BACTERIAL MUTATION STUDY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: STARGATE
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP96-00789R003800280001-0
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 17
• Document Creation Date: November 4, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 27, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: May 1, 1985
• Content Type: RS

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For Release 2000/08/10: 6- 98003800280001-0
May 1985
Final Report
Covering the Period October 1983 to October 1984
BACTERIAL MUTATION STUDY (U)
SRI Project 7408-10
333 Ravenswood Avenue
-co-py No . ..............
This document consists of 42 pages.
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? Menlo ~Pa~rk, California 94025 U.S.A.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (U)
' ~~ The experiment presented in this document was a conceptual replication of
reported work in the parapsychological literature, claiming positive statistical evidence for
psychoenergetic interactions with biological systems. Both the energetic and informational
aspects of human interaction with bacteriological systems were examined, with the ultimate
objective of determining, to first order, whether biological systems can be employed as
psychoenergetic "intrusion detectors."
(U) There were two principal experimental hypotheses under consideration. The first,
which will be referred to as the Intuitive Data Sorting (IDS) hypothesis, posits that individuals
are able to identify or "sort out" locally-deviant subsequences contained within a larger
random sequence using psychoenergetic means. In our experiment, an IDS hypothesis
predicted that individuals would be able to identify psychically--from. a set of test tubes with a
normal statistical spread of mutation rate--subsets of test tubes either with slightly higher or
slightly lower average mutation rates than the overall mutation rate for the entire set. Because
an IDS mechanism appears to be predicated on an individual's ability to gain information
about a system psychoenergetically, it is thought to involve informational processes primarily.
(U) The second experimental hypothesis, which will be referred to as the Remote
Action (RA) or IDS Unfavorable (IDSU) hypothesis, postulates that certain individuals are
-able to effect either a predetermined increase or decrease in a given samples's mutation rate,
by somehow "mentally" causing physical (e.g., genetic) changes in the bacteria. Because an
RA mechanism appears to be predicated on an individual's ability to effect physical changes in
a system psychoenergetically, it is thought to involve causal or energetic processes primarily.
~--` A total of seven subjects contributed six sessions each: three sessions were
II ;.
designed to test the IDS hypothesis, and three were designed to test the RA hypothesis. In all
sessions, the subject was confronted with nine test tubes, which were visible inside a locked,
environmentally-stable ice chest. The tubes contained dilute solutions of the bacterium
Salmonella typhimurium. The bacteriological preparations were carried out by SRI's Microbial
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Genetics Department, which routinely uses the Ames Salmonella assay that was adapted for
use in this study.
(U) In the IDS sessions, the subjects were able to choose three test tubes in which they
wished to promote the mutation rates psychoenergetically (high aim), three tubes in which
they. wished to inhibit mutation rates (low aim), and three that they wished to leave
"uninfluenced" as controls (no aim). In all of the RA sessions, Tubes 1, 2, and 3 were
predetermined as the low-aim tubes (the subject would attempt to inhibit mutation rates);
Tubes 4, 5, and 6 were the no aim controls; and Tubes 7, 8, and 9 were the high-aim tubes
(the subject would attempt to promote mutation rates). The basic premise in comparing the
IDS and RA conditions is that the subjects were given the opportunity to select high-versus-
low mutation rates from a natural spread of nine in the IDS sessions. Given the
predetermined tubes of the RA sessions, however, the subjects were required [o cause
physical changes in the bacteria, in order to achieve the desired high-versus-low mutation
rates.
(U) The overall result of the experiment showed weak statistical evidence that
individuals are able to sort bacteriological samples according to mutation rate--that is, a p <
0.05 was obtained overall in the IDS sessions for the mutation rates of the low-aim test tubes
being lower than the no-aim controls. Statistical significance was not achieved in any of the
other IDS conditions (i.e., for no-aim mutation rates being less than high aim or for low aim
being less than high aim). There were no significant differences for various aims observed in
the RA condition. It must be concluded, therefore, that while there was some evidence that
subjects are able to gain information psychoenergetically about the mutation rates of
Salmonella, there was no compelling evidence that subjects are able to cause physical
perturbations in these bacteria.
--~ Ae.cording to criteria set forth in the beginning of this study, a physical system
will not be considered a candidate intrusion detector unless there is clear evidence that it is
registering energetic effects (i.e., physical perturbations) concomitantly with psychoenergetic
intent. To first order, therefore, it must be concluded on the basis of this one experiment
that the Salmonella bacterium does not appear to be a promising intrusion detector.
Because this is the only known experiment of its kind using Salmonella bacteria,
as tha target biological system, replication is strongly recommended--both to verify the
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robustness of the IDS capability, and to evaluate definitively the efficacy of using Salmonella
as an intrusion detector.
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I OBJECTIVE (U)
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~~ The objective of this subtask was to determine the veracity of the claims in the
parapsychological .literature regarding psychoenergetic interactions with biological systems. A
conceptual replication of the most promising of these earlier claims was undertaken, as a
-means to examine whether biological systems register physical effects concomitantly with
psychoenergetic "intent" by an observer. This initial experimental effort was an attempt to
determine, to first order, whether biological systems can eventually be employed as
psychoenergetic "intrusion detectors."
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II INTRODUCTION (U)
i -^~~ One of the ultimate applications goals of psychoenergetic phenomena is the
determination of whether psychoenergetic intrusion can be detected, and whether counter-
measures exist against such intrusion. From a phenomenological perspective, the term
psychoenergetic intrusion can entail what appears to be either energetic or informational
processes, or both, as indicated by the following set of operative definitions:
? The direct perturbation of physical systems that appear to be well shielded
against, or otherwise inaccessible to, human influence (energetic) .
? The psychoenergetic acquisition of information thought to be secure against
access (informational).
? The perturbation of a physical system that occurs indirectly as a result of an
individual's attempts to acquire information through psychoenergetic means
(energetic and informational).
Only those intrusions that entail causal interactions with physical systems are likely to be
detected. A physical system will not be considered a candidate intrusion detector, therefore,
unless it registers energetic effects directly (as a result of intentional perturbation), or
indirectly (as a result of concomitant acquisition of information).
_~ In the parapsychological literature, the energetic manifestations of psycho-
energetic intrusion are variously referred to as remote action (RA), remote perturbation (RP),
psychokinesis (PK), telekinesis (TK), and so forth; informational processes are most often
referred to as remote viewing (RV), clairvoyance, precognition, and the like. The term
countermeasures may be defined as the shielding or jamming of psychoenergetic intrusion by
either physical or mental processes.
Before the higher-order problem of countermeasures can be addressed,
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experimental-:verification of the existence of psychoenergetic intrusion must first be obtained.
Detection of the putative energetic aspects of psychoenergetic intrusion can be accomplished
most directly by designing experiments in which an individual's primary task is to actively
attempt to cause perturbations in various types of physical systems. Numerous RA
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experiments of this type, using a wide variety of physical systems, have been cited in the
parapsychological literature.
(U) One category of candidate target physical systems is biological systems; the
precedent for using these in RA experiments has been well established. Of particular interest
(because of its similarity to the experiment detailed in this document) is Carroll B. Nash's
experiment involving the psychokinetic control of bacterial mutation.' The published abstract
of the Nash experiment is provided here:
Three experimenters each tested 20 .subjects not known to be psychically
gifted. Because of procedural errors, results were obtained for only 52
subjects. Each subject was tested in a single run with a separate set of
nine tubes of a mixed culture of lac-negative and lac-positive strains of
Escherichia coll. Mutation of lac-negative to !ac-positive was mentally
promoted in three of the tubes, menially inhibited in three, and three of
the tubes served as controls. The mutant ratio of lac-positive to total
bacteria was greater in the promoted than in the inhibited tubes, with
two-tailed p < 0.005; less in the inhibited tubes than in the controls, with
two-tailed p < 0.02; and greater in the promoted tubes than in the
controls, although not significantly so. The results are interpreted to
suggest that the rate of bacterial mutation was psychokinetically affected.
The experiment described in this report also undertook to investigate
psychokinetic influence on bacterial mutagenicity, but it differs significantly from the Nash
experiment iri certain of its experimental protocols and underlyingtheoretical assumptions.
The overall objective was also different than that of the Nash experiment in that the SRI
study is concerned with providing a "first order" examination of the existence of psycho-
energetic intntsion detection with biological systems;
(U) Nash, C. B., "Psychokinetic Control of Bacterial Growth," Journal of the Society for
Psychical Research, Vol. 51, pp. 217-226 (1982).
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with medium containing histidine), and selective minimal glucose plates
(i.e., plates with medium lacking histidine) to allow for the growth and
appearance of bacterial colonies.
~ The following are the most common procedural terms:
? Subject--One of seven volunteers who undertook to psychoenergetically
influence the mutagenicity of the bacterial samples.
? Monitor--The individual recording the events that transpired during an
experimental session, and supervised the subject's activities.
? Technician--The microbiologist who was responsible for all aspects of the
pre- and post-session preparation of the biological samples.
? Session--A single sitting in which the subject attempted to (1) increase the
mutation rate of bacteria placed in three test tubes, (2) decrease the
mutation rate of those placed in three different test tubes, and (3) leave yet
a different group of three uninfluenced as "controls." Each of the seven
subjects contributed six such sessions.
? Trial--An attempt by a subject to psychoenergetically influence (or not
influence, as in the case of control test tubes) the bacterial culture in a
single test tube. There were nine such trials in each experimental session.
? Controls--Two types of controls were employed in this experiment:
inrasession and extrasession. Intrasession control test tubes consisted of
three bacterial test tubes, which the subject was instructed not to attempt to
actively influence, from among the set of nine session test tubes. Extra-
session controls consisted of two tubes per session that were prepared by the
technician in exactly the same manner as the session test tubes, but. were
not used as part of the experimental session set of nine tubes. The
extrasession controls remained at all times in the Microbial Genetics
Laboratory, and provided the requisite data for establishing an independent
measure of mutation rate.
? Feedback--A drawing presented to the subject that indicated his/her
performance on a given session. Feedback for a given session was typically
administered prior to the start of the subject's next session.
B. (U) Biological Background
!--~ In this section, we will give a general overview of the Ames Salmonella assay
that is used routinely by SRI's Microbial Genetics Department, and that was adapted for use
in this experiment to study psychoenergetic effects on mutation frequency.
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 (U) The heritable material of living organisms is contained in the DNA (RNA- in some
viruses), a large molecule so constructed that it can replicate itself in a most exact fashion one
cell generation after another. This is the basis of biological continuity and unity. IC is also,
however, the basis for biological diversity, which occurs through mutations. Each mutation
alters the action of a specific gene, which is a genetic entity with its own specific end product,
or protein. Genes are very stable structures, but each has its own spontaneous mutation
frequency. The probability that a spontaneous mutant cell will be obtained every time a cell
divides is constant, provided the environmental conditions are unchanged. Changes in the
environment are known to influence the mutation frequency. Such changes include the
presence or absence of certain trace elements (e.g., selenium), plus the presence of physical
or chemical agents (mutagens).
` ~~. Bacteria provide a convenient way to study mutations because millions of cells
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can be grown in a very short period of time. Over the past few years, several bacterial assays
have been developed to screen chemicals for their ability to induce mutation. Because there
is a close correlation between mutagenesis and carcinogenesis, such mutagenicity assays are
very often used together with the in vitro tests that employ single microbial and/or mammalian
cells, as well as in vivo tests that employ multicell organisms from insects (fruit tly) to
mammals (rodents) . One of the best known bacterial mutagenesis assays is the Salmonella/
mammalian microsome histidine reverse mutation assay developed by Dr. Bruce Ames at the
University of California in Berkeley. The Microbial Genetics Department at SRI International
is using this assay system on a daily basis Eor Government agencies and commercial clients to
determine the mutagenic potential of chemicals; they have performed such testing over a
period of more than 10 years.
(U) The Salmonella assay employs several tester strains of Salmonella typhimurium,
each with a unique specificity for detecting chemical mutagens. The Salmonella strains, under
optimum conditions, have a generation time of less than 30 minutes. The bacterial strains are
unable to grow in the absence of the essential amino acid histidine because of a mutation in
one of the genes that is needed for histidine synthesis. When these bacteria are plated on
defined selective medium having little or no histidine, little or no growth occurs except those
few bacteria ~ that spontaneously mutate back to histidine independence (ability to grow in the
absence of histidine). In this case, a nonfunctional gene product is reverted back to a
functional one. This event allows the mutant cells to grow and divide. Because a mutation is
stably inherited, all progeny of the mutated cells retain the ability to grow in the absence of
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histidine. Distinct individual colonies will appear on the solid selective growth medium, with
each colony containing billions of progeny of the spontaneously mutated cells. Exposure of
the bacteria to a chemical mutagen will result in an increased number of colonies appearing
on the solid selective growth medium, due to an increase in mutation induction.
(U} In the Ames Salmonella assay, a small amount of histidine is added to the growth
medium to allow for a few cell divisions of all the plated histidine requiring mutants (-X10').
Such growth is often necessary for chemical mutagenesis to occur. The results of the
Salmonella assay are usually expressed in terms of the number of revertant colonies per
amount of chemical added to the selective growth medium, which is usually delivered to the
plate in 25-m1 volumes. Because of the presence of limited histidine in the selective medium,
the results of the Ames Salmonella are considered "semiquantitative," since residual growth
on alI plates (control as well as chemical treated) does not allow for quantitative survival
determination. A quantitative mutation frequency, however, can be determined. It is more
labor intensive than the standard Ames assay, because survival determination requires diluting
of the cell cultures, and a different growth medium is needed for determining (1) the mutant
fraction and survivors for each of the controls, and (2) the different exposure concentrations
of the test chemical. The mutation frequency is defined in terms of number of mutants per
given number of surviving cells, usually per 108 cells.
Because of its simplicity and the rapid response time of about two days, the
Ames Salmonella assay can readily be adapted to study the effect of RA on the mutation
frequency. Such an adaptation was established by SRI's Microbial Genetics Department for
use in this experiment; a detailed discussion of the specific biological procedures that were
followed can be found in Section D, Protocols. _
C. (U) Experimental Design
1. (U) Conceptual Replication
The experiment undertaken in this study represents a conceptual replication
of the Nash experiment described in our Introduction chapter. The replication presented here
is termed conceptual, because several of the experimental details of [he Nash experiment
have been changed and improved. First, two potential mechanisms have been postulated that
could account for the acquisition of a statistically significant effect--that is, an IDS hypothesis
has been advanced, in addition to the more established RA hypothesis. Second, Salmonella
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typhimurium rather than Escherichia coli were used as the target bacterial cultures. Because
this particular species of Salmonella is used most frequently by SRI's Microbial Genetics
Department in toxicity studies, its behavior is particularly well understood in terms of assay
conditions and experimental protocols. Finally, the Nash analysis was extended to include
multiple analyses of variance.
As in the Nash experiment, nine test tubes filled with dilute bacterial
culture were used per session. Mutation from histidine dependence to histidine independence
was mentally promoted by the subject in three of the tubes, mentally inhibited in three, and
the remaining three tubes served as controls. For the purposes of obtaining baseline data, two
additional control test tubes (for a total of eleven altogether per session) were prepared in the
same manner as the session test tubes, but were kept in the Microbial Genetics Laboratory.
2. (U) Model Testing Criteria
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(U) As mentioned previously, there were two primary models under
investigation in this experiment. A pivotal concept to the first, or IDS favorable model, is
freedom of choice: namely, that by using some type of psi-mediated informational processes,
subjects have the opportunity to select out locally-deviant subsequences from a larger random
sequence. For example, in half of the sessions, the subjects were allowed to select the three
test tubes in which they wished to promote mutation, and the three test tubes in which they
wished to inhibit mutation. A statistically significant deviation from mean chance expectation
(MCE) in this condition, therefore, could be interpreted theoretically in two ways: (I) the
subjects somehow mentally "forced" genetic changes to occur in the bacteria in accordance
with their desires to either promote or inhibit mutation rates (the RA hypothesis); or (2) given
the natural spread of mutation rates in a biological system, the subject was able to psycho-
energetically sort those test tubes containing bacteria with high mutation rates from those
tubes containing bacteria with ]ow mutation rates (a session-by-session IDS hypothesis).
(U) The second model under investigation has been termed the Remote
Action (RA) or Intuitive Data Sorting Unfavorable (IDSU) model. In this condition, the
conduits by which either the subject or experimenter are able to select test tubes are rendered
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the seven had been participants in previous psychoenergetic experiments--i.e., all four had
demonstrated some ability in remote viewing. One of these four subjects also scored
significantly in an earlier SRI random number generator PK experiment, and another had
demonstrated some ability previously in Computer-Assisted Search (CAS) tasks. All of the
participants were SRI employees: one was a statistician, two were secretaries, and the
remainder were research professionals in either physics or computer science.
~ ~ For reasons stated in Section C.2.a, it was determined that the
biological technician should be kept entirely blind as to all facets of the experiment, and that,
in order to facilitate this situation, the psychoenergetic testing should occur in a location that
was different from the one used for the biological preparations. The Microbial Genetics
Laboratory, therefore, was used for all aspects of preparation of the biological cultures, and a
room in another building at SRI was used for the psychoenergetic sessions.
b. (U) Experiment Site Locations
Once it had been determined that two separate facilities were
necessary for conducting the experiment, a container had to be constructed that was suitable
for transporting the biological samples from the Microbial Genetics Laboratory to the
psychoenergetics facility. There were three primary factors that dictated the design of the
container: (1) the biological samples had to be protected from extreme variations in
temperature; (2) the samples had to be protected from sunlight; and (3) the container had to
be lockable. - _
~ To control against extreme variations in temperature, which can greatly
a[fect the mutagenicity of Salmonella, a Coleman? ice chest was chosen as the transport
container. Triple-paned- insu}ated glass windows were specially installed in the top and front
side of the ice chest to allow an unobstructed view of the experiment test tubes. Because
sunlight also affects the. mutagenicity of the bacteria, a tarpaulin was used to completely cover
the cooler during transport between the biological laboratory and the psychoenergetics facility.
A lock was installed; the key was retained exclusively by the biological technician, to preclude
the possibility of tampering with the biological samples once they had been removed from the
Microbial Genetics Laboratory.
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2. (U) Presession Protocols
(U) A series of activities took place prior to the start of every experimental session.
First, the experiment monitor identified the session type from the fixed session sequence,
"aababb," (cf. Section C.2.b), to determine whether the session would be an IDS favorable or
an IDS unfavorable (RA or IDSU) condition.
j_~~~ Second, the technician in the Microbial Genetics Laboratory prepared the
bacterial cultures for the session (see Appendix). Eleven numerically-labelled, sterile,
16-X-150-mm test tubes were aseptically filled with 2.5 ml of glucose minimal broth. Fifty
?l of a 37 ?C overnight culture of strain TA 100 of Salmonella typhimurium was then added to
each tube.' In a standardized manner, the first nine tubes were arranged in a test-tube rack,
which was placed in the specially designed ice chest, and then locked. The remaining two
control cultures were shielded from visible light by a covering of aluminum foil, and were
maintained at room temperature in the Microbial Genetics Department laboratory.
(U) The ice chest, with its enclosed cultures, was placed on a cart and covered with
a tarpaulin to ensure that the mutation rate of the cultures was not affected by sunlight during
transportation from the laboratory to the experimental facility.
(U) Third, the experiment monitor transported the covered ice chest on the cart
from the biological laboratory to another facility at SR1, where the psychoenergetic portion of
the experiment was performed. Prior to the arrival of the subject, the monitor wheeled the
ice chest into a room equipped with a table and two chairs. The ice chest was then
uncovered and positioned in such a way that a seated subject could readily view the nine
numbered test tubes through the glass.
3. (U) Session Protocols
(U) For other than the first session for each subject, a session usually commenced
with feedback to the subject of the previous session's results (to be discussed in "Postsession
"(U) It should be noted that there was no visible evidence of "cloudiness" caused by the
bacterial culture in any of the prepared test tube solutions. The appearance of the liquid
was uniformly that of clear tap water. Thus, there were no visual dies available to the
subject, as to which test tubes might contain greater amounts of the bacterial culture.
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the appropriate test-tube-selection numbers. The order of selection and an estimate of the
duration of effort per each test tube were noted in the "Comments" section. Upon debriefing
the subject at the end of a session, the monitor also recorded any comments the subject
wished to make regarding possible strategies employed in the performance of the task, and
any personal statements the subjects wished to volunteer pertaining to their state-of-mind,
health, and so forth.
4. (U) Postsession Protocols
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from the psychoenergetics facility, the monitor once again covered the ice chest, then
transported it on the cart back to the Microbial Genetics Laboratory.
(U) The microbiologist removed the nine bacterial cultures from the ice chest and
placed them, together with the additional two extrasession control cultures, in an incubator
(G24 Environmental Incubator Shaker, New Brunswick Scientific Company, Inc., Edison,
New Jersey). The bacterial cultures were shielded from visible light by aluminum foil, and
grown with gentle shaking (100 rpm) for about 24 hours.
(U) Following the incubation period, testing of the eleven bacterial cultures to
determine the extent of mutation induction was initiated. The testing was divided into two
parts:
? Quantitation of number of cells plated, which measures the number of
plated cells that are able to form colonies (CFU) on medium containing
histidine (yeast complete medium).
? Quantitation of mutant cells, which measures the number of cells that are
able to grow in the absence of histidine.
(U) The quantization of CFU was accomplished according to a standardized set of
laboratory procedures. First, each of the eleven bacterial cultures (i.e., the cultures contained
in the nine-session test tubes plus the two controls) was serially diluted ~by combining 0.20 ml
of the culture with 1.80 ml of sterile saline until an overall million-fold dilution was obtained
(10-s). Complete medium plates were then divided into three sections with a marking pen,
and a 10-?1 aliquot of the 10-4, 10-5, and 10-s dilutions were then delivered in triplicate to
the appropriate sections on the plate. The 10-?1 spots were allowed to dry on the surface of
the solid medium in the plates. The plates were then incubated at 37 ?C for up to 24 hours
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There was no compelling evidence, however, that subjects are able to interact causally with
this particular biological system.
(U) Tables 2 through 8 display the data contained in Table 1 in asubject-by-subject
format. One subject (310) produced strong effects in the IDS condition: his low-aim
condition was significantly lower than his high-aim condition (p < 0.003), and his low-aim
condition was also significantly lower than the no-aim condition (p < 0.018).
(U) In addition to the various t-tests, a multiway analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
conducted as a second form of analysis (post hoc). Aim (low, no, and high) and condition
(IDS and RA) were used as the two "main effects" for the analysis. When the ANOVA
examines one "main effect," it sums all the data in the other "main effects." For example,
to examine the IDS and RA condition, the ANOVA sums across all aims. Likewise, to
examine an aim effect, the ANOVA sums across the IDS and RA conditions. No significance
was anticipated in these two dimensions, and none was observed. Significance was observed,
however, in the interaction term between the IDS and the RA condition (p < 0.05), which
may indicate that there is some difference between the IDS and RA conditions when
examined as a function of aim. This does not imply that IDS or RA is "more significant." It
should be noted that the interpretation of the ANOVA interaction term has been traditionally
difficult, and Rosenthal has suggested that ANOVA with more than one "main effect" should
not be used in the social/psychological sciences.' The analysis has been included here merely
for the sake of completeness.
1 ~~~~ In summary, this experiment has produced a relatively weak, but statistically
significant effect, which most readily supports the conclusion that subjects are able to acquire
information, psychoenergetically, about the mutation rates of Salmonella, but are unable to
cause physical perturbations in these bacteria. To reiterate the criteria set forth in the
Introduction, a physical system will not be considered a candidate intrusion detector unless it
registers energetic effects directly (as a result of intentional perturbation), or indirectly (as a
result of concomitant acquisition of information). To first order, therefore, it must be
concluded on the basis of this one experiment, that the Salmonella bacterium does not appear
to be a promising intrusion detector.
*(U) R. Rosenthal and R. Rosnow, Essentials of Behavioral Research, p. 254 (McGraw Hil]
Book Co., New York, 1984).
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(U) NORMALIZED MUTATION RATES X 10 -g
(Subject 164)
High
Remote Action (RA)
3.00
2.76
3.54
Remote Action (RA)
3.69
2.90
2.59
Remote Action (RA)
3.06
3.09
3.09
3.25
2.92
3.07
t (Low < No) _ -1.430 n.s.
t (No < High) = 0.484 n.s.
t (Low. < High) _ -0.475 n.s.
Intuitive Data Sorting (IDS)
Intuitive Data Sorting (IDS)
Intuitive Data Sorting (IDS)
High
2.99
2.89
3.26
2.79
3.54
2.93
3.57
2:68
2.83
3.11
3.04
3.01
t (Low < No) _ -0.310 n.s.
Statistics' t (No < High) _ -0.112 n.s.
t (Low < High) _ -0.475 n.s,.
' Degrees of freedom = 16.
UNCLASSIFIED
t ___~ Given the weak statistical nature of the effect and the potential ~ "~
importance of intrusion detection, replication is recommended for a variety of comp-- ell--'~
reasons. First, there are a number of proposed methodological changes to this experiment (as
discussed in Chapter V) that would in all likelihood enhance the robustness of the effect.
From this perspective, the experiment might legitimately be considered a pilot study. Second,
this is the first experiment of its kind that has used Salmonella as the target biological system;
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