PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

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• Publication Date: September 29, 1994
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Final Report
Phenomenological Research
and Analysis
Authors:
Edwin C. May, Ph.D., Wanda L. W. Luke, and Christine L. James
29 September 1994
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Science Applications International Corporation
An Employee-Owned Company
Presented to:
U. S. Government
Contract MDA908-93 ?C-0004
(Client Private)
Submitted by:
Science Applications International Corporation
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory
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Other SAIC Offices: Albuquerque, Boston, Colorado on, untstelle: La e a AnyltAtallidratiaelgattle, Tucson
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES ii
LIST OF TABLES iii
I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
II. TECHNICAL OVERVIEW 2
1. Biophysical Measurements 2
2. Data Patterns/Parameter Correlations 11
3. Theoretical Issues 15
4. Applied Research 18
5. Research Methodology and Support 25
III. GLOSSARY 27
REFERENCES 28
APPENDIX A: Autonomic Detection of Remote Observation 30
APPENDIX B: Target and Sender Dependencies in AC Experiments
APPENDIX C: Managing the Target Pool Bandwidth
APPENDIX D: Shannon Entropy as an Intrinsic Target Property
APPENDIX E: Ganzfeld Experiment
31
32
33
34
SG1A
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LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Stimulus Timing
7
2.
Typical ERD..from Direct Stimuli
8
3.
Cluster Diagram
16
4.
Cross-Section of the Detector (Not to Scale)
21
5.
Test Exposure: 2,250 Volts for 28 Hours
22
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LIST OF TABLES
1.
AC Results
9
2.
Wilcoxon Statistics for ERDs
9
3.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
10
4.
Partial Element List for a Test-bed Experiment
24
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Phenomenological Research and Anatysis: vinameport
I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Our research has advanced our understanding of applying anomalous mental phenomena to practical
problems and lead us toward a comprehensive theoretical model for the phenomena.* During the con-
tract period endinga29 July 1994, we have:
? Clearly demonstrated that using AC as a technique to send messages is not a productive pursuit.
All of the experiments that we conducted for this year produced highly significant evidence for anoma-
lous mental phenomena. We interpret this success, which is 20 times chance, to our expanding under-
standing of the protocols, mechanisms, and psychology that are responsible for a high level of function-
ing. The magnitude of our AC effects exceed the value that is considered robust by the psychology
research community.
* This report constitutes our final deliverable under contact number MDA908-93-C-0004.
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II. TECHNICAL OVERVIEW
In this section we provide a technical overview of the activity which was conducted under contract num-
ber MDA -004. The technical details of the experiments can be found in the Appendices.
1. Biophysical Measurements
These tasks were to search for possible physiological correlates to anomalous cognition (AC) function-
ing. If such correlations could be found, they would directly lead to improved application and laborato-
ry results.
1.1 Remote Observation Experiment
A series of experiments has been conducted in the U.S. in which it is claimed that a receiver's electrical
properties of the skin (i.e., electrodermal response) can be influenced by a remote observer. This is a
laboratory example of a frequently reported anecdote: after entering a crowded room, you "sense" that
you are being stared at and discover that you are correct.
A complete write-up of our experiment, which includes the history, methodology, and results can be
found in Appendix A; however, we summarize the findings here.
Two experiments were conducted to measure the extent to which people are able to unconsciously de-
tect another person staring at them from a distance. A close-circuit television set-up was employed in
which a video camera was focused on the experimental volunteer (Observee) while a person in another
room (Observer) concentrated on the image of the distant person as displayed on a color monitor; this
procedure was used to preclude any conventional sensory contact between the two people. During the
experimental session, the Observee's galvanic skin responses were monitored. An automated and com-
puterized system was programmed to record and average the physiological responses of the Observee
during 32 30-second monitoring periods. A random sequence was used to schedule 16 periods of re-
mote observation and 16 control periods when no observation efforts were attempted. A within-sub-
jects evaluation was made for each experimental session with a comparison between the mean amount
of autonomic nervous system activity during the experimental and control conditions. Twenty four ses-
* References may be found at the end of the document.
t Please see Section III on page 27 for a definition of terms.
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sions were conducted in each of two experiments. As predicted, both experiments yielded significantly
more autonomic activity during the remote observation periods as compared to control periods (Ex-
periment 1: t=1.878, df = 23, p < 0.036; Experiment 2: t=2.652, df = 23, p < 0.014). As pre-planned,
the two experiments were combined to increase the statistical power, yielding a significant t-score of
2.652 (df = 47, p < 0.005).
There are two competing anomalous mental phenomena descriptions for these results. Given that this
experiment represents successful replication of a number of such experiments, we do not include the
possibility that these results are a rare or chance statistical deviation. The question we pose for future
experiments is: Is this effect causal (i.e., the Observer forces the skin parameters to be different than
they would otherwise be) or informational (i.e., the Observee is AC-sensitive to know when he/she is
been stared at and responds accordingly)? The methodology we used in our experiment was primarily
designed to replicate both US and FSU similar experiments rather than to answer this particular ques-
tion. Although most of our analyses of so-called anomalous perturbation (AP) experiments demon-
strate informational mechanisms, we have recently analyzed a bio-AP experiment that statistically fa-
vored the causal explanation. Determining the mechanism is very important because it will dictate the
potential applications for this type of phenomenon.
1.2 Central Nervous System Response to AC Signals
The objective of this effort was to test the hypothesis that physiological responses to AC stimuli re-
semble those which occur in response to identical direct visual stimuli.
1.2.1 Background
As part of the research tasking for FY 1993, we had been asked to conduct an investigation of the rela-
tionship between the central and/or the peripheral nervous system and AC. In this section, we review
the pertinent literature and provide a justification for the effort.
1.2.1.1 Prior Research
We only consider AC experiments that use complex material for targets. While there have been sub-
stantial numbers of experiments in which symbols have been used as targets (Honorton, 1975; Honor-
ton and Ferarri, 1989), we will not include that data as part of the behavioral evidence for AC.
In 1976, Puthoff and Targ (1976) published the results of a series of experiments in what was then called
remote viewing. In 51 trials, their results led to an overall effect size of 0.960?0.140 which corresponds
to a 6.8a effect. In behavioral terms, Cohen (1988) would classify this effect as large.
As part of our FY 1991-1992 effort, we were asked to use magnetoencephalography (MEG) to investi-
gate how, or if, the central nervous system (CNS) responds to "visual" stimuli that are physically and
sensorially isolated from a receiver. The reasoning behind this request was that during an earlier inves-
tigation in FY 1988, we observed, what was suspected to be, instantaneous phase shifts of the dominant
alpha rhythm concomitant with such stimuli. That study itself was originally thought of as a conceptual
replication of even earlier work in which alphapower changes were putatively induced with remote visu-
al stimuli (Rebert and 'Iltrner, 1974; May, Targ, and Puthoff, 1977).
As we stated in our final report (May, Luke, and Lantz, 1992), the FY 1992 study did not replicate the
FY 1988 finding (May, Luke, Trask, and Frivold, 1990b). Because of our technical and methodological
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improvements, we concluded that the 1988 results were likely to be spurious. We can, however, specify a
number of possible arguments why the 1988 study failed to replicate:
? AC does not exist.
? AC exists, but the conditions were not conducive for quality AC functioning.
? AC exists, but the target system (i.e., 100 millisecond sinusoidal gratings in the lower left visual field
of the receiver) did not constitute an appropriate stimulus.
We address these issues in order.
tA The verification of the existence of AC is an epistemological problem. The definition of AC is a nega-
tive one; we are able to describe what AC is not, but there is no statement about what AC is other than
methodological. Colloquially, we might say AC is a form of information transfer when, according to the
currently understood laws of physics, the retrieval of information is impossible. Thus, we say AC exists
if a statistically valid anomaly is observed under the propq-Methodological conditions. 4/0
_
Since replication is better than distribution theory, it is important to define what replication means in a
2-o domain. Professor Utts, from the statistics department at the University of California at Davis, has
provided a good operational definition, which is based on standard power analysis (Utts, 1988). Since
1975, there have been four major articles published in the reviewed literature that analyze substantial
numbers of experiments that portend AC. All but one use the modern methods of meta-analysis to
determine the final conclusion for each collection of studies. It is important to realize that in all these
analyses, all the published data are included. In addition, the techniques of meta-analysis allow for re-
sponsible estimates of the number of studies that "failed" and were not published.
(1) In "Error Some Place!" Honorton critically reviewed card-guessing experiments, which were con-
ducted between 1934 and 1939 (Honorton, 1975). The AC-targets in these studies were five geo-
metric symbols; circle, square, wavy lines, star, and cross. In almost 800,000 individual card trials
that were obtained after the targets had been specified (i.e., real-time AC), the weighted effect size
was = 0.013?0.001, which corresponds to an overall combined effect of 12.7a. This analysis,
however, was completed before the techniques of meta-analysis were known. Improvements,
which include the analysis of experiment quality, can be found in the next example.
(2) Using the tools of modern meta-analysis, Honorton reviewed the precognition (i.e., a target is ran-
domly generated after the trial had been obtained) card-guessing database (Honorton and Ferarri,
1989). This analysis included 309 separate studies reported by 62 investigators. Nearly two million
individual trials were contributed by more the 50,000 subjects. The combined effect size was =
0.020?0.002, which corresponds to an overall combined effect of 11.4c. Two important results
emerge from Honorton's analysis. First, it is often stated by critics that the best results are from
studies with the least methodological controls. To check this hypothesis, Honorton devised an
eight-point quality measure (e.g., automated recording of data, proper randomization techniques)
and scored each study with regard to these measures. There was no significant correlation between
study quality and study score. Second, if researchers improved their experiments over time, one
would expect a significant correlation of study quality with date of publication. Honorton found r =
0.246, df = 307, p < 2 x10-7. In brief, Honorton concludes that a statistical anomaly exists in this
data that cannot be explained by poor study quality or a large variety of other hypothesis.
In examining AC with complex visual targets, Bern and Honorton analyzed 11 separate studies in-
volving a total of 329 trials (Bern and Honorton, 1994). They report a combined effect size of i =
0.159?0.055, which corresponds to 2.89o. We wish to call attention to the fact that this effect size is
approximately eight times larger than the effect size reported for studies where the targets are sym-
bols. Since effect sizes are relative measures above mean chance expectation, this result is one, of
(3)
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many, which suggest that the statistically simpler target system of five symbols does not produce as
much AL, as do complex targets.
(4) Radin and Nelson (1989) provide, in Foundations of Physics, a meta-analysis of a different form of
AC. The targets were randomly changing binary bits whose random nature was usually derived ei-
ther from electronic noise or radioactive decay. Similar to Honorton's work, they assigned a
16-point quality rating to over 800 individual studies conducted by 68 investigators from 1959 to
1987. They compute an overall weighted effect size of approximately = (3.0?0.5) x 10-4, which
corresponds to 6o. They also find no correlation between study quality and study score.
An independent analysis of these statistics can be found in Statistical Sciences, which is a journal that
invites and publishes contributions and substantial critical comments by recognized leaders in the field
of statistics (Utts, 1991). Although Utts focuses her attention on the meta-analyis of the Ganzfeld, her
analysis, discussion, and defense of the commentary are noteworthy.
These effects are small. 'lb illustrate a point about replication, we will compute, using standard power
analysis, the probability that a new study will demonstrate significant (i.e., p < 0.05) evidence for AC. If
we assume that the actual AC-effect size is given by = 0.159 then the probability of observing a signifi-
cant outcome in 50 trials is only 30%. Although this is six times chance expectation of 5%, there remains
a 70% likelihood that this study would "fail" to replicate. It is exactly this type of realization that is
responsible for a shift in the determination of replication from p-values to effect sizes.
It is clear from these analyses that there is incontrovertible evidence that a statistical, albeit small, in-
formation-transfer anomaly exists that cannot be accounted for by methodological issues or fraud.
Thus, we were strongly motivated to continue our investigations of the CNS in order to identify how the
brain responds to AC stimuli.
1.2.1.2 Conditions for Quality AC Functioning
One of the problems associated with our earlier CNS investigations is that we did not obtain concom-
itant behavioral measures of AC. Many experiments and discussions about what constitutes an AC-
conducive state can be found in the parapsychology literature. It is beyond the scope of this report to
provide an analysis of this research, and there remains substantial disagreement among the researchers
on this point. In Ganzfeld studies, for example, it is assumed that reducing somatisensory noise en-
hances AC, yet in our experiments we observe equivalent or larger effect sizes without the reduction.
Lacking reliable research results on this point, it has been our view that the "ideal" environment for AC
would not be much different than what might be needed to perform any high-level mental task. For
example, the best environment for a person to read and understand a novel might also be sufficient for
producing AC. In most all of our AC experiments, receivers are seated in a quiet and comfortable room
with few external distractions. The atmosphere is cordial, yet businesslike. On the one hand, we would
like to have the receivers be attentive (i.e., we suspect that too relaxed or asleep is not helpful); yet on
the other hand, we do not want them to be distracted. Under these conditions, we routinely observe
large effect sizes for AC.
In our MEG investigations, receivers were required to recline, face down, on a wooden table in a dark,
technically complex room for approximately 30 minuets. A large device (i.e., the MEG and its
associated liquid helium flask) was comfortably touching the back of their heads. In addition, they were
instructed to move as little as possible and relax as much as possible. Some receivers complained that
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various body parts fell "asleep," and that the experience was not particularly pleasant; other receivers
did not mind the setup. No receivers, however, found the experience enjoyable.
We suspect that since this environment was sufficiently different from our usual one, it may have failed
to provide a conducive atmosphere to elicit AC functioning.
1.2.1.3 Target Systems
The meta-analysis of the historical databases clearly show a preference for certain target systems. For
example, as we have shown above, complex visual targets provided better AC than do simple geometric
symbols. In addition, Bern and Honorton have demonstrated a statistical preference for even more
complex targets than static photographs. They observed a significant difference in the Ganzfeld favor-
ing video segments from popular movies over single photographs. There is no evidence in the literature
to suggest that a 100-millisecond long sinusoidal grating constitutes a viable AC target. In fact, our en-
tropy results suggest that it would not be a good target, because it's total change of Shannon entropy is
small (May, Spottiswoode, and James, 1994).
1.2.1.4 Conclusions
Except for the alpha blocking experiment done at SRI in the early 70's, we have not been able to observe
CNS correlates to AC functioning. We think that this may have resulted because of methodological
issues. In the remainder of this section, we describe a much-improved approach that remedies the prob-
lems of the previous methodologies.
1.2.2 Protocol
1.2.2.1 Introduction
Using an electroencephalograph (EEG), we corrected the shortcomings of the previous work. Each
stage of the investigation was built upon the results to date, and represented only modest extensions to
the previous stage. In addition, we used traditional EEG methods for data collection and analysis so
that comparisons with the established literature were straight forward.* We assumed that AC exists in
general (i.e., within the framework discussed above); however, our approach included a "local" verifica-
tion of AC's existence.
Consider event-related desynchronization (ERD). Spontaneous EEG reveals short-lasting, task- or
event-related amplitude changes in rhythmic activity within the alpha band (i.e., 8 to 12 Hz). This am-
plitude change or desynchronization is one of the elementary phenomena in EEG. It was first described
by Berger (1930) in scalp EEG as alpha blocking, and was later termed ERD by Pfurtscheller and Arani-
bar (1977). ERDs can be quantified as a function of time and can then be used to study cortical activa-
tion patterns during the planning of motor behavior (Pfurtscheller and Aranibar, 1979), sensory stimu-
lation, and cognitive processes (Pfurtscheller, Lindinger and Klimesch, 1986; Klimesch, Pfurtscheller and
LindingerKlimesh, 1987; and Sergeant, Geuze, and Van Winsum, 1987). Kaufman, Schwartz, Salustri
and Williamson (1990) provide a more recent example of cognitive-process-related ERDs, which they
call alpha suppression. They found a significantly shorter ERD when subjects simply responded to a
target stimulus, compared with the ERD that occurred when a subject had to search visual memory to
determine whether the target matched one previously presented. Because ERDs arise from external
For these investigations, we did not require the speci al properties of a MEG (e.g., source localization), sowe used the less com-
plex and more readily available EEG technology.
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stimuli, cognitive tasks, or motor functions, they are a likely variable to use to study how the CNS might
respond to AC stimuli. It would be odd, indeed, if AC was the only stimulus that did not produce an ERD.
1.2.2.2 Target Stimuli
To overcome the potential problems associated with the earlier stimuli, we used throughout this study
our standard National Geographic target pool. These images are complex, but there is an increasing
database in our laboratory that shows they are suitable for targets in AC experiments. In addition, the
results of the meta-analyses, which were described above, show a significant preference for complex
target systems as opposed to symbols or 100-millisecond long sinusoidal gratings. Our target pool was
digitized for later display on a laboratory PC. Figure 1 shows the stimulus timing. During a trial, a ran-
domly selected photograph was displayed for one second with an inter-stimulus interval (ISI) of 3 seconds.
Stimulus Window Post Stimulus Next Stimulus Window
0 1 4 5
Time (Seconds)
8
Figure 1. Stimulus Timing.
While this stimulus?post stimulus pattern is fixed throughout the session, what happens in a stimulus
window is counter balanced between two stimulus types and random. We created a digital "image" that
was technically identical to the target images (e.g., same resolution, size) except that the color was nu-
merically identical to the background color of the display. These pseudo stimuli could not be detected
visually and, thus, served as a within run control.
1.2.2.3 Receivers
We asked three of our best receivers, 009, 372, and 389 to participate in the experiment. Because of the
pilot nature of this approach, we did not set the total number of trials; rather, time and receiver avail-
ability determined the number of trials for each receiver.
1.2.2.4 Thal Protocol
The following was the sequence of events for each trial:
(1) The receiver was wired at the standard positions for right and left hemisphere EEG for occipital
and parietal measurements referenced to CZ (i.e., the center of the top of the scalp).
(2) The receiver was seated in a sound-attenuated and electrically shielded room that is commonly
used for such measurements.
(3) One of two possible random sequences for pseudo and target stimuli was selected randomly, and
the trial was initiated.
(4) The receiver was instructed to silently obtain AC data for the first five minutes.
(5) The receiver debriefed his/her experience during the next five minutes in words and drawings.
(6) After the response had been collected, the receiver was presented visually with the exact same stim-
ulus pattern that was used in the first five minute interval as feedback.
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After a brief rest, a second trial was conducted, which was identical to the first except that a new target
was selected randomly and the second possible stimulus order was used in step 3 above.
1.2.2.5 AC-Behavior Analysis
An analyst who was otherwise blind to the experiment and trial details, was given a target pack number
that contained the original target and four decoy photographs in random order. The analyst's task was
to rank-order the five targets from best to worst match to the trial behavior response (i.e., writings and
drawings). With the usual sum-of-rank statistic, we could determine the overall level of AC functioning
in the study, for each receiver, and determine the level of AC for each trial.
1.2.2.6 ERD Analysis
The EEG record for each trial contains continuous samples at 500 samples/second for five minutes of
AC-stimuli and five minutes for direct stimuli (i.e., feedback of the target visually). Each epoch con-
tained random sequences of stimuli and pseudo stimuli. These data were low pass filtered to avoid
aliasing, then reduced by five, yielding an effective sampling rate of 100/second. The alpha content (i.e.,
7.81 to 12.7 Hz) was extracted with a 32-pole, FIR, zero phase shift, digital filter, and the alpha power
was estimated by the ensemble square.
We computed an ERD template for each receiver. For each direct stimulus during the feedback five
minute interval, the alpha power was ensemble averaged and normalized by the average alpha power
for one second of prestimulus time. The resulting ERDs were averaged to produce the template for
each trial. Figure 2 shows a typical ERD from one such calculation for receiver 372. We see that for
direct stimuli we expect a latency of approximately 0.5 second (i.e, time after stimulus onset), an 85%
reduction in alpha power and approximately two seconds for recovery.
This template was cross correlated with the data during the AC-portion of the trial. That is, for each
stimulus and for each pseudo stimulus, the maximum of the absolute value of the cross correlation for
?0.2 seconds surrounding the stimulus time was accumulated separately for each stimulus type. A stan-
dard non-parametric sum-of-ranks method was used to compare the resulting two distributions.
?1 0
?1 0 1
Time (s)
2
3
Figure 2. Average ERD Normalized by Pre-Stimulus Mean.
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1.2.3 Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the results of the blind rank-order judging for the three receivers;
Table 1.
AC Results
Receiver
Thais

ES
P-value
009
18
2.389
0.432
0.033
372
24
2.500
0.354
0.042
389
28
2.750
0.177
0.175
Total
70
2.571
0.303
0.006
llvo receivers produced independently significant evidence for AC and the combined data were also
significant. Thus we have corrected one of the shortcomings of our earlier efforts; we have independent
evidence for AC.
Table 2 shows the results of the non-parameter Wilcoxon sum-of-ranks test between the distributions
resulting from the pseudo- and AC-stimuli.
Since the total number of stimuli per receiver was over 1600, the statistics shown in Table 2 are not en-
couraging. That is, given we observed significant evidence for AC, how is it that we do not see a signifi-
cant CNS response?
Table 2.
Wilcoxon Statistics for ERDs
Receiver
Z-score
P-value (2t)
009
?0.758
0.448
372
1.509
0.132
389
0.930
0352
Total
0.938
0.175 ,.
To determine the overall sensitivity of our signal detection methodology, we inserted template ERD's
into copies of the EEG data. Averaged over all receivers, we found that a 0.2 % change from pre-stimu-
lus alpha would lead to a significant difference between the distributions resulting from the AC-stimuli
and the pseudo stimuli. This high sensitivity arises primarily because we have over 1600 stimuli per
receiver and because the cross correlations technique (i.e., frequently referred to as a matched filter)
can be shown to be the best possible signal detection algorithm in a noise environment. Yet, with this
sensitivity we did not observe a statistically significant ERD. We must examine some of our basic as-
sumptions, if we are to understand this result.
One assumption is that a putative ERD would result, on the average, from every AC-stimulus. To test
this, we re-analyzed the behavioral data post hoc. Rank-order analysis does not usually indicate the
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absolute quality of the AC. For example, a response that is a near-perfect description of the target re-
ceives a rank of one. But a response which is barely matchable to the target may also receive a rank of
one. Table 3 shows the rating scale that we used to perform a blind assessment of the quality of theAC
responses, regardless of their rank.
Table 3.
0-7 Point Assessment Scale
Score
Description
7
Excellent correspondence, including good analytical detail, with essentially no
incorrect information
6
Good correspondence with good analytical information and relatively little
incorrect information.
5
Good correspondence with unambiguous unique matchable elements, but
some incorrect information.
4
Good correspondence with several matchable elements intermixed with
incorrect information.
3
Mixture of correct and incorrect elements, but enough of the former to indicate
receiver has made contact with the site.
2
Some correct elements, but not sufficient to suggest results beyond chance
expectation.
1
Little correspondence.
0
No correspondence.
To apply this subjective scale to anAC trial, an analyst begins with a score of seven and determines if the
description for that score is correct. If not, then the analyst tries a score of six and so on. In this way the
scale is traversed from seven to zero until the score-description seems reasonable for the trial.
We thought that by analyzing the EEG data only when the AC functioning was high, we might have a
better chance of detecting an ERD. Unfortunately, we found no statistical change of the Wilcoxon Z-
scores only using data from the upper portions of the scale shown in Table 3. Thus, we must examine our
assumptions further.
One implicit assumption in the search for AC-ERDs is that there is a direct casual and temporally stable
link between the stimulus and the response. That is, since the data analysis involves an ensemble aver-
age over time, we must assume that changes in spontaneous alpha that are not associated with the stim-
ulus will be averaged out of the ensemble. It may be, however, that AC is more complex. In Honorton's
meta-analysis of the precognition data (Honorton and Ferrari, 1989), the precognition of complex visu-
al targets reported by Jahn (1982), and the anecdotal reports of many of our receivers all suggest that
AC may not be stable in time.
One explanation for the significant improvement in AC when complex targets are used instead of sym-
bols may be related to imagery. If a receiver knows the stimulus set (e.g., in the case of Zener cards; star,
cross, square, circle and wavy lines) then he or she is likely unable to differentiate between a vivid inter-
nal image of one of the symbols, which results from memory or imagination, and a putative "signal"
resulting from AC. In the case of more complex targets, such as National Geographic photographs,
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there may be a lesser tendency to remember all possible combinations of elements one may find in such
a target pool. If this speculation is correct, then internal imagery is a source of noise, and we might not
expect to see changes in occipital alpha.
Some receivers report that their internal experiences tend to be kinesthetic rather than visual. These
ideas have not been formally tested in the laboratory, yet they are commonly reported by many of our
excellent receivers. We have assumed that the CNS will respond as if the AC-signal stimulates neurons
near the visual cortex. Given that we were unable to take survey data over the entire scalp, it is possible
that we might not have positioned the EEG electrodes for optimal detection of an AC response.
We recommend that we adopt the new technology of functional magnetic resonance imaging, which can
survey the entire CNS. In addition, we suggest that we optimize the target pool to contain the largest
possible gradient of Shannon entropy. This should be the best possible next step to observe the CNS's
response to an AC stimulus.
2. Data Patterns/Parameter Correlations
The task of this section was to identify parameters that would potentially lead to an increase of AC func-
tioning and assist in determining optimal protocols for potential applications.
2.1 The Gradient of Shannon's Entropy
The primary activity in this category was to determine if the total change of Shannon entropy could be
confirmed as an intrinsic target variable. This effort constituted a replication of our finding during the
1992-1993 period, and led to three papers that have been accepted for publication at the Parapsycholog-
ical Annual Convention. We include these three papers as Appendices B, C, and D and summarize
their findings here.
The Ganzfeld experiments as summarized by Bern and Honorton (1994) suggest that using dynamic
targets produces stronger results than using static ones. Bern and Honorton, however, only analyzed
Ganzfeld studies that included the use of a sender. Since it is known that a sender is not a necessary
requirement in forced-choice trials, we designed and carried out a study to see if a sender is required in
non-Ganzfeld, free-response trials. In the first of two experiments, five experienced receivers partici-
pated in 40 trials each, 10 in each condition of a 2 x 2 design to explore sender and target type. We
observed significant effects for static targets (i.e., exact sum-of-rank probability of p < 0.0073, effect
size = 0.248, n=100), chance results for dynamic targets (i.e.,p < 0.500, effect size = 0.000, n = 100),
and no interaction effects between sender and target-type conditions. One receiver slightly favored the
no sender condition (F(1,36) = 4.43, p < 0.04), while another slightly favored static targets (F(1,36) =
5.47, p < 0.04). We speculate that these surprising results (i.e., favoring static over dynamic targets)
arose, in part, because of the difference between a topically unbounded dynamic target pool and a topi-
cally restrictive static pool. In a second experiment, we redesigned the dynamic pool to match more
closely the properties of the static pool. Four of the receivers from the first study participated in at least
20 trials each, 10 in each target-type condition. No senders were used throughout this experiment. We
observed a significant increase in anomalous cognition for the new dynamic targets (X2 = 9.942, df = 1,
p < 1.6 x 10-3), and an increase in anomalous cognition for the static targets (X2 = 3.158, df = 1, p <
0.075). We conclude that a sender is not a necessary requirement for free-response anomalous cogni-
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tion. A rank-order analysis showed no target-type dependencies in the second study (X2 =0, df = 1, p <
0.5), but a rating analysis revealed some difference favoring dynamic targets (t = 1.32, df = 68, p <
0.096) for the significant receivers. Based on our analysis, we believe a fundamental argument suggests
that in free-response anomalous cognition experiments, dynamic targets should be better than static
ones.
The experimental result, however, was surprising?it was directly opposite to the results that re
derived from the Ganzfeld database. The topics of the dynamic targets were virtually unlimited, where-
as the topics for the static targets were constrained in content, size of cognitive elements, and range of
affect. In our second experiment, we redesigned the target pools to correct this unbalance and observed,
significant improvement of AC functioning. We incorporate these findings into a definition of target
pool bandwidth and propose that the proper selection of bandwidth will lead to a reduction of incorrect
information in free-response A C.
Based upon our early entropy result and using the knowledge gained about the target pool bandwidth,
we propose that the average total change of Shannon's entropy is a candidate for an intrinsic target
property. We find a significant correlation of the gradient of Shannon's entropy (Spearman's 0 = 0.337,
df = 31, t = 1.99, p < 0.028) with an absolute measure of the quality of the anomalous cognition. This
result is a successful replication of our 1992 finding.
Our identification of an intrinsic target property that correlates with the quality of AC is an extremely
important finding. Not only does it instruct us to select better target material for laboratory studies, but
it also guides us in task selection for practical applications.
2.2 Senders in the Ganzfeld
Another primary activity in this category was to assess the role of a sender in an AC experiment. We
subcontracted to the Psychology Department at the University of Edinburgh to conduct a detailed test
using the methodology of the Ganzfeld. Appendix E contains their final reports which detail their ex-
periment and results. We summarize their findings in this section.
The Ganzfeld methodology differs in three fundamental ways from our usual AC experiment:
(1) A mild altered state is used to elicit AC functioning.
(2) Senders are used in a "telepathic" modality.
(3) The receivers perform their own the rank-order judging in the analysis of the data.
Otherwise the Ganzfeld protocol is similar to ours. A receiver is asked to register his/her impression of
an isolated target that is randomly selected from a pre-defined set. We asked Dr. Robert L. Morris to
use this methodology to determine the role of the sender. As they will be reporting at the next Parapsy-
chological Association Annual Convention, they found, as we did, that a sender is not a necessary partic-
ipant in successful AC experiments. In addition, they were able to show that the sender may not partici-
pate in any significant way in the process. As a consequence of this experiment, they are considering
dropping the sender in all of their future experiments.
While it is agreed that perhaps for psychological reasons, some receivers may produce better results
with a sender, there appear to be no mechanistic arguments favoring the use of a sender.
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2.3 0-Sort Personality Assessment
The objective of this study was to explore potential personality variables as they relate to AC ability
through the use of the 0-Sort method.
2.3.1 Introduction
Historically, a wide range of psychological tests have been used in an attempt to detect correlations be-
tween personality variables and AC performance. These tests have included standard clinical batteries
as well as the Personality Assessment System (Lantz, 1987). Some of these have yielded statistical cor-
relations; however, the magnitude of the correlations are often too small for predictive purposes.
The 0-Sort differs from other methods of personality assessment in that it is not a psychological test,
but merely an empirical system devised to permit individual personalities to be comprehensively de-
scribed and quantitatively compared. First conceived by William Stephensen, the 0-Sort method has
become a useful tool for comparing personality variables between a wide variety of different popula-
tions (Block, 1978). For example, studies have ranged from examining the differences between effec-
tive and ineffective liars to analyzing the difference between individuals who tend to rely upon external
visual fields rather than proprioceptive (i.e., muscular skeletal) cues in determining true vertical.
One common difficulty with traditional self-report personality tests is that they ask the subject to identi-
fy where they fit on a continuous spectrum of pre-determined dimensions. For example, one dimension
of the MBTI ranges between extroversion and introversion. Even if the subject chooses not to describe
him/her self in these terms, nonetheless, they must respond. The Q-Sort allows the subjects to deter-
mine the appropriate dimensions for themselves.
In 1989 we conducted a preliminary test of this method using 14 individuals, including three receivers
who were known to be talented in anomalous cognition (AC). Cluster analysis was used to assemble the
results of individual 0-Sort scores into groups of similar profiles, at the same time attempting to create
groups that are as different from one another as possible. The result is a visual display called a cluster
diagram. To the 14 receivers, we added three standard profiles; a normal personality profile, two differ-
ent types of pathology personality profiles, and a tentative AC-Profile; an average of the personality
traits of the three known viewers. The result was that the pathological profiles were in a cluster by them-
selves while the normal profile and the tentative AC-Profile were clustered together with the known
receivers.
As a result of the 1989 0-Sort work, we proposed to expand the use of the Q-Sort and to attempt to
answer the following questions:
(1) What personality variables are common to those individuals who perform well on AC tasks?
(2) How do the personality descriptions of individuals who do not do well on AC tasks differ from those
who do?
(3) What might an "ideal" AC profile look like?
2.3.2 The 0-Sort Method
For each individual, the Q-Sort method involved sorting 100 cards into nine categories with an assigned
number of cards placed within each category. The 100 Q-Sort cards look something like a deck of nor-
mal playing cards, except that on the face of each is written a single psychological statement in a theoret-
ically neutral form (e.g., "Initiates Humor"). Each psychological statement is written in a way so as to
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suggest a continuum rather than an either/or dichotomy. The numbers of cards within each of nine cate-
gories must be 5, 8, 12, 16, 18, 16, 12, 8, 5, respectively. The first category represents those psychody-
namic elements that are least characteristic of the individual, while the last category represents those
elements most characteristic of the individual and the middle categories represent a continuum in be-
tween. The prescribed distribution is a powerful tool, in that it forces individuals into making difficult
definitive decisions about their own personalities at the extreme ends of a scale while also allowing for
some flexibility. The Q-Sort is self-administered and takes approximately 20 minutes per individual.
2.3.2.1 Subject Selection
Thirty four individuals participated in the 0-Sort study. All were a self-selected subset of individuals
who consented to participate in other AC experiments conducted by SAIC, recruited from the profession-
al and academic communities within the greater San Francisco Bay area, drawn from the student and
faculty populations of Stanford University, the Institute for Transpersonal Psychology, and other neigh-
boring educational and research institutions. The age of all participants ranged from 16 to 60.
23.2.2 Procedure
The following is a step-by-step description of the method used to collect the 0-Sort personality as-
sessments. This process is done only one time by each subject.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
A participant was greeted by the PI in the Cognitive Sciences Laboratory at Science Applications
International Corporation in a warm and friendly way and was shown to a comfortable, quiet loca-
tion within the laboratory.
Following a brief "get acquainted" period, the procedure was explained and (s)he was encouraged
to ask any questions about the nature of the study.
The PI provided a consent form, typed instructions, a record sheet, and a deck of 100 0-Sort cards.
The PI left the participant alone to sort the 100 cards into the nine categories.
The record sheet, instructions, and deck of cards was then collected by the PI.
2.3.23 Analysis
All personality descriptions were put into a computer database for cluster analysis. This kind of analysis
assembles 0-Sort descriptions into groups of similar profiles, and attempts to create groups that are as dif-
ferent from one another as possible. The result of such an analysis is a visual display of clusters, such as the
one in Figure 3. Talented AC receivers are indicated by a (*) and seem cluster around the normal pro-
file. Fortunately, the two personality pathology profiles are in a cluster by themselves.
2.3.3 Results and Conclusions
The results of the cluster analysis can be seen in Figure 3. Three standard profiles; a normal personality
profile, two different types of personality pathology profiles, and a tentative AC-Profile were added to
the analysis. The AC-Profile was composed of the combined Q-Sorts of six known talented receivers
(i.e., 454, 372, 009, 389, 518, and 330). These receivers were chosen on the basis of their repeated suc-
cessful performance on AC tasks within our laboratory. From our analysis, we find that good AC receiv-
ers think of themselves as:
? Possessing a wide range of interest.
? Thinking and associating ideas in unusual ways.
? Valuing intellectual and cognitive matters.
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? Concerned with philosophical problems.
? Being verbally fluent and can express ideal well.
They also believe that they are not:
? Subtly negative and do not tend to undermine, obstruct, or sabotage.
? Guileful, deceitful, manipulative or opportunistic.
? Ego-defensive or have a small reserve of integration.
? Exploitive or create dependencies in people.
? Self-pitying or feel victimized by life.
It remains to be seen if this general statements are predictive of good AC performance. They do, how-
ever, represent a personality profile of our best receivers.
For example, in a study investigating a possible correlation between ESP and creativity using subjects
from a well-know music academy in New York City, Schlitz and Honorton (1992) suggest that subjects
who exhibit greater cognitive flexibility and elaboration produce higher AC scores. The five 0-Sort
items most characteristic of the AC-Profile would tend to support this idea.
The advantages of using the Q-Sort method of personality description is that it is easy and inexpensive
to implement and analyze. The problems are that the results are conditioned both by the content of the
0-Sort card set and the willingness of the sorter to give a candid and accurate description of themselves.
These results are only preliminary and little can be known until we have a much larger database of reli-
able AC viewers. In time it is hoped that the Q-Sort may prove useful in predicting where we should
begin to look in the general population to find successful AC viewers.
2.4 Improved AC Evpluation for Applications
Under this section, we were asked to provide improved AC analytical techniques that might be more
germane in an application setting. We have delivered a complete description of one such technique as a
separate document. This technique expands our fuzzy set analysis to include adaptive learning based
upon real-time feedback.
3. Theoretical Issues
The objective was to identify models for physical mechanisms for AC and to develop protocols for test-
able experiments using select individuals. We reported our theoretical approach in an interim technical
report; however, we include it here for completeness.
3.1 Probable Futures
Since the dawn of history, mankind has been fascinated by the "what ifs" associated with the probabilis-
tic paths that form the future and form the myriad worlds of "what might have been." Mankind's fas-
cination with predicting the future evolved into the mathematical science of probability theory. Howev-
er, classical probability theory is a description which is overlaid on an assumed physical reality. With the
advent of quantum theory, alternative paths to the same end took on a physical reality. The very fact
that alternative paths exist change the probability of the outcome. There is no classical equivalent.
Suddenly the world of "what ifs" has become comingled with the worlds of "what might have been."
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PhenomsfiRRSNIM ggieltkValfd2ANOW TingAiggN96-00789R003200240001-0
L1-2
04
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Figure 3. Cluster Diagram
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This idea has been experimentally verified in recent experiments conducted at Rochester University. It
has been shown that the physical outcome of a quantum mechanical experiment depends not only upon
what is being measured, but also on what could be measured, even though it wasn't.
The implication for AC mechanisms is that precognition may be the underlying mechanism. If, for
some yet unknown reason, humans have access to probable futures rather than actual futures, then the
perception appears not to contradict the rules of physics.
3.2 Einstein, Poldasky, Rosen Paradox (EPR)
The paradox suggest possible information transport during the collapse of a wave function. It arises
naturally when considering two-particle correlations and the effects of measuring the state of one par-
ticle which gives rise to unambiguous knowledge of the state of the correlated particle even though it
may be very far from the measured particle at the time the measurement is made. While no one any
longer questions the validity of the predictions of quantum mechanics for correlated systems, the very
fact of their validity has caused a philosophical revolution. There is no underlying reality, no absolute
reality. There is only reality as defined by measurements made by an observer.
There is substantial anomalous mental phenomena (AMP) literature on what are called Observational
Theories (OT). It is possible that the EPR paradox and its implications may serve as a physics base for
the OB. There is a major problem both with the on and EPR as models for perception. Brain func-
tioning at room temperature appears not to be a quantum system; therefore, care must be exercised
before we can demonstrate the value of EPR for AMP mechanisms.
3.3 General Relativity
The recent resurgence of interest in Einstein's general theory of relativity has lead to some startling
theoretical conclusions about the nature of space-time again bringing to the forefront the fact that sci-
ence has not unveiled all the secrets associated with time. One such piece of work is Matt Visser's paper
on traversable wormholes (Visser, 1989). This paper predicts that it is physically possible to transport
energy (and, therefore, information) between remote space-time points without traversing the classical
distance between the space-time points.
For sometime it has been known that even according to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is pos-
sible to describe mathematically a fully consistent universe in which everything moves faster than the
speed of light. The particles inhabiting such a universe have been given the name tachyons while, in
contrast, the particles with which we are familiar are named tardyons. The important fact is that neither
particle can ever travel at the speed of light. Photons, of course, are common to both universes. More-
over, this is a non-quantum mechanical description. We know that in quantum theory it is possible to
violate such constraints providing that we do so for short enough periods. The question of whether a
tardyon can exist as a tachyon for a short period of time merits investigation.
From a heuristic perspective, reverse information flow (i.e., precognition) appears to describe much of
the AMP data. While Visser's calculations are not a theory of precognition, at a minimum they demon-
strate that physics may allow for the macroscopic, but statistical, breach of causality. We anticipate that
a continuation of these ideas may lead to a law for causality similar to the Second Law of Thermody-
namics. That is, on the average causality must hold, but locally there may be a slight statistical reversal
that is compensated for elsewhere such that the average is correct.
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3.4 Time and Entropy
The relationship between time and entropy is once more open to question. For nearly two hundred
years, scientists have taken the position that the entropy of a closed system can never decrease with time
and that, on the scale of the universe, entropy always increases with increasing time. Recently however,
Steven Hawking raised the possibility that macroscopic time or psychological time, the time that we
perceive, is actually determined by the change of entropy (Hawking, 1988). Similar conclusions were
reached at about the same time by Tbny Rothman from the Center for Relativity at the University of
Thxas (Rothman, 1987). Rothman discusses the seven arrows of time that represent the distinction be-
tween microscopic reversible time and the macroscopic time as experienced by intelligent life. This
concept was first proposed by Szilard (1929) in the paper, "On the decrease of entropy in a thermody-
namic system by the intervention of intelligent beings."
Given that we showed experimentally that the total change of entropy is related to the quality of AC,
this theoretical approach seems most promising (May, Spottiswoode and James, 1994).
3.5 Novel Potentials
Classical mechanics and, for the most part, quantum mechanics have treated potentials as convenient
mathematical descriptions for which there was no physical instantiation. Recently a series of clever ex-
periments have dispelled that view by showing that a potential can have an effect on a particle even
when there was no corresponding force present. The electromagnetic vector and scalar potentials or
torsion fields are examples of such novel potentials.
At this time, the existence of anomalous perturbation (AP) remains open. While there are intriguing
experiments, the database for AP is substantially less than for AC. A theoretical approach for AP using
novel potentials is probably premature; however, it may be possible that such potentials could act as a
"carrier" of AC information.
4. Applied Research
SG 1 B The task objective was to focus on items that might lead to improved functioning through protocol mod-
ification and to provide demonstrations of potential applications. We conducted three primary activi-
ties for this tasking under the direction of physicist S. James P. Spottiswoode.
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4.2 Attempts at Message Sending Using AC
The objective of this experiment was to adapt a standard AC experiment to a forced-choice situation.
An additional objective was to incorporate fuzzy set technology into a "crisp," two-by-five, error cor-
recting block code to improve AC detection in a message sending/receiving metaphor. We reported this
experiment in an interim technical report; however, we summarize it here for completeness.
4.2.1 Background
In the Spring of 1992, SAIC conducted a pilot experiment that was designed to explore the potential for
maximizing the reliability of AC responses through objective and rapid analysis. In this study, we re-
verted to using a dichotomous binary procedure as opposed to a fuzzy set technique. By carefully select-
ing the dichotomous elements, we could use standard block coding techniques to incorporate complete
single error correction, also including a few two-fold corrections as well. We used a message sending
motif as a test-bed for this kind of analysis.
Unfortunately, in that experiment, only one receiver demonstrated an effect size larger than 0.20 (i.e.,
0.22) for evidence of an AC phenomena, and no evidence of enhanced detection of AC was seen.
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A number of difficulties were discovered in this experiment that may have rendered the results incon-
clusive:
? In an attempt to make the targets dichotomous within target packs and at the same time interesting to
view, targets within the pool ranged in scale from a panoramic scene of a cityscape to a photograph of
three chairs or an image of three geometric shapes, and thus possessed a large target-pool bandwidth
(i.e., a large set of differing target elements). Since receivers were told in advance that the targets
could contain absolutely any material, they were unable to censor their internal experiences, which
may have resulted in enhanced intrinsic receiver noise, and thus added "noise" to the response.
? Each encoding bit was linked to only one precept (e.g., the single target element of water). This exag-
gerated the importance of the chosen dichotomous elements. For example, if a receiver failed to
sense water in the target but managed to sense most other aspects of the target, regardless of whether
they were part of the bit structure, then the BCH coding was not particularly applicable.
? In an AC application, a fundamental imbalance existed in the bit structure. The BCH coding assumes
that binary zero is "assertive." That is, in AC when water is not indicated in the response, it is equiva-
lent to indicating the water is definitely not in the target. Unfortunately, in AC experiments it is pos-
sible or even likely that unless a receiver specifies explicitly that water is not present, then the pres-
ence or absence is indeterminate. Maybe water exists in the target but was not noticed or was
unreported by the receiver. Similarly, water may not exist in the target and a non-response is equiva- -
lent to an assertive no. These two cases are, of course, indistinguishable. The net effect is to render
the BCH coding invalid.
In the current experimental protocol, we attempted to correct the problems discussed above so that
potential enhancement of the detection of AC might be optimized. The following modifications were
made:
? The target-pool bandwidth was reduced by using the National Geographic static target pool, which
has been successful for many previous AC experiments.
? Sensitivity to single BCH encoding bits was reduced by using a number of fuzzy-set elements to define
each BCH bit. Thus, each BCH bit did not rely upon a single precept, but rather represented classes
of different precepts.
We had anticipated that these improvements would allow for much stronger AC and provide a more
sensitive test of whether BCH error-correcting could be successfully applied to AC detection. We used
long-distance associative AC tasks as a test bed for this procedure.
This experiment was similar to a traditional AC experiment. A target was selected randomly; a receiver
was asked to describe that target; and a quantitative assessment of the match was made. It differs, how-
ever, only in the construction of the targets and in the quantitative analysis.
4.2.2 Conclusions
No receiver produced significant deviations in the sum-of-ranks statistic, and binary numbers were not
determined beyond chance expectation. Even though our best receivers participated in this particular
study, their results were not up to the standard which we have traditionally seen from them. We could
speculate that possibly the experimental conditions were significantly different from their usual ex-
pectations (i.e., at home or in our laboratory) and that travel and performance anxiety may have con-
tributed to the lack of AC functioning; however, very occasionally do they not perform as expected and
excuses are not necessary. We strongly urge that a replication be tried under laboratory conditions to
test the new approach of the fuzzy set encoding. At this time, even though there are a few excellent ex-
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amples in the literature of using AC for message sending, we suggest that this might not be an optimum
use of the phenomenon.
4.3 Improved Analysis
We have delivered an approach to the analysis of application-oriented AC using fuzzy set technology as
part of a separate document. We summarize the pertinent aspects of the approach here for complete-
ness.
We have been conducting application-like experiments for a number of years. These test-bed experi-
ments have an advantage in that total ground truth is known in advance. A list of items, therefore, can
be constructed that wouldgenerally be of interest. We illustrate this approach to fuzzy set analysis with
one of our test-bed experiments. We constructed three categories of items: (1) Functions of the Site, (2)
Physical Relationships, and (3) Objects. Table 4 shows a partial list of these three types of items for our
test-bed experiment. The complete list spans many pages.
Table 4.
Partial Element List for a Test-bed Experiment
Target/Response Element
w
T(?)
R(?)
Functions (1.0)
Directed Energy
5
1.0
0.9
Test Experiment
2
1.0
1.0
Noise Generation
1
0.4
0.6
Operation in Space
1
0.0
1.0
Relationships (0.75)
Power Source Above Beam Line
1
1.0
0.0
Electrons Flow Through Beam Line
1
1.0
0.7
Pipes in and out of Sphere
1
0
1.0
Objects (0.5)
External Electron Beam
2.5
1.0
0.0
High Security Area
1
1.0
1.0
Bundled Metal Rods
1
0.0
1.0
Two types of data must be incorporated into such a list to provide an accurate measure; an a priori list of
items that are definitely part of the target and items that are mentioned by the receiver that were not
recognized as being part of the target. In Table 4, we have indicated overall weighting factors of 1.0,
0.75, and 0.5 for functions, relationships, and objects, respectively. That is, in this experiment, we were
primarily interested in functions. Depending upon the task, the formalism accepts any appropriate
weighting factors. The column w is a within-group weighting factor. That is, the item Directed Energy is
five time more important than is Noise Generation. T(u) represents the degree to which the item is pres-
ent in the target. For example, although Noise Generation is present in the target, it is roughly only 40%
apparent; whereas Pipes in and out of Sphere is not present at all. R(u) is the degree to which the analyst
is convinced that the element is indicated in the response. For example, the analyst was 90% convinced
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that the receiver meant Directed Energy even though it was not specifically mentioned. All items that are
specifically mentioned receive an It(u) = 1. Notice that we included all items mentioned by the receiver
regardless if the item was present in the target. We set their relative weights all equal to one.
lb arrive at a meaningful number from these data, we use fuzzy set formalism (May, Utts, Humphrey,
Luke, Frivold, and Mask, 1990b). We compute the accuracy and the reliability of the response to the
target system. The accuracy is the fraction of items in the target that were described correctly, and the
reliability is the fraction of items in the response that were present in the target system. It is possible to
obtain a very accurate description with poor reliability. Suppose the receiver inserted an encyclopedia
as his or her response. In principle, nearly all aspects of the target might be mentioned; however, a large
number of response items would not be present in the target. Thus the certification number, the value
which may be used to describe the quality of the response, must be related to both the accuracy and the
reliability. Formally, the accuracy and reliability are defined by:
ZWiMin[T jtu R ;Cu)]
Accuracy ? i.1
Elgi TAU)
W, Min[Ti(u), RAIL)]
Reliability ?
RA11)
J=1
(1)
where N is the total number of elements in the evaluation form; Tj and Rj are the target and response
score for element j; and Wj is the product of the within-group weight, w, and the group weight. For ex-
ample, in the Functions group the w are equal to the Wbecause the functions weight is one. Since the
Relationships group weight is 0.75, the within-group weights shown in Table 4 must all be multiplied by
0.75 to form the Wj for those elements in this group.
To be sensitive to the interplay between Accuracy and Reliability, we propose that Certification = Accu-
racy x Reliability.
To illustrate the use the Equations 1, we demonstrate how to compute these items using only the data we
show in Table 4. We find the Accuracy = 0.744. the Reliability = 0.764, and Certification = 0.568. Ran-
dom utterances compared to random targets roughly yield 0.3 for both Accuracy and Reliability. That is
approximately 1/3 of whatever is said can be found in any target and 1/3 of any target can be described
regardless what is said. An approximate minimum Certification of 0.1 would represent chance matches.
Anything above 0.3 would can be considered as solid evidence of "contact" with the target even in an
application setting.
5. Research Methodology and Support
Besides our usual activity with our Scientific Oversight Committee, who review our technical protocols
prior to experiments, and our Institutional Review Board, who review our procedures with regard to the
ethical use of human subjects
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III. GLOSSARY
Not all the terms defined below are germane to this report, but they are included here for completeness.
In a typical anomalous mental phenomena (AMP) task, we define:
? Anomalous Cognition (AC)?A form of information transfer in which all known sensorial stimuli are
absent. That is, some individuals are able to gain access to information by an as yet unknown process.
? Agent?An individual who attempts to influence a target system.
? Analyst?An individual who provides a quantitative measure of AC.
? AE?A form of interaction with matter in which all known physical mechanisms are absent. That is,
some individuals are able to influence matter by an as yet unknown process.
? Feedback?After a response has been secured, information about the intended target is displayed to
the receiver.
? Monitor?An individual who monitors an AC session to facilitate data collection.
? Protocol?A template for conducting a structured data collection session.
? Receiver?An individual who attempts to perceive and report information about a target.
? Response?Material that is produced during an AC session in response to the intended target.
? Sender/Beacon?An individual who, while receiving direct sensorial stimuli from an intended target,
acts as a putative transmitter to the receiver.
? Session?A time period during which AC data are collected.
? Specialty?A given receiver's ability to be particularly successful with a given class of targets (e.g.,
people as opposed to buildings).
? Target?An item that is the focus of an AMP task (e.g., person, place, thing, event).
? Target Designation?A method by which a specific target, against the backdrop of all other possible
targets, is identified to the receiver (e.g., geographical coordinates).
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APPENDIX A
Autonomic Detection of Remote Observation:
Two Conceptual Replications
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AUTONOMIC DETECTION OF REMOTE OBSERVATION:
Two Conceptual Replicationsl
Marilyn J. Schlitz
Cognitive Sciences Laboratory,
Science Applications International Corporation
and
Stephen LaBerge
The Lucidity Institute
ABSTRACT: Two experiments were conducted to measure the extent to which
people are able to unconsciously detect another person staring at them from a
distance. A closed-circuit television set-up was employed in which a video
camera was focused on the experimental volunteer (Observee) while a person
in another room (Observer) concentrated on the image of the distant person as
displayed on a color monitor; this procedure was used to preclude any
conventional sensory contact between the two people. During the
experimental session, the Observee's galvanic skin responses were monitored.
An automated and computerized system was programmed to record and
average the physiological responses of the Observee during 32 30-second
monitoring periods. A random sequence was used to schedule 16 periods of
remote observation and 16 control periods when no observation efforts were
attempted. A within-subjects evaluation was made for each experimental
session with a comparison between the mean amount of autonomic nervous
system activity during the experimental and control conditions. Twenty four
sessions were conducted in each of two experiments. As predicted, both
experiments yielded significantly more autonomic activity during the remote
observation periods as compared to control periods (Experiment 1: t=1.878,
p