ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ILLICIT NARCOTICS CULTIVATION: AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY USING REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP98-00500R000200180006-5
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 35
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 1, 2012
• Sequence Number: 6
• Publication Date: July 1, 1987
• Content Type: REPORT

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PSR Eaton White Paper
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ILLICIT NARCOTICS CULTIVATION:
AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY USING REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY
ET'N
R. W. Podmilsak and W. A. Hallada
July 1987
Submitted to:
Lloyd Armstead
U.S. Department of State
International Narcotics Matters
Washington, D.C.
PACIFIC-SIERRA RESEARCH CORPORATION
1401 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1100 ? Arlington, Virginia 22209 ? [phone]
A Subsidiary of Eaton Corporation
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PSR Eaton White Paper
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ILLICIT NARCOTICS CULTIVATION:
AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY USING REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY
:
EI?N
R. W. Podmi l sak and W. A. Hal l ada
July 1987
Submitted to:
Lloyd Armstead
U.S. Department of State
International Narcotics Matters
Washington, D.C.
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CONTENTS
Section Page
PROGRAM OBJECTIVES ................................ 1
BACKGROUND ........................................ 1
Tropical forest environment ..................... 2
Marijuana cultivation ........................... 2
Coca cultivation ................................ 4
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING TO TROPICAL
DEFORESTATION ..................................... 6
METHODOLOGY ....................................... 7
Literature review ............................... 7
Scientific study ................................ 9
Field work ...................................... 9
Land surface characterization ................... 12
Computerized data compilation ................... 14
Stratified multistage sampling approach ......... 18
DELIVERABLES ...................................... 21
SCHEDULE .......................................... 22
RESUMES OF PROPOSED TEAM .......................... 22
PSR Eaton staff ................................. 22
Consultants ..................................... 24
CORPORATE CAPABILITIES AND FACILITIES ............. 28
Security ........................................ 28
Library services ................................ 28
Image processing ................................ 29
Publications .................................... 29
Appendix
A. FIELD DATA SAMPLE FORM FOR MARIJUANA
CULTIVATION AREA .............................. A-1
B. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... B-1
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PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
This paper outlines a research program designed to evaluate and
quantify the extent of tropical rain forest destruction by the culti-
vation of narcotics in three specific regions of Latin America and
the Caribbean, namely Jamaica, Northern Colombia, and Peru's Upper
Huallaga River Valley. As a minimum, the program will have the
following specific objectives:
1. Assess both the short- and long-term environmental impact
of extensive clearing of tropical forests for the purpose
of narcotics cultivation
2. Estimate the extent of deforestation that is a result of
narcotics cultivation
3. Scientifically quantify the extent of environmental
damage caused by narcotics cultivation
4. Extrapolate data to predict future damage.
To begin this investigation, the PSR Eaton team will conduct a
comprehensive and current review of related environmental studies.
Building on the results of this review, we will investigate the
environmental effects of deforestation, such as loss of forests,
fishery resources, soil nutrients, watershed, and agriculture, and
determine how much damage results from narcotics cultivation. Two
major techniques will be used: field sampling and remote sensing. To
aid in collecting and handling data, we propose to use a unique
transportable computerized data collection and processing system,
which we have used successfully since early 1986.
BACKGROUND
Significant narcotics cultivation of marijuana and coca is
occurring in the Caribbean country of Jamaica; in the Central American
countries of Mexico and Belize; and in the South American countries of
Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. In these countries there has also been
an alarming increase in the cutting down of the tropical forests. It
is not known how much of this deforested land is being cut down to
cultivate narcotics, but for some areas it is suspected to be
substantial.
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To assess the extent of damage from cultivation of narcotics, it
is necessary to understand (1) the tropical forest environment and
(2) the combined environmental impact of deforestation and cultivation
of both marijuana and coca.
Tropical Forest Environment
Because of abundant rainfall and warm temperatures, countries such
as Peru, Colombia, and Jamaica are characterized by growth of tropical
forest or selva, a vegetation type unexcelled for luxuriance of tree
growth and number of species. Broadleaf trees rise to heights of 30
to 45 m forming a dense leaf canopy through which little sunlight can
reach the ground.
Unique species of small forest animals make their homes in the
tropical forests, taking advantage of the continuous forest canopy for
living and traveling. Birds, too, are numerous in species. Actually,
the lushness is deceptive. Created only by the abundance of moisture,
it belies an essential poverty of the soil.
The dampness and high temperature combine to produce a rich growth
of bacteria, insects, earthworms, and other organisms that break down
the organic material and also aerate the soil. In these warm
temperatures, the vigorous bacteria in the upper soil layer consume
virtually all dead vegetation. Therefore, humus is almost entirely
absent on well-drained sites.
With copious rainfall and high temperatures, chemical processes
are continuously active on the rocks and soils in these regions.
Leaching out of all soluble constituents from the deeply decayed rock
results in a distinctive type of soil, termed latosol. It is reddish
or yellowish and often contains irregular nodules of reddish iron
hydroxides. These have been left behind in the soil after the soluble
minerals have been carried down through the soil and into the streams
and rivers. Large concentrations of iron, manganese, or aluminum
minerals occurring as layers in the soil are termed laterite.
Laterite soils are not fertile once cleared of the forest cover. The
complex interaction of living and decaying forest plant matter is what
maintains the soil's fertility in these ecosystems.
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Marijuana Cultivation
Cultivating marijuana is similar to cultivating alfalfa. The crop
is grown in plots and is harvested many times. These plots are often
small with uniform plant cover. Unlike coca, marijuana provides
complete surface cover during its growth cycle. Because of its high
density, it has the potential to deplete the soil's nutrients very
fast, particularly on the tropical lateritic soil that is common in
Jamaica and northern Colombia. Some experts contend that marijuana
cultivation in some of the mountainous areas of Jamaica and northern
Colombia can be done for a limited number of years before the ground
is depleted of nutrients. More than half of the marijuana smuggled
into the United States originates in Colombia and Jamaica.
Marijuana Cultivation in Jamaica. Jamaica is judged to be the
third largest U.S. supplier of marijuana, after Colombia and Mexico.
In 1984--the most recent estimate---approximately 14 percent of the
U.S. marijuana supply originated in Jamaica. At this time over 3000
hectares were used for cannabis cultivation. The crops are usually
planted in January and June and peak harvesting takes place in May and
October. Because of the favorable climate, some cultivation and
harvesting occur year-round. Field sizes range from a high of
5 hectares on broad slopes to a low of .2 hectares on rugged terrain.
Although commercial grade cannabis is cultivated throughout Jamaica
the most extensive plantings are believed to be in the parishes of
St. Elizabeth, Westmoreland, and Cornwall.
The cultivation of marijuana has been extensively expanded in the
more remote areas of Cornwall county in western Jamaica. Some of the
largest expansion of marijuana cultivation is occurring in the Cockpit
Country of Westmoreland Parish. The Cockpits are large, steep-sided
hollows, which are common wherever limestone bedrock occurs. The
Cockpits of Jamaica receive between 250 and 500 cm of rain a year.
Therefore, these areas have a complex forest ecosystem. The limestone
is very porous and highly soluble in rainwater. Carbon dioxide and
other acids in the water dissolve the limestone and wear it away,
carving out deep hollows separated by sharp ridges. This creates a
wild and very distinctive landscape, which is called karst. Since the
porous nature of the limestone causes rainwater to sink immediately
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into cracks and sink-holes, surface streams are almost completely
absent.
The rugged broken nature of the Cockpit Country makes communica-
tions almost impossible. These remote areas now offer protection to
narcotics growers from government eradication efforts.
Deforestation of the Cockpit Country could have devastating
effects on the Jamaican ecosystem. The cutting down of forests has
already had a bad effect on farming in many areas. The roots of trees
bind the soil together, and the leaves stop the rain from falling
directly onto the soil. When there are no trees, the rain falls
directly onto the soil and erodes it more easily. Water also runs
more quickly over the exposed soil into streams and rivers to cause
more frequent floods. The silted water can also destroy the fisheries
and reefs along the coasts of Jamaica. Such advanced stages of
environmental degradation have already occurred in Haiti. If left to
continue on its present course, Jamaica could be the next Haiti.
Marijuana Cultivation in Colombia. The Santa Marta and Perij
Mountain area of northeastern Colombia has traditionally been the
major marijuana growing region. Colombia has two major harvests:
from March to May and from September to November. The latter crop is
more abundant since it follows the rainy season. Peak harvesting
generally lasts 2 to 3 months because of staggered planting and
maturation. Commercial-scale cannabis fields are planted on mountain
sides and in canyons generally at an altitude of 900 to 2200 m. Thick
jungle growth camouflages illicit cultivation, and growers also
conceal cannabis among legitimate crops.
The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) estimated that in Colombia about
10,000 to 13,000 hectares were under cultivation in 1984. Each hec-
tare can produce about 1/2 ton per year based on two harvests.
Although as already indicated, there are distinct growing seasons,
harvesting marijuana is becoming almost continuous, with the highest
level still occurring in the fall.
In Colombia, usually the land used to grow marijuana is owned by
individual farmers who are paid a price for the harvest; however, some
marijuana smugglers own their own land.
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Coca Cultivation
Growing coca is in essence like growing grapes. Because the roots
need to be well aerated and cannot tolerate high soil moisture con-
ditions, coca is grown on slopes at the higher and drier elevations
in the tropics. It is probably a safe assumption that nearly all
cultivation on Andean mountain slopes is almost certainly coca. Coca
producers select remote mountainous slopes, cut down the timber with
chain saws, and burn the toppled trees. About a year later the coca
producers return to the slopes and plant their coca seedlings, which
are already about 6 months to 1 year old. In the meantime, the moun-
tainous slopes--comprised of lateritic soils--are laid bare to the
erosion and nutrient depletion caused by heavy rains. The coca is
planted in rows in holes the size of coffee cans about 1 meter apart
down the mountain slope. The coca plants are very hardy. Grasses
grow between the plants, holding the soil in place; fertilizers are
increasingly used by the local growers to maintain the soil fertility.
There are about 10,000 plants per hectare that will produce about 1
metric ton of coca leaves per year. Harvesting can vary from 3 to 4
times per year, but usually will not begin for at least the first 18
months after transplanting. For some areas in Peru, there is evidence
that if a coca field is properly managed, it can be productive for as
long as 30 years. If cultivation is not properly managed, the
devastation in these areas can be significant, resulting in
irreversible damage to the environment.
Peru is one of the two major producers of coca leaves. Estimates
of coca under cultivation range as high as 120,000 hectares. This
occurs mainly in the Departments of Huanuco and San Martin in the
Upper Huallaga Valley of the Andes. The potential growing areas for
coca in Peru are immense, stretching nearly 1600 km north to south in
a belt of land on the eastern slopes of the Andes about 80 km in
width. This may be the biggest coca growing zone in the world.
Most of the processing of coca into cocaine still occurs in
Colombia; however, processing in Bolivia is increasing. Apparently
little or no processing of coca into cocaine occurs in Peru because of
the unavailability of chemicals to refine the coca paste into cocaine.
Therefore, Peru must transport its processed coca paste to Colombia
for refining.
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APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING TO TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
A number of remote sensing investigations have been conducted to
assess the potential of using satellite-acquired data to monitor the
world's forest resources. Most of these investigations concentrate on
the tropical rainforests of the Amazon Basin (R. Nelson et al., 1987;
Woodwell et al., 1987, Woodwell, 1984). As is well known, current
estimates of deforestation applicable to large areas are notoriously
variable (J. Allen and D. Barnes, Annals of the Association of
American Geographers, 1987).
The objectives of past remote sensing investigations have been the
development of techniques to estimate the rates of deforestation in
selective regions through the use of satellite imagery. The long-term
objective of this proposed study is to estimate how much the cultiva-
tion of narcotics is contributing to tropical deforestation in
Jamaica, Colombia, and Peru.
Past investigations have shown that the rate of deforestation can
be measured using Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and Thematic
Mapper (TM) data, Space Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR-A and -B), Large
Format Camera, and NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR). Another sensor with high potential for investigating
tropical deforestation is the French SPOT multispectral sensor.
There are many problems that make the identification of coca or
marijuana using remote sensing technologies a difficult task. The
variation in harvesting times of coca farmers makes the use of single-
data analysis extremely inaccurate and the development of
spectral/temporal profiles nearly impossible.
In addition to temporal problems associated with coca identifica-
tion, the spatial resolution of the Landsat-type MSS and TM instru-
ments (80 m and 30 m respectively) is inadequate for the field sizes
typically found. Another problem is cloud cover. The regions used
for marijuana and coca cultivation are often obscured by clouds. The
pointability of SPOT increases the sensors revisit times to frequen-
cies of every 4 days, much better than the 16 days needed for Landsat.
There is some reason for optimism, however. The row spacing of
coca in particular is similar to that of vineyards. Given the higher
spatial resolution (10 m) of the SPOT panchromatic band, some experts
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assert that the row direction of coca could aid the identification
process. By using digital enhancement techniques and by coupling the
spatial information with the multispectral and multitemporal imagery,
terrain data, and field surveys, an accurate inventory of coca
cultivation via remote sensing could become a reality.
METHODOLOGY
This section describes PSR Eaton's approach to the proposed study.
It details our plans and already completed work toward the literature
survey. It describes the proposed teams, preparation, and field work.
It details how we plan to use multispectral imagery to assess the
extent and causes of deforestation. Finally, it explains how we will
use--in the field and elsewhere--a transportable computerized data
collection and evaluation system. It gives a tentative schedule and
tells what we propose as final deliverables.
Literature Review
The literature review will cover the following topics:
? Narcotics Cultivation of
-
-
Coca
Marijuana
? Tropical Deforestation
-
Remote sensing measurement
-
Ecological changes
--
soil fertility
--
watersheds
--
hydrology
--
wildlife
--
meterology/microclimatology
-
Economic impact
-- agriculture
-- lumbering
-- river transportation
? Country specific studies
- Jamaica
- Peru
- Colombia
Library Services. PSR Eaton's senior technical librarian
Ms. Celia Griffin, will perform a comprehensive literature search.
She regularly uses several on-line computer databases--both government
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and commercial: DROL's produced by the Defense Technical Information
Center (DTIC), covering government-sponsored research in all technical
fields since 1953; and DIALOG, ORBIT, and NEXIS, which together access
over 250 separate databases. Recently she has compiled bibliographies
on such subjects as multispectral image processing, narcotics traffic
in South America and Latin America, narcotics legislation , narcotics
and drug detection by dogs.
For the proposed project, the search will concentrate in DROLs and
on several DIALOG files, such as Environmental Bibliography and AGRIS
International. Ms. Griffin has already begun work on compiling a
select bibliography (See Appendix B).
All of the databases allow reference searches under single or
multiple-word subject term, author, or title. Many of the databases
allow searching via corporate author, publication date, or journal
title. The data bases primarily index journal articles, but some
index books, conference papers, patents, government-sponsored reports,
or congressional documents.
Additional Sources. We will draw heavily upon the extensive
library holdings in various private, government, and international
organizations. The libraries at the Agency for International
Development, the World Bank, the Smithsonian, and the United Nations
are especially rich in data on tropical forests. An excellent source
of data in each host country to be studied will be the U.S. State
Department Narcotics Assistance Unit. For example, the narcotics unit
in Lima, Peru, is quite active in collecting and studying the coca
phenomena in Peru. Useful data already collected, mapped, and auto-
mated could be made available to PSR Eaton. This data includes recent
aerial surveys of the narcotics growing region.
The Peruvian aerial survey includes 10,000 km2 of the Upper
Huallaga Valley mapped at 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 courtesy of the
National Photographic Survey Unit of the Peruvian Air Force. None of
this data has been correlated with Landsat TM or SPOT imagery, which
of course would be one of our objectives.
Within each country resident DEA personnel would also be excellent
sources of information. The DEA country office in Lima, Peru, for
example is comprised of seven individuals.
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We will also make full use of local national sources. For
example, in Peru the University de Selva (Jungle University) in Tingo
Maria is a source of much data concerning narcotics cultivation.
Sources there are known to have gathered much data relevant to our
study.
Each host country also maintains scientific research stations
dedicated to understanding the tropical rain forest and the economic
and sociological costs of their destruction. Key among such institu-
tions is the La Selva Biological Station for Tropical Studies in Costa
Rica.
Scientific Study
PSR Eaton proposes that a 6-month study be conducted to assess the
environmental impact of large-scale narcotics cultivation.
The problem of quantifying the long-term ecological effects of
narcotics-related deforestation can be divided into two parts. The
first is to determine the environmental effects of deforestation on
the ecosystem through time for the types of ecosystems in which mari-
juana and coca are grown. The second is to access the amount of
deforestation caused by the expansion of narcotics cultivation and,
thus, determine the contribution of narcotics cultivation to the rates
of deforestation in each country. Our approach will lay the necessary
ground work to predict the environmental impact caused by current
rates of deforestation in areas of narcotics cultivation and any
future expansion of narcotics cultivation in each country for the
next, 5, 10, or 15 years.
We will carry out an ecological study to assess the environmental
impact of the cultivation of marijuana in Jamaica, marijuana in
Colombia, and coca in Peru. The most immediate effects are the
contribution to the destruction of tropical forests, the removal of
valuable land from potential agricultural production, and the destruc-
tion of the natural ecosystem of a tropical forest. Other effects
include the destruction of fisheries, coral reefs, sedimentation, and
flooding.
Field Work
Field Teams. PSR Eaton has tentatively identified a team of
experts in tropical ecology, field data collection, and remote sensing
-9-
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technology. This unique combination of skills will be used to
evaluate the effects of tropical deforestation for the purpose of
narcotics cultivation. Our team will consist of outside consultants
who are experts in the ecology of tropical forests and problems asso-
ciated with deforestation in Jamaica, Colombia, and Peru. Each team
member brings special knowledge or experience doing field work and
remote sensing investigations in these countries. State Department,
DEA, and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) experts on marijuana and
coca cultivation will be used to help focus the investigation to key
problem areas.
Each of our three field teams will consist of two to three experts
who together will conduct the investigation within each country. Each
team will consist of (1) an expert on the ecology of the particular
country; (2) a remote sensing expert; and (3) a narcotics expert. The
first team members will vary for each country; however, the second and
third team members may well be the same for all three countries. Two
visits to each country are anticipated.
Preliminary Work. To lend efficiency to the process of gathering
field data, a number of operations will be initiated before actual
field activities begin. These preliminary activities include the pre-
selection of sample sites by use of satellite and aerial photographs,
stratification of the study areas into unique ecosystems, notation of
prominent surface features for location of sample sites within each
strata, concentration of sites whenever possible, use of locally
available aerial photographs or maps, and assembling of sample site
packages consisting of questionnaires. (See sample questionnaire in
Appendix A.) Doing such preliminary work will permit better use of
time in the field and ensure that similar quality and quantities of
data are gathered in each country.
Field Travel. The first trip to each country will be of 10
working days duration and will be used for site selection and
familiarization. This trip will be designed to understand the
logistics of each location, to select study sites, and to meet with
key government, university, and scientific experts on tropical
deforestation, land use planning, agricultural expansion, remote
sensing, and narcotics control. PSR Eaton will bring to the country a
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portable, digital Landsat image display system to aid in the study
site selection (see Computerized Data Collection Compilation section).
PSR Eaton will copy digital Landsat imagery and available SPOT imagery
onto optical disks for transport to the country. The data will be
provided by the International Narcotics Matters (INM).
Three weeks will be spent in Washington, D.C., before the second
trip to analyze the information collected on the first trip, study the
information available at the Department of State and finalize the
field sampling approach.
The second trip to each country will be of 10 to 15 working days
duration for data collection and on-site analysis. On each team the
ecologist will work in conjunction with the remote sensing expert and
local officials to collect data to answer ecological questions.
The State Department will coordinate the arrival, local logistics,
and familiarization of the teams with local resource personnel within
each country. Issues of security and local transportation into the
field will be coordinated with the State Department and the local
governments.
Ecological Data Collection. To quantitatively measure the
environmental impact of narcotics cultivation, PSR Eaton's selected
ecologists will conduct an extensive survey of each sample site. For
each sample site the field ecologist will characterize the ecosystem
before deforestation in detail and current ecosystem after deforesta-
tion. Sites will be selected and stratified by age using the
following criteria:
? A mature tropical forest equivalent to the one that would
be existing in a sample area of narcotics cultivation
? A recently burned or cleared sample site
? Sites with 1 to 2 years of narcotics cultivation
? Sites with 2 to 5 years of narcotics cultivation
? Sites under narcotics cultivation for more than 5 years
? Sites that have been abandoned or where eradication
efforts have taken place.
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The length of time a previously forested area in the tropics is
under cultivation and the size of the area are important factors in
the area's recovery back to a forest. Large areas of tropical
deforestation recover only secondary forest growth (Office of
Technology Assessment, 1984).
Sample sites will be visited on the ground whenever possible. If
it is not possible, information will be gathered by photographing the
sites from low-flying aircraft or helicopters and writing down field
notes on prepared forms. PSR Eaton will provide at least two experts
to be available for any overflights: a remote sensing expert to do the
photography and an ecologist to record elaborate field notes.
The PSR Eaton selected ecologists will classify what the soil,
water, and vegetation ecosystem was like before deforestation. This
will be done by studying nearby stands of mature tropical forest and
comparing this ecosystem to the one after deforestation. Changes in
forest soils follow major changes in the vegetation cover. Changes in
vegetation cover can be measured by remote sensing from aircraft,
Landsat, and SPOT imagery. While direct measurements of changes in
soils are not usually possible using satellite imagery, indirect
appraisals of the environment from direct measurements of changes in
major types of vegetation are clearly possible.
Land Surface Characterization
The first step on gathering ground truth data for remote sensing
investigations is to determine and define the major information cate-
gories that relate to objectives of characterizing the environment.
To ensure that the land cover categories are compatible with the data
acquisition and processing technique, those factors that influence
reflected energy, as measured by Landsat, must be addressed. The
environmental variations anticipated in areas of narcotics cultivation
must be listed so that sample sites can be established to represent
each source of variation.
We will design our ecological survey of a site to take into con-
sideration such variations in reflected energy so that observables
made on the ground can be extrapolated to the aerial photographs and
finally to the Landsat data. The areas selected are to contain a uni-
form, homogeneous land cover type (i.e., a coca field that is uniform
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with respect to planting date, density, vigor, slope, etc.). To be
used with Landsat data, the selection of sample sites must address
four basic factors: (1) the categorization of surface features (i.e.,
slope, exposure, the crop of interest versus other crops of
noninterest, etc.); (2) the size and shape of the sample site; (3) the
number and distribution of sites; and (4) the homogeneity and
uniformity of the surface cover.
Three general categories of land surface features significantly
affect the reflected energy as measured by Landsat. These categories
are the vegetation cover, land surface without vegetation, and the
topography.
Vegetation Cover. Various elements of vegetation cover influence
the reflected energy as measured by Landsat. These include plant
species or species association, plant age and vigor, plant density,
and understory (or background) vegetation. Such factors as the size
of the plants, leaf arrangement on the stem, the pigments present, the
thickness and shape of the leaves are all important. To characterize
narcotics cultivation, some selected areas may be mixtures of plant
species. For example, marijuana may often be mixed in with other
agricultural crops such as bananas and coconuts. For some of these
areas it may be impossible to detect any sign of growing narcotics.
Furthermore, the environmental impact will be insignificant in com-
parison to areas where deforestation has occurred solely for the
cultivation of narcotics. It is these area that will be the target of
our investigation.
Land Surface without Vegetation. In the tropics the surfaces that
are devoid of vegetation are those on which soil has been temporarily
exposed, those that are permanently covered with water, or those that
are devoid of soil at high altitudes. After deforestation and before
the planting of the first crop, most areas are in some stage of soil
preparation. Consequently, we will use critieria to establish the
condition of the exposed soil.
For remote sensing purposes the three main variables to be con-
sidered are the physical state of the surface, soil moisture, and soil
type. At a minimum, sites will be sampled that represent extremes--
should they exist--and the various combinations of the three
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variables. For example, the extremes for the state of the surface
would be a rough surface with the charred remains of the forest after
a recent burning and a smooth surface just before planting. Another
common condition in areas of marijuana cultivation is the stubble
remaining after harvesting operations. These sites need to be
established to characterize the impact on the environment through
time of the cultivation methods employed.
Topography. The topography (slope and aspect) is also a factor in
establishing uniform, homogeneous sample sites for remote sensing
study if there is pronounced topographical variation. Marijuana is
grown in flat, hilly, and mountainous terrain. Coca is grown on
slopes in hilly and mountainous terrain because the crop needs very
good drainage. It is recommended that slope categories be established
for 0 to 10 percent slopes, 10 to 30 percent slopes, and greater than
30 percent slopes. It will also be determined if there is a
preference for certain aspects of slopes in the regions investigated.
Computerized Data Compilation
PSR Eaton proposes to use a unique transportable computerized data
collection and processing system to aid in the collection of the above
field data. This system can be transported to each country to aid in
data compilation and sample site selection. PSR Eaton has been
transporting such hardware and software into the field since April
1986.
PSR Eaton proposes using the following hardware and software.
Hardware
o COMPAQ Portable III computer with
- 640 Kb RAM
- 80287 math coprocessor
- 12 MHz clock
- 40 Mb hard disk
- 1.2 Mb floppy disk drive
- Add-on expansion box with two slots
- RS-232 serial communications ports
- Parallel printer port
- LED crystal display
o Image processor board
- 512 rows by 512 columns by 32 bits per pixel
- Hardware roam and zoom
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- 13 inch high-resolution color monitor
? Optical disk drive and board
- Uses five 1/4 inch optical disks
- 230 Mb storage capacity
? Image digitizer board (512 by 512 by 8 bit black and
white video image digitizer)
? Video camera (Black and white with 3 color filters for
generating color images)
? Digitizing tablet
- GTCO Corp. model 1111A
- 11 by 11 inch work space
- 16-button cursor
- Power supply
? Voltage converter
Software
? Earth Resources Data Analysis Sytems (ERDAS) modules
- Multispectral image processing
- Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
- Polygon digitizing
- Video digitizing
- Enhanced Graphics Package (EGP)
? dBase III Plus
? Clipper
? Word processing
The COMPAQ Portable III computer along with the optical disk drive
is small enough to be carried onto the airplane and stored under the
seat. The digitizing tablet, camera, and monitor will be transported
in specially constructed transport boxes. This system will provide the
ability to carry the most recent Landsat, SPOT, or AVHRR digital
imagery into the country of interest. The available imagery of the
regions will be copied from tape onto optical disks using PSR Eaton's
in-house hardware and software.
The system can be set up in the Embassy or the hotel room. For
the first trip, only the computer, optical disk drive, and monitor
will be taken to the country. The system will be set up in the
Embassy office where the aerial photographs and maps of the regions to
be investigated are available.
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Displaying the imagery on-site will provide local officials and
INM investigators the ability to better select representative sample
sites (see Figure 1). As mentioned earlier, it is important that the
sample sites be locatable on a display of the digital data so that
satellite image observations can be extrapolated to ground measure-
ments and observations. Sensor band combinations can be chosen
interactively that best highlight and bring out the details of the
study sites. In addition, the ERDAS software allows the analyst to
enter training sites for computerized multispectral categorization.
Such training sites will be entered during the second trip after a
visit to the field.
Having the digital multispectral image processing and GIS on-site
during the second trip will provide many other opportunities to
collect data about the sample sites. Spatial information from maps
and aerial photographs that may be available only in the country of
interest can be digitized and brought back to the United States for
later analysis. The tablet digitizer will be used to trace data off
aerial photographs and maps into the system. For example, a PSR Eaton
analyst can use the 1:17,000 scale aerial photographs provided by the
Department of State Narcotics Assistance Unit in Lima, Peru. The
analyst would digitize the following data off the aerial photography
for each sample site:
? The boundaries of the deforested areas
? The boundaries of the narcotics cultivation areas
? The boundaries of abandoned deforested areas
? Ground control points that can be found in the Landsat TM
image and the aerial photograph
? Major access routes to the deforested areas and narcotics
cultivation area
? The boundaries of areas near the coca cultivation field
that have been affected by the deforestation (e.g., land
slides, increased sediment deposits down stream, etc.).
For any feature that is digitized, additional descriptive infor-
mation will be entered into an on-line database. The variables to be
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 IL 1: /. C t L 7. 4. 4.
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Figure 1. Digital merge of 1:500,000 map produced by the Bolivian government with
Landsat TM bands 4, 2, and 1 in red, green, and blue. Note how
inaccurate the map is compared to TM image.
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entered into the database will be defined after preliminary
discussions with the local experts on ecology, narcotics cultivation,
and deforestation.
Locations of the aerial photographs will be plotted on top of the
digital TM images. Furthermore, selected aerial photographs can be
video digitized and referenced to the TM data. Any data that can be
spatially referenced by location in the TM image can later be recalled
for display using the ERDAS EGP.1 By pointing to a sample site on
the screen, the analyst will be able to call up any data acquired for
that site (see Figure 2).
The locations of the sample sites will be annotated on the digital
image, and field data describing the site can be entered into an on-
line database that is keyed to the site's location in the image. This
field data will be entered into a dBase III database for further
analytical and statistical analysis after returning from the country
during the last months of the investigation.
Stratified Multistage Sampling Approach
The statistical frameworks useful for inventorying and monitoring
land surface cover over large areas have existed for decades.
Countrywide assessments of vegetation change necessitate the use of
Landsat MSS or TM as a sampling tool. Colwell (1983) reports that
"regional inventories covering areas the size of many Landsat frames
are sometimes difficult to achieve using Landsat MSS data, for reasons
of data availability and cost." He recommends using coarse resolution
satellite data (e.g., AVHRR, Coastal Zone Color Scanner [CZCS]) for
primary enumeration. The Landsat MSS or TM data are used to "correct"
or adjust the estimates made from coarse resolution.
1This package is currently used by utility companies to monitor
power lines, switching stations, and transformers located in the
field. The military uses the same package to enter data about instal-
lations and units and to plot the locations on background maps and
imagery in different overlays.
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 a. a. % l t t t.
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Figure 2. Landsat TM subset of the Yungas region of north central Bolivia. The boxed
area reveals indications of probable coca cultivation. Left image is TM
band composites 3, 2, and 1; right image is bands 4, 3, and 2 in red, green,
and blue.
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PSR Eaton will evaluate various sampling designs that are
available for consideration: simple random sampling, ratio estima-
tion, stratified random sampling, double sampling with regression,
systematic sampling, and probability sampling. The most appropriate
will likely be a combination of stratified random sampling combined
with multistage variable probability sampling (W. G. Cochran, 1963).
Landsat MSS and TM imagery will be used to delimit an ecosystem
strata. If Landsat data are not available, the AVHRR imagery will be
used to stratify the region. Once the area of interest is stratified,
the strata boundaries will be entered into a GIS for later analysis.
We will identify at least three sample sites within each strata,
using available medium- and high-resolution color aerial photographs.
A stratified multistage sampling approach will be used to collect
the necessary environmental data to characterize the effects of
deforestation due to narcotics cultivation in these countries. The
parishes, departments, or provinces will be stratified into forested
versus deforested areas. The deforested areas will be further stra-
tified into physiographic regions (i.e., mountainous, limestone
bedrock, coastal plains, valley bottoms, etc.). The purpose of the
stratification is to get a good sample of each type of ecosystem in
which narcotics are grown, without doing a complete survey.
Stratifying the areas into ecosystems will, thus, save time and effort
and still provide a scientifically sound estimate of the environmental
impacts of deforestation. The stratification will be done after con-
sulting with authorities on the regions' ecology and with narcotics
experts. For example, most of the coca cultivation occurs on well-
drained slopes in Peru.
After stratifying the area into ecosystems, a multistage approach
will be used to pick sample sites using satellite imagery with aerial
photography at scales of 1:80,000 to 1:60,000 and high resolution
scales of 1:10,000 to 1:17,000 used in a secondary sampling stage.
Between 8 and 15 aerial photographs (depending upon scale) will be
allocated across the region in a stratified random sample, to identify
study sites for field data collection. For example, the U.S.
Department of State Narcotics Assistance Unit in Lima, Peru, has
available over 10,000 aerial photographs of coca growing areas in
central Peru at scales of 1:17,000.
-20-
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PSR Eaton experts will evaluate these aerial photographs to select
sites to visit or fly over. Potential sites will be delineated in
such a manner that their locations are referenced to prominent surface
features that can easily be found in the field and detectable on a CRT
display of the Landsat imagery. Any road networks, trails, rivers, or
landing strips will be observed and identified whenever possible to
locate potential sample sites to facilitate access and take best
advantage of the existing transportation network. The objective will
be to lessen field work by reducing time spent walking or flying to
and over multiple sites.
A final means of attaining efficiency consists of establishing
potential sample sites in concentrated groups distributed throughout
the area encompassed by a particular Landsat scene of interest. This
will be accomplished by selecting 8 to 12 aerial photographs,
depending upon scale, from all the photography available for the area
encompassed by a particular Landsat scene. We will make selections so
that each photograph encompasses a variety of cultivation and surface
conditions. The net effect of delineating potential sample sites in
concentrated groups distributed throughout the Landsat scene is the
reduction of travel time between sites during field data collection
and the reduction in time to locate the sample sites in a CRT display
of the data.
DELIVERABLES
We anticipate furnishing the following deliverables:
? Briefings as needed
? A final summary report
? An annotated pictorial report for each country
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SCHEDULE
Table 1 shows the proposed schedule of work.
Table 1. Proposed schedule.
1. Search and review
literature
2. Select sites, prepare
for field work, pre-
process Landsat data
3. Work in field
4. Analyze data
5. Deliver final report
RESUMES OF PROPOSED TEAM
PSR Eaton Staff
This section contains brief resumes of the proposed team. All are
highly qualified and genuinely enthusiastic about the project.
RONALD W. PODMILSAK
Program Manager
M.A., Russian Studies, City University of New York (1966)
B.A., Geography, University of Pittsburgh (1961)
Mr. Podmilsak has completed course requirements for a Ph.D. in Soviet
and Environmental Studies at the University of Maryland.
Mr. Podmilsak will be program manager for the proposed study. His
work for PSR Eaton focuses on technical and requirements studies to
support national and defense systems and programs. He is a company
focal point for development of new concepts for design and operation of
intelligence collection systems. Recently he collaborated with another
division of Eaton on a successful proposal to U.S. Customs Service to
use data collected by both low and high-level aircraft and other recon-
naissance methods to track narcotics smuggling activities. The proposed
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model predicts movements and locates chokepoints for interdiction. His
multispectral work includes plans for a terrain reduction project over
the U.S. Southwest border in support of Project Alliance using Landsat
imagery. He is currently program manager on a comprehensive
multispectral utility study.
Mr. Podmilsak's 18 years with CIA and the Intelligence Community
Staff (1966-1985) covered a broad range of agency intelligence
activities. For over 2 years Mr. Podmilsak has worked closely with the
narcotics intelligence community. Recently, he was granted a Top Secret
clearance by the Drug Enforcement Administration to facilitate work with
Eaton Corporation's Text Analysis System and Communications Processor
located at the El Paso Intelligence Center. Mr. Podmilsak has developed
and briefed his concept of a near-real-time all-source approach to nar-
cotics interdiction to intelligence officers in CIA, DIA, DEA, Customs,
the Coast Guard, the National Narcotics Border Interdiction System, and
the El Paso Intelligence Center.
WAYNE A. HALLADA Senior Research Analyst
M.A., Geography, University of California at Santa Barbara (1980)
B.S., Geography and Mathematics, Carroll College (1977, magna cum laude)
For the proposed project, Mr. Hallada will be in charge of all
multispectral image processing and field data collection. He will take
advantage of 9 years of experience in remote sensing and 10 years in the
field of geography and field work in Jamaica. As PSR Eaton's senior
analyst in the multispectral image processing work, Mr. Hallada is
expert on a wide variety of image processing software and hardware.
Mr. Hallada's experience includes a wide range of multispectral
image processing: (1) support to the Tactical and Military
Multispectral Requirements Evaluation Group (TaMMREG) within the Defense
Intelligence Agency; (2) studies to determine future image processing
requirements for the national security community; (3) technical research
support to compare Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) with the German MOMs
imaging system, to determine the noise characteristics of TM, and to
generate bathymetric maps from TM; (4) research on changes in spatial
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and spectral resolution on digital image texture analysis and image
sharpening using simulated mixed spatial and spectral resolution images;
(5) study of Landsat Thematic Mapper spectral band combinations for land
cover classification hydrologic investigations; (6) research and sup-
porting software development on geographic and agricultural remote
sensing projects and (7) preparation of a vegetation map from aerial
photographs and ground survey information for the Rocky Mountain
Arsenal, U.S. Army.
TERRENCE H. HEMMER Research Analyst
B.S., Physics, University of Dayton (1979)
Graduate work in Chemical Physics, Kent State University (1979-1980)
Graduate work in Mathematics and Engineering, Wright State University,
(1982-1983)
Ph.D., Candidate, Chemical Physics, University of Maryland
(1984-present)
For the proposed project, Mr. Hemmer will assist Mr. Hallada in
multispectral image processing and field data collection. He will
analyze and evaluate available imagery to select specific sites in
geographic areas being studied and coordinate that imagery with ground
truth data, which is either already available or obtainable through
field work.
Mr. Hemmer has been with PSR Eaton since 1981. His work in the
Technical Systems Division is currently to identify new potential appli-
cation areas for multispectral image data; to assess the feasibility of
using an multispectral sensor to satisfy information requirements; and
to specify collection requirements using the number and position of
bands. He has performed studies to glean intelligence from multi-
spectral landwakes and to assess the use of multispectral sensors in
defeating command, control, and deception.
Consultants
The following individuals have been tentatively identified as
possible PSR Eaton consultants for this research project. We have
contacted each individual, and each is willing to perform field work.
All have tentatively agreed to participate. We would expect to make our
selection from among these and other candidates we have identified. All
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candidates are experts in some aspect of tropical forests. We have
identified experts who have conducted extensive field work in each of
the areas to be studied.
ROBERT J. BUSCHBACHER PSR Eaton consultant
Ph.D., Ecology, University of Georgia (1984)
B.A., Biology (concentration in Ecology), Cornell University (1976)
Dr. Buschbacher is currently the director of the Tropical Forest
Program for The Conservation Foundation and World Wildlife Fund. His
work includes research and publication on policy issues related to
tropical forest management and initiation and implementation of forest
management field research. Since 1980 he has investigated changes in
biological and physical pathways of phosphorus cycling during pasture
management in a converted rainforest in Brazil; studied ecosystem
recovery following abandonment of pastures formed from Amazon rain-
forest; and researched changes in productivity and nutrient cycling
following conversion of Amazon rainforest to pasture.
FRANK W. DAVIS PSR Eaton Consultant
Ph.D., Geography and Environmental Engineering, The Johns Hopkins
University (1982)
B.A., Biology, Williams College (1975)
B.A., Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public
Health (1978)
Since 1983, Dr. Davis has been Assistant Professor, Department of
Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara. He is a specialist
in plant ecology and demography, vegetation remote sensing, and ecologi-
cal applications of geographic information systems. He has traveled
extensively to Jamaica to study the vegetation and ecosystems of the
Cockpit country.
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ROBIN B. FOSTER PSR Eaton Consultant
Ph.D., Botany, Duke University (1974)
A.B., Biology, Dartmouth College (1966)
Dr. Foster has extensive field experience in Peru and in other
countries of Central and South America. Among his many publications are
several relating to the ecology of tropical rain forests.
Dr. Foster presently holds the following positions: Research
Associate in the Department of Botany with the Field Museum of Natural
History in Chicago; Research Associate, Smithsonian Tropical Research
Institute in Balboa, Panama; and Research Associate with the Missouri
Botanical Garden in St. Louis. He held earlier positions with the
University of Chicago, where he was on the Committee on Latin American
Studies (1972-1980); the Organization for Tropical Studies, Board of
Directors (1973-1980); the Institute for Botanical Exploration (1974);
and the International Society for Tropical Ecology (1976).
ALWYN H. GENTRY PSR Eaton Consultant
Ph.D., Washington University of St. Louis (1972)
M.S., University of Wisconsin (1969)
B.A., Physical Science; B.S., Botany/Zoology (1967)
Since 1967, Dr. Gentry has engaged in field work funded by National
Science Foundation grants in many different South and Central American
countries, including Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. He is a specialist in
the flora of Amazonian Peru and in the structure and composition of
tropical forests. In 1980 he did field work in Jamaica. He is
currently Curator for the Missouri Botanical Garden.
FREDERICK C. MERTZ PSR Eaton Consultant
B.A., M.A., Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara
(1977-1984)
Specific experience relevant to the proposed project includes exten-
sive image processing for applied research (in particular, database
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development) for agricultural applications and for vegetation communi-
ties in mountainous terrain; and image processing procedure develop-
ment for high resolution sensors (TM, SPOT) on satellite and/or aircraft
platforms. Mr. Mertz has traveled extensively within Latin America,
including visits to coca-producing regions of Bolivia (Cochamamba/Santa
Cruz), Peru (Tingo Maria), and Colombia (southeastern and northern) and
to marijuana-producing regions of Mexico.
ROSS NELSON PSR Eaton Consultant
M.S., Forestry/Remote Sensing, Purdue University (1979)
B.S., Forest Management, University of Maine (1974)
Mr. Nelson works as a physical scientist at NASA's Goddard Space
Flight Center in the Earth Resources Branch, Laboratory for Terrestrial
Physics. He is an expert in the use of satellite digital data, specifi-
cally AVHRR, MSS, and/or TM data, and airborne laser data for large area
assessment and monitoring of tropical and subtropical forest conversion.
He has written many articles in his field, for example: "Monitoring
Tropical Deforestation in Mato Grosso, Brazil, Using Landsat MSS and
AHVRR Data" (1986); and "Deforestation in the Tropics: New Measurements
in the Amazon Basin Using Landsat and NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer Imagery" (1987).
GEOFFREY GRAHAM PARKER PSR Eaton Consultant
Ph.D., Ecology, University of Georgia (1985)
M.S., Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia (1981)
B.S., Biology, McGill University (1976)
In a significant project with the University of Georgia (1980-1985),
Dr. Parker studied changes in hydrology and nutrient loss as a function
of degree of disturbance in a clearfelling experiment in a tropical
rainforest of Costa Rica. He also developed standard procedures and
managed the laboratory for chemical analyses of water, plant, and soil
samples from field sites in tropical America. He has published exten-
sively in his field and has numerous articles relevant to the proposed
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project, such as "Effect of Disturbance on Water and Solute Budgets of
Hillslope Tropical Rainforest in Northeastern Costa Rica" (1985);
Hydrologic Changes Following Tropical Deforestation" (1985); "Tropical
Deforestation and Evapotranspiration" (1985); and "Percolation and
Nutrient Leaching from Soils From Intact Forest; "Artificial Tree-fall
Gaps, and Small Clearcuts in a Tropical Rainforest in Northeastern Costa
Rica" (both to be submitted).
THOMAS A. STONE PSR Eaton Consultant
M.A., Geology, Dartmouth College (1982)
S.A., History, Bates College (1970)
Additional studies, University of Southern Maine (1976, 1980) and
Northeastern University (1978-1979)
Mr. Stone's experience combines field work in environmental studies
with work using remote sensing for data collection. He has done a
significant amount of field work in Brazil and the Amazon Basin.
Relevant articles include studies of tropical deforestation measured by
Landsat. Mr. Stone is presently a research associate at the Ecosystems
Center of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, where he has worked since 1982.
CORPORATE CAPABILITIES AND FACILITIES
The proposed project will be handled by PSR Eaton's Advanced
Concepts and Technology Division in Arlington, Virginia, conveniently
located in Rosslyn. Well equipped to handle all aspects of the pro-
ject, we have a secure facility, library research services, image
processing equipment, and a publications department.
Security
The Washington office has a Top Secret Facility with a secure com-
puter and a large secure work area. In addition, it has a large sen-
sitive compartmented information facility (SCIF). All members of the
proposed staff hold all necessary clearances.
Library Services
Library services are described under Methodology. See page 7.
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Image Processing
PSR Eaton's image-processing center offers broad capabilities in
the fields of digital image-processing and GIS.
Our resources include two ERDAS-PC systems, image-processing
systems developed by Earth Resources Data Analysis Systems, leaders in
small-system technology. Based on the IBM PC-AT, the ERDAS-PC is a
complete image processing and geographic information system with full-
color display, 105 Mb disk storage, digitizing tablet, 6250 bpi tape
drive, a Tektronix 4696 color ink jet printer for input of satellite
image data tapes, and color film recorder. The ERDAS-PC supports our
multispectral training course and demonstration projects.
PSR Eaton uses the ERDAS EGP for additional PSR Eaton display
graphics and geographic data base development. The EGP contains soft-
ware that can tie display graphics (e.g., symbols, line segments,
etc.) to an on-line dBase III database of geographic information.
PSR Eaton also subcontracts out to local companies, such as Earth
Satellite Corporation and EOSAT, for the more advanced processing
capabilities not available within ERDAS.
Publications
The PSR Eaton publications staff comprises of technical editors,
graphic artists, and technical typists, is able to produce top quality
documents. Support equipment includes word processing systems, repro-
duction and binding machinery, extensive graphic art equipment, and
computerized plotters.
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Appendix A
FIELD DATA SAMPLE FORM FOR MARIJUANA CULTIVATION AREA
This sample copy of the field record sheet is representative of
the type of form that may be used to record field observations.
Different forms will be required for marijuana and coca cultivation,
and possibly different environments.
Taken by:
Sample Site Identifier:
Air Photo Index #
Landsat Column:
Landsat Scene ID:
Site Elevation:
Estimated Field Size: meters by
meters or
Country Parish/Department Latitude Longitude
35 mm Frame Numbers:
Kind of Surface Cover:
(check one) (check one)
Natural forest ( ) Growing marijuana ( ) Dense (65% to
( ) Secondary forest ( ) Mature marijuana 100%)
Brush vegetation ( ) Recently burned ( ) Sparse (10% to
Harvested marijuana ( ) Bare soil 65%)
Marijuana Conditions: Age: Height:
Health: ( ) Good ( ) Poor
Row Direction:
Soil Type: Slope:
Slope Ascent: Soil Texture:
Soil Wetness: Estimated Thickness:
Soil Conditions:
(check one)
( ) Highly eroded nonfertile
( ) Moderately eroded nonfertile
( ) Moderately eroded with some nutrients
( ) No erosion, nonfertile
( ) No erosion, fertile, good humus in A horizon
Other Soil Conditions:
Estimated Age of Cleared Site: ( ) under 6 months
( ) 6 months to 1 year
( ) 1 to 2 years
( ) 2 to 5 years
( ) over 5 years
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Appendix B
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, J. C., and Barnes, D. F., "The Causes of Deforestation in
Developing Countries," Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, Vol. 75 (1985), pp. 163-184.
Bohn, H. L., "Estimate of Organic Carbon in World Soils," Soil
Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 40 (1976), pp. 468-470.
Cochran, W.G., Sampling Techniques, 2d ed. (New York: John Wiley
and Sons, 1963).
Colwell, J.E., Regional Inventory by Joint Use of Coarse and Fine
Resolution Satellite Data Proc., 17th International Symposium on
Remote Sensing of the Environment, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1983),
pp. 1077-1083.
Fearnside, P.M., "Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: How Fast is
it Occurring?" Interciencia, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1982), pp. 82-88.
Gentry, A.H., and Lopez-Parodi, J., "Deforestation and Increased
Flooding of the Upper Amazon," Science, Vol. 210, No. 4476 (1980),
pp. 1354-1356.
Grainger, A., "Quantifying Changes in Forest Cover in the Humid
Tropics: Overcoming Current Limitations." Journal of World
Forest Resources Management, Vol. 1 (1984), pp. 3-63.
Hallum, C.R., Sampling, Stratification, and Aggregation Approaches
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