CIVIL DEFENSE IN THE USSR

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP98-00979R000100580001-7
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• Document Page Count: 24
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: December 18, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: April 30, 1952
• Content Type: NIE

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SECURITY INFORMATION
? COPY NO.
ASSISTANT DIUCTOU,ONE
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ESTIMATE
CIVIL DEFENSE IN THE USSR
NIE-6 0
Published 30 April 1952
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
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WARNING
This document contains information affecting the na-
tional defense of the United States within the meaning
of the Espionage Act, 50 U.S.C., 31 and 32, as amended.
Its transmission or the revelation of its contents in any
manner to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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SECURITY INFORMATION
NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ESTIMATE
CIVIL DEFENSE IN THE USSR
NI E - 6 0
The intelligence organizations of the Departments of State,
the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Joint Staff par-
ticipated with the Central Intelligence Agency in the prepa-
ration of this estimate. [-All members o: he Intelligence
Advisory Committee concurred in this estimate on 14_ April
1952.
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CONTENTS
Page
THE PROBLEM
1
ESTIMATE
1
SUMMARY
1
BACKGROUND
1
THE PRESENT CIVIL DEFENSE PROGRAM
1
CIVIL DEFENSE TRAINING
2
DEFENSE AGAINST SPECIAL WEAPONS ATTACK
3
OTHER CIVIL DEFENSE ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES
3
SOVIET CIVIL DEFENSE CAPABILITIES
4
APPENDIX A: CIVIL DEFENSE ORGANIZATION
AND FUNCTIONS
5
THE MPVO
5
MPVO ORGANIZATION OF A CITY OR RAYON
5
SMALLER UNITS OF THE MPVO
8
APPENDIX B: CIVIL DEFENSE TRAINING
MPVO STAFF AND UNIT TRAINING
CIVIL DEFENSE TRAINING STANDARDS
10
10
11
DOSAAF TRAINING
11
DOSAAF RADIO CLUBS
12
RED CROSS AND RED CRESCENT SOCIETIES
12
APPENDIX C: PREPARATION AGAINST SPECIAL
WEAPONS ATTACKS
14
DEFENSE AGAINST ATOMIC ATTACK
14
DEFENSE AGAINST CHEMICAL ATTACK
14
DEFENSE AGAINST BIOLOGICAL ATTACK .
14
APPENDIX D: OTHER CIVIL DEFENSE ACTIVITIES
AND RESOURCES
15
POLICE AND FIREFIGHTING
15
MEDICAL RESOURCES
15
TRANSPORT RESOURCES
16
STOCKPILING
16
PROTECTIVE CONSTRUCTION
16
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CIVIL DEFENSE IN THE USSR
THE PROBLEM
To describe the Soviet civil defense program and to estimate its capabilities.*
ESTIMATE
1. Summary. The USSR has a large, com-
plex, and well-organized civil defense system,
which is integrated into the over-all Soviet
Anti-Air Defense system (PVO). This system
is based on the extensive civil defense struc-
ture which the USSR maintained during
World War II. It is probable that civil de-
fense organizations and auxiliaries designed
to meet wartime emergencies exist in most
cities and rayons,** with the most intensive
preparations in large cities and at more im-
portant industrial installations. The civil de-
fense system is gradually being brought to an
increased state of readiness and appears
capable of rapid expansion in event of emer-
gency. However, there is no evidence of any
preparations for early hostilities.
2. Background. Civil defense training in the
USSR goes back as far as 1927, when the first
mass military auxiliary (OSOAVIAKhIM)
was organized, with mass civil defense train-
ing as one of its most important functions.
The totalitarian structure and elaborate con-
trol mechanisms of the USSR have greatly
facilitated the Soviet civil defense task. Dur-
ing World War II the Soviet civil defense or-
ganizations, in which nearly all civilians
* The term "civil defense" as used in this study
includes only those passive defense activities de-
signed to: (a) minimize the immediate effects upon
a civilian population that would be caused through
a sudden attack; (b) deal with the immediate
emergency conditions created by any such attack;
and (c) effect emergency repairs to, or the emer-
gency restoration of, vital utilities and facilities.
A rayon is an administrative subdivision of an
oblast, which is a subdivision of a Union Republic.
were compelled to participate, played a large
and diverse role. Besides their activities in
areas under air attack, civil defense units con-
structed their own ground defenses and de-
fense lines for the Red Army, and they par-
ticipated in the reconstruction of bombed and
devastated areas. The wartime civil defense
organization and program has never been dis-
continued, and the structure of the present
civil defense system appears unchanged in es-
sentials since World War II.
3. However, for a time after the war the So-
viet population was evidently apathetic to-
ward civil defense activities, and these activi-
ties declined. The Soviet government has
attempted to overcome this apathy by means
of propaganda rather than by the compulsion
resorted to during the war. Although all per-
sons of 16 to 60 years of age are subject
under existing decree to participation in the
civil defense program, the government to date
has chosen to keep the program on a "vol-
untary" basis ("voluntary" in the Soviet
sense doubtless including indirect pressures).
Since 1948 internal propaganda, disseminated
through Communist party organs, trade un-
ions, the Young Communist League, and mili-
tary auxiliaries, as well as by the press and
radio, has been increasingly stressing the need
for civil defense training of the entire popula-
tion.
4. The Present Civil Defense System. (See
Appendix A.) The existing Soviet civil defense
program stresses planning and training for
the rapid and effective mobilization of all
available resources to deal with wartime emer-
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gencies in target areas. While the civil de-
fense program receives supervision, support,
and financial assistance from the central gov-
ernment, it appears to be based upon a
workable balance between this centralized
control and maximum local initiative in the
utilization of civilian resources and man-
power. The entire program is based upon
integration into the civil defense system of
agencies, groups, and enterprises whose pri-
mary functions are other than civil defense
but which would assume civil defense opera-
tional roles in event of war.
5. The core of the Soviet civil defense pro-
gram, and the mechanism through which its
various elements are centrally coordinated
and supervised, is the MPVO (Local Anti-Air
Defense) system, which is under the Ministry
of Internal Affairs (MVD). A section of the
MVD Ministry in Moscow, the Main Admin-
istration of Local Anti-Air Defense (GUM-
PVO) , is responsible for central supervi-
sion of MPVO activities throughout the
USSR. Under it is an MPVO corps, composed
of MVD personnel professionally qualified in
civil defense duties. The MPVO corps func-
tions as a command and staff organization
which undertakes civil defense planning and
supervises and coordinates the training and
activities of the various existing agencies and
groups which have civil defense roles. The
latter provide, on a part-time basis, the vast
bulk of the local MPVO personnel. MPVO ac-
tivities generally are organized in staffs or
units composed of MVD and local civilian au-
thorities at administrative levels descending
from all-union, to union-republic, oblast, city
or rayon, down to individual plants, institu-
tions, and even dwellings. (See chart on
page 6.)
6. The basic civil defense unit is the city or
rayon MPVO, which may plan for and super-
vise such services as camouflage, firefighting,
medical-sanitation, veterinary, damage resto-
ration, anti-chemical defense, communica-
tions and reporting, security and public order,
transportation, shelter, and evacuation. These
services are generally performed by such ex-
isting agencies as the local police and fire-
fighting forces, local health and sanitation
2
facilities, Red Cross and Red Crescent Socie-
ties, and others. The larger city or rayon
MPVO units have under them sector units
with similar organization, while the smallest
MPVO unit is the "self-defense group," which
is formed within apartments, small enter-
prises, schools, etc., on the basis of approxi-
mately one per 100 persons. There were re-
portedly in 1948 some 1,060,000 local civil de-
fense units of all types. These units represent
cadres which can be expanded or around
which new sub-units can be formed in event of
national emergency, in accordance with ex-
isting predetermined plans.
7. Special emphasis is apparently placed on
providing local MPVO organizations at im-
portant factories and other targets such as
railroads. These units have crews which per-
form services similar to the services of the city
MPVO's. Most industrial or economic minis-
tries have special sections which, among other
things, are apparently responsible for seeing
to it that plants under their jurisdiction carry
out the necessary civil defense preparations.
8. Although the MPVO organization is under
the MVD, the military Anti-Air Defense sys-
tem (PVO) also has an over-all coordinating
role involving civil as well as military defense,
especially in wartime situations. The PVO
headquarters, a separate top level component
of the War Ministry, is ultimately responsible
for the entire Soviet air defense system, and as
such probably monitors passive air defense
measures to insure coordination of over-all de-
fense plans. When a local area or city is un-
der attack, the MPVO organization comes
under the operational control of the PVO
commander in that area, if such an officer has
been designated.
9. Civil Defense Training. (See Appendix B.)
The Soviet civil defense program encompasses
both specialized training of MPVO personnel
and mass training of large population groups
through various mass organizations. With
the aid of such other agencies as the Ministry
of Health and the armed forces, the MPVO
organization sets up standards for the train-
ing of the civilian population. Actual train-
ing programs are conducted by the MPVO
service itself and by the existing local agencies
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whose civil defense activities the MPVO super-
vises.
10. In addition, mass training of the popula-
tion in basic civil defense measures is under-
taken as part of their broader functions by the
Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army,
Aviation, and Navy (DOSAAF) , which is the
chief Soviet military auxiliary society, and by
the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,
sports societies, and other similar groups. The
civil defense program is widely advertised
through the Soviet propaganda machinery
and given unity and purpose through the agi-
tation and discipline of the Communist Party
and its youth organizations.
11. The scope of mass civil defense training is
indicated by evidence that an estimated 16,-
000,000 people participate in the activities of
DOSAAF, and about 15,000,000 in the Red
Cross and Red Crescent Societies, while per-
haps 20.000,000 have been trained in the
MPVO system itself. These figures undoubt-
edly include considerable overlapping since
many persons probably belong to more than
one group. Personnel who are not officially
part of the above groups, but who have had
some appropriate military or medical training,
must also be considered as part of the civil
defense potential. These include many people
trained during World War II. The Soviet civil
defense potential is much greater in terms
both of trained personnel and of mass popular
education than it was at the beginning of
World War II. Moreover, as the present train-
ing programs steadily add to the reserve of
trained personnel, this potential will gradually
increase.
12. The MPVO Main Administration (GUM-
PVO) has emphasized the necessity of main-
taining MPVO in a state of readiness, stressing
the use of up-to-date techniques. Civil de-
fense conferences called by GUMPVO have re-
viewed wartime experiences and their applica-
tion to civil defense activities. These matters
have also been treated extensively in profes-
sional publications. Moreover, as a result of
wartime experience, the MPVO system has re-
portedly adopted new equipment and tech-
niques. One is a "mobile command post" ve-
hicle with radio equipment, a switchboard
3
which can be connected with the local tele-
phone system, and amplifiers from which op-
erations can be directed at the scene of the
disaster. Another MPVO development is pro-
vision for technical emergency vehicles, hav-
ing simple equipment for rescue and mainte-
nance work, and serving as moveable blacked-
out workshops. Portable lighting systems ap-
parently have also been developed specifically
for civil defense purposes. However, the ex-
tent to which such equipment is available in
quantity is not known.
13. Defense against Special Weapons Attacks.
(Sec Appendix C.) Although it is not clear
from available evidence that the USSR is mak-
ing specific preparations for civil defense
against atomic weapons, the USSR is prob-
ably preparing against such attacks in its
broader civil defense measures. In any event,
known Soviet internal propaganda has con-
sistently minimized the effects of atomic at-
tacks, and there is apparently little popular
anxiety over the consequences of atomic
bombing. One motive for such minimizing
might be to reduce the element of panic im-
mediately preceding or during atomic attacks
on the USSR.
14. The USSR has long placed great emphasis
on defense against chemical attack in its civil
defense program. These measures, particu-
larly the medical and decontamination facili-
ties, are also adaptable to some aspects of de-
fense against atomic attack and such
adaptation may be planned. Existing Soviet
facilities for combatting human, plant, and
animal diseases also give the USSR a substan-
tial capability for civil defense against biologi-
cal warfare attack. However, there are no in-
dications that specific anti-BW training is
underway. Soviet chemical warfare defense
facilities would to some degree be adaptable to
supporting BW defense.
15. Other Civil Defense Activities and Re-
sources. (See Appendix D.) Soviet civil de-
fense plans provide for the integrated use of
resources such as the police, firefighting, pub-
lic health, communications, transportation,
construction, and other agencies under MPVO
supervision in event of emergency. The highly
developed MGB police services would have ex-
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tensive capabilities for maintaining order in
event of emergency, while the firefighting sys-
tem, which is under the MVD, is trained for a
major civil defense role. The extensive medi-
cal and sanitary facilities of the Ministry of
Health are already tied into the MPVO system.
16. Although no elements of the extensive So-
viet stockpiling program have been identified
as being set aside specifically for civil defense,
numerous items which would be useful for this
purpose are known to be kept in reserve. There
are also unconfirmed reports of a plan for the
emergency decentralization of Soviet adminis-
tration on a regional basis.
17. While present shelter facilities in the
USSR consist primarily of those remaining
from World War II, there is evidence of pro-
vision for shelter facilities in new building in
important target areas. Dwelling construc-
tion specifications in some areas include pro-
vision for shelters, and some installations,
such as subways and other tunnels, have ap-
parently been constructed with auxiliary shel-
ter needs in mind. Construction agencies fre-
quently retain "defense specialists" (probably
MPVO officers) to monitor construction plans
from the point of view of defense needs, in-
cluding not only possible shelter facilities but
also proper siting and dispersal of facilities,
and possible alternative emergency uses, for
example, the use of schools as emergency bar-
racks or hospitals.
18. We cannot estimate the extent to which
these resources would enable the USSR to cope
with wartime emergencies, especially atomic
attacks.
19. Soviet Civil Defense Capabilities. In the
light of the above evidence as to the nature
and extent of the Soviet civil defense program,
we believe that the USSR must already be
given a substantial civil defense capability,
probably greater than that of any other major
country except perhaps the UK. Its present
civil defense system appears well-planned and
organized, although it may be deficient in
4
specific preparations against atomic attack.
It includes a full-time civil defense staff or-
ganization, comprehensive plans for the utili-
zation of other existing agencies and facilities,
and an extensive training program. In addi-
tion, civil defense needs are apparently being
taken into consideration in new construction
and urban and regional planning, and perhaps
in stockpiling and decentralization programs.
20. The Soviet civil defense program is made
less difficult by the existing dispersal of popu-
lation and industry. Moreover, the elaborate
Soviet control mechanisms and the highly reg-
imented character of the population also make
control and evacuation in case of air attacks
easier. On the other hand, the Soviet civil
defense problem is, in some respects, greater
than that of most other major countries. The
large proportion of wood construction in the
USSR creates a serious fire hazard, while, in a
civil defense emergency, there would be a
serious shortage of transport facilities and of
materials.
21. Although the civil defense system appears
capable of rapid expansion in event of emer-
gency, there is no evidence of preparations
which would indicate an expectation of early
hostilities. In the limited areas open to them,
Western observers have seen slight evidence of
the building of special air raid shelters, air
raid drills, posters giving civil defense instruc-
tions to the populace or other indications of
preparation against air attacks. The "volun-
tary" nature of the civil defense program also
indicates that it is still in a preoperational
stage, and has not been given so high a prior-
ity as to call for compulsory measures.
22. We believe that the USSR is placing in-
creased emphasis on civil defense activities,
along with its other efforts to improve the de-
fenses of the USSR against enemy air attacks.
The expanding civil defense program, together
with the USSR's increasingly effective air de-
fenses, contributes to a growing Soviet capa-
bility for defense against hostile air attack.
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APPENDIX "A"
CIVIL DEFENSE ORGANIZATION AND
FUNCTIONS
1. There is abundant evidence that the USSR
maintains a large and elaborate civil defense
system, which is based on the extensive civil
defense structure in use during World War
II.* The primary operational roles in this sys-
tem are assigned to existing agencies, groups,
and enterprises at local, regional, and national
levels, whose primary functions are other than
civil defense. Aside from the existing peace-
time resources of these agencies and groups,
however, we do not have any adequate infor-
mation as to the extent to which they have
been allocated special civil defense equipment
and resources, which would probably be essen-
tial to cope with wartime emergencies, espe-
cially from atomic attack.
2. The core of the Soviet civil defense pro-
gram, and the mechanism through which the
civil defense activities of the various agencies
and groups are centrally controlled and super-
vised, is the MPVO (Local Anti-Air Defense)
system, which is under the Ministry of Inter-
nal Affairs (MVD). A section of the MVD
headquarters in Moscow, the Main Adminis-
tration of Local Anti-Air Defense (GUMPVO)
is responsible for central supervision of MPVO
activities throughout the USSR. GUMPVO
was probably organized in 1939 or 1940 to take
over from the Red Army the coordination and
supervision of local civil air defense. Under
it is an MPVO career corps composed of full-
time MPVO personnel specially trained in
civil defense duties. Such a full-time civil
defense corps has evidently existed for at least
ten years. The MPVO corps functions as a
command and staff organization which under-
takes civil defense planning, and supervises
and coordinates at all levels the activities and
training of the various other existing agencies
The data on this subject is derived largely from
Russian and German World War II documents,
which have been extensively confirmed by more
recent information from repatriated German POW's,
Soviet defectors, Soviet professional journals, train-
ing manuals, press releases, and open Soviet litera-
ture such as Soviet encyclopedias.
5
such as local police and firefighting services,
local health and sanitation facilities, Red
Cross and Red Crescent Societies, etc. which
provide, on a part-time basis, the vast bulk
of local MPVO personnel.
3. MPVO activities generally are organized in
staffs and units composed of MVD and/or
local civilian authorities at administrative
levels descending from all-union to union-re-
public, oblast, city or rayon, and down to in-
dividual plants, institutions, and even dwelling
units. (See chart on page 6.) Through
these MPVO units, voluntary or auxiliary
groups of the civilian population can be
brought together in a coordinated effort with
existing local police and firefighting units,
ambulance and rescue units, medical facilities,
and the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
Moreover, the peacetime MPVO units them-
selves represent nuclei which can be expanded
or around which new units can be formed in
event of war, in accordance with existing pre-
determined plans.
4. MPVO Organization of a City or Rayon.
The basic MPVO unit is the city or rayon
MPVO. * Local governmental and party or-
gans, economic enterprises, public organiza-
tions, and individuals within a city or rayon
are brought together for the purposes of civil
defense under the local chief of MPVO, usually
an MVD officer, and his staff. (See chart on
page 9.) The chief and his staff formulate and
carry out the plan of action for his city or
rayon, finance and direct acquisition of ma-
terial and technical operations, provide for
training of staff and public, and supervise the
operation of civil defense forces and facilities
of the city or rayon in event of war disasters.
For execution of this course of action, the city
or rayon MPVO calls upon its supporting serv-
ices which may vary according to local con-
ditions and the living requirements of a par-
ticular city or region. Various MPVO serv-
ices may be created within a variety of exist-
ing organizational structures:
** It is not clear when city-wide MPVO organiza-
tions were first formed, but they were mentioned in
Soviet documents as early as 1938.
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SOVIET ORGANIZATION FOR AIR DEFENCE WITHIN THE USSR
OTHER MINISTRIES
HEALTH
TRANSPORTATION
COMMUNiCATIONS
WITH IMPORTANT
CIVIL DEFENSE ROLES
ADMINISTRATIVE, TECHNICAL
AND OPERATIONAL CONTROL
COORDINATION AND
?????
SUPERVISORY CONTROL
COUNCIL
OF MINISTERS
"CIVIL DEFENSE"
INDUSTRIAL
MINISTRIES
LMINISTRY OF INTERNAL
AFFAIRS (MVD)
"MILITARY DEFENSE"
MINISTRY OF
WAR
NAVAL
MINISTRY
WAR MAIN ADMINISTRA COMMANDER ADMINISTRATION
TION OF LOCAL OF AIR DEFENSE
i
MOBILIZATION AIR DEFENSE ? OF AIR DEFENSE mom +1 OF NAVAL
DEPARTMENT (GUMPVO' I (KPV0)* I FORCES
AIR
DEFENSE
MVD
ADMINISTRATION
OF UNION
REPUBLICS
LOCAL
AIR DEFENSE
DIRECTORATES
(UMPV0)
MVD
ADMINISTRATION
OF KRAY OR
OBLAST
1.
LOCAL AIR DEFENSE
IN FACTORIES AND
SHOPS
*MILITARY COMMANDER OF THE PVO
HAS OVERALL COORDINATION AND
SUPERVISORY CONTROL OF AIR
DEFENSE, INCLUDING CIVIL DEFENSE
LOCAL AIR
DEFENSE
DEPARTMENT
(OMPVO)
LOCAL AIR DEFENSE
IN CITIES AND REGS,....A. ?
(MPVO GORODA
OR RAYONA)
LOCAL AIR
DEFENSE
ELEMENTS
MPVO
COMMANDERS
OF AIR DEFENSE
REGIONS
COMMANDERS
OF AIR DEFENSE
IN MILITARY
DISTRICTS
COMMANDERS
OF AIR POINTS
(TARGETS)
COMMANDERS OF
NAVAL AIR
DEFENSE DISTRICTS,
FLEETS
AND FLOTILLAS
FIGHTER
AVIATION
UNITS
ANTI-AIRCRAFT
ARTILLERY
UNITS
EARLY WARN-
ING AND
REPORTING
SERVICE UNITS
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a. The Shelter Service organizes and super-
vises the registering of cellars or other areas
of possible use as air raid shelters. It also
plans and constructs shelters, including dug-
outs and trenches, and is responsible for pro-
viding protection for the population.
b. The Camouflage Service provides for
blackout precautions, for camouflage with
paint or vegetation, and for smoke camou-
flage. The latter may be used only with the
authority of the PVO (Air Defense Force)
commander, since it may affect military oper-
ations. Camouflage measures are the respon-
sibility of all civilians, with special attention
required in each home, enterprise, school, and
office.
c. The Evacuation Service is responsible for
developing a plan for evacuation of people and
valuable goods and insuring orderly execution
of this plan should it become necessary. It
must register all living space which might be
used for quartering evacuees.
d. The Transportation Service is designed
to provide the city or rayon with emergency
transportation facilities. This includes keep-
ing transportation personnel informed about
traffic routes, adapting equipment for special
tasks, organizing and training crews of drivers
for civil defense operations, and registering
and employing all forms of transportation.
e. The Service for the Preservation of Order
and Security is built around the regular local
police force (MGB militia) augmented by
crews of auxiliary organizations, including the
Society for Assistance to the Police, which are
trained by the police. It has the following
basic missions: fighting panic and the spread-
ing of false rumors during enemy air raids,
insuring conformance of local population with
public laws and civil defense rules, isolating
stricken areas, and directing traffic. The
highly developed Soviet security services
would be of great value in coping with panic
in case of heavy air attacks.
f. The Communication and Reporting Serv-
ice of the MPVO of a city or rayon is designed
to insure communication facilities required by
the commands and staffs of MPVO for relay-
ing orders during an attack and during resto-
ration of damage. It is also responsible for
warning the city or rayon of impending air at-
tack. In this function it cooperates with the
warning system of the PVO system. Facilities
and personnel employed include local radio fa-
cilities and the local telephone network, the
chief of which may be designated as the chief
of the Communications and Reporting Serv-
ice. To fulfill its purpose the Service must
provide for the restoration and repair of com-
munications in case of damage and for the
training of civilian groups for employment as
emergency communication crews.
g. The Anti-Fire Service. The MPVO fire-
fighting service employs the existing local fire-
fighting unit of the MVD and is headed by the
chief of that unit. Its duties include training
the populace to fight large fires and to deal
with incendiary bombs, developing a fire-sig-
nalling system and familiarizing the popula-
tion of a city with it, providing for fire-preven-
tion measures, and coordinating the em-
ployment of firefighting equipment. The Fire-
fighting Service organizes, trains, and equips
auxiliary groups (Volunteer Firefighting Bri-
gades) to augment the regular units of the
MVD and trains "self-defense groups" in
apartments, houses, schools, and other estab-
lishments.
h. Anti-Chemical Defense Service is primar-
ily designed for decontamination. It trains
and directs decontamination crews and trains
the local populace in chemical warfare de-
fense. It is also responsible for providing and
maintaining decontamination materials and
equipment.
i. The Disaster Restoration Service has as
its primary function to render engineering
and technical assistance to insure the con-
tinued functioning of the city's or rayon's
services and enterprises during and after air
raids. It trains restoration brigades from the
civilian populace, in all specialties, including
the immediate removal of debris so that
MPVO crews may have access to stricken
areas.
j. The Medical-Sanitation Service (MSS
MPVO) is staffed primarily by local agencies
of the Ministry of Health. It is headed by the
director of the city or rayon health depart-
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ment or, in rural areas, by the chief of the
rural medical district. In fact, the Ministry
of Health in Moscow maintains a section de-
voted to MPVO affairs. The Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies arc also assigned roles
in the Medical Sanitation Service. The basic
purpose of this Service is to render prompt
first aid to the victims of an enemy attack.
To this end the MSS has emergency authority
to administer all civil medical institutions
within the area and to adapt them to the
needs of MPVO, and to organize stationary
and mobile facilities. Provision is made for
utilization of first aid points, decontamination
points, school buildings, club houses, theaters,
and air raid shelters. The MSS may, if neces-
sary, requisition other resources, such as
transportation facilities and, with permission
of the commanding officer, utilize the medi-
cal facilities of local military garrisons.
k. The Veterinary Service is organized to
render veterinary help for stricken animals, to
evacuate them to safe zones, and to ensure
procurement of food. On account of their
medical training, veterinarians may also ad-
minister first aid to humans.
1. Other Services than those mentioned may
be organized in large cities, for example, for
the restoration of roads and bridges, water
supply and sewage disposal, electric and gas
utilities, trade, food supply, etc.
5. Smaller Units of MPVO. Subordinate to
the city or rayon MPVO are sectors
(uchastki), and the MPVO's of special indus-
trial targets. Sector units are divisions of the
city or rayon MPVO which can operate semi-
independently to meet emergencies within
their own area. Below the sector is the small-
est MPVO unit, the "self-defense group,"
which is formed within each dwelling unit, en-
terprise, or institution which comprises 100 or
more people. Where dwellings or enterprises
comprise less than 100 people, they are
grouped together to form the "self-defense
group." These groups have their own MPVO
chiefs who are subordinate to the MPVO sec-
tor chief, and have six sub-units, similar to the
city MPVO services, for observation and com-
munication, decontamination, fire protection,
preservation of order, disaster restoration, and
medical aid. The organization of these
smaller units is arranged so that duties as-
signed to their members do not conflict with
duties which these members may have with
respect to one of the services of the city or
rayon MPVO.
6. Factories and other establishments of great
economic or defense importance which are
likely targets have special MPVO organiza-
tions. The MPVO chief at these targets is the
director of the enterprise or establishment.
Most industrial or economic ministries appar-
ently have their own War Mobilization depart-
ments which, among other things, supervise
MPVO preparations in the various installa-
tions and factories under their control. Op-
erationally, however, the factory MPVO chief
is subordinate to the chief of the city or rayon
MPVO. The primary mission of a target
MPVO is to insure the uninterrupted and
proper continuation of the activity under at-
tack. This includes the protection of the labor
force, machines, finished products, and raw
materials. Crews of the MPVO services men-
tioned above are organized within the target
MPVO unit, including staff, decontamination,
disaster restoration, fire protection, medical,
veterinary aid (when animals are present),
and order and security. MPVO medical bri-
gades are organized from the workers em-
ployed at factories and other enterprises.
Several reports indicate that factory workers
have been receiving training in air raid
defense.
7. The Soviet rail network has its own well-
organized air raid defense program which ties
into the MPVO system. The Railway Admin-
istration of the Ministry of Transportation in-
cludes an Air Defense Service with air defense
inspectors in the operating departments. Pro-
vision is made for camouflage and dispersal at
stations and other important installations,
protection of rolling stock from air attack,
and dealing with air raid damage. There is
evidence that a railway air defense plan is
ready to go into effect upon receipt of coded
notification of war. The numerous well-
trained and organized railway repair brigades
already used in the USSR would be of major
civil defense value.
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ORGANIZATION OF THE MPVO IN A CITY OR REGION
SERVICES
(SLUZHBA)
CAMOUFLAGE
ANTI-FIRE
MEDICAL
DISASTER -
RESTORATION
CHEMICAL
WARFARE
PRESERVATION
OF ORDER
AND SECURITY
SHELTER
COMMUNICATIONS
AND AIR RAID
TRANSPORTATION
EVACUATION
OTHERS
VETERINARY
RESTORATION OF
ROADS AND
BRIDGES
WATER SUPPLY
AND SEWAGE
DISPOSAL
ELECTRIC AND
GAS FACILITIES
TRADE
FOOD SUPPLY
CITY OR REGION MPVO
(MPVO GORODA OR RAYONA)
STAFF (SHTAB)
1-3
0
SECTOR MPVO
(MPVO UCHASTOK)
STAFF (SHTAB)
TARGET MPVO
(MPVO OB'EKTA)
STAFF (SHTAB)
CREWS (KOMANDY)
DECONTAMINATION
FIRE PROTECTION
MEDICAL
DISASTER -
RESTORATION
PRESERVATION OF
ORDER AND
SECURITY
MPVO HOME
SMALL BUSINESS,
ETC.
MPVO (DOMOV)
STAFF (SHTAB)
CREWS (KOMANDY)
ADMINISTRATION
DECONTAMINATION
DISASTER -
RESTORATION
FIRE PROTECTION
VETERINARY AID
MEDICAL
ORDER AND
SECURITY
SHOP MPVO
(MPVO TSEKHA)
CD
tlj
tml
SELF-DEFENSE
GROUPS
(GRUPPA SAMO-
ZASHCHITY)
SECTIONS
(OTDELENIE)
DECONTAMINATION
FIRE PROTECTION
MEDICAL
PRESERVATION OF
ORDER AND
SECURITY
UNITS (ZYEN'EV)
OBSERVATION AND
COMMUNICATIONS
DECONTAMINATION
FIRE PROTECTION
PRESERVATION OF
ORDER
DISASTER -
RESTORATION
MEDICAL
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APPENDIX "B"
CIVIL DEFENSE TRAINING
1. There is abundant evidence from Soviet of-
ficial sources that the Soviet Union recognizes
that the effectiveness of civil defense opera-
tions in large measure depends upon the a-
mount of training carried on beforehand. The
civil defense training program is large and
complex, including both intensive specialized
training of the MPVO staffs and units, and
mass training through various other agencies.
Inasmuch as civil defense is part of the total
air defense system which is the responsibility
of the military Anti-Air Defense system
(PVO) , PVO officials monitor civil defense
training to see that it corresponds to over-all
defense plans. Certain categories of MPVO
training supervisors are designated by area
PVO commanders.
2. Besides the training of members of civil de-
fense units and services within the MPVO sys-
tem, mass training in the fundamentals of
civil defense is carried on by such agencies as
the Voluntary Society for Assistance to the
Army, Aviation, and Navy (DOSAAF) and the
Voluntary Societies of the Red Cross and the
Red Crescent as part of their broader func-
tions. A system of standards has been devel-
oped for the standardization of mass training.
In addition, education is provided through
propaganda channels, press, radio, and pub-
lications.
3. The rapidity with which civil defense
groups can be organized under pressure and
with systematic propaganda is illustrated by
the experience in Moscow early in World War
II. On 1 June 1941 there were 1,680 self-de-
fense groups with 40,000 participants, while on
22 July there were 5,463 groups with 120,000
participants. During the course of the war,
all people in some measure took part in MPVO
activities. Total participation was achieved
through compulsion, as provided by the de-
cree of 2 July 1941 by the Council of Ministers
of the USSR. The decree required the partici-
pation of all men between the ages of 16 and
60 and women between the ages of 18 to 50 in-
clusive, except invalids, mothers of young
10
children, and pregnant women. Training
of laborers and office workers was to take
place at their respective places of work, train-
ing of students at their schools, and training
of other civilians at their places of residence.
4. Although the decree under which wartime
civil defense mobilization was accomplished is
still in effect, it apparently has not been used
during the postwar period. Civil defense ac-
tivities declined considerably after the war.
The Soviet government is apparently attempt-
ing to overcome postwar apathy by propa-
ganda and indirect pressure rather than by
the methods of compulsion used during the
war.
5. MPVO Staff and Unit Training. The Soviet
civil defense training program puts special
stress on the training of MPVO command
staffs, on the premise that the successful
training of MPVO personnel and the organiza-
tions and agencies they supervise depends to
a large extent upon the preparation of the
staff echelon. Consequently, the training of
MPVO officer personnel occupies an important
place in the preparation of cadres for the en-
tire local defense system. According to Za
Oboronu (For Defense) ,* special attention is
given to the chiefs of city and rayon MPVO
units by means of courses supervised from the
republic level of MPVO organization. In this
training the experience of specialists who have
worked under combat conditions is utilized.
Upon completion of training, the chief MPVO
officers should be able not only to lead their
MPVO organizations but also to organize them
and to direct the training of the units under
their control.
6. In addition to their regular study programs
the MPVO officers are required to improve
their general education and to become famil-
iar with the economic, geographic, and cli-
matic peculiarities of their region, including
Za Oboronu is a bi-weekly publication, appar-
ently discontinued in 1948, of the Central Council
of the Union of OSOAVIAKhIM of the USSR and
the Main Administration of Local Anti-Air Defense
of the MVD, which was largely devoted to civil
defense.
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the plans for its development under the five-
year plans. This broad knowledge prepares
them to integrate civil defense preparations
with the development of municipal economies,
transportation, and industrial planning.
7. City- or rayon-wide MPVO instruction is
conducted under a chief supervisor, who is the
officer responsible for all MPVO education in
his area. Under him are senior intermediary
personnel and intermediary personnel. The
senior intermediaries instruct the intermedi-
aries who are then detailed to staffs, crews,
services, and institutions, to carry on training
at a lower echelon.
8. Staff and field exercises are an integral
part of MPVO training. These exercises, which
simulate actual conditions first with maps
and then on actual terrain, help to perfect
the MPVO officer's skill in handling the per-
sonnel and facilities of the local civil defense
organization. Critiques of these exercises are
employed to note the accomplishments and
shortcomings of the training and to indicate
remedial measures.
9. There were reportedly in 1948 some 1,060,-
000 local civil defense sections under the su-
pervision of the Main Administration of Local
Anti-Air Defense (GUMPVO). Since Soviet
literature has set the peacetime size of a
training group variously at 15, 18, or 20 per-
sons, the size of the civil defense organization
in training at that time, if it were at full
strength (which it probably was not) , would
have ranged from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 peo-
ple. However, 5,000,000 people reportedly re-
ceived civil defense training in 1948. If the
program has continued on this scale, at least
as many as 20,000,000 people may now have
received or be receiving civil defense training
under MPVO auspices since the war. Many of
these people probably also receive training
from other groups discussed below.
10. Civil Defense Training Standards. Civil
defense training to prepare persons for par-
ticipation in MPVO activities is built around
a set of training norms called Anti-Air-and-
Chemical Defense (PVKhO) PVKhO re-
quirements can be met through organized
study groups, such as those of DOSAAF, or
through self-study. Examinations can be con-
11
ducted by DOSAAF personnel or by personnel
of other agencies coordinated through MPVO,
depending upon the type of activity and by
whom the candidates have been trained. Per-
sons meeting the PVKhO requirements receive
certificates and are eligible for inclusion in
MPVO crews or for further specialized train-
ing for more skilled MPVO work.
11. PVKhO examinations require general
knowledge of civil defense problems, including
types of attacks likely to occur, identification
of gases, recognition of civil defense alarms,
signals, and symbols, and the general roles of
MPVO services. In anti-chemical defense the
candidate must understand the mechanism
and use of gas masks, the structure of gas-
proof shelters, how to react in contaminated
areas, and the elements of decontamination.
In medical-sanitary defense he must be able to
recognize symptoms and provide first aid, in-
cluding artificial respiration, hemorrhage
control, and transfer of injured. He must also
show knowledge of fire-control measures, in-
cendiary bombs, and use of fire extinguishers.
12. There is also a GS0 (Ready for Medical-
Sanitary Defense) training standard which
serves as the basis for the training of lay med-
ical personnel functioning as part of or along
with the Red Cross or the MPVO medical serv-
ices. A junior version of this standard, the
BGSO, is employed for Komsomols (Commu-
nist Union of Youth) , Pioneers, and other
youth organizations. During World War II
reportedly 23,000,000 people fulfilled GSO
standards.
13. DOSAAF Training. The Society for As-
sistance to the Army, Aviation, and Navy
(DOSAAF) is a mass organization whose prin-
cipal purposes are to acquaint the population
with the various fields of modern warfare,
to provide civilians with pre-military instruc-
tions, and to strengthen the defenses of the
country by extensive organizations of public
opinion behind the defense program. Histori-
cally DOSAAF has grown out of the former
Union of Societies for Assistance to the De-
fense and to Aviation and Chemical Construc-
tion of the USSR (OSOAVIAKhIM) which,
according to Soviet statistics, provided during
the last war for the instruction of 98,000,000
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persons in passive anti-air defense. Mass civil
defense training in the USSR probably goes
back as far as 1927, when OSOAVIAKhIM was
first organized. OSOAVIAKhIM was reorgan-
ized after the war into three new societies:
The Voluntary Societies for Assistance to the
Army, Navy, and Aviation (DOSARM, DOS-
FLOT, and DOSAV, respectively). Since the
last reorganization, large increases in mem-
bership have been announced. DOSAAF re-
ceives important support from the Communist
Party, especially the Communist Union of
Youth (Komsomol) , the sports societies, and
the trade unions, whose members are often
obliged to participate in DOSAAF activities.
14. It is estimated that about 16,000,000 peo-
ple participate in the activities of DOSAAF.
Although DOSAAF is concerned primarily
with pre-military training and other activities
which supplement the armed forces, it is also
concerned with training for and propagandiz-
ing civil defense preparations to prepare the
population for action during air raids.*
15. Primary DOSAAF organizations are
formed in factories, institutions, collective and
state farms, machine tractor stations, and
schools. The primdry groups affiliate them-
selves with the city or rayon, oblast, and re-
public societies. Membership is open to citi-
zens between the ages of about 15 and 60.
Material provision, including equipment, for
training in city or rayon groups is the re-
sponsibility of the city or rayon Soviet (coun-
cil) . Groups in enterprises and institutions
are supported by the ministry or administra-
tion of which they are a part.
16. DOSAAF Radio Clubs. A civil defense role
is also apparently assigned to the numerous
radio clubs which are subsidiary to DOSAAF.
Most of their activities have been conducted
in conjunction with that part of the organiza-
tion which was formerly DOSARM. The ac-
tivities of the radio clubs have increased
greatly since the war and are currently ex-
panding. This expansion probably reflects, at
least in part, Soviet recognition of the contri-
* Patriot Rodiny, a hi-weekly newspaper published
by DOSAAF, which may have replaced Za Oboronu,
contains details of DOSAAF civil defense training.
12
bution which a large body of persons familiar
with radio techniques can make to national
defense, including civil defense. In an area
under attack, especially in the case of the fail-
ure of the telephone system, portable radio
communication would be almost indispensa-
ble. Widely scattered amateur radio operators
could also form an important link in the air-
craft warning system and, in time of emer-
gency, might be employed to relieve the over-
loaded normal communication networks.
17. Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
(SOKKIKP). A major civil defense role is
also played by the Volunteer Societies of the
Red Cross, or the Red Crescent in Moslem
areas, whose medical, sanitary, and first aid
activities affect large masses of the popula-
tion. Their functions include not only a well-
developed system of training but also forming
and managing groups which perform particu-
lar tasks connected with public health and
with sanitary and first aid aspects of military
and civil defense operation.
18. The Societies of the Red Cross and the Red
Crescent had an estimated membership of
over 15,000,000 in 1948 (comparable to their
highest enrollment in World War II) . As in
the case of DOSAAF, primary units (250,000
in 1946) are found throughout the country in
such locations as factories, collective farms,
and schools. The primary units are controlled
by committees on the rayon level which in
turn are under the jurisdiction of city or oblast
committees. Central control of the SOKKIKP
is assured by its further organization up
through Union-Republic and All-Union Com-
mittees.
19. The wide dispersion of the primary units
of the SOKKIKP enhances their effectiveness
in many functions concerned with public
health and civil defense. The Societies' pri-
mary units assist the civil and military health
authorities in such programs as innoculation
against diseases, better sanitation and hy-
giene, and the collection of blood donations.
Also, the primary units comprise first aid sta-
tions and teams trained in decontamination
procedures and in the care and evacuation of
the injured in time of disaster. As partially
trained groups, the primary units form a con-
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venient and important part of the Medical-
Sanitary Service of the MPVO system.
20. To maintain its own operating units and
to increase interest in and knowledge of medi-
cal and sanitary measures among the popula-
tion, the SOKKIKP conducts a large and ef-
fective mass education program. Persons sat-
isfying GS() (Ready for Medical-Sanitary De-
fense) standards become qualified to serve in
various types of units under the SOKKIKP
13
and in the civil defense system of the MPVO.
The MPVO must then further train such per-
sons and the units to which they belong to
function efficiently within the civil defense
system. While medical and sanitation train-
ing is also conducted by the Ministries of
Health and by DOSAAF, the Societies of the
Red Cross and the Red Crescent are the most
important source of mass medical and sani-
tary assistance in time of emergency.
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APPENDIX "C"
PREPARATION AGAINST SPECIAL WEAPONS
ATTACKS
1. Defense against Atomic Attack. It is not
clear from available evidence that the USSR
is making any specific preparations for civil
defense against atomic weapons. There is no
visible attempt to improve shelter areas and
other facilities specifically for atomic defense
purposes. On the other hand, there have been
unconfirmed reports of construction and reno-
vation of underground installations, and in-
vestigation of the capacity of tunnels to with-
stand explosion. Moreover, there are various
indications that preparations are underway
which contribute indirectly to Soviet capabili-
ties for meeting such attacks. Most of the
emergencies contemplated in Soviet civil de-
fense planning are those resulting from air
raids, and the preparations being made would
be of use in both atomic and conventional at-
tacks. It is probable that the USSR is pre-
paring for atomic defense in its broader civil
defense measures. For example, preparations
for civil defense against chemical warfare are
to some degree adaptable to atomic attack,
particularly the medical and decontamination
facilities. All Soviet internal propaganda con-
stantly reiterates statements minimizing the
effects of atomic attack and there is appar-
ently little popular anxiety over the conse-
quences of atomic bombing. One motive for
such minimizing might be to reduce the pos-
sibility of panic immediately preceding or dur-
ing atomic attacks.
2. Defense against Chemical Attack. It is
known that from 1927 through the immediate
post-World War II period, OSOAVIAKhIM
widely disseminated information regarding de-
fense against chemical attack. The training
program for defense against chemical and
air attack thoroughly covered the various ele-
ments of civil defense against chemical war-
fare. Despite the subsequent reorganizations
of OSOAVIAKhIM and its successors, the
same program has probably been retained. At
least 151/2 million Soviet citizens, including
medical and other specialized personnel, prin-
cipally in urban areas, have been trained at
some time since World War II in chemical
warfare defense. This group, with a minimum
of retraining, would provide an effective nu-
cleus for the extension of civilian chemical
warfare defense training in the USSR.
3. Soviet military chemical defense equipment
is believed to be adequate; it is conventional in
quality and design. It is not known, however,
to what extent Soviet civil organizations have
been supplied with this equipment, either for
training or for use in case of attack.
4. Defense against Biological Attack. The
well-developed Soviet research and develop-
ment activities and experience in control of
natural diseases of man, livestock, or crops
create an existing capability for defense
against biological warfare (BW) attack of
many kinds, since diseases resulting from BW
are likely to differ only in degree, not in type,
from those of natural origin. This capability
is increased by the availability of professional
and nonprofessional personnel and by the
apparent linking of a reported Anti-Epidemic
Service in the Ministry of Health with local
civil defense plans. Although there is no con-
vincing evidence that Soviet efforts to improve
their control over human, plant, and animal
diseases have been affected either in intensity
or direction by fear of BW, it seems likely that
their fight against diseases of whatever origin
must have been stimulated and accelerated by
their notorious fear of sabotage.
5. Although the USSR has made propaganda
claims that the Western Powers are using BW
in Korea, there are no specific indications that
specific BW defense training is currently un-
derway. The USSR may be relying upon its
regular medical, veterinary, and phytopatho-
logical services as sufficient to care for any
I3W emergency. Moreover, Soviet civil de-
fense preparations for defense against chemi-
cal warfare also are somewhat adaptable to
biological attack, especially the medical and
decontamination facilities.
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APPENDIX "D"
OTHER ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES BEARING
ON CIVIL DEFENSE
1. The ultimate effectiveness of Soviet civil
defenses in an emergency will largely depend
upon the capabilities or limitations of the re-
sources at their disposal. These resources in-
clude the regular public service agencies, such
as health, transportation, firefighting, police,
communications, construction, and others.
The effectiveness of Soviet civil defense opera-
tions will also be governed by the country's
economic production capacity, which will limit
the supply of equipment or emergency re-
serves. Other limitations are imposed by geog-
raphy and population distribution and by
the extent to which civil defense needs are
taken into account in city, regional, or indus-
trial construction planning. All of the above
factors are apparently taken into account in
the Soviet civil defense program, and plans for
the integrated use of all available resources in
event of emergency undoubtedly exist.
2. Police and Firefighting Resources. The
highly developed police services under the
Ministry of State Security (MGB) form an ef-
ficient military organization, whose uniformed
police are normally responsible for law en-
15
forcement, regulation of order and public
safety, and protection of public and private
property. In an emergency, these forces
would have extensive capabilities for enforcing
laws, maintaining order, and warning the
population. The firefighting system, like the
MPVO, is part of the MVD. Although proper
equipment is often lacking, the system is well-
organized. The fact that both firefighting
and MPVO are part of the same administra-
tive network provides for close coordination of
the two activities.
3. Medical Resources. The large and complex
facilities of the Ministry of Health, which con-
trols all aspects of medicine and sanitation in
the USSR, are closely integrated with the
MPVO system. Although the quality of its
hospitals, drug supplies, and medical person-
nel are inadequate and sometimes even primi-
tive by US standards, the Ministry of Health
has expanded remarkably in recent years, pri-
marily in quantity of personnel and facilities.
While these facilities vary from one locality to
another, the USSR is by no means impover-
ished of medical facilities, as can be seen by
comparison of numbers of hospital beds in the
USSR with those in the US:
Number of Hospital Beds Available
Country & Population
Year
Non-Psychiatric
Psychiatric
USSR (est. 1947 popula-
1941
661,431 beds
100,000 beds
tion about 193 million)
1950
387,500 beds (est.)
US (1950 population
about 151 million)
1948
732,021 beds
691,499 beds
In addition, in recent years schoolhouses
suitable for emergency conversion to hospitals
have been built in locations which fit civil de-
fense planning. Improvement of ambulance
services also has been stressed. Although the
USSR is short of well-qualified M.D.'s, it has
many subprofessional medical personnel
(feldshers) who are trained to perform ele-
mentary diagnosis and treatment and minor
surgery.
4. Most pharmaceuticals are kept in central
supply depots and distribution is controlled
centrally. In case of war, priorities in favor of
military needs would probably lessen reserves
available for civilian defense purposes to such
an extent as to make certain drugs unobtain-
able. Increasing production, however, indi-
cates a more favorable pharmaceutical situa-
tion by 1954. With respect to blood plasma
and blood substitutes, although no stockpiling
is evident, the USSR is known, from its World
War II experience, to have a large capacity
for obtaining and processing and distributing
whole blood.
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5. Transportation Resources. In recent years,
attempts have been made to improve the So-
viet vehicular facilities, in quality as well as
quantity. Motorcycles and trucks have re-
portedly been made available to MPVO and
DOSAAF, although to what extent the supply
meets the needs is not known. Aircraft of the
Civil Air Fleet of the USSR has, on occasion,
been withdrawn from commercial service to
meet emergency needs and could form a part
of civil defense transportation. Specialized
medical aviation services are currently oper-
ated by some units of the Civil Air Fleet to fly
medical personnel and supplies to remote
areas and to transport patients to hospitals
by ambulance plane.
6. Stockpiling. In postwar years, the USSR
has undertaken an extensive stockpiling pro-
gram, with special attention to the construc-
tion of storage and maintenance facilities, in-
cluding underground space. Although no
stockpiles have been identified as being spe-
cifically set aside for civil defense pur-
poses, the following items of importance
to civil defense needs are known to be
subject to reserve: fuels, tools, air defense
and sanitary equipment, chemical equip-
ment, automotive equipment, communica-
tions equipment, illuminating and signal sup-
plies, rope, anti-friction compounds, heat in-
sulation materials, asphalt, cement, etc.
There are indications of static reserves of
pharmaceuticals and medical supplies.
7. Protective Construction. Present shelter
facilities in the USSR consist primarily of
those which remain from World War II. The
audible warning systems and designations of
shelter areas in large cities have not been re-
moved, but there is no evidence that these f a-
cilities are being renovated or prepared for
use. There are numerous reports, however, of
provision for shelter facilities in new construc-
tion. Dwelling construction specifications in
some areas, such as Stalingrad, include provi-
sion for shelters. Some new shelter areas are
also being provided by new structures and in-
16
stallations which can be used as auxiliary air
raid shelters or which have been constructed
with that as a secondary purpose. Auxiliary
shelters include subways, railroad and other
tunnels, mines, cement bunkers, aqueducts
and sewer pipes, cellars, and bridge abut-
ments. Tunnels dug recently in Moscow for
subway expansion and for other vehicular
traffic were probably built with civil defense
needs in mind. Special bombproof and gas-
proof shelters reportedly exist for use of key
government officials in Moscow.
8. Evidently civil defense needs are taken into
account in much of the new construction in
the USSR. Construction agencies maintain
close liaison with military organizations by
regularly retaining defense specialists (prob-
ably members of MPVO). The duty of these
specialists is to monitor construction plans
from the point of view of defense. Monitoring
consists of preventing, where possible, the
concentration of industrial plants and railway
facilities. In the planning of schools, the de-
fense specialist considers their possible use as
emergency hospitals or barracks. He also
tries to insure the location of hospitals at the
edges of towns.
9. Civil defense needs are probably also taken
into account in Soviet long range urban and
regional planning. The development of agree-
ments between regions for mutual aid and
sharing of equipment in event of emergency is
apparently contemplated. Unconfirmed re-
ports also indicate the existence of a plan for
the emergency decentralization of Soviet ad-
ministration into regional subsections. In the
event of the loss of communication with the
central government, these subsections could
carry on all necessary central direction of the
area. The focal points of these subsections are
probably the Union-Republic Councils of Min-
isters and other existing local governments.
In an emergency these bodies would report-
edly assume authority over war industry and
supply centers in their areas.
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