences after combining the advantages
of many other models. The machine weighes 45 kg, and is
constructed with iron and wood. It is operated by one per-
son, and transplants a 6 x 6 ts'un row. With this machine,
one person may transplant five and a half to seven mou a
day. In one operation, the transplanting width is 106 cm.
It is operated on the basis of repeated action of
of a pair of shuttling toothed combs. When the operator push-
es the handle,.a row of six groups of seedlings are planted.
When he pulls the handle, he. pulls the entire machine a step
backward. Thus the operator retreats step by step, as he
repeatedly pushes and pulls the handle. There are many trans-
planters which operate in this manner. Compared. with Li-ling
No.2 A. their structure is not as light and simple. They are
slightly more efficient, and requires less skill to operate.
c. Nan-105 B Transplanter
The Nanking Institute of Farm Machinery of China
Academy of Agricultural Sciences gathered together the ex-
perience and designs of the various regions during the last
few pears, with regard to the transplanter, and designed this
model. The machine weighes 145 kg, and is made of iron and
wood. (Figure 23-6). It is to be pulled by an ox, and can
transplant 20 to 25 mou a day. If it is pulled by a small
single-cylinder tractor, it may accomplish 30 mou. The width
it transplants in one operation is 144 cm.
It operates by a combination of a pair of shuttling
toothed combs and a roller. It requires two operaters. One
takes care of the ox, the other operates the seedling box to
feed the machine.
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Figure 23-6 Nan-105 B Model Transplanter
1. Nan-105 2. Seedling Dividing Claws
d. Kwangsi 59-3 Model
This was created by the Institute of Agricultural
Sciences of the Autonomous Region of the Chuang Nationality
of Kwangsi. The machine weighes 20 kg, and is made of wood.
It is operated by one person, and the seedlings of half a
mou may be transplanted in an hour. The width of one opera-
tion is 108 cm. Since the machine is light, it is especially
convenient for the mountainous regions and the small paddies.
The operation makes use of a pair of prongs, which
is, unlike the Li-ling No2, controlled mechanically instead of
manually. The operator uses one hand to push the hand back
and forth to complete the entire process of transplanting,
and the other hand to move the machine.
e. Lai-yang-6016 of Hunan
This was desinged by Lai-yang Farm Machinery
Plant of Hunan. It uses a pair of rolling prongs for straight
transplanting. This is altogether a new style, and is one of
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the 13 models that won an honorable mention at the conference.
The machine weighes 130 kg, and is made of iron and wood. It'
is to be pulled for continuous operation.
Of the aforementioned models, the first four models
have been repeatedly tested and approved. They are currently
being recommended and utilized in the various rice growing
areas.
(3) The Yield and the Growth of the Rice Plants
When the Transplanter is Adopted
If a transplanter is operated with skill, the
quality of the transplanting work may be described with the
following indexes.. The rate of missing seedlings is below
3%; about 7% of the seedlings planted are crooked; about 2%
of the seedlings planted are damaged; if the number of seed-
lings per group is 3 to 10, then, the qualified ones rate
about 70 to 80%, and sometimes as high as 90%; and the depth
of the transplanting is about 5 cm. Judging from these index-
es, the machines operate almost as well as manual transplant-
ing.
Judging from the experience of the last few years
since 1957, and the experience of the tests done at the nation-
al conference in 1959, we may conclude as follows:,
The work of the transplanting machines compares very
favorably with such high quality manual transplanting work of
the farmers of the areas of Central and South China. As the
tests in Ho-chiang and Chiang-chin of Szechwan show, unless
the skill of the operator is very poor, the use of the trans-
planting machine can result in a higher yield. In 1959, a
yield of 5 to 20% higher than manual transplanting was obtained
in Kweichow. The test of Kiangsi Provincial Institute of
Agricultural Sciences in 1959 shows an increase of 4 to 8% in
yield. With the same density, the transplanting machine
brought an increase in yield of 1 to 10% in Chekiang.
The reason for the good performance of the trans-
planting machines is as follows:
a. The number of seedlings as specified by the
density requirement is better guaranteed by a transplanting
machine, and the space between the groups and the rows is more
even.
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b. Since the machine is more efficient than manual
work, a large area may be transplanted in a hurry so that
the various cultivating measures may be done on time.
c. The machines transplant the seedlings in a more
uniformed depth, about 4'to 5 cm; therefore, the technical
requirements are easily met.
d.With the machines, the seedlings of each group.
are more evenly spaced. There is no center seedling being
crowded by all the others. The roots can thus grow better.
Besides, according to the observations of the var-
ious regions, with the machines, the transplanting holes are
smaller; there are less foot prints in the paddy; the seed-
lings are transplanted immediately after being pulled up,
without long hours of exposure in the sun; and the prongs
gently pull up the seedlings; all are factors which promote
the growth of the seedlings for a higher yield.
(Note: Since 1957, all the areas which have tested the Model
Nan-102 Transplanter have used the figure 3 to 10 seedlings
per group. As the efficiency of the machines has been raised
considerably since then, the density should=be.changed to
5 to 6 seedlings.)
(4) The Use of the Transplanters
Although many models are currently being used
in our country, the following are the common factors that
demand attention from all who use any of the models.
a. The Land Preparation Work of the Seed Bed and
the Paddy
If a transplanter is to be used,, the seedlings
should have strong stems and short roots. Dry field seedlings
work better with the machines. The seedlings are the best
if they measure 6 to 7 ts'un. As much as possible, when the
seedlings are pulled up and wa&hed, the roots should not
tangle.
The land preparation should still meet the general
requirements. The water level should be maintained at about
1 ts'un. The soil should be fine, but should not be pasty.
If the soil is very fine, then, transplanting should
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not be immediately after the paddy is filled; otherwise, the
transplanting machine may not operate very efficiently.
b. The Preparation and Use of the Machine
The machine should be thoroughly inspected before
use, to see if all the mechanisms are operating perfectly.
The machine should be moved in even steps, and
the seedling box should be straightened out periodically. If
the simple mechanism of the prongs is used, the seedling box-
must be in a proper position, and the pressure on the handle
must be exercised evenly each time.
c. Labor Organization
It is best to organize a small team to be re-
sponsible for the various procedures of pulling up the seedlings,
delivering them, exchanging the seedling box, and transplanting,
while others look after the water and other jobs, so as to raise
labor efficiency.
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SECTION 4. IRRIGATION MACHINERY [P.6501
The old irrigation tools of the rice paddies which
were created by our laboring masses many long years ago,
have been improved and modified to raise efficiency during
the.recent years, and attention has been given to mechanize
the irrigation process.
Great achievements have been made. Until 1959,
about 35% of our country's irrigated acreage was benefited
by machines entirely or partially. The acreage of completely
machine irrigated paddies amounted to about 11%, 6 times the
rate before the liberation.
1. SEMI-MECHANIZED IRRIGATION MACHINERY [p 651]
The efficiency of the Lung-hua pump, the Chieh-
fang pump, and the windmill pumps has been. greatly improved.
These tools have the advantage of making use of local materials,
easily built, and very inexpensive. According to the ex-
perience of the various regions, the improvement is done in
the following aspects:
(1) To adjust to the local utilization conditions
Adjustments are being made in accordance with
the new conditions of motive power. tometimes more tubes
are added to the single-tube pumps; in others, as more animals
are becoming locally available, the manual pumps are changed
into animal operated pumps.
(2) To change the form of operation to lighten the
pumping work
For example, the hand operated pumps are changed
into foot operated pumps, or levels are added so that the
worker does not have to perform the exhausting motion of run-
ning in circles.
(3) To improve the method of pump construction
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As much as possible local materials are utilized.
Measures are being taken to use substitutes for materials that
are not locally available.
(4) To raise mechanical efficiency
For example ball bearings are being adopted to
reduce friction. The axle of the Lung-ku pump is now com-
pletely and tightly sealed so as to increase the volume of
this type of pump.
(5) To make use of such natural source.-of energy
as the water and the wind
For example, simple wooden wheels are made to
operate Lung-ku pump by water power, or small windmills can
also be added.
A small windmill provides the energy of
2 to 3 animals. The windmills currently used in our rice
growin areas have three styles. One is the standing sail
style also called Ta-pa-kua), which is the oldest style in
our country. It operates with the wind in any direction,
and never needs to be turned. However, this style requires
a great deal of lumber, and the rate of wind energy utiliza-
tion is low. The second is the tent style, with six sails.
The moving plain of the wings is perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the wind. It is made of wood and bamboo, with cloth
or mat for the wings. There is another style with many
blades. It is made of a wooden frame, with wooden axles and
iron toothed wheels.
2. WATER PUMPING STATION [p 652]
An irrigation station is responsible for the
irrigation and draining work of a certain area. An irriga-
tion center with motorized irrigation machinery may also,
be called an irrigation station.
(1) The Arrangement of the Irrigation Stations
When the area of an irrigation district has been
determined, the job of irrigating the paddies of this district
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may be given to one large irrigation station or several small
stations depending upon the local conditions of terrain and
finance. Each irrigation station may have one or several
mechanized teams. The arrangement of the irrigation stations
may be divided into the following forms:
a. Multiple Station with multiple channels
The district may be divided into several pump
areas, and each area may have its independent pump station,
water supply and draining system. Aside from the reasons of
economics, this divided. method of arrangement is also a matter
of necessity due to the terrain and the water resources. This
method of arrangement is the most popular in the provinces of
Kiangsu, Chekiang, and Anhwei.
b. One Station and One channel
The entire irrigation district may be served by
a single station, and the water is delivered to all the
paddies with pressurized tubes. The drainage water is taken
through the main drainage ditch to a river. This is a large
scale arrangement, and is suitable for the plain areas or
areas with low paddies easily waterlogged.
C. One Station with Multiple Channels
The entire district may be divided into several
divisions according to terrain, and each division has its
own main channel. The water is supplied by the main station
to each of the main channels with pressurized tubes. With
this arrangement, there are generally several mechanized teams.
Each takes care of a number of divisions. This method is
suitable for the hilly regions with the terrain not extremely
high.
d. Multi-leveled Water Supply
The irrigation district may be divided into
several pumping divisions. From the lower to the higher, each
pumping division pumps the water and sends it to the station
of higher elevation. This arrangement is most suitable for
the areas with very steep slopes.
The aforementioned arrangements may be adopted
simultaneously by one irrigation district if the conditions
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require such multiple arrangements.. When water is pumped by
one station, all the water must be brought to the hi hest
level before being delivered to the various levels o the
district; the mechanized equipment usually requires more
horsepower, with the result of more capital investment and
more fuel consumption. However, since the mechanized equip-
ment is thus concentrated in one place, its management is
much easier.
(2) The Selection and the Use of Water Pumps
The major equipment of an irrigation station
includes the water pump, the motor, the distribution equip-
ment, and the water pipes. Generally speaking, the pump is
the major item; the other items must be designed to meet the
demands of the pump. Therefore, the quality of an irrigatinn
station is largely determined by the choice and the use of
the water pump.
a. The Type of Pumps
In the rice growing areas of our country, there
are the two types of the centrifugal and the rotary pumps.
During the last two or three years, a tkpw type jet pump has
been introduced. The centrifugal pump is suitable
for the areas with small water volume but higher terrain,
while the rotary and the jet pumps are more suitable for
lower terrain and higher water volume areas.
At present the types of pumps for agricultural use
manufactured in our country are the following:
K Model Pump: The casing is in elbow shape. This
centrifugal pump has a single suction, is light, and easily
adjustable at the delivery end.
D Model Pump: This type of centrifugal pump has
two suctions, with a horizontal casing, and is used for
larger flows.
Feng-ch'an Brand Jet Pump: This is simply cons-
tructed, easily assembled, and is very light.
P.V. Model Jet Pump: This is a jet pump manufac-
tured in Shanghai. The flow volume is very large, but it
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takes up very little space, and is easily transported.
ocher ordinary pumps are described in Table 23-1.
Table 23-1 The Specifications of the Various
Models of Water Pumps
3 t X
7
{ W 3K
8
+j`#NMjK
9
I k $1958'- '
UZ.12 _YA
RAM 9IM ,11L 7JC
11
7k I vi1
-81rt12
1
, 6-48Tht12
10-36Af1
10 8-120t1
500-1, 200
2
g g (ii/) 2
1.3-100
31-3,472
92.8-7,720
47-290
520-3,500
a a ( 3
8.8-98
8.6-140
4.02-24.5
2.3-14.7
2.5-5.5
V) 1 # (ff, h) 4
0.7-41
15.4-914
11.3-118.5
3.5-54.1
30-350
4 (%) 5
35-84
41-89
69-87.5
55-76
-
(0/0) 6
2,900-1,450
2,900
1.450
245-990
900-1,270
365-960
970
730
485
1. Size-of--the inlet 2. Volume of flow (liter/second)
3. Height of delivery (m) 4. Work Efficiency (horsepower)
5. Efficiency rate 6. Turn speed (turn/minute)
7. K Model Pump 8. D Model Pump 9. Feng-ch'an Brand Jet
Pump 10. 1958 Standard for Jet Pumps formulated by the
First Ministry of Industrial Machines 11. P.V. Model Jet
Pump 12.hours 13. mm
b. Number of Pumps and the Height of Delivery
When the number of pumps and the height of de-
livery are chosen for an irrigation station, the following
factors must be considered:
.(a) The equipment must satisfy the moisture re-
quirements of the crops of the irrigation district..
(b) The Pump station must have a maximum utilization
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rate.for its equipment.
(c) The pump and its motor must be kept working at
their maximum efficiency.
(d) The expense of the irrigation must be kept at
its minimum (including basic construction capital and main-
tenance expenses.)
With regard to the large irrigation districts, the
use of a single pump, or the use of several pump of different
models must be avoided, because possible accidents may cause
the water to be cut off if only one pump supplies the water
for the entire district. If several models are chosen all at
once, maintenance and repair work will be very complicated,
and many different parts will have to be stored to service all
the different pumps.
The height of delivery is generally clearly marked
on the pump. If the pump is to perform with a regular maxi-
mum efficiency, it must be able to serve the specific re-
quirements of the area. If the water level at the source of
water is stable throughout the season, then, to determine the
water pressure is a very simple matter. However, if the
water level varies constantly, then, the average must be taken
for the purpose of calculation, and the angle from the shaft
axis must be adjusted in accordance with the variation of the
water level at different times. If this is the case, then,
a more versatile model should be chosen.
c.. Reasonable Combination of Equipment
The pump must be accompanied with a motor of just
the right size. If the motor is too small, the pump will not
function properly. If it is too big, a waste of fuel and oil
will be the result.(waste of electicity in case of an electric
motor).
The pump must be operated with its specifications
(that is in accordance with its volume of flow, the water
pressure, and the permissible suction.). When the pump is
installed, unnecessary height of delivery is to be avoided
as much as possible so as not to lose pressure head. It is a
common mistake to install the inlet of the pipe too high, with
too many turns, and too long, with the result of losing pres-
sure head unnecessarily, and adding the height of delivery to
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the pump.
3. SEVERAL SPECIAL TYPES OF WATER CARRYING EQUIPMENT [p 654]
(1) Pump Boat
In the T'ai-hu Region of Kiangsu and Chekiang,
there are many rivers and streams, all of which are connected.
The masses put pumping equipment on a boat and send it to
wherever it is needed. This practice has a history of more
than 10 years, and its advantages are numerous.
a. It is extremely flexible. It may come to the
rescue of areas suffering from drought or flood. The extemely
large and extended areas benefit by this equipment and helps to
raise the utilization rate.
b. Due to its mobility, there is no need of cons-
tructing permanent pipes, the cost is greatly reduced. The
efficiency of the pump is not affected by the water level.
c. During the off-season, the boat and its equip-
ment may be easily utilized for manufacturing and transport-
ing products of agricultural supplementary industries.
This type of pump boat. may namigate in ordinary
streams. A high speed diesel engine of 20 to 30 horsepower
(the old steam boats usually have low speed diesel engines)
with a 30 cm inlet centrifugal pump are all that are needed.
(2) Hydraulic Pump
This is a new pumping tool of a combination of
water wheel and water pump. It is simply constructed, and
easily installed. The maintenance is very low, and the
equipment is long lasting. Compared with a motor driven pump,
a hydraulic pump requires no operator, fuel, or machine oil.
It operates entirely under water, and is lubricated by water
only; therefore, the cost of irrigation may be greatly re-
duced. Of course, it is necessary that there are certain hydro-
dynamic conditions. There must be swift flowing water, tide,
or waterfall, so that the hydrostatic head is concentrated
at one point to be utilized to operate the pump.
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The hydraulic pump was experimented with successfully
in 1954 by the Comprehensive Experimental Station of Fukien.
After being popularized in the province of Fukien, it has been
expanded to the provinces of Chekiang, Szechwan, Hunan, Kansu,
Shansi, and Hopei. It is used not only to pump water, but also
to generate electricity. At present, the hydraulic turbine
designed in Fukien has a wheel diameter of 20 to 100 cm. The
hydrostatic and the pressure head are in the proportion of
1.2 to 5.
(3) Internal-combustion Pump
This is a type of pump which makes use of the
energy of the combustion of gas in the gas chamber, which
directly raises the water pressure. The ordinary piston,and
cylinders, etc. are omitted, and the structure is very simple.
A-great deal of steel may be saved by this design, and -it may
be considered as a great revolution in the desing of pumping
tools.
In 1958, a double-chamber and a single-chamber
internal-combustion pump were successfully tested and manu-
factured in Peking and Tientsin. In June of 1958, and March
of 1959, the related ministries of the central government
called meetings for the exchange of experience regarding the
internal-combustion pump. These meetings started a national
movement of study and experiment. At present, there are
more than 10 successful models in the provinces of Kiangsu,
Fukien, Chekiang, Hunan, and Yunnan. The size of the chamber
varies from 2 m to 4 m, and the volume of water flow varies
from 100 tons to 400 tons.
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SECTION 5. HARVESTING MACHINERY [p 655]
In the major rice growing areas of our country, the
paddies are small, but the unit yield is very high. At the
harvest time, the plants and the soil contain a great deal of
moisture. The harvest is often done when the water is not
completely drained. Moreover, there is a tradition in this
country of making use out of everything. The harvest is done
so very carefully that many use the stalk and every other
part of the plants. Therefore, the imported harvesters can
only be used in the northern parts of our country. In the
south, they are not at all usable.
A few mechanized or semi-mechanized harvesters have
been designed in our country. There are still problems to be
solved, but, much experience has been accumulated in the pro-
cess to form a good foundation for future mechanization of
the harvest of rice. The following is a description of the
major models:
1. HARVESTING MACHINERY [p 656]
(1) Quick Reaping Tool
The quick reaping tool may be used as an improved
sickle (Figure 23-7). With regard to the loss in fallen seeds,
the quality of this reaping tool is not much worse than the
sickle. Only one person is needed to do the work, and more than
two mou of rice may be harvested in one day; therefore, the
work efficiency is two to three times that of the sickle.
The worker needs not to bend down to operate this tool, there-
fore, the work is much lighter. It is simply constructed,
easily made, low cost, and has many uses. Aside from rice,
it may also be used to harvest wheat,and potato stalks. It may
be used on the plain, the hills, the large field, and the
small paddies.
At present, in Hunan, the "chicken cage reaping tool"
is quite popular. The Autonomous Region of the Chuang
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Nationality of Kwangsi has a Hsiang-kuei-59 Model reaping tool.
In Shantung, there is a reaping tool which may be used to
harvest either rice or wheat. The structure of the Chekiang
reaping tool is also similar. The tool which is being used
in Kwangtung, may be adjusted to the height of the stalk, or
when the stalk has fallen. However, it is not suitable for
those stalks that are soft because of the bending position.
Figure 23-7 The Quick Reaping Tool
1. Handle bar 2. the wooden handle 3. stile bamboo
4. the frame to hold the rice 5. the sickle 6. Unit: cm
(2) Harvesters Pulled by an Animal
The style and the theory are similar to the
T'ai-ku Model wheat harvester. With wooden wheels, this tool
is very simply constructed. After the rice is cut, the work-
ers must gather and tie the stalks by hand; therefore, when
this tool is being used, the ground must be dry. It is cur-
rently being tested-in some parts of Kiangsu.
(3) Motorized Harvester
The harvester manufactured in our country in the
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past must have two animals to pull. It moves slowly,
and slips easily in the rice paddy. Nanking Institute of
Farm Machinery of China Academy of Agricultural Sciences re-
designed it, and used a 20 horsepower tractor to pull it
instead of the oxen. It is abLe to perform even if the soil
is very muddy. It may be used to harvest both rice and wheat,
and can complete 50 mou a day.
At present, a small harvester is being tested
together with a tractor most suibable for the wet paddies.
It is designed to meet the demands of the high yield regions.
The machine is to be light and flexible, and is suitable for
the small paddies. The problem of laying the grain down
after it has be cut is also being studied very carefully.
(4) The Capstan Driven Harvester
The Institute of Agricultural Machinery = of
China Academy of Agricultural Sciences is currently experi-
menting with a harvester driven by a capstan. It is designed
to solve the problem of the southern rice paddies which are
small and muddy during the harvest. The study is concentrated
on the necessity of the moving power to be off the ground.
2.' SHELLER [p 657]
(1) The Foot-operated Manual Threshing Tool.
This is one of the improved manual machines
that are very popular today. It can accomplish more than
1,000 chin a day. In some areas, it may be set up in the
paddy, to thresh as the grain is harvested. When a toothed
board is attached, it may also be used to thresh wheat'.
(2) Simple Motorized Threshing Machine
It is a step forward development of the foot-
operated model. The grain is still held by hand, and the
machine is operated by a diesel engine or a tractor. It is'
often set up for the use of a large sunning field.
The people's communes of Yen-chi-hsien,Kirin are
currently experimenting with a combination harvesting machine,
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that can thresh, sift, and clean all in one operation. It is
used with a four horsepower electric motor and is very efficient.
(3) Small Automatic Threshing Machine
The automatic threshing has a conveyor belt which
feeds the grain to be husked. However, if the rice is too wet,
the machine cannot operate. It is used with a three horse-
power motor, and the productivity is more than 1,000 chin per
hour. This machine is light, and easily moved. The stalk
remains whole and unbroken after being husked.
(4) Large Automatic Threshing Machine
The large machine made in this country is very
efficient. It is being used in many areas except the south,
where the paddy is small and the transportation is not con-
venient, therefore, it is seldom used. Besides, in the south,
the tradition demands that the stalk must be kept unbroken,
therefore, this machine is not suitable.
3. COMBINED HARVESTING MACHINERY [p 658]
(1) The C-6 Combination Harvesting Machine
and Its Adaptation
Since-1952 the state-operated farms of the north
have been adapting the C-6 model combination harvester to har-
vest rice. For example, the state-operated Ch'a-ha-yang Farm
of Heilungkiang uses the C-6 model to harvest more than thirty
thousand mou of paddy rice every year. It may be used to
reap after the frost has come, so that the harvest may be com-
pleted in a hurry to reduce loss. Under normal conditions,
in the north, with this machine, the rate of loss may be re-
duced 2%, and the rate of broken seeds may be kept to below
1%. Before the harvest, the paddy must be drained and the
temporary dikes eliminated.
The C-6 model was not originally designed for harvest-
ing rice, therefore, it must be adapted to meet the condition
of the damp stalk 6f rice. When the yield is about 600 chin
per mou, the width of the blade must be reduced to 2.5 to
3 m. A board should be attached to cover the remaining portion
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of the blade.
When the rice is ready for harvest, the moisture
content of the plants is very high. In the south, it is about
20%. The stalk is also higher than that of wheat. When the
grain is being threshed , the rice seeds are easily broken.
If effort is exerted to obtainci high rate of separation, the
rate of broken seeds may increase also. In the Northeast,
the yield is about 400 to 500 chin per mou, and the stalk is
dryer. In the regions where the yield is higher, and the
stalk is damp, the aforementioned machine cannot be used to
thresh at all.
The rough grain of rice is not as smooth as that of
wheat, and the specific gravity of the former is smaller;
therefore, it is harder to separate the rice seeds from the
grass. When the rice seeds are damp, it is even more diffi-
cult. According to the conditions of Huai-hai farm, when
the soil moisture content is about 24%, 1,500 kg of pull is
needed to move the adapted C.6 model in the rice paddy for
harvesting. During the last few years, the efforts of the
state-operated farms to convert the. C-6 for rice harvest have
helped to solve some production problems for some regions.
and much valuable experience has been accumulated in the
process. This experience are to be used as basis for fur-
ther mechanization of our country's rice culture.
(2) The Study and the Conversion of the Automatic
Combination Harvester
To use the automatic harvester, there must be
a road for the harvester to move in the paddy. The state-
operated Tseng-chia-pu Farm of Kiangsi and the Lien-hu Farm
of Kiangsu converted the automatic harvester, and Huai-hai
Farm converted the A-szu-400 model combination harvester to
use them in the rice paddies. The cogged roller ieas,.=used to
replace the original threshing roller, and one more cogged
roller was added. Caterpillar treads are used for the moving
part. Chen-yang Farm Machinery Plant of Liaoning designed
in 1959 an En-sau-k'o-tz'u-2.5 automatic combination harvest-
er. The style of the double cogged rollers is adopted in
this machine. It is currently in the process of being
tested.
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CHAPTER 24. HARVESTING, INSPECTION, STORAGE OF RICE AND UTILIZATION OF
BY PRODUCTS
[p 663]
Harvest is the last link of the chain of rice cul-
tivation process. Harvest may also affect the yield and the
quality of the rice crop. Timely harvest, careful threshing,
timely sunning, and careful cleaning are also important steps
in rice production. After. the harvest, the rice must be in-
spected and graded before it is sunned to dry and stored
separately according to the grades. In order to maintain the
quality of the grain, it must be inspected periodically while
in storage. The temperature of the warehouse and the grain,and
the rules of the variation of the moisture content of the
grain are all to be wathhed carefully in order to prevent the
rice from deteriorate.
Meanwhile better storage methods for the preserva-
tion of the quality and the nutritional value of the rice are
being constantly studied and improved. The disqualified grain
the hulls, and the outer coats of the seeds are being uti-
lized and processed to form various by-produts, all of
which are intimately related to our people's daily lives.
Polished rice has always been our people's major food, and
considerable advancement has been made in the utilization of
the rice by-products. In this chapter, we shall discuss these
subjects one by one.
SECTION 1. HARVESTING RICE [p 6631
The harvest of rice in the state-operated farms of
our country is being partially done with machines at present.
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Some people's communes are now also using machines for thresh-
ing and cleaning of the grain. The following is a discussion
of these work procedures:
1. HARVESTING PERIOD AND METHODS [p 663]
(1) A Proper Harvest Time
The harvest time of rice is determined by the
degree of ripeness of the seeds. If the seeds are harvested
too early, threshing will be difficult; the grain is smaller;
the yield is reduced; the seeds are easily broken; and rice
borers may easily occur in storage. If the harvest is too
late, the stalk has withered and is easily broken; the head
is easily crushed; the seeds often have fallen by themselves;
the hulls are thicker; the color of the seeds has changed;
the broken seeds are numerous; the quality of the crop is
bad; and the yield suffers greatly.
The proper harvest time is at the end of the wax-
ripe stage. At that time, the plant has stopped sending
nutrients to the seeds, and most (more than 957.) of the seeds
have turned yellow. One third up, the stalk has Withered.
If the soil is fertile and the moisture content great, then
the base of the head may still be green, otherwise, it has
turned yellow also. In the north, with a short growing season,
or in the double-seasoned regions of the Yangtze Valley,
rice is harvested when the grain is yellow, but the leaves
are still green. If a windstorm is likely, or there may be
a possible flood, then the harvest may begin when the wax-
ripe stage is 90% completed.
(2) The method of Harvest
When the rice is harvested manually, there are
the procedured of cutting, tying, threshing, and bmndling the
stalkW These procedures mush be planned ahead of time, and
careful planning is also important for the quality of the
harvest.
a. The method of cutting the plants
First cut the plants toward the direction of the
wind. Sometimes, the plants are cut just above the soil so
as to get rid of the overwintering borers and fungi, and to
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make it easier to prepare the land for the next crop. If
forage legumes are to be planted, the the stalk is cut with
a stubble of 5 to 6 ts'un in the soil.
The method of cutting varies in the different re-
gions. For example, in the sandy soil region of the Pearl
River Delta, both the early and late crop are cut with the
two-stage method. The plants are first cut at a place 5 to
8 ts'un above the soil. When there is a handful, then the
part from the tip of the head to about 5 ts'un down is cut
down. The middle part is laid down first on the ground, then
the part with the grain is laid on top of it. At about noon,
the part with the grain is then gathered and brought to the
yard to be threshed and sunned.
In the north, the winter air is dry. The grain is
often left in the paddy for 2 to 3 days in the sun; then
it is gathered from the ground and threshed right there.
If the paddy is damp, then the grain is bundled after cutting
and brought back to the yard to be threshed. If possible,
it is often piled up to be threshed when there is less work
to do in the field. During the harvest, there may be over-
ripe plants, fallen plants, kernel smut and other damage to
the yield. When the grain is being transported from the
field, seeds may fall due to carelessness. According to
surveys, the disease of kernel smut of Hua-nan No.15 caused
a serious loss of 65 chin of grain from one mou of rice. This
type of loss often occurs to the hsien subspecies, but not
the keng subspecies. This is why the farmers say it is im-
portant "to harvest.carefeilly and thresh carefully so that
every kernel of the grain will go to storage."
b. Threshing
In the south, threshing is done either by a
machine or by the ox driven thresher; in the north, threshing
is mostly done by a mechanized thresher.
2. DRYNESS AND-CLEANLINESS OF HARVESTED PRODUCTS [p 664]
After the rice is harvested, it must be sunned
to eliminate the excess moisture on the surface and in the
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seeds. After the grain is sunned, all the foreign substance
is to be cleaned out so that the grain may be stored or pro-
cessed.
(1) Drying
When the rice is harvested on a clear day, the
stalk contains about 60 to 7070 of moisture, and the grain con-
tains about 20 to 25% of moisture. Therefore, aside from the
portion of the stalk that is to be turned under as fertilizer,
the.stalk and the grain have to be dried. The methods of
drying the grain are mainly the following:
a. Sunning
When the dew on the. yard has dried, the grain is
laid on the yard, about one tan of grain on a sq.chang. It
is turned every half an hour with a wooden rake. Toward noon,
the wooden rake is used to pile the grain up, so that the
accumulated heat in the grain will cause all the kernels to
dry evenly.
In Canton, on a clear summer day, the temperature is
about 31?C, while the temperature on the surface of the yard
is about 38?C, and the temperature of the surface of the grain
pile is about 44?C. The center of the pile is. about 38?C,
the bottom part is about 34?C, and the average temperature in
the pile is about 39?C. Therefore, the grain should be totally
dry in a day. Generally speaking, if the moisture content of
the kernels is 13.5 to 14.5%, they are ready to be stored.
The dryness of the kernels may be easily determined.
A kernel must make. a cracking sound when it is bit. The
husk comes off easily when it is rubbed, and the rough rice
has a shining surface. Then, it is just dry enough.
b. The oven drying method
The oven is often made of bricks, with a stove
at the bottom. About 1,000 chin of grain may be dried in one
hour. The temperature should be 70 to 100?C. When the tem-
perature is high, the grain may pop. Therefore, when the
kernels are very damp, high temperature is permitted. After
they have been dried for a while, then, the temperature should
be reduced so that not very many will pop.
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c. The Steam Drying Method
In the double-seasoned regions, when the early
rice crop is harvested, it frequently rains, and the tempera-
ture is high. The grain may easily sprout or become rotten.
The steam drying method is commonly used in Hu-chou, Chekiang,
and in South China and the Southwest. A large steam barrel
is used for this process. Each barrel should contain about
200 chin of rice. Add about 1070 of water, and cover the
barrel tightly. Then the barrel ig cooked until full steam
appears, and the rice is about 105 C. At that time, the
moisture content of the kernels is about 22%.. The kernels
may also be soaked in water for about 5 minutes before being
steamed.
According to the Institute of the Sciences of Grain
Studies of the Ministry of Food, after the steamed kernels
are dried in an oven of below 45?C, the moisture content is
about 16.57,. When this rice (hsien or keng) is used for
cooking, the cooked rice contains more vitamin B2, two to
three times more than the rice processed with other methods.
The steamed kernels takes more water to cook, and contain
more fat, protein, and cellulose. They are not as easily
broken because they are harder. The embryo and the husk are
not as easily broken off, and this is the reason for their
higher nutritional value. Therefore, this method may be adopted
when it rains at the harvest time, or just to improve the
quality of the rice.
Table 24-1 Chemical Analysis of Steamed Rice
of the Hsien and Keng Subspecies
A#
(1)
(4)
~1c (5)0
(YO)
SE (6)0
c%)
AK7) IM
(%)
X M A
8 (%)
if '
9 (%)
10 05
(t /1o03t)
(1.1 ) J
15.43
0.794
0.972
9.10
0.354
8.49
1# 12 P
13.83
0.992
1.134
9.23
0.525
8.38
(2'
A 13 $9
14.75
0.965
1.079
9.20
0.550
8.62.
FA 14 ? A
14.15
0.939
1.127
8.15
0.448
5.50
3011 19
15.82
0.634
0.746
7.10
0.480
9.69
A 12 P
14.55
0.846
1.207
7.38
0.645
9.64
#13 9
.14.27
0.825
0.990
7.33
0.630
9.11
M14 =F A
14.89
0.838
1.207
7.71
0.390
8.98
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1.
Subspecies 2. Hsien 3. Keng 4. Treatment
5. Water
6.
Carbon 7. Fat 8. Protein 9. Callulose
10. Calcium
11.
Control Group 12. Steamed and oven dried
13.
Soaked for 5 minutes, steamed, and oven dried.
14.
Steamed, and sunned to dry
(2) Cleaned
After the rice is dried, the foreign substance
such as mud, sand, bits of coal, glass, pieces of metal, stalk,
leaves, hulls, weeds, seeds of other plants, and dead insects
must all be cleaned out. This is a necessary process for safe
storage. If the cleaning process is not done, the quality of
the rice will be seriously affected. and further processing
will be difficult. This process may be done with various
types of tools. The ones currently used in China are as fol-
lows:
a. The Tilted Sieve
With this tool, the separation of the rice and the
foreign substance depends primarily upon the size of the per-
foration. The tool is stationary, and has a slanted surface.
Taking advantage of the theoyy that all substance falls down-
ward, this tool may be very serviceable if the size of the
perforation, and the slope of the perforated surface are just
right for the particular variety of rice; therefore, it must
be adjusted to meet the demands of the various varieties.
Figure 24-1 The Tilted Sieve
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1. The frame of the sieve 2. perforated mesh 3. Intake
funnel 4. Movable shutter 5. Outlet
(2) Hand Operated Sieve
This is shifting device without the vacuum
cleaning attachment. A titled axle, or an automatic balanc-
ing mechanism is used to make the sieve move back and forth.
The rice seeds are dropped into the upper layer, and the large
foreign substance is pushed out of the outlet; then, the rice
seeds, which have passed through the perforation of the upper
layer came out of the center outlet, while the fine foreign
substance, such as fine sand and seeds of Penicum crus galli
passes through the finer perforation of the lower layer and
comes out of the center outlet. (Figure.24-2)
Figure 24-2 Hand-operated Sieve
(2) (3)
ti ii f
mot
(4)
(5)
00'0,?0:o.~'bo?.o?o;p?oo?D?.o o.oo?
Aliff Jt (8)
1. Titled axle 2. Motion transferring arm 3. Frame of the
sieve 4. The perforated mesh cushions 5. Outlet of the
large foreign substance 6. Outlet of the cleaned rice
7. Outlet of the fine foreign substance 8. Slit bamboo sup-
port
c. The Vibrating Sieve
This device makes use of the sieve and the air
motion to separate. the rice from the foreign substance. Its
motion depends upon an automatic balancing mechanism. The rice
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is dropped in the first layer, then, it passes through the
first and the second layer to be separated from the large
foreign substance. The third layer separates it from the fine
foreign substance. Meanwhile, the bellow blows air currents
to clean out the hulls. (Figure 24-3)
Figure 24-3 The Vibrating Sieve
1. Adjustable inlet 2. The first layer of perforated mesh
3. The second layer of perforated mesh 4.. The third layer
of perforated mesh 5. The outlet 6,7. The air passages
8,9. Settling chambers 10. Slanted passage
11. Bellow 12. Outlet for fine foreign substance
13. Outlet
d. A Wooden Bellow JA Wooden Windmill
This is our country's old tool for cleaning the
grain. It takes the advantage of the difference of the spe-
cific gravity of the various foreign substances and that of
rice, and separates them with strong air currents.
Besides the aforementioned devices, there are also
other tools which make use of vacuum cleanin action and the
magnet. The blowing action of a bellow is also used to
remove the small stones which are about the same size as the
grain.
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SECTION 2. INSFECTI.ON OF RICE [p 668]
1. INSPECTION STANDARDS [p 668]
The standard of inspection is the basis upon-
which to grade the quality of rice. When the state purchases
rice, a different price is awarded to a different quality.
Due to the difference of natural conditions, cultivating te-
chniques, and the varieties, the quality of the rice produced
from the various regions is different; therefore, at present,
there is no uniformed natidn-wide quality standard for the
purpose of state purchases. The standard is set locally by
the various rice growing areas. There are two kinds of methods
currently practiced by the local authorities for judging and
grading the quality of rice:
a. Price increase and decrease method with partial
grading
This is a transitional standard that is being prac-
ticed by most areas at present. It is based upon the rate of polished
rice obtained from the rough rice (this is the grading part of the sys-
tem), and on this basis, the moisture and foreign substance content of
the rice is judged for the purpose of increase or decrease in prce. For
example, as regulated by the Ministry of Food, for each 1% of increase
in moisture, the price is reduced 1.2%, and for each 1% of reduction of
moisture (as compared with the standard moisture content), the price is
increased 1.2%. The same method is used to treat foreign substance.
However, this standard is not as reasonable as the method of combining
all items for the purpose of judging quality.
b. Basic standard (price is fixed in accordance
with the quality of rice which is judged by
combining all relevant items.)
This method of judging rice is gradually being
adopted throughout the country in the place of the one we
just described. For example, in Chekiang Province, this method
is currently used to fix the ptiee in rice purchases.
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For the purpose of state purchase, there is first a division
of the three categories of the types of rice, the varieties,
and the technical index. The rice is first divided accord-
ing to its botanical types of the keng, the hsien, and the
nou. Then, the difference of the various varieties is des-
cribed in five different ways :
(a) The grain is pointed and thin, transparent, with
very little powdery outer covering.
(b) The rice is basically transparent, but with
some powdery outer covering.
(c) The rice is only semi-transparent, with some
dead white outer covering, and a dead white center.
white.
(d) The rice is slightly transparent, but mostly
(e) The rice is not at all transparent. It is in
a powdery white color or pink color.
There is also a standard of 147. of moisture con-
tent, 17. of foreign substance content, and the three differ-
ent types of rice should be separated; the mixture of one
in the other should not exceed 107.. If the rice is found to
exceed the standard in any of the specified items, the price
is to be reduced accordingly.
The primary item which affects the quality of the
rice is the rate of polished rice to be obtained from the
rough rice, and the moisture and foreign substance are the
secondary items.
The rate of polished rice is the amount of polished
rice obtained after the outer seed-coats and some of the
embryo are removed by rubbing. The broken seeds are included
in the rough rice.
Foreign substance is defined as the substance that
may pass through a.I.5 perforeatbd.sieve. It may be in-
organic such as soil, sand., coal, metal; or organic, such as
plant roots, stem, leaves, li*e or dead insects, hulls,rotten
rice, rice beard, seed of Penicum crus galli, and other plants.
The broken seeds include the following types:
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The seeds that are not completely ripened, with an
appearance of dead white color. They are sometimes called
dead green rice, and are more or less edible.
The seeds that have been partially eaten by insects.
The seeds that have spots due to the disease of the
rice plant.
The seeds that are moldy.
The seeds that have sprouted.
The seeds that have turned yellow due to faulty
storage.
The seeds that are discolored or give an offensive
odor.
2. INSPECTION PROCEDURES AND METHODS [p 6691
(1) The Sample Taking Method
The first step of rice inspection is to take
a sample from of the lots which are being inspected. A se-
parate sample should be taken of each unit while the amount of
rice taken as a sample depends upon the requirements of the
inspection process. The methods of taking a sample are as
follows:
a. Taking a Sample from the Warehouse
If the rice is stored in piles in the warehouse,
then, according to the volume, the pile or piles are to be
divided first into the five points of the center and the four
corners. Then 3 the pile is again divided into layers. Then,
an instrument lit is called a grain detector) shaped like a
stick, is used to penetrate through the various points to the
various layers and to bring up a sample from each of the lo-
cations.
b. Taking a Sample from Packaged Rice
If the rice .is stored in sacks, then 7 to 10%
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of 100 sacks, 4 to 7% of 1000 sacks, or 3 to 47, of 10,000
sacks should be used to take samples. The sample taking
instrument should be inserted from the opening of the sack
diagonally to reach the opposite corner of the bottom of the
sack and take sample seeds in the process.
C. Taking a Sample from Round Storage Bins
The method of taking a sample from round storage
bins is similar to taking a sample from a pile of grain. First,
the points of the center and two points toward the edge should
be determined for the purpose of inserting the grain detector.
Then, the bin is also divided into several levels, so that
the sample may be a fair representation of the rice of the
entire bin. If the diameter of the bin is over 7 m, then
more than three points should be chosen on the surface.
(2) To Mix the Samples
The samples taken from the various points are
to be mixed for the purpose of inspection. The mixed sample
is called the "average sample". As soon as the samples.-are
mixed, the actual inspection should proceed immediately. If
for some reason or another, the average sample cannot be
inspected immediately, then it should be sealed with a.de-
tailed inscription, and be kept in a safe place.
(3) Quality Inspection
In our country, quality inspection is done with
the two methods of direct inspection and instrument inspec-
tion.
a..Direct Inspection
This method is the method of judging the quality
of rice with the normal human sense organs. Generally, the
inspector loop at the shape, color, and size of the seeds, and
judges the number or percentate of broken seeds. He puts the
seeds in his palm to judge the dampness, the weight, and the
temperature. He smells the seeds to detect odor; he bites
the seeds to judge the hardness, and to Disten to the sound
when the seed cracks.
b. Instrument Inspection
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Various instruments may be used to judge the quali-
ty of rice. This method is by far more accurate.
(a) The inspection of foreign substance
Take one kg of the average sample. After weigh-
ing,use hands to pick out the large foreign substance, and
weight the remaining rice again. The following formula may
be used to figure out the percentage of the large foreign
substance:
weight of large f.s.
Large foreign substance (%) = x 100
19000
Then, for inspecting the small foreign substance,
the three sizes of 3.0, 2.5, and 1.5 mm perforated mesh are
used to shift the sample for one minute with the speed of
110 to 120 shifts per minute in a clockwise motion; then,
shift another minute with' the same speed in a cou;terclockwise
motion. Then, pick out the foreign substance thus separated
from the three sieves, and figure out the percentage with
the following formula:
Weight of s.f.
Small foreign = = .100
substance (%)
weight of the sample
If the sample contains both large and small foreign
substance, then the following formula should be used:
Content of foreign substance (7)
= wt. of large f.s. + (1.000-wt.larze f.s)x(wt.of
1,000
small f.s ! sample) x 100
(b) The Inspection of the Rate of Polished Rice
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Take 20 g of rice sample, from which the foreign
substance has been removed, and put it in a hand-operated
husking machine to remove the husk and obtain the rough rice.
Then, use a hand mill to rub off the outer seed-coats, and
weigh. The formula for calculating the percentage is as.
follows:
Rice (%) = total wt of rice- broken seeds t 2 x 100
wt of sample
Each, sample should. be tested twice, and the
difference between the two tests should not exceed 1%. The
average of the two test results is the rate.
(c) The method of Determing the Moisture Content
The moisture content of the rice of the sample
is Bested by an electric oven with a constant temperature of
105 C. The dry sbbtance of the grain will not be harmed under
this temperature, and the result is very accurate.
Take 15 g of rice seeds from the average sample, and
rub them until not less than 60% are of a diameter of, 1 mm,
and not more than 5% are of a diameter of 2 mm, then, use a
spoon, take one spoonful from each of the sizes 6f seeds, and
each portion must weight more than 5 g. Then, weigh the
two portions before putting in the electric oven for about
3 hours. Then, weigh-them again after they are cooled off.
Then, put the seeds back into the oven for another half an
hour before taking them out to cool and be weighed again.
Repeat the process, until the weight of the seeds before and
after half an hour in the oven differs no more than 0.002 g.
Then, calculate the moisture loss with the following formula:
wt.of sample before drying - wt.of s.after drying
Moisture (?la) x 100
wt. of sample before drying
The method of using an electric:.oven of 130? and
drying the seeds for 40 minutes may also be adopted, and there
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are also other instruments for testing the moisture content
quickly.
For testing the moisture content, each sample is
tested simultaneously in two ovens, and the results must not
differ more than 0.1%. When other methods are used, the re-
sults must not be more than 0.5% different, and the average
of the two results is considered the moisture content of the
sample.
(4) The Inspection of Insects
Take 2 chin of rice seeds from the sample,
and put them in the three sizes of 2.5, 1.5, and 1.0 mm sieves
and shift, then inspect the substance that passes through the
sieves. The rate of the insect content is calculated from the
number of live insects; however, dead insects and insects in
hibernation should also be noted. If the temperature of the
sample seeds is less than 10?C, then they should be kept in an
environment of 20 to 30?C for 13 to 20 minutes before inspection.
.Again, take 5 g of rice seeds from the sample,
then, count the number of grains, before using a knife to cut
open each grain to inspect and to find any insect, egg, moth,
or larva, and figure out the number of them for each kg of
rice.
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SECTION 3. STORAGE OF RICE [p 673]
In the process of storage, tie nutritional value,
the quality of the processed product, the rate of utili-
zation vary with the condition and the duration of the
storage.
The quality of the rice does not change much
under normal storage conditions. If the rice is stored
improperly it may become heated or moldy, or there may be
insects. If the rice is stored properly, the duration of
storage also makes a difference. (Table 24-2)
Table 24-2 Changes in Nutritional Content
and the Duration of Storage
a (1) 0
.a IN R 3
(4)Hi I-V-*XP at ft n
1 9 5 8 1 9 5 7 ~S( 1 9 5 5IF- ( V,
(?$X)0_ ') 55 1 6 (JA-1) 7 (PRE-40 -
9.45%
2.25Y6
8.65%
2.02%
M,i4~15~,~1U5a1L5a~590 8
1. Content 2. Protein 3. Fat 4. Year of production
and duration of storage S. New rice of 1958 (stored about one
month) 6. the harvest of 1957 (stored about one year)
7. The harvest of 1955 (stored about three years)
8. Note: Stored in Hua-lin-p'in Warehouse of Ling-li-hsien,
Hu-nan. The rice is a mixture of Sheng-li-hsien and Wan-
erhchan varieties.
The newly harvested rice is not very hard, and the
seeds break easily while being processed. In the cooking
process, much of the nutritional content is lost in the cook-
ing liquid, and the cooked rice is very sticky. Since it does
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not absorb much water, the volume of the cooked rice is small.
These characteristics improve, after the newly harvested rice
has been stored for the short period of time. However, if it
is stored for too long a period, then, the cooked rice loses
its color and flavor, as well as its stickiness. It is no
longer very palatable.
1. FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY CHANGES OF RICE DURING
STORAGE PERIOD [p 673]
The chief factor which affects the quality of rice
during storage is the activity of life (respiration) and the
attacks of the microorganisms which are attached to the seeds.
(1) The respiration function of the rice seeds
Just like any other needs of grain plants, the re-
spiration function of the rice seeds is a biological process
of oxidation of the carbohydrates and other nutrients. The
respiration may be divided into the aerobic and the anerobic.
The aerobic respiration releases heat and produces carbon di-
oxide and water. The anaerobic respiration produces heat and
also acetic acid, lactic acid, alcohol, or carbon dioxide de-
pending upon the nature of the respiration. The amount of heap
released by anaerobic breathing is far less than aerobic breat]
ing.
The respiration decomposes the nutrients of the seed:
and they are lost in the water and carbon dioxide which are re-
leased into the air. Thus the dry substance of the seed is
gradually reduced. Under normal storage conditions, the respi:
tion of the seeds is very weak, and the reduction in dry sub-
stance is almost beyond detection. If the rice is stored im-
properly, the respiration action of the seeds is increased, an(
the heat released by the respiration is accumulated in the pile
of rice, which becomes increasingly warmer. The weight of 1,01
seeds drops sharply, and the seeds cannot sprout any more. Thl
may even become rotten, or not edible.
The factors that affect the breathing of the rice
seeds are as follows:
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Table 24-3 The Relationship between the Tempera-
ture of Rice and the Thickness of the
Carbon Dioxide in the Air of the Storage
Place (Kwangtung Provincial Food Studies
Laboratory, 1959)
4(3) A (/)
10-20
0.6446
100.0
21-30
1.1873
184.2
31-40
2.3224
360.3
1. The temperature of the grain (?C) 2. The density of the
carbon dioxide in the air of the storage bin (%) 3. Increase (%)
a. The Moisture Content of the Seeds
The respiration of the dry kernels is weak. If the
moisture content is between 10 and 11%, then the amount of the
carbon dioxide released by the breathing action cannot be de-
tected by ordinary methods. As the moisture content increases,
so does the respiration. When the moisture content reaches 14.5
to 15%, then the respiration increases very rapidly.
b. The Temperature of the Storage
When the temperature of the storage is low, then the
respiration of the rice seeds is weak. As the temperature rises
10?C, the respiration is doubled. A test conducted in Yang-
chiang-hsien, Kwangtung proved that there is a relationship be-
tween the temperature of the storage and the density of the
carbon dioxide (Table 24-3).
The oxygen and the carbon dioxide content of the
storage affects the intensity of the breathing action. If
the moisture content is low, the seeds may be stored tightly,
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with no ventilation. When the oxygen content is reduced due
to lack of ventilation, carbon dioxide increases, and the
accumulation of carbon dioxide hinders respiration. However,
if the moisture content of the kernels is high, then if the
storage is poorly ventilated, the effect of the anaerobic
respiration may be even more harmful.
Besides, the respiration of the kernels that are
not completely ripened is higher than the normally ripened
kernels; that of the broken kernels is higher than that of
the whole kernels. The respiration of the newly stored
kernels is higher than that of the kernels that have been
stored for a prolonged period of time.
(2) Microorganisms
Such microorganisms as the fungi, bacteria,
molds, and yeasts can all be found on the stored rice kernels.
The types of microorganisms attached to the rice kernels are
very complicated; they vary with the local climate, and the
condition and duration of storage.
The various fungi on the kernels have different
effects on the safety of the kernels. A test conducted by
Wu-han Institute of Microorganisms of Academia Sinica on the
fungi of the stored keng kernels with 15 to 1670 of moisture,
in the seven different warehouses of T'uan-p'u People's
Commune of Hsi-shui-hsien, Hupei proved that the most numer-
ours fungi on the rice kernels are Thizopus nigricans,
Mucor, Saprolegnia, Plasmopara, and Phytophthora, and they
are considered to be quite dangerous to the rice kernels in
storage.
These microorganisms may secrete all kinds of en-
zymes to decompose the protein, carbohydrates, and fat con-
tent of the kernels in order to obtain nutrients and produce
heat. When these fungi multiply rapidly, the heat they pro-
duce may cause the temperature of the kernels to rise. The
kernels that have been harmed by these microorganisms, have
a dark color, and smell moldy, alcoholic, or sour. Some of
the microorganisms may produce poisonous substanceswhich may
harm people or animals who eat the rice. The factors in
grain storage which affect the growth and reproduction of the
microorganisms are as follows:
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a. Temperature
There is a definite temperature limit for the
growth and reproduction of each type of microorganism As
shown in Table 24-4, the microorganism multiplies 80 times
faster within a three-month period when the kernels are
stored in a ventilated place of 35?C temperature, with the
moisture content of 19.6%, compared with the kernels stored
under 15?C temperature conditions.
Table 24-4 The Number of Fungus Spores Attached
to the Rice Kernels of Various Moisture
Contents Kept in Storage for Three
Months
(4) (4tfL, 1, 000^)
15?C I 25?C I 35?C
13.8
3
15.2
20
17.2
1,440
19.6
8,000
3 g t
15?C 25?C 35?C
1. Moisture content of the rice kernels (%)
2. Ventilated storage 3. Tightly closed storage
4. Unit: 1,000 spores
b. Relative Humidity and the Moisture Content
of the Rice Kernels
The relative humidity most suitable for bacteria
and yeast is 100%. The lowest moisture content under which
they may reproduce. is 16 to 1870 of the rice kernels. The fungi
do not demand as much, as the bacteria and yeast with respect
to relative humidity and the moisture content of the kernels.
However, they grow best under the conditions of 60 to 7570 of
relative humidity and no less than 14 to 15%. This is why
stored grain d.? more often damaged by fungi than bacteria
and yeasts.
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c. Oxygen
The amount of oxygen content in the air may
affect the growth and reproduction of the microorganisms.
Many of the fungi can reproduce only when there is oxygen.
However, some microorganisms can grow in either aerobic or
anaerobic conditions. Since there are many kinds of micro-
organisms on the rice kernels, the removal of oxygen from
the air with tightly closed storage methods cannot stop the
reproduction of all the microorganisms. As indicated in
Table 24-4, when the kernels are kept in tightly closed sto-
rage, the growth of the fungi is controlled, but the kernels
are damaged by yeasts, and various degrees of alcoholic odor
may be detected.
(3) Stored Rice Pests
Some 50 species of insects have been found in
our country infesting stored rice, and more than 14 species
of mites have been discovered in grain storage.. It is a
very important responsibility to keep the stored rice from
being damaged by these pests. Major rice growing areas
of our country, which are south of the Yangtze river, are
particularly bothered by these pests due to the warm tem-
perature. When the kernels have been damaged by these in-
sects, the quality of the rice drops, and sometimes, it may
not even be edible. In 1951, the rice milling plant of Li-
chia-t'u of Ch'ung-ching milled some insect infested rice,
and only 52 chin of polished rice was obtained from 100 chin
of rough rice. Without the insect damage, 72 chin should
have been the case.
factors:
The occurrence of pests is related to the following
a. Temperature
The reproduction of the stored grain pests is
related to temperature. The Chu-ku-tao La species of the
saw-toothed grain beetlitakes only 18 days to produce a new
ieBeration if the temperature is 35?C; if the temperature is
0 C, it takes 20.7 days; if the temperature is 25 C, it
takes 30.3 days; if the temperature is 20?C, it takes 69.1
days. When the temperature reaches the highest or the lowest
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limit, the pests hibernate; and if this temperature condition
continues for a certain period of time, the pests die. There-
fore, it is possible to use the oven, or the sunning process,
or a cold storage method to kill all the pests.
b. Moisture and Temperature
't'ie moisture of the body of the pests comes main-
ly from the grain. Generally speaking, all stored grain pests
like high humidity and warm temperature. Some cannot multiply
when the moisture content of the grain is lower than 10%.
Others cannot live only when the moisture content is above
8%. There are also some, which will only hatch when the
relative humidity is above 70%.
c. The Whole Kernel of Rice
Some pests cannot bore into a whole kernel of
rice. They eat only the broken ones. Therefore, to separate
the broken kernel from the whole ones is one way of keeping
the pests out of the grain storage.
2. RELATIONSHIP AMONG TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE CHANGE AND CARE OF
STORED RICE [p 677]
As we have just mentioned, the physiology of
the rice kernel, the harmful microorganisms, the insects,and
the mites are all closely related to temperature and moisture
of the storage. Therefore, the variation of temperature and
moisture is the key to safe storage.
(1) The Variation of Temperature
of the Stored Rice
The temperature of the stored rice is mainly
affected by the temperature of the external atmosphere (we
rpay call it the "external temperature".) and the various
biological activities within the pile of grain. The impor-
tance of these factors is determined by the concrete condi-
tions. When the moisture content is high, then the tempera-
ture of the kernel is determined mainly by the biological
factor. If the moisture content is low, then, the tempera-
ture of thetkefne.ls is affected mainly by the external
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temperature. Therefore, the temperature of the kernels is
at its lowest in February and March, and at its highest in
August and September.
In view of safe storage, the first variation of
temperature, i.e. caused by the biological factor, is very
dangerous. The kernels may be easily damaged. Every effort
should be exerted to prevent this kind of temperature var-
iation.
Although the normal temperature of the stored rice
varies. with the season, the condition of the warehouse and
the piles of rice are-also closely related to the normal
variation of temperature. When the warehouse is well in-
sulated, then the highest temperature of the kernels is not
as high as the kernels stored in warehouse that is not in-
sulated.
The size of the grain pile also affects the tem-
perature. The larger is the pile, the less is the effect
of the external tempetature on the kernels which are inside
the large pile. However, since the kernels inside of a large
pile are not affected by the external temperature, they have
a tendency to remain warm after the external temperature has
dropped. This condition creates a favorable temperature for
the multiplication of the pests. Therefore, the larger
piles are more difficult to be safely maintained.
If the kernels are tightly packed when they are being
piled up, they are easier to be heated. Ventilation directly
affect the exchange of heat between the grain pile and the
atmosphere. If the pile, of grain is well ventilated, then
the temperature of the kernels drops faster in the winter,
and rises faster in the summer too.
(2) The Variation of the Moisture Content
of the Stored Rice
a. The Balance between the Moisture Content of
the Rice and That of the Air
Just like any other kind of grain, the surface
of the kernel and its iiterior fre connected with capillaries
of the diameters of 10- to 10- cm. At present, the physical
and chemical mechanism with which the kernel absorbs the
moisture from the air is not yet wholly understood, but,.itis
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generally agreed that the vapor in the air is absorbed by
the kernel through. these capillaries, and moisture of the
interior of the kernel is also evaporated through these ca-
pillaries..
Under certain temperature and humidity conditions,
the moisture content of the kernel is called balanced when
the seed of its moisture absorption equals the moisture it
evaporates. The relationship between the moisture content
of the kernel and the relative humidity of the air is as
follows:
When the relative humidity remains constant, as the
temperature rises, the moisture content of the kernel drops;
as the temperature drops, the moisture content of the kernel
rises. When the temperature remains constant, then, the
moisture content rises as the relative humidity becomes high-
er; it drops, as the relative humidity becomes lower.
b. The Meaning of Moisture Balance in
Relation to Grain Storage
Due to this characteristic of balancing mois-
ture, if the rice kernels are stored in a place with relat-
ively stable temperature, and a humidity condition separated
from the atmospheric humidity outside the storage, then, the
moisture content of the kernels determines the relative hu-
midity of this closed environment. In other words, the mois-
ture content of the kernels inside a pile of grain is close-
ly balanced with the relatively humidity there. Thus, the
relative. humidity of the air within a grain pile is almost
the same as the moisture content of the kernel. Since the
relative humidity determines the speed with which many micro-
organisms multiply, the moisture content of the stored grain
is very important to the safety of the grain stored.
c. The Variation of the Moisture Content of the
Stored Rice
(a) The daily and the Yearly Variation
The kernels which are on the surface of a
pile are in direct contact with the air, and their moisture
content changes very fast. On the 2nd of June, 1955, the
moisture content of the surface kernels was observed in
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K'un-shan, Kiangsu. It was noted that with. 24 hours, the
highest moisture content was 14.2% from 2 to 4 A.114., then it
began to drop to the lowest of 11.95 at 4 to 6 P.M. The
difference of the highest and the lowest is as much as 1.25%.
Aside from the surface layer, the moisture content
of the kernel of other areas inside of a pile does not vary
much during a day. Some of the kernels have been observed to
have constant moisture content within a month's time.
When the humidity of the air changes from season to
season, the moisture content of the kernels changes also, but
the variation is different with the kernels of the various
layers of a pile.
If the rice is piled loosely, with a small area in contact
with the air, then, the average variation of moisture content of the
kernels of the entire pile is small. This is why if the moisture con-
tent of the rice kernels is small it is wise to pile them loose in a
tightly closed storage room, so that they will not absorb moisture from
the atmosphere.
(b) The Transfer of Moisture
The moisture of the various areas of a grain
pile is noted to transfer from one area to another. In the
autumn, the moisture content of the kernels in the center
of a pile is often transferred to the kernels on the surface.
Sometimes, a thick layer of kernels on the surface become
moldy or rotten due to too much moisture. The larger is
the pile, the more serious is this problem. This moisture
transfer is due to the temperature difference between the
air and the center of the pile. In the fall, when the extern-
al temperature drops, the temperature of the center of the
pile becomes higher than that of the surface. The air reaches
the center of the pile and becomes warmer due to the higher
temperature there, then, when it returns to the surface of
the pile, the cool temperature turns it into a vapor, which
condenses into moisture and is abosrbed by the kernels near
the surface of the pile.
Due to the same reason, the moisture of the kernels
near the surface is transferred to the kernels of the lowest
position in the pile when the external temperature rises
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in the spring and summer.
However, the transfer of moisture within a pile of
grain in storage is not as fast as the transfer of moisture
between the air and the kernels, therefore, the threlt to
the safety of the stored grain is not as great in case of
the transfer within the pile.
(c) The Relative Safe Moisture Content of
the Stored Rice
Even if the moisture content of the kernels is high
if they are stored in a certain low temperature environment, they may
be kept from becoming moldy. On the other hand, if the moisture con-
tent is very low, they may still be damaged if they are stored in a high
temperature environment. The so-called relative safe moisture content
is the moisture content in relation to the temperature.
The relative safe moisture content of stored rice
under various temperature conditions is given in Table 24-5.
Table 24-5 The Relative Safe Moisture Content
of Stored Rice
(1) it (?C) I >k (2) (i)
(4)
35
30
20-25
15
13 AT (3)
13. SAT (3)
15 AT (3)
16 A (3)
17 AT (3)
18 AT (3)
R99NE1M ' (5)
1. Temperature (?C) 2. Moisture content (%)
3. Below --- 4. Note
5. May be kept safe within a short period of time only.
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The climate of the various regions makes the rela-
tive safe moisture content different from one place to another.
For example, in the southern parts of Kiangsu, if the mois-
ture content of the rice kernels is 147., they may generally
be stored safely through the summer. In Kwangtung, however,
if the moisture of the stored rice kernels is as muth.as
14%, they will become heated and spoiled in May. Actually,
due to moisture transfer, leaking warehouse, and other rea,4
sons, even if the moisture content of the ricd was very low
when it was stored, constant , inspection is still necessary
to insure safety.
3. RICE SOTRAGE METHODS [pc 680]
(1) Preparation Before Storage
a. Warehouse Preparation
The warehouse must be inspected, and measures
taken to prevent dampness, heat, and rats. If necessary,
the eaves should be made longer, the walls thicker, and the
cracks between the ground and the walls filled, and the
windows repaired.
b. The Preparation of the Tools
The mats, the sacks, and the bins, should all
be carefully inspected for rats, insects, holes, dampness and
to forth. They must be thoroughly washed, sunned, or other-
wise Cleaned and disinfested.
c. Disinfect the Warehouse
The cleanliness of the warehouse, inside and
outside, is one of the methods to keep away the pests. Af-
ter the warehouse is thoroughly cleaned and swept, it must
be disinfected with drugs. Normally, it is sprayed with
a ?% 666 solution. After spraying, the doors and the win-
dows should be shut for several days. Afterwards, the drug
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residue should be cleaned out, and fresh mats be laid on the
ground. If possible, lime water may be used to paint the
interior over, and the room should be left to dry for several
days before it is ready to store the rice.
Besides, certain medicine may also be used to smoke the
warehouse for disinfection. Certain disinfecting rolls are being
tested in Kiangs3 currently. It is said to be very effective for dis-
infecting the warehouse with the smoking method. The procedure is con-
siderably easier.
d. Quality Inspection of the Rice to Be Stored
The rice kernels to be stored in a warehouse
should be inspected for moisture content, insect infestation,
etc.and measures should be taken accordingly before they are
admitted to the warehouse.
(2) The Method of Storage
a. Dry Storage
This is the most basic method and the safest.
Normally, the kernels are sunned first. However, due to the
limitation of climate they are sometimes dried in an oven.
If a drying oven is used, it is important not to use too
high a temperature, which may cause the kernels to break.
According to the experienc8 of Kiangsu, for drying rice, a
hot air device of about 70 C is quite sufficient. The kernels
are heated not over 40?C, and the rate of broken seeds is
about 12 to 147,. If the original moisture content is especial-
ly high, then, the kernels may have to be dried more than once.
To store dried rice, it is important to keep the
doors and windows closed so that the moisture of the air will
not be absorbed by the grain.
b. Tight Storage
With tight storage, the dried grain is tightly
separated from the external atmosphere. In a closed environ-
ment, the oxygen is soon exhausted by the respiration of the
kernels, and carbon dioxide increases with the result of
weakened biological activity of the kernels. All the aerobic
fungi and pests are controlled or dead. Therefore, this is
a very good method of storing grain.
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However, with this method, the kernels must be dried
to the extent that the moisture content is below safety level.
In areas of the Northwest and other places, where the ground
water table is low and the soil is very dry, people dig holes
in the ground to store grain. These underground cellars are
very serviceable, however, they are seldom large enougg to
hold a great quantity of grain. If necessary, grain ellevators
may be built to provide tight. storage space. The local grain
storage official created a method of using sand, husks, ashes,
and fire bricks to cover the surface of a grain pile. This
method is also quite useful for keeping dried grain from ab-
sorbing external moisture. However, before this method is
adopted, it is absolutely necessary to make certain that the
moisture content of the kernels is below 13.5 to 147., other-
wise, they may become heated and spoiled.
c. Low Temperature Storage
Under low temperature, all the biological acti-
vities come to a halt, therefore, low temperature is very
beneficial for stored grain. Even though the moisture content
of the kernels may be high, low temperature may preserve
their wholesomeness longer.
To bring low temperature to the storage, one method
is to open the doors and windows when the outside temperature
is low, to let the cool air reduce the temperature of the
warehouse.
When the weather is cold, the kernels may be laid
in the open air to cool. The grain may also be sifted in the
wind, or a cooling device may be installed in the transport
vehicle to cool the grain before it reaches the warehouse.
When the grain is cooled during the winter, measures should
be taken to preserve the low temperature as long as possible,
to prevent the temperature of the grain from rising suddenly when
the season changes.
d. Mechanical Ventilation
Cool air may be pumped into the storage room to
keep down temperature. According to the test conducted in
Wu-han by the Bureau of Food, when a mechanical device was
used to bring cool air into a warehouse for 96 hours, the
1,800,000 chin of rice stored in the warehouse was cooled
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from 11.6?C to 2.7?C.
If a cool air device is operated properly, it may
reduce the moisture content of the kernels also. According
to the Bureau of Food of Szechwan Province, when the moisture
of the upper layer of the rice kernels in storage was 14.6%,
that of the middle layer 14.3%, and that of the lower layer
14.4%; after the warehouse was artificially ventilated 10
times, the moisture content of the upper layer or grain was
reduced to 11.2%, that of the middle layer and lower layer to
11.1%; while the kernels of the control group which was not
ventilated artificially showed no change in, their moisture
content. This is why mechanical ventilation is a very useful
method for treating the stored grain that has begun to show
signs of being heated. The mechanical device used for this
purpose is mainly a fan or an air circulator which must gen-
erate a certain amount of air current for the size of the
warehouse.
e. Chemical Storage
There are various drugs which may be used to control
or to kill the stored grain pests or microorganisms. These
drugs have various degrees of affect on the kernels themselves.
They may destroy the biological functions of the kernels and
make them incapable of sprouting.
The effects of chloropicrin [nitrotrichloromethane]
used as a grain preserver are as follows:
(a) It may destroy the stored grain pests and con-
trol or kill the microorganisms attached on the kernels.
(b) It functions to reduce temperature of the ker-
nels, so that when the external temperature rises, the tempera-
ture of the kernels rises slower, and when the external-tem-
perature drops the temperature of the kernels drops faster.
(c) Its effect on the sprouting rate of the kernels
depends upon the moisture content of the kernels. According
to the studies of Kiangsi Institute of Food, conducted in
1958, if the moisture content is below 12%, then the use of
chloropicrin has no effect on the kernels with regard to
sprouting. According to the studies of Kuo Ying-wen (6753
5391 2429) and co-workers in Szechwan, if the moisture content
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of the kernels is about 14?x, the use of chloropicrin has
definite effect on the kernels with regard to sprouting.
(d) Only a small mount of chloropicrin is needed,
about 15 to 25 g for each m of the warehouse, or 32 to
35 g to each m3 of stored grain; therefore, this is an in-
expensive method.
In our country, the use of chemicals for the pre-
servation of grain has just begun. More studies are needed
to determine their effects and effectiveness.
F. Hot Grain Storage Method
With this method, the kernels are put into the
warehouse when they are still hot from the sun or the drying
oven, so that the very high temperature of the kernels will
remain constant for a certain period of time to kill the
harmful pests and microorganisms. This has been one of the
storage methods of the masses. Its important aspects are
as follows:
(a) When the kernels are sunned, they should be
turned very frequently and remain in the sun for only a short
while. When they are put in the warehouse, their temperature
should be 40 to 50?C.
(b) If the high temperature of the kernels is kept
for 7 to 15 days, the pests may be killed. After that, the
temperature should be brought down as quickly as possible.
(c) When this method is used, the moisture content
of the kernels should be below 117, so that the high tem-
perature of the kernels in' storage will not affect the quality
of the kernels.
According to the experience of the various areas
where this method is being practiced, it is very effective
for keeping the pests out of the warehouse and it is not
harmful to the quality of the kernels.
Although this is a good method, its application is
nevertheless limited, because, after the period of 7 to 15 days
is over, it is rather difficult to bring the temperature down
quickly. If kernels are left in such a high temperature for
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a prolonged period of time, their quality will definitely be
affected. The sunning method cannot always be practiced every-
where,because it is necessarily limited by the weather. If
oven drying method must be used to dry the kernels until the
moisture content is below 11%, the Q60 twill be prohibitive.
Due to these reasons, this method is not extensively adopted
at present.
4. PREVENTION OF INSECT PESTS [p 684]
It is important to prevent the occurrence of pests
in the grain storage. If the kernels are infested with pests,
it is urgent to kill them before they spread and damage the
grain of the entire warehouse.
(1) Disinfestation of the Grain before it Enters
the Warehouse
Such pests as the moth and mites may be brought
from the field with the harvest. Many others sneak into the
grain when it is being processed. It is important that all
precautionary measures must be taken to inspect the tools and
the location during the various processing procedures before
the grain is brought to the warehouse. If insects are dis-
covered, they should be eliminated immediately.
(2) Preventing Infestation after the Grain is
Stored
First of all the grain storage must be thorough-
ly cleaned and maintained clean. Outside of the building,
the walls and the wilks may be sprayed with 666 solutions to
keet the environment sanitary.
(3) Mechanical Extermination
physically:
There are four ways of exterminating the pests
a. Sunning
Sunning in the summer is very effective for
exterminating the pests that have already infested the rice kernels.
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According to the experience of Kiangsi Bureau of Food, the
kernels should be laid on the yard to about one ts'un thick.
When the temperature in the sun is about 44?C, the kernels
should be exposed to the sun for about 6 hours, then the
eggs, larva, and adult moths which are hidden in the kernels
may be 95.21% killed. If the temperature in the sun is 50?C,
then, the killing effect may reach 100%.
b. Mechanical Drying
If the infested kernels have a high moisture
content, they may be put in a drying mechine with a tempera-
ture of 80 to 100?C, until the temperature of the kernels
reaches about 50?C. Under this kind of high temperature, the
pests die quickly.
c. Low Temperature Method
When the temperature is as low as 15?C, the
stored grain pests go into hibernation, and reproduction
stops. If the temperature is reduced to 5?C, then, some of
the pests will die.
To use this method, the infested grain may be laid
on the yard in the winter. The pile should be constantly and
regularly turned so that all the kernels will be cooled even-
ly. Afterwards, the grain is put back in storage, and the
low temperature is maintained for a certain period of time.
After the pests have either died or gone into hibernation, the
kernels may be shifted through a sieve so as to eliminate,
them. This method has been proven effective even for the
regions where the temperature in the winter is not very low.
d. Mechanical Extermination
At present the mechanical tools used for exterminat-
ing the pests are the blower and the sieve. They are generally used
when the extent of damage is light. The blower may separate the pests
from the kernels. With the sieve, due to the fact that the size of
the pests is different from the grain, if various sizes of sieves are
used, the pests may eventually be separated from the kernels with suc-
cess.
These tools are more effective for the pests that
remain outside the kernels, but not for those that are hidden
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within the kernels. Generally speaking, the extermination
can seldom be thorough.
(d) Chemical Exterminators
The chemical exterminators most frequently used
in this country today are chloropicrin (CC13N02), Ethylene
chloride (C2H4C12), Methyl bromide (CH3Br). The advantage of
chloropicrin is the fact that it is very penetrating and a
small amount can be very effective. There is no danger of
inflammation or combustion. Its disadvantage is its low
boiling paint (112.4?C) and therefore dais not easily eva-
porated. It remains on the kernels for a prolonged period
of time, and therefore, if the moisture content of the kernels
is high, the sprouting capacity of the kernels may be serious-
ly damaged.
With chloropicrin, the poison enters the pests' body
through their respiratory system and destroys their cells. Ethylene
chloride attacks the pests' nervous system and the fat-like substance.
It is inflammable. Methyl bromide is a gas under normal temperature
conditions. It is very penetrating and evaporates very fast. However,
it is odorless and colorless, and people may be poisoned without being
aware of its presence.
These, drugs may be applied with the following methods:
a Temperature Aside from methyl bromide, the
others may be appl;ed only when the temperature of the grain
is no less than 12 C, and the average temperature of the at-
mosphere is no less than 10?C.
b. Dosage When used to exterminate insects, the
following amount should be applied:
Table 24-6 The Amount of Chemicals used for
the Extermination of Stored Grain Pests
(1)
n
(6)
it
(10)0 15 A m/&;6*)
2
?ri
A
V'.
7
20-30
l
V
8
35-70
t~l
7
300
t n Z X3
iW
V
8
450
-(LZ S~,` 74-83,{t 6 - 7
1
4
v
8
~ itrZ,i 203-zao, frN17-zo
f$ f,C 5
1 IB1 *V V f$ ,? 2' J4
9
15-30
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1. Name of chemical 2. Chloropicrin 3. Ethylene chloride
4. a mixture of chloropicrin and ethylene chloride
5. Methyl bromide 6. Area applied 7. Cubic measure of space
8. Cubic measure of the pile of grain 9. The average between
the cubic measure of space and that of the grain pile
10. Chemical used ( /cubic meter) 11. Ethylene chloride
74-83, chloropicrin 6-7 12. Chloropicrin 17-20, ehhylene
chloride 17-20
c. Method of Application
The warehouse must not leak air. For chloropi-
crin and ethylene chloride, the chemicals may be put in a
container hanging in the warehouse, or it may be sprayed.
With these two methods, the operation is done inside the
warehouse, and many difficulties arise. During the recent
years, many areas adopted the method of connecting a tube
and applying the chemicals from outside. This method of
application has been found to be very successful. If chlo-
ropicrin and ethylene chloride are applied, the warehouse
should be tightly closed for no less than 72 hours; if me-
thyl bromide is used, it should be closed tightly for 24 to
72 hours.
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SECTION 4. UTILIZATION OF RICE BY-PRODUCTS [p 686]
Various procedures are required after the rice is
harvested, before it is processed into polished rice ready for
cooking. Many by-products are obtained during these proce-
ssing procedures. For example, the weight of the husks is
about 18 to 20% of the weight of the kernels, and the weight
of the outer seed-coats is about 6 to 87 of the rough rice.
These proportions vary with the varieties and the growth
condition of the current year. (Table 24-7) In the past,
the by-products of rice were not considered very valuable.
Since the great leap forward of 1958, they have been process-
ed and utilized, with great success. The following is a
discussion of the many uses of the by-products of rice.
Table 24-7 The Rate of Husks, Seed-coats,
and Rice of the Various Varieties
W i
I
24f O* (??)
25w (??)
61 i (??)
(1)
10
(Y)
(??)
# d
2
2
f# *
Xf
7fm
Xf
~X1# *
XfT0Q
j
1,11
Ll
23
Z/
Z75-
Z/
40
28
NJ 0 }
~
M
2
78.18
21.70
f-
90.74
70.84
8.43
6.59
0.8
0.62
$
1
9 A h
77.81
21.20
V,-
87.30
69.50
10.47
8.15
1.7
1.32
l
ffi
77.31
21.10
*-
88.67
68.55
9.08
4.98
1.53
0.18
9q I
M1411
78.87
19.87
4r-
87.90
69.33
10.91
7.56
0.79
0.62
t 7k
~1 'U
76.70
22.63
*F-
90.01
69.02
9.12
6.99
0.48
0.36
393
J-169
78.43
21.19
*-
90.50
70.98
8.27
6.48
0.95
0.74
'k fi
le
81.04
18.73
*-
90.30
73.18
8.77
7.11
0.46
0.37
7)c J { 300
M l&
80.23
18.31
*F-
90.82
72.88
8.73
7.0
0.23
0.18
412
1f
79.61
20.01
*9-
91.11
72.26
7.8C
9.81
0.31
.0.24
X19
81.43
18.28
4-
88.31
71.91
11.01
8.96
0.55
0.44
29. pct ~;~?# iati V 7
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2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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1. Varieties 2. Nan-t'e-hao 3. Kuang-ming-hsien
4. Ch'ing-shui-tsao 5. No.393 6. Ch'ing-sen No.5
7. Shut-yuan 300 8. No.412 9. Niu-mao-huang
10. Producing area 11. Anhwei 12. Hupei 13. Kiangsi
14. Szechwan 15. Fukien 16. Kwangsi 17. Kirin
18. Hopei 19. Kiangsu 20. Percentage of rough rice from
the whole kernels 21. Percentage of husks from the whole
kernels 22. Percentage of polished rice 23. See the re-
lated item 24. Percentage of polished rice 25. percentage
of rough rice , 26. percentage of broken kernels
27. With regard to rough rice 28. With regard to the whole
kernels,
29. The aforementioned figures are obtained from the husking
and polishing mechines of the laboratory. The first six
varieties belong to the hsien subspecies, and the last four
varieties belong to the keng subspecies.
1. UTILIZATION OF LOOSE RICE [p 6871
The broken rice kernels are called Mi-hsi in
Kiangsu and Chekiang. The chemical content is similar to that
of the who, kernel, containing a great deal of starch. They
may be used to manufacture syrup , starch, various wines,
win.: lees, and feed.
(1) To Manufacture Syrup
when broken rice kernels or other starch is made
into a sweet tasting dextrose, it is called syrup, which is
very digestible and is a necessary raw material for confec-
tionaries. When the syrup is made of broken rice kernels,
it is of very pure quality. The process of making the broken
kernels into dextrose is very easy, and about 10% of barley
may be saved. The manufacturing process is as follows:
Barley wash and soak sprout grind
Broken rice kernels wash and soak___ steam
mix
dextrose filter wash concentrate
lees finished product
'(feed)
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(2) To Manufacture Starch
A glassy and very high quality starch may be
obtained when broken rice kernels are used as raw materials.
This starch is suitable for the use of the textile industry
and for the drug industry to make glucose. According to the
experience of Lung-an Milling Plant, about 140 chin of starch
and-30 chin of dregs may be obtained from 100 chin of broken
rice kernels. The manufacturing process of that plant is
as follows:
Broken rice kernels cleaning process-soak in
water. >add water and grind__,shift through a sieve (add
water to the dregs, and grind again, repeat two times, before
using the remaining dregs for feed)plet it settle
take out the water )wet starch )dried in the sun
Dry starch
2. EXTRACTING OIL FROM RICE CHAFF AND COMBINED UTILIZATION
[p 687]
The oil obtained from rice husks may be used as a
substitute for soap manufacturing to save edible vegetable
oil. Rice husk oil after being refined is also edible. The
experiments of obtaining oil from rice husks conducted in
Shanghai, Tientsin, Wu-han, and Canton since 1954 have been
very successful. It has been proven that rice husks oil is
one of the solutions to the problem of the increased demand
bf fats and oils for industry and for food.
The dregs after the oil has been taken from the rice
husks may be directly fed to animals, or it may also be made
into raw materials for many other products.
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Comprehensive Utilization of Rice Husks
Rice husks-oil rice hukk oil idustrial use
refined edible oil
husk wax
soap
husk dreg cake pig feed
white wine alcohol (dreg
for feed)
syrup food coloring (dreg
for feed)
yeast
vinegar
vegetable lime (a raw ma-
terial for drug manufacturers)
glue (for wood)
Due to the difference of the refining process and the
varieties of rice, the chemical elements of the rice husks are
different. (Table 24-8) "ccording to Wu-hsi Vegetable Plant,
the husks of the hsien varieties contain more oil than those
of the keng varieties; more oil in the late varieties than
the early varieties; more oil in the single-seasoned varieties
than the double-seasoned varieties.
(1) Obtaining oil from Rice Husks
To obtain oil from rice husks is no different
from obtaining oil from other vegetables. The husks may be
pressed by a machine press, or they may be soaked to obtain
oil. In the later method, a solution is added to dissolve
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the fat content of the husks, and the refine the liquid to
obtain oil.
Table 24-8
A Chemical Analysis of Rice Husks
O(YO)
1 %)1
2(y?)
13(y'
c
~~
~G Ilj
9 6 0
13.30
8.39
17.18
12.89
14
-
7.18
10
21.50
ii
8.07
p f~J?1
r
II~IE
9.63
9.82
19.01
12.92
-
8.71
12.33
8.71
~'u>~f 1
P 8
10.12
9.08
22.14
13.22
-
9.72
18.16
8.68
t pl 1
*9Q
10.51
8.31
21.90
15.88
37.33
6.07
~e
4M t- W 3t
ffr
- -
*90
13.5
9.40
18.20
14.80
35.10
9.00
~r
-
*9U1
11.89
10.62
19.85
13.35
36.11
8.18
~s~
ffr
1. Source 2. Chien-ch'eng Mill, Shanghai 3. First Mill,
Shanghai 4. Chun-liang-ch'eng Mill 5. Varieties
6. Husks of keng rice 7. Husks of hsien rice 8. Husks of
late hsien 9. rice husks 10. Moisture content 11. Lime
12. fat 13. Protein 14.non-nitrogen substance 15. cellulose
16. starch 17..Pentose 18. Name of the scientic unit which
analyzed the husks 19. Institute of Food 20.Hua-pei Insti-
tute of Agricultural Sciences 21.The Northeast Institute
of Agricultural Sciences 22. Hua-chung Institute of Agricul-
tural Sciences
After the rice husk oil has been stored for a cer-
tain long period of time, the oil dissolves into fatty acids
and glycerol. This is why fresh husks produce more oil than
the husks that have been stored for any length of time. If
the husks are to be transported before processing, it is best
to dry them in, temperatures from 95 to 110?C for 15 minutes,
until the moisture content drops to below 670, so as to keep
the oil content.
At present, the machines used in our country for
pressing rice husks are the wooden press, the hydraulic press,
and the motorized press. Normally about 10 to 1470 of oil may
be obtained from fresh husks. The soaking method has also
603
9
9
9
20
21
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been successfully practiced in production. A higher rate of
oil may be otained with this method.
a. The Process of Obtaining Oil with a Wooden Press
Rice Seed-coats select through a sieve ,*steam --), make into
cakes_prets oil
residue cake
b. The Process with a hydraulic press
Rice seed-coats select through a sieve rind heat until
softsteam_press into cakes__ress oil
residue cakes
(the cakes are presses again
for oil)
c. Motorized Press
Rice seed-coats select through a sieve add water_ >
steam__),press oil
residue cakes
The oil coming out of the oil press may contain nu-
merous foreign substances?,it should be refined before use.
It may contain about 3 to 6% of wax, the melting point of
which is about 70 to 80?C. This is a very useful product in
industry as raw material for electircal insulators, carbon
paper, stencil paper, floor wax, shoe polish, medical oint-
ment, and cosmetic products.
(2) The Use of the Residue Cakes
The residue cakes after the oil has been taken
out::.coiitain protein, fat, and non-nitrogen substance. They
may be used to feed animals, to make wines, or as raw ma-
terial for making syrup. The chemical ana.-lysis of the residue
cakes is shown in Table 24-9.
6o1i
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Table 24-9 An Analysis of the Residue Cakes
1
i
~
r ft
5 W
??
6c)
g
??
g
c~~
1
21ki~l.`Jr
7.70
17.10
7.72
6.75
52.11
8.62
12~e
3 r }F(
17.50
15.30
9.93
10.10
37.30
10.47
13i Afr
4 0
8.40
13.64
9.08
11.53
46.76
10.54
1
1.Source of material 2. Chun-liang-ch'eng Mill, Tientsin
3. Kwangtung 4. Hunan 5. Moisture 6. Protein 7. Fat
8. cellulose 9. non-nitrogen substance 10.lime
11. Name of the scientific unit which analyzed the material
12. Hua-pei Institute of Agricultural Sciences 13. Kwang-
tung Bureau of Food 14. Hunan Bureau of Food
a. Making Wine
Every 100 chin of residue cakes of rice seed-
coats may produce 25 to 28 chin.of 50% white wine, or 17 to
18 chin of 60% white wine, with 170 chin of wet wine lees.
The production process is as follows:
Residue cakes of rice seed-coats plush and grind tir
steam cool aid fermeiting agent put i a
jar to fentdisfill white wine
wine lees
b. Feed pigs with the residue cakes or the wine lees
Although the rice seed-coats are more nourishing
for the pigs, it is more economical to process them and feed
the residue to the pigs than to feed them directly to the pigs.
With comprehensive utilization, out of one ton of rice seed-
coats, we may obtain 120 kg of oil, 160 kg of wine, and 1,700 kg
of wet wine lees. The total economic value is six times the
amount of the seed-coats. In order to make the dregs more
palatable for the pigs, they are often mixed with other feed
products for the pigs.
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If the seed-coats are used to feed the pigs directly,
due to the highly perishable fatty acid contents, the pigs
sometimes become sick from it. If the pigs are fed too much
rice seed-coats directly, the pig fat has a tendency to become
soft, and this fact will reduce the quality of the pig.
The process of oil pressing causes the cellolus con-
tent of the seed-coats to become soft, and thus more digesti-
ble for the pigs. Aside from the oil that is removed, the
oil pressing process does not remove any of the nourishment.
The animals require very little oil, therefore, the residue
cakes are better for the animals than the seed-coats.
The Animal Breeding Farm of Shanghai Municipal
Bureau of Agriculture conducted an experiment on the 22nd of
February to the 23rd of May, 1956, with 30 six-month old pigs.
The pigs are divided into two groups for the experiment. The
group of pigs that wasfed with residue cakes gained 1,264 chin
in the 93 days of the experiment, while the group that was
fed with seed-coats directly gained only 1,077 chin during the
same period. The meat of the pigs that were fed with the
residue cakes was better also. The same kind of test was conducted
by Anhwei Bureau of Food with similar results.
The wine lees of seed-coat wine are also good feed
for the pigs. An experiment was conducted by Fu-li Plant of
Ch'ang-chou to feed rice seed-coats, residue calves, and wine
lees to three groups of 48 pigs for five months. The result
proved that wine lees are not any worse then seed-coats. As
far as cost is concerned, the wine lees are the cheapest.
c. Other Use of the Residue Cakes
The powdered residue cakes may be made into
syrup, with the same process as making syrup from the seed-
coats. About 50 chin of 35% Be syrup and 18.0 chin of dregs
may be obtained from 100 chin of powdered residue cakes. The
syrup is dark colored, with a bitter and sour taste, and may
be used to make food coloring, etc.
When powdered residue cakes are soaked in diluted
sulfric acid, lime citrate may be obtained. When the product
is filtered and crystallized, a dry butyric acid may be ob-
tained. About 20 chin of this product may be obtained from
100 chin of powdered residue cakes.
Powdered residue cakes may also be used as a
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substitute for wheat bran for the manufacturing of yeast.
3. COMBINED UTILIZATION OF RICE HULL [p 691]
The husks of rice contain three major chemical
elements: pentose, celloluse, and carbon. About 92 to 937
of the carbon is silicon dioxide. (Table 24-10)
Table 24-10 An Analysis of Rice Husks
# 1 N
*: (%)
XS} (??)
(%)
1(* M )
xct (YO)
%
M ()
l2
10.25
11.39
0.74
22
20.66
20.66
0.24
it X(3
11.82
16.95
0.83
17
29.00
21.80
1. Source of sample 2.?Ch'ang-sha, Hunan 3. Peking
4. Moisture 5. Carbon 6. Benzalcohol for distilling
7. Pentose 8. cellulose 9. Xylose 10. Whole nitrogen
Table 24-11 Chemical Analysis of the Carbon
of the Rice Husks
1 # N SiO2(%) I
A12O3(%)'Fe2O3(%)
I K20(%) I
CSO(%)
MgO(%)
A"(?.)
X 2
93.48
1.72
0.24
0.74
1.42
1.11
1.22
1. Source of sample 2. Tientsin 3. Loss of weight through
burning
To use rice husks as fuel is an.old tradition of
our country. The ashes may be used as fertilizer. It is
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indeed meaningful if rice husks are used to produce gas, which
may serve as the much needed source of power for the rural
areas. It is estimated that 116 of the rice husks harvested
is sufficient to provide the power needed to process the rice
of the harvest, while the remaining 5/6 may be used to provide
power for other industries.
When rice husks are ground fine, they may be mixed
with other feed for the pigs. With heat and pressure, rice husks may
also be manufactured into ceiling tiles, or acoustic boards, for syn-
thetic lumber. Besides, rice husks are good for packaging fruits and
glassware. They are also used-as fillers when wines are being distilled.
However, the best use of rice husks is to distill
from them many raw materials of chemical industry. With
hydrolysis, an aldehyde may be obtained from rice husks. When
this is distilled, we may obtain gas, acetic acid, methyl
alcohol, acetone, phenol oil, neutral oil, activated charcoal,
sodium silicofluoride, and fillings for plastic objects. All
these products do not contradict one another. With very little
capital, all of them may be obtained from rice husks.
(1) Obtaining Aldehyde from Rice Husks
Although rice husks do not contain as much
pentose as the husks of corn or cotton seeds, rice husks are
plentiful in the cities and are very cheap. Aldehyde is one
of the important raw materials of organic chemistry. It is
used to make nylon 66, and synthetic rubber. It is also the
raw material for resins and high quality glass. It is used
to synthesize drugs and dyes. It may also be used to refine
petroleum, oleoresins, and turpentine. Aldehyde may be direct-
ly used to disinfect seeds.
The pentose content of the rice husks may be con-
verted into aldehyde in accordance with the following formula:
+ H2O
(C5H804)2 ) nC5H10O5
Hydrolysis
- 3H20
C5H1005 C5H402
dehydration
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In our country, the manufacturing of aldehyde from
rice husks began in 1956. At present, when rice husks are
used, the production of aldehyde is as high as 5.5 to 6%,
while the steam consumption has been down to below 30 tonsfor
each ton of aldehyde, and the sulfuric acid consumption is
down to 0.4 ton. The process is as follows:
Sulfuric acid Lime milk
diluted add water
4
neutralized
rice husks_,)stir__.,,,steam ,hydrolysis__~ gas state _? separation
cool
residue Calcium acetate
solution
distillation__.~rough refining .,,_,aldehyde
aldehyde
(2) Dry Distilling of Rice.Husks
When soil fuel is dissolved in a vacuum, the pro-
cess is called dry distillation. The dry distillation of rice
husks produces methyl alcohol, acetone, acetic acid, asphalt,
activated charcoal, and gas. These products are very impor-
tant raw materials for chemical industry. They may be used in
medicine, dyes, textiles, leather, food, and construction.
The process is to deliver the rice husks from the
mill directly to the dry distilling room, where they are heat-
edethen cooled. After the cooled mixture settles, the top
liquid is acetic acid, and the oil layer is the tar. The
inflammable gas produced during the cooling process may be
used as fuel for internal-combustion engines.
From acetic acid solution, fre..may obtain acetic acid,
methyl alcohol, acetone, black wax, and sodium acetate. The
contents of these are not constantly the same. They vary with
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the raw materials, the temperature and the duration of the
distillation process, and the structure of the hearth.
The tar is a black liquid, with very complicated
elements. It contains the ketones, the aldehydes, the esters,
the alcohols, and the aromatics. Phenol oil, neutral oil,
and asphalt may be obtained from the tar.
The carbon obtained from dry distillation of the
rice husks contains silicon dioxide, which may be used to
obtain activated charcoal, fillers for plastics, sodium sili-
cofluoride, and pure silicon dioxide.
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APPENDIX
An accurate estimate of the yield of a rice paddy is
important for the planning of labor, machinery, storage space,
and transportation. It furnishes information for the state
to formulate its purchase plans. If the area is large, it
must be divided into sections for the purpose of making the
estimate. For the estimate of an entire area, the various
rice paddies are first arranged in a proper porpartion, and
classified into categories. Then, a certain number of paddies
are selected to represent each category, before samples are
taken for the purpose of the estimate.
The methods of taking samples may be divided into
(1) The Five-point Sample Taking Method:
This method is suitable for small paddies. First,
make two hypothetical lines running diagonally from corner to
corner. The center where the two lines cross each other is
the first point. Then, four points on the lines are taken
at a place 114 from the corner. These five points are
where the samples are to be taken.
(2) The Eight-point Sample Taking Method:
This method is suitable for large paddies over
10 mou in size. First divide the length of the paddy into
five equal parts, then, divide the width into three equal
parts. Hypothetical lines are drawn from these points. The
eight points where these lines meet are the places where
the.samples are to be taken.
(3) Random Method of Taking Samples
This method its suitable for large paddies more
than 10 mou each. First, divide the length of the paddy
into 10 equal parts; then, draw 10 hypothetical lines which
divide the paddy into 10 equal parts. Then, one sample is
to be taken on one point of each of these'lines, but the
point on the line is to be chosen at random to represent the
various distances from the edges.
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When the samples are taken, it is important that
they should represent the entire paddy.
Figure 24-4 Methods of Taking Grain Samples
from the Paddy
1
1 1. I T
i I
I3
1 1 1
1
1 1
1 1 1 I'
1
I 1 I 1
I I
I
D 1
1 1 I 1
I i - I
1 2 3
1. Five-point Sample Taking Method
2. Eight-point Sample Taking Method
3. Random Method of Taking Samples
The second step is to estimate the yield. This is
generally done during the milk-rip period, before the grain is
ready for harvest. The estimate is made in accordance with
the factors that affect yield. The concrete method is as
follows:
(1) At each point where the sample is to be taken,
the space of 11 groups is first measured; then, divide the
figure by 10 to obtain the average distance between the
groups. Then divide 6,000 ch.'ih (or 600,000 ts'un ) with the
average space between the groups, to bbtain the actual num-
ber of groups per mou for that particular paddy. If this
paddy was planted with a planting machine, then this cal-
culation is not necessary.
(2) At each of the chosen points, pick five groups
and count the total number of effectual heads. Then, pick
another group from each point, and count the total number of
seeds. Then divide the average number of heads with the
number of seeds to obtain the average number of seeds per
head.
(3) Dry the sample seeds, and clean them. Divide
the seeds into four portions, and pick one Jiang of seeds
from each portion. Count the number of seeds from each of
the Jiang and obtain an average. This is the average number
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of seeds per Jiang. When this figure is multiplied by 10,
the average number of seeds per chin is obtained.
(4) Multiply the average number of seeds per head
by the average number of head per group, then multiply
the figure again by the total number of groups per mou, to
obtain the total number of seeds per mou. Divide this figure
by the number of seeds per chin, to obtain the yield per mou
for this paddy.
Then, based upon the condition of the empty hulls,
and the fallen seeds, a discount of 85 to 90% may be made
to obtain the estimated yield for the paddy. The method is
as follows:
average no.of average no.
seeds per head x of hd per group
Yield per unit area (chin/mou) =
total no. of groups
per mou
no. of seed per chin
x 85 or 90%
The second step is the actual testing of the yield.
This is generally done during the wax-ripe stage, just before the har-
vest time. Samples are taken at several areas in order to calculate
the yield per unit area. The area taken is generally 60 ch'ih2 (i.e.
1/100 mou). When the sample is taken, the plants of this area are
cut down completely. They are threshed, cleaned, weighed, and counted.
The method of calculating the unit yield is as follows:
Unit yield (chin/mou)
total yield of the area (chin)
from which the sample is taken x 100
Number of areas where the
samples are taken
The estimate and the test yield are both theoretical
figures, the correctness of which is closely related to the
fact that the points chosen are representing the general con-
dition of the paddy. In production practice, the actual
yield is often lower than the estimate and the test. This
discrepaneC.is.rebated to the fact that in actual harvest the
procedures are not as carefully executed as the procedures
of the sample taking.
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