SOVIET PSYCHOLOGY (U)

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: STARGATE
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP96-00788R001600440001-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 29
• Document Creation Date: November 4, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 25, 2003
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: June 1, 1978
• Content Type: REPORT

-1810S-388-78 -
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SOVIET PSYCHOLOGY (U)
AUTHORS
DST-1810S-388-78
DIA TASK PT 1810-13-76
Date of Publication
May 1978
WARNING
This publication contains information affecting the National
Defense of the United States within the meaning of the
Espionage Laws, Title 18, U.S.C., Sections 793 and 794. Its
transmission or the revelation of its contents in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law..
This is a Department of Defense Intelligence Document prepared
by the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership, United
States Air Force Academy.
THIS REPORT CONTAINS MATERIAL
CLASSIFIED BY FTD/DIRECTOR/NI
EXEMPT FROM GENERAL DECLASSIFICATION
SCHEDULE OF EXECUTIVE ORDER 11652
EXEMPTION CATEGORY 2
DECLASSIFY ON 31 DECEMBER 2007
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PREFACE
(U) This report deals with the state of the art in Soviet
Psychology in the areas of behavior modification, psycho-
surgery, psychopharmacology, parapsychology, and engineering
psychology. Background material is contained in an appendix.
The summary is an intelligence overview containing the best
available estimate of what areas are relevant from a military
and military-political standpoint. The time estimate clearly
gives projections as to when major relevant areas of research
will become operationally ready and/or more efficient.
(S) The current collection efforts in the behavioral and
physiological sciences are inadequate. There are serious gaps
in our knowledge concerning what laboratories, people, and
institutions are doing work in advanced psychopharmacology.
It is known that the Soviets are expending a considerable
effort in this area but we are not sure what their results
are.
(U) Request any amplification of subject matter, constructive
criticisms, comments or suggested changes be forwarded to the
Defense Intelligence Agency (DT-1A) Washington, D.C. 20301.
2.1
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Table of Contents
Preface
Summary iv
Soviet Psychology. 1
Time Estimates 14
Appendix 16
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SUMMARY
Emphasis
(S) The Soviet Union is conducting highly creditable and
sophisticated research in the behavioral sciences and has been
doing so for the past 10 to 15 years. The main areas of
emphasis are in the fields of psychopharmacology, psychobiology,
parapsychology and human factors. Over the past 10 to 15 years
there has'been a significant shift towards a multidisciplined
approach in their research efforts. The most obvious examples
are their investigation of the synergistic effects of multiple
drugs, drugs combined with physical stimuli, like ultrasonic and
electromagnetic fields, and team efforts in parapsychology by
engineers, psychologists, and medical investigators. The
potential uses of telephatic communication and psychokinesis
are clear in highly sensitive military and political areas. A
great deal of effort is also being expended to borrow Western
ideas and expertise in this field. In psychopharmacology their
research into the biochemistry of memory and emotional behavior
in human subjects may produce significant breakthroughs. In-
creased intelligence collection efforts in this area are needed.
(S) Their major goal in the overall area of behavioral research
is to make significant breakthroughs in the fields of psycho,-
pharmacology and parapsychology. Another area of significance
is refining and enhancing the field of human factors. Apparent-
ly this problem is recognized as evidenced by a long history of
equipment maldesign in critical military and industrial man-
machine interfaces. Politically they are novices in dealing
with noncaptive populations. The Soviet hierarchy traditionally
dictates policy but this approach is becoming less effective, as
seen in Egypt. To resolve this sledgehammer approach the newly
found "social psychologists" are very busy incorporating Western
ideas in the remotivation and control of alienated subgroups.
The approach is most typically non-Soviet since even many of
their scientists apparently don't consider this a viable option.
(S) In the military sphere their most significant goals are
to (1) improve their man-machine interfaces, (2) find quick
and easy ways to demoralize, influence or debilitate the enemy,
and (3) find more effective methods to mold, influence and
control the vast military forces politically at their disposal.
A corollary effort, at a much smaller scale, is the development
of mere sophisticated means of surgically, chemically, or
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psychophysically controlling behavior in a nondibilitating or
overtly detectable manner.
Level of Effort
(S) The Soviet Union is spending a considerable amount of money
on psychological research. B. Lomov expects to expand his
present contingent of 250-300 Ph.D.'s by 1980. This effort is
both overt and covert and deals primarily with human factors,
psychopharmacology, and psychophysics. Their leading scientists
are very competent and are extremely interested in international
knowledge and exposure. Scientists like Luriya, Lomov, and
Kogan are still playing major roles in this discipline. Since
Luriya's recent death the leadership in neuropsychology will
probably be taken by N. P. Bechterevz of the Institute of Ex-
perimental Medicine in Leningrad.
(S) Most military oriented research in psychopharmacology and
parapsychology is being done by persons unknown. The leading
researchers in these fields have been isolated from the inter-
national arena include B. D. Lomov, V. Venda, N. P. Bechtereva,
N. N. Konovalow (Director of the Burdenko Institute)/ I. M.
Kogan, E. Naumov. Most scientists doing relevant work in
important disciplines have been placed in highly directed, non-
publicized research teams.. The Burdenko Institute of Neuro-
surgery (Moscow) and the Pavlov Institute of Physiology
(Leningrad) are continuing in relevant psychological research.
This effort has been expanded to numerous laboratories. These
include: the Institute of Neurology (Moscow), the Institute of
Neurosurgery (Leningrad), the Institute of Experimental Medicine
(Leningrad) the Scientific Research Institute of Neurosurgery
(Kiev), and the Institute of Experimental and Clinical Neurology
(Tbilisi).
(S) The Soviets are most competent and have the greatest ex-
pertise in psychopharmacology, especially as it pertains to
human subjects, and parapsychology. Their greatest difficulties
lie in experiment design, philosophical dogma, and digital com-
puters to do the sophisticated statistical analyses. Their
poorest work is in experiment designs dealing with higher order
behavioral observations such as complex human learning and
emotional behavior. Traditionally, most of the research in the
Soviet Union has dealt with physiological measures such as
miographic, galvanic, and encephelographic recording. They are
also still doing research with poorly selected or very small
samples and tend to use very subjective measures to describe
their results.
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(S) The major problems at this time limiting their effective-
ness are their inability to handle their scientific information
explosion and the apparent political-personal scientific
suspicions that result from a highly structured party-oriented,
bureaucratic hierarchy. Political infighting often results in
unqualified party appointees being installed in highly sensi-
tive and responsible positions, although much of this has
seemingly been resolved by B. Lomov in the laboratories and
projects he controls. Under Lomov's guidance recent problem
solving has been done in a nonpolitical pragmatic way. The
Soviets have abandoned their philosophy of waiting for Soviet
technology to catch up to the West and are now purchasing very
sophisticated hardware equipment and talent available inter-
nationally. They are actively seeking and obtaining foreign
talent and equipment necessary to complete high quality re-
search in every facet of the behavioral sciences. Another
major problem facing the leadership is a widening generation gap
leading to potential morale and discipline problems within the
military. In the past the leadership was able to rely on the
near fanatical nationalism resulting from World War II ex-
periences such as the fall of Leningrad and Stalingrad. The
concept of "Mother Russia" is not felt as strongly in the
younger generation. The very real problems resulting from
rapid urbanization, industrialization, increased affluence,
and exposure to Western literature are being felt today. Future
motivational dilemmas are being studied because the leaders are
now aware that the magnitude of the problem will increase with
time as the effect of greater affluence and mobility takes hold.
(S) The main problem the Soviet Union has had in conducting
psychological research is the nonavailability of sophisticated
laboratory grade equipment which includes precision physio-
logical and neurophysiological devices. This problem is being
resolved for the major research efforts by the wholesale
purchase of foreign machinery particularly from Japan and in
wholesale invitation to foreign scientists. The Soviet Union
has the requisite expertise and motivation to produce major
breakthroughs in several areas of the behavioral sciences. This
has been made much more likely by an apparent total commitment
to excellence in their scientific endeavors which includes
purchasing whatever they need to conduct this type of effort.
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Soviet Psychology
Introduction:
(U) The history of psychology in the Soviet Union does not
parallel the development of psychology in the United States and
other Western countries. Psychology in the West is rooted in
philosophy and biology. In the USSR psychology developed
almost entirely out of the physical sciences and modern Soviet
psychology continues to reflect it's "hard science" origins.
Psychology as a separate and identifiable scientific discipline
has not really existed in the USSR as it does in the West.
Rather, it has been fragmented as parts of more historically
traditional sciences; specifically, physiology, biochemistry,
anatomy, engineering, pharamachology and medicine.
History and Scientific Principles:
(U) In the Soviet scientific community psychology is defined as
the study of mental (psychic) activity. It must be understood
at the outset that Soviet psychologists have never been caught
in the philosophical bind of trying to separate mind from it's
physical bases as were early Western psychologist. Soviet re-
searchers from the beginning were concerned with brain function
and the physical correlates of behavior. An exhaustive search
of Soviet behavioral science literature fails to surface any-
thing approaching the fantastic proliferation of theories and
counter theories to explain human behavior which developed in
Western countries. The Soviet's rigid adherence to the concept
of dialectical materialism in science literally forced the
Russian scientific community to direct it's research efforts
toward examination of the physical aspects of behavior and away
from the more philosophical, religious and metaphysical aspects
of behavior.
(U) Psychology, as it is known in the West, had a difficult,
uphill, beginning in the USSR. Prior to 1917 it was considered
ta be an alien inspiration, religious, idealistic and far from
anything resembling a true scientific discipline. The revolu-
tion did little to change the official position towards psy-
chology. The "Party" leadership over the years continued to
place psychology in a pseudosqience position, subordinate to
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the traditionally recognized physical sciences. The overall
result of the official party position was to frustrate many
dedicated researchers in this field and to splinter psycho-
logical research into other more traditional disciplines,
particularly physiology, pharmachology and medicine. This
situation remained more or less prevalent until 1968 when the
first doctoral degree in psychology was offered. Further
support and recognition for psychology came from the 23rd
Congress of the CPSU which lead to a reorganization and consoli-
dation of psychological research under the direction and
guidance of B. D. Lomov.
(S) Since Lomov's rise to prominence there have been fundamental
changes in Soviet psychology. He has apparently been able to
make changes in the overall stature of Soviet psychology that
would have appeared impossible 10 years ago.
(S) The most significant changes in behavioral sciences research
instituted by Lomov are outlined below:
a. Reorganization and increased central control of USSR re-
search to 'avoid duplication, improvement and modernization of
research facilities, and the institution of a team concept for
research in interdisciplinary areas such as engineering psychology
and psychobiology.
b. A significant reduction in Marxist/Leninist dogma in
research writing.
c. Emphasis on broadening the scope of research to include
cybernetics, parapsychology, engineering and industrial psy-
chology and most surprising, social psychology, an area that
has been for the most part' iqhbred in the USSR.
d. A pragmatic and realistic approach to research including
procurement of equipment rather than waiting for Soviet tech-
nology to catch up, scientific personnel exchange programs,
an participation in international symposia. A good example of
the willingness of Soviet scientist to buy Western technology is
Academician A. R. Lurias's (recently deceased) neurophycho-
logical assessment laboratory in the Burdenko Neurosurgical
Institute. The laboratory contains an East German X-ray unit,
French and Hungarian tomography machines and an American made
brain scanner.
e. Recent acknowledgment and recognition of industrial
psychology as a means to evaluate and correct industrial pro-
duction problems and employee motivation difficulties.
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f. An overall increased emphasis on improved research
design, use of control subjects in experiments, eliminating
institutional bias on research results and the introduction of
sophisticated statistical techniques.
(S) It seems clear that Lomov has the Party support, budget and
personnel necessary to totally modernize Soviet psychology. The
apparent consolidation of policy making power for the direction
of behavioral sciences research under one man and the obvious
high level of authority granted to Lomov has resulted in funda-
mental and rapid changes in the progress of Soviet behavioral
sciences. The remainder of this paper will be directed at
assessing the current Soviet "state of the art" in specific
areas of psychological research. Particular emphasis is placed
on identifying significant differences in methodology and
philosophy between Soviet and Western research programs. When-
ever appropriate, trend analyses will be attempted with specific
attention being given to the development of potential offensive
uses of new technology.
Assessment of Current Efforts:
Behavior Modification
(U) Behavior modification covers a wide spectrum of psycho-
logical research and one might convincingly argue that every
subdiscipline in psychology deals with the control and modifi-
cation of behavior. As one might expect from studying the
history of Soviet psychology much of the work in behavior con-
trol in the USSR is concerned with direct, physical intervention.
Chemical, surgical and other physical intervention techniques
will be dealt with in separate sections.
(S) Perhaps the most significant development in Soviet psy-
chology in the past ten years is the sudden acceptance and con-
comitant spread of industrial engineering and social psychology.
It appears as though the Soviets are very rapidly becoming aware
of the limited effectiveness of conventional Soviet incentives
on the new generation of industrial and agricultural workers.
It appears that Lomov was able to convince the CPSU hierarchy
that the time had come to try something more sophisticated than
the "brute force and carrots" system to achieve higher produc-
tion. Lomov somehow convinced.the leadership that acceptance
of modern motivational techniques such as job enrichment-and
organizational effectiveness, pioneered and advocated by Western
psychologist, is essential. Additionally, human factors
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engineering was sold as a way to improve individual productivity.
It is not altogether clear how Lomov was able to convince the
Soviet leadership to reverse it's position on these "non-Soviet",
"non-scientific", areas of psychology but the research litera-
ture following 1973 clearly reflects this change in philosophy.
Perhaps the undeniable data indicating that both economic and
population growth rates were declining was all the leverage
that was needed. One might also speculate that a more affluent,
better educated and cosmopolitan populous was becoming less
responsive to the older, simplistic incentives.
Physical Influence
(S) Consistent with the Soviet history of using direct physical
means to study behavior, is a wide spectrum of research reports
dealing with the effects of external physical energy on the
biochemistry, electro-chemical activity (EEG, ECG) and overt
behavior of the organism. Their work with environmental noise
does not differ substantially from the research being done in
the West with the exception that Western researchers tend to
observe overt behavioral consequences of noise while the Soviets
tend to be more concerned with internal transient changes to
the brain. Of particular note are a few reports of changes to
the "blood-brain barrier" following brief exposure to specific
sound environments. Since the blood-brain barrier is an
evolutionary development specifically designed to protect the
central nervous system from any substances which may freely
enter other parts of the body tissue, this line of research may
have great potential significance. At present the only way to
study the effects of many chemicals on behavior is to introduce
them directly into the cerebrospinal fluid. These studies may
lead to the development of techniques allowing previously
harmless drugs in the blood serum to enter the brain causing
debilitating dyschemia.
(S) Soviet researchers are studying the effects of a wide
variety of physical energy sources on behavior. Microwaves,
ultrasonic fields, electromagnetic fields, ultra low frequency
radio waves and others are being systematically investigated.
Unlike Western researchers the Soviets are likely to try
combination of energy sources or chemicals in combination with
physical energy to evaluate additive or synergistic effects.
An area of particular interest to the Soviets (judging from the
number of reported studies) is the effect of ultrasonic fre-
quencies on behavior. High intensity focused ultrasonic energy
can produce irreversible damage to brain tissue. In fact,
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Western scientists have experimented with ultrasonic techniques
to lesion previously inoperable cerebral neoplasms. The effect
of moderate intensity ultrasonic energy on brain function is
largely not understood. It is clear from the Soviet data that
measurable and identifiable changes in brain chemistry and EEG
activity result from prolonged exposure to ultrasonic energy.
It may be too early to speculate that brain activity could be
selectively activated using various regimens of ultrasonic energy,
but it is clear that researchers in the USSR have recognized this
possibility. Research in the West dealing with ultrasonic energy
has been limited by ethical restraints restricting such treatments
to subhuman subjects. By all outward indicators the Soviets are
far less concerned with ethical restraints in the conduct of
their research. They may well be evaluating the effects of
ultrasonic energy (as well as other physical treatments) on
humans and if so, may be closer to understanding it's full
potential.
(S) In another area of related research the Soviets are actively
evaluating forms of physical stimulation that may have deleterious
effects on behavior. Particular emphasis is being placed on
discovering visible light intensities and frequencies that will
disrupt orientation or in any way impede normal cognitive func-
tioning. Also of interest are the increasing numbers of studies
evaluating the effects of ionizing and non-ionizing electro-
magnetic (EMR) fields on brain function. They are heavily en-
gaged in research evaluating field strengths and modulation
schemes which seem likely to influence behavior. It should be
noted that EM fields are not detectible without special equip-
ment, the energy can be focused and directed over relatively long
distances and can be produced with very portable equipment. We
know that high intensity EM radiation can be lethal but the ef-
fects of prolonged exposure to moderate or low intensity on
humans is for the most part not known. Reported studies in-
dicate that the Soviets are exposing subjects 5-30 mw/cm field
strengths and measuring the electrical activity of selected
cortical and subcortical structures. Additionally, changes in
psychomotor activity, blood serum chemistry, seizure activity
and ,chromosomal abnormalities are being recorded; There is
every indication that human subjects are being used in this line
of research. The military implications of this work seems clear.
A significant technological breakthrough here could result in the
development of an offensive weapon.
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(S) Soviet scientists are studying the effects of passing micro-
wave energy through the brain. Passing a concentrated beam of
microwave energy through an electrically active substance,
brain tissue, will modulate the beam in a characteristic way.
Changes in the modulation of microwaves which results from
passage through nervous tissue would then be interpreted and in
some way correlated to mental activity. A similar area of re-
search deals with the effects of magnetic fields on the bio-
chemistry of the brain. The Soviets are exposing animal brains
to magnetic fields, sometimes in conjunction with oxygen de-
privation. The purpose of the oxygen deprivation is not
immediately clear. The principal goal of these studies appears
to be directed at changing levels of the neurotransmitters such
as 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), epenephrine, norepenephrine
and GABA (gamma animo butyric acid). The research reports
indicate that they have had some success in selectively changing
transmitter levels particularly in lower cerebral structures,
especially the limbic system, hippocampus and the reticular
activating system. These structures are known to be functionally
related to emotion, memory, and levels of alertness. Although
there is no evidence to suggest that research of this type is
being conducted with human subjects, the Soviets have subjected
human subjects to equally cavalier treatment in the past.
Judging from the relatively, high level of activity in this type
of research, this area warrants close monitoring in the next
few years for technological breakthroughs.
Psychopharmacology and Pheromones
(S) In the past ten years there has been a significant expansion
in the use of drugs to study brain function and to treat brain
dysfunction. Psychopharmacology can be conceptually divided
into two broad areas: in the clinical setting to treat behavior
abnormality and in the research setting to study brain function
through direct chemical intervention. In both of these areas
the proliferation of data is increasing. It is believed that
the truly significant breakthroughs in the understanding and
control of brain function will be found here. The next major
discovery of this century in life sciences, following the
discovery of the double helix and genetic coding, could be the
unraveling of the biochemical substrates of memory. Herein lies
the key to modifying the present limits of the human mind. In
general, Soviet research-in this area does not differ funda-
mentally from the work being done internationally. The use of
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drugs to modify and control behavior appeals to the Soviet
psychologists because of their traditional background in the
physical medical model. It is not practical to do justice
to this vast area of research within the confines of this
report. We will outline the major thrusts of the Soviet
work and highlight their areas of significant competence.
(S) The major areas of interest in Soviet psychopharmacology
are:
a. Use of psychotropic drugs to moderate mood state and
increase the manageability of institutionalized patients (e.g.
antidepressants, antipsychotics, etc.)
b. The use of drugs to facilitate or inhibit the forma-
tion of long term memory traces.
C. The use of drugs to modify intracellular genetic
material.
d. The use of drugs to rehabilitate "nonfunctioning"
"anti-Soviet" people.
e. The use of drugs to influence or facilitate extra-
sensory and paraphysical modes of human behavior.
f. The direct introduction of neurotransmitter facilita-
tors or inhibitors into specific brain loci to study brain
functions.
(S) It is interesting to note the recent increase in unfavorable
publicity directed at Soviet psychiatry from the West. There
is substantial evidence indicating that Soviet minorities,
scientists, and intellectuals who openly dissent to government
policy risk arrest and being diagnosed as an "acute situational
psychotic", or some other nondescript syndrome. They
are subsequently committed for "adjustment therapy" which may
include a wide spectrum of treatment protocols including social
isolation, sensory deprivation, physical restraint, hypnosis,
and physical abuse. Of particular interest here is the apparent
use of many classes of drugs which seem to be intended for
experimental analyses rather than for treatment. "Patient"
reports indicate that many psychotropic drugs including de-
pressants and hallucinogenics are being used. In addition,
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nonconventional drugs including convulsants, algesiongenics,
respiratory inhibitors and others, which would not ordinarily
be used for behavioral problems, but may be used for brain
research are being reported. It appears that these patients are
being used as research subjects without their knowledge.
Ethical considerations aside, the use of human subjects for
psychopharmacological research offers the Soviet researchers a
distinct advantage. By bypassing the laborious, time consuming
and behaviorally imprecise animal research, rigorously adhered
to in the West, the Soviets may achieve breakthroughs in the
understanding of brain biochemistry. This potential warrants
close monitoring in the future.
(S) An area of vital concern to the Soviets, judging from their
level of effort, is the biochemistry of long term memory. Re-
search in this area falls into two closely related categories;
drug studies which attempt to enhance or retard the formation
of the memory trace, and studies directed at defining the
chemical substrate of memory. The overt Soviet research ioes
not appear to differ significantly from the work done in the
West. The research reports tend to be sketchy. Frequently it
is difficult to determine dosage levels, subject species, be-
havioral variables measured and even the type of statistical
analyses used. Their methodology, with a few exceptions,
appears to be technically sophisticated.
(S) A research methodology which is quite prevelant in the USSR
but not widely used elsewhere for memory research is the oxygen
cathode technique. Basically, this is a chronic electrode im-
plant that measures the metabolic activity at specific loci by
recording p02 tension in brain tissue. Of particular
interest is the use of this technique in the study of "verbal
memory" which clearly indicates that it is being used on human
subjects. This is not totally surprising since there is con-
siderable evidence that chronic implants of electrical stimu-
lating and recording electrodes have been routinely used with
human subjects in the USSR. Chronic electrode implants in
humans are normally used only to control severe antagonistic
behavior, and are not done routinely for research purposes.
The danger of a brain information gap exists. The use of human
subjects in controlled experimental research gives the Soviet
researchers an undeniable edge, especially when the research
is directed at higher cortical functions such as memory,
creativity, language and other distinctly human forms of.
behavior.
(S) An area of research having potentially great importance to
the ultimate understanding of brain function is the work being
directed at altering the genetics of the cell. A systematic
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search of the literature frequently reveals studies relevant
to behavioral genetics. It is clear that the Soviets are very
actively studying the genetic control mechanisms for behavior.
Much of their research is specifically directed at modifying
genetic material in microorganisms using chemicals and a wide
range of physical stimuli such as radioactivity and electro-
magneitc energy. It is now clear that the encoding of memory
is at least in part dependent upon the production of specific
small proteins and polypeptides. Advances in the technology
to artificially modify genetic material (DNA). will most likely
lead to greater understanding of the RNA template mechanism
for the production of proteins and polypeptides. Although
there is no overt evidence that Soviet researchers are anywhere
close to applying their research at the development of
"synthetic" memory, the potential does exist.
(S) Available data, from Soviet sources, dealing with research
on pheromones is quite limited. There has been a remarkable
increase in research in recent years, directed at identifying
the specific chemical structure of various pheromones f es-
pecially those which seem to control insect behavior. This
sudden increased interest in pheromones is quite understandable.
First, these substances are usually found in very minute quanti-
ties and the development of microanalytic techniques in the
past ten years has made the systematic analyses of the sub-
stances feasible. Secondly, the most recent work with pheromones
suggests that they are far more pervasive and far more powerful
in their control of animal behavior than was previously known.
It is clear that pheromonal communication is evident in a wide
range of animal species. Specific pheromones have been identi-
fied for the following forms of behavior control in the species
indicated:
a. Sexual attraction (insects, mammals, primates, man).
b. Species and individual identification (insects, mammals,
primates).
c. Communication of stress, danger or threat (insects,
fishes, mammals).
d. Territorial marking (insects, mammals).
e. Establishing social hierarchies (mammals).
f. Communicating source and quality of food source (insects).
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(U) These pheromones can be classified into two distinct cate-
gories: releaser pheromones that trigger essentially automatic
behavior in the organism and primer pheromones that lead to long
lasting changes in the internal physiology of the organism.
An example of a releaser would be the pheromone that causes
scattering behavior of distressed schooling fishes. An example
of a primer would be the scent gland in some mammals that
controls the menstrual cycle in the females of the same species.
Another important factor in understanding pheromones is that
some are chemically volatile and therefore, short acting, as in
trail marking of social insects, and others are relatively inert
and produce their effect for a very long time like the terri-
torical pheromones of some mammals.
(U) There is ample evidence that man, like other primates,
is subject to pheromones. It appears that this in limited
to pheromones which control sexual behavior. For example,
there is some evidence that males can detect women at the
peak of their ovulation cycle through olfaction. Additional-
ly, women housed in all female dormatories or in prisons tend
to have their menstrual cycles become synchronized. This is
thought to be under the control of progesterone related
pheromones. There is little reason to believe, however, that
human behavior can be fundamentally controlled by phermonal
substances. Animal behavior, particularly the insects, can be
controlled very effectively using pheromones. A perfect ex-
ample of this is the almost total elimination of the destruc-
tive Gypsy Moth (Porthetria dispar) from the northeast of the
United States by using traps baited with the sexual attractant
pheromone for that species. There is a significant potential
for the use of pheromones as a military weapon as well as for
helpful purposes. There is no reason to doubt that the
technology to develop pheromones as a weapon exists in the USSR.
Several potential offensive uses of this technology come to
mind and are listed below:
a. Helpful species of insects (e.g., fruit pollenators,
insectivores) could be eliminated or greatly reduced in numbers
by releasing sterile females which have had their sexual
attractant intensified (hypersexuals).
b. Hypersexual pheromone females which have been prepared
with bacterial agents could be .released to mate and spread the
bacterial agent. This could be especially effective with in-
sects which are parasitic on various mammals or birds during
their life cycle. Insects which are parasitic to migratory
birds (e.g., mites) would be very effective for introducing
bacterial agents.
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c. Destructive insects could be made hypersexual with
sexual attractant and released. Selectively bred aggressive
bees, destructive scale insects, leaf curlers and other forms
of insect pests could be introduced and rapidly increased in
numbers.
(S) These are just a few potential offensive uses of pheromone
technology. Other, more creative, applications are most likely
possible. There is no direct evidence that the Soviets are
actively working in this area but they certainly have the
competence, should they choose to.
Cybernetics and Engineerin9 Psychology:
(U) The proceedings of the 4th International United Conference
on Artificial Intelligence conducted by the Soviet Academy of
Sciences, in 1975 emphasized the following areas:
a. Development of conceptual systemic analysis, based on
artificial intelligence theory.
b. The task of planning activity of a robot with an
artificial intelligence.
c. Development of dynamic programming systems.
d. Complete algorithm of unification of the associative
and communicative functions.
e. Heuristic solution methods.
f. Automatic programming and debugging.
g. Improved data base management.
h. Speech comprehension and natural language contact with
a computer.
i. Data control and computer interface by natural language.
j. Perceptive robot moving in a 3-D environment.
k. Decision making by man.
1. Psychological aspects of artificial intelligence.
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(S) This is a partial list representing a very wide field of
Soviet endeavor in this area. Of particular interest is the
extent these areas of interest are being exploited. There is
great interest not only in better interface between man and
digital machines via programming but also in bionics, arti-
ficial intelligence, and bioengineered man-machine interfaces.
B. D. Lomov is personally interested in combining man-machine
interfacing talent with medical expertise. The Soviets are
engaged in data management and the retrieval dilemma. They
are faced with a lagging technology in both hardware and soft-
ware plus an information explosion where rediscovery is more
common than retrieval. This has led to an obvious desire to
import Western computers, software and expertise. There is
also a noticeable decrease in adverse Party involvement in
achieving this goal.
(S) Concerning the problem of more efficient man-machine inter-
faces, a great deal of effort is also being expended on
"natural" computer languages and better interfacing schemes es-
pecially in the industrial sector. Being somewhat bound to
smaller and slower processors and less reliable fast-access
memory-systems there is a desire to optimize the integration of
computers into various problem solving tasks. Typical of this
effort is the work directed at developing highly unstructured
computer languages and interfaces that could be used by a
greater portion of the scientific community. The ultimate step
naturally is to program and execute computer programs by a
simple man-machine interface such as voice commands. This means
combining digital devices with highly sophisticated pre,
processors that can manage, program and handle the programs and
data for scientists. It appears that the Soviets see this as
one of the only viable methods available to them to "preserve"
highly talented brainpower and knowledge for future scientific
exploitation. By forming closer bonds between highly talented
men and machines it is obvious that these abilities would not be
totally lost when these scientists die.
(S) Closely related to this field of pursuit is the highly
integrated efforts that are being carried out in literally
dozens of laboratories directed at understanding the physio-
logical bases of mental processes sufficiently to enable their
control by direct contact with electronic devices such as digi-
tal computers. These studies are being enhanced by a great
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deal of work with chronic and removable implants, with remote
signalling to the cortex, limbic region and reticular formation.
The object in many of the experiments is to control mood,
wakefulness, suggestibility and level of activity. In addition
to this, the next step is to attempt more sophisticated communi-
cation directly with the cortex and memory controlling mechanisms.
If a breakthrough is achieved here, the potential consequences
could be startling -- we could anticipate direct programming and
data loading or unloading of the human brain. Although this in
probably not an immediate threat the great deal of work that has
been reported certainly suggests a high level of Soviet interest
in this area. From a purely pragmatic viewpoint the "teaching"
or programming of a human brain by these methods would have
obvious advantages since much of what now takes decades could
very probably be done in a period of months. This work may lead
to direct connections between digital electronic computers and
the human "digital computer", the brain. Even if the state of
technology will prevent full utilization of this capability, it
is almost a certainty that the Soviets have the capability to
influence wakefulness, suggestibility, and aggressiveness by
direct and remote means of brain stimulation. Their extensive
experimentation with medium and high power microwave emanations
is probably for these purposes.
(S) Other areas of apparent interest are artificial intelligence,
cybernetics, bionics, and the psychology of perception, motion
and decision making. These areas are very highly published.
There seems to be an almost frantic effort to duplicate the
functioning of man's brain by machines. The central theme of
many of these efforts seems innocent enough since much of the
research deals with controlling rather simplistic robots,
rudimentary speech formation, sensor (eye)/appendage (hand)
coordination and artificial sterescopic vision. A great deal of
interest and support is being given to ergonomics. It is
difficult to say whether the overall interest is to replace man
better understand him, or to control him. The Soviets are
facing a serious manpower shortage, they are interested in deep
space and ocean exploration and this technology could greatly
affect their future success in industrial growth and the ex-
ploration of new frontiers. This overall area has apparently
not gone underground as of the 1977 time period. It appears
that they are trying to stimulate a great deal of thinking in
their scientific community in this area for later expolitation.
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Psychological Influence
Behavioral Modification:
Hypnosis
Energy fields anilo
moderate (non-ionizing)
severe (ionizing)
Physical
methods
non-detectable
OD Psychopharmacology:
rn Depressants
0 1-. Stimulants
P34" Hallucinogenic
rn
...1 Pheromones
Various combinations
Psychosurgery:
Implants
Stereotaxic
Mind Control with chronic
implants
Mind Memory Expansion
(in conjunction with
drugs)
TIME ESTIMATES
Observable Results/Behaviors Potential Military Uses
control, therapeutic
control, suggestive
debilitation
fright, disorientation
debilitation, disorientation
depression, addiction
elation hyperactivity, fatigue
disorganized, psychotic
unknown, irritation if non-
human
unknown
semicontrolled behaviors
cure of physiological
abberations & behavior
control
complete external control
extraordinary memory
behaviors, etc.
Estimated Operational Date
partial to total behavior operational
control
mood/behavior changes
disability, blindness,
genetic changes
morale, combat behavior
changes
mood, morale behavior
changes
loss of will, depression
fatigue, mood changes
mood, behavior changes
unknown, debilitating if
irritants severe enough
debilitation, drastic
behavior/thought changes
small groups-complete
control
cure of psychosis
experimentally operational
operational at moderate
range (100-500 m)
operational
operational
operational
operational
operational
2-10 yrs
2-10 yrs
2-10 yrs
experimentally operational
robot-like behavior 2-15 yrs
direct cerebral-equipment 10-25 yrs
linking and information
transfer
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tn
rn
C)
rn
P3
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TIME ESTIMATES (Continued)
Social Psychology and Ergonomics:
"cure" for alcoholism &
?other addictions
.tn
equipment design .
Industrial motivation
techniques
Job enrichment/enlargement
Western marketing & planning
in consumerism
rehabilitation
better use of man's
job satisfaction &
lower accident rate
abilities increased efficiency of
present and future
systems
efficiency higher system's
rehabilities
more efficient/effective
military units
more capital available for
strategic industries
job satisfaction, production
greatly increased efficiency
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:757
,t..74%;:r
operational (with better
techniques being
investigated)
operational (a great
deal of effort is
being expended to
expand this effort)
operational (efforts
increasing)
operational on a small
scale
operational on a small
scale but increasing
rapidly
rn
0
?
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Appendix
Soviet Psychology
DST-1810S-388-78
May 1978
In the USSR, psychology is defined as the study of mental
("psychic") activity viewed as a function of the brain deter-
mined by the conditions of life, reflecting objective reality,
and regulating the interaction between man and his environ-
ment. It incorporates the dialectical materialist concept of
the unity of the physical and the mental and the inseparability
of the mind from the physiological processes of the brain, and
the vital role of the mind. Man's consciousness is regarded as
the product of a prolonged historical development in which a de-
cisive role was played by man's work and by verbal communica-
tion (Kostyuk, 1966).
The results of psychological research are considered to have a
theoretical and a practical significance. The scientific know-
ledge of the mind constitutes an important component of our
understanding of the nature of man. Psychology contributes to
the theory of knowledge and to the formulation of a philosophi-
cal view of the world. It shares in the scientific organization
of human work and is an essential ingredient of the theory and
practice of education, both as regards the acquisition of in-
formation and skills, and the development of personality.
In the sense of political geography, Russian psychology became a
"Soviet psychology" overnight, so to speak, as a result of the
1917 October politcal revolution. Russian psychology and, in
its early years, the psychology of the USSR, were not essential-
ly different from equivalents abroad. Psychology of this period,
in and out of Russia, was characterized by a multiplicity of
approaches and points of view.
Although it was, indeed, a branch of European psychology,
Russian psychology developed a distinct intellectual,
cal and socioeconomic environment. Intellectually, this environ-
ment was characterized by a longlasting struggle between
"materialism" and "idealism". Historically, in Russia,
"idealism" stood for metaphysical speculation, "materialism"
for science. This was a tradition, which can be traced back to
M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), a many-sided scientist, scholar
and man of letters, and A. N. Radischchev, a revolutionary
writer. In the nineteenth century, materialism was the
sophical credo of the influential group of revolutionary
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democrats (A. J. Gertsen, V. G. Belinsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov,
N.G. Chernyshevsky) and of such influential scientists as
I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905), the "father of Russian physiology"
and a proponent (Reflexes of the Brain, in Russian, 1863) of a
physiologically oriented psychology. Materialism, historical
and dialectical, is one of the bases of Marxism-Leninism, which
became the sole and official philosophy of the Soviet Union.
The questions of what constitutes a "truly Marxist-Leninist"
psychology was not answered readily in the Soviet Union. In
fact, the issue represented the focus of search and debate,
frequently acrimonious, for many years. There was a whole file
of "candidates", including several varieties of objective
psychology: Bekhterev's reflexology, Vagner's biopsychology
(human psychology as a part of comparative psychology), Bionky's
behavioral human psychology, and Kornilov's reactology.
In the nineteen-twenties and early thirties, Pavlov's (and I. M.
Sechenov's) views on the reflex nature of the mind tended to be
rejected by Soviet Marxist psychologists as "mechanistic". Only
later, Pavlov's concept of mental activities as the processing
of signals by the brain became regarded not only as compatible
with Marxism-Leninism but was important to the interpretation of
the mind in the framework of (Soviet) dialectical materialism.
But it could be argued that R in the S-R (stimulus-response)
formula is an artificial "interruption of what is uninter-
ruptable"; consequently, the concept would be contrary to
the principles of dialectical materialism. It was the physio-
logist, P. K. Anokhin (1935), anticipating the cyberneticists'
concept of feedback, who point out that each R is followed, in
turn, by afferent impulses ("return afferentuation") which
constitute information conerning the response act. At about
the same time N. A. Bernstein formulated the concept of the
"reflex circle", replacing the traditional "reflex arc". These
were important new ideas in the physiology of behavior, but it
was some tire before they were incorporated, as its organic
parts, into Soviet psychology.
In the nineteen-thirties consciousness was affirmed, ex officio,
as 'the subject matter of orthodox Marxist psychology. ? In those
years the Soviet psychologists began to consider in earnest the
implications for psychology of the thought of V. I. Lenin, es-
pecially as formulated in his Materialism and Empiriocriticism
and Philosophical Notebooks.
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In the mid 'thirties, psychology began to die on the vine. One
after another, the psychological journals withered away. The
July 4, 1536 decree of the Central Committee of the Communist
Party, directed against "pedology", originally conceived as an
interdisciplinary study of child development, had disastrous
effects on applied psychology in general, and suppressed
psychometrics for decades. Psychologists, lacking a journal of
their own for some twenty years, sought refuge in the journals
of education and philosophy.
In the early 'fifties, the insistence on the "Pavlovization" of
psychology created further confusion and stress. In this
"general-methodological" crisis, dogmatic Pavlovism threatened
to "liquidate" psychology, since, it was argued, psychology
lacked a valid subject matter. For ideologicalreasons, the
development of whole fields of psychology (e.g., social and
animal) were suppressed as "reactionary" and "lacking promise".
Animal psychology was charged with being out of tune with
Pavlovian principles. Stalin's death in 1953 provided relief
from the pressures of "the cult of personality".
The outward symbols of rapid recovery were the foundation of a
scientific journal of pscychology (Voprosy psikhologii, in 1955)
and of a scientific society (Obshchestvo psikhologov, in 1957),
the first all-Union psychological congress (in 1959), and the
publication of a two-volume, historically oriented handbook
reviewing the accomplishments of Soviet Psychologists (Ananjev
et al., 1959, 1960).
Contacts with colleagues abroad were reestablished, and Soviet
psychologists familiarized themselves, through an impressive
number of translations, with the work accomplished during their
isolation from the "West". The new trends, including a rapid
advance in the area of engineering psychology and a hesitant
exploration of the area of social psychology, were clearly
visible in the program of the second all-Union congress held in
1963 in Leningrad.
The culminating event in this process of "opening the windows to
the West" (and vice versa) was the eighteenth International
Congress of Psychology, held in Moscow in August 1966. The same
year saw the establishment, in Moscow and in Leningrad, of the
first Colleges of psychology?first not only in the Soviet Union
but in the world.
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Current research activities are reflected in the program of the
third all-Union congress of the Soviet Psychological Society,
held in Kiev in June 1968 (Brozek, 1969). The percent
(N = 906) of papers presented in different areas were as
follows: philosophical-theoretical topics, 1.0; history,
1.2; psychophysiology, 2.2; general experimental, 20.7;
personality and differential psychology, 5.9; engineering and
industrial, 12.8; medical (incl. neuropsychology, psycho-
pathology, and abnormal child psychology), 15.2; social, 3.8;
comparative, 0.7; and physical education and sports, 7.8.
A major advance in the status of psychology was represented by
the establishment, in 1968, of doctoral degrees in psychology.
Prior to this, psychologists could receive a doctoral degree
(denoting a substantially higher level of demonstrated
competence than the European or the American Ph.D. degrees) "in
pedagogical sciences, with specialization in psychology".
Administratively, the 1968 decree marked psychology's coming of
age in the Soviet Union.
The main characteristic of psychology as it has developed in the
USSR is the scientific (materialistic) investigation of the
highest forms of human psychic (mental) activity, of their
evolution in the process of sociohistorical development, and of
the fundamental laws of their operation. Consequently psychology
in the USSR has always stood in a close relationship to the
social sciences on the one hand, and to the physiology of higher
nervous activity on the other, and has always been subject
to the guidance of the philosophy of dialectical and historical
materialism.
The most important task of psychology in the USSR has always
been the investigation of the process of the development of
the highest forms of psychic activity, in other wordsr their
differentiation in the process of sociohistorical development.
A decisive part in the performance of this task was played by
the work of the prominent Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky
(1896-1934), who established the scientific analysis of the
development of the highest mental processes.
Vygotsky's initial thesis, which has decisively influenced the
further development of psychology in the USSR, was the realiza-
tion that the highest mental processes in man are to be viewed
as complex functional systems, which are sociohistorical in
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origin, mediated in structure (i.e., dependent on corresponding
aids, e.g., language), and self-regulating as far as their mode
of operations is concerned. A child always develops in the
course of exchanges with adults. Even relations to things are
mediated for the child by relations to adults. Through language
acquisition, the child begins to organize its own behavior.
The highest mental functious then arise; they are social in
origin and dependent on a system of signs that comes into
existence in the process of human intercourse, and.wabove all--
on language.
In the further course of development, the child interiorizes
slowly developed behaviors, i.e., they now depend not on
external aids and on extprnal, audible language but on inner
language and the conceptual system formed in language. A
process begins: i.e., the appropriation of universal human
knowledge and of modes of behavior which have developed in
history and have now become the major human behavior patterns.
This approach to research has been extended by a great number of
investigations carried out by Soviet psychologists and pre-
eminently by A. N. Leontiev, A. V. Zaporozhec, P. J. Galperin
and D. B. Elkonin, who have made a major contribution to the
extension of the theory of the structure of human activity with
its complex motives and needs, and auxiliary operations lead-
ing to the production of complex "inner behaviors". The
investigation of different stages in the gradual development
of "inner behaviors" proved to be very productive not only in
regard to theory, but in regard to educational practice, and
became the basis of a scientifically grounded transformation
of educational methods put into effect in a number of Soviet
schools. The psychological theory of the gradual development
of intellectual activities and concepts is also at the basis of
the principles of programmed learning as elaborated in Soviet
psychology.
Another characteristic of psychology in the USSR is the
constant search for the physiological mechanisms of complex
psychic processes. This direction of research was established
by S. M. Sechenov and realized in the investigations of
I. P. Pavlov, A. A. Uchtomskii and V. M. Bekhterev, who
developed the theory of the reflexive basis of psychic
processes. In the last decades, a number of physiologists and
psychologists have actively developed this field. P. K.
Anokhin has established a theory of functional systems and of
a behavior "acceptor", which play an active part in the
regulation of complex behaviors. S. V. Kravkov elaborated
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a theory of the organization of sensory processes and their
interaction. L. A. Orbeli grounded the theory of the inter-
action of afferent systems, was further developed by his
pupils. In particular, by G. V. Gershuni, who worked out an
unusually precise theory of the construction of sensory (and
above all auditory) functions, and was the first to establish
the scientific basis for an objective investigation of sub-
sensory processes. An important part in the investigation of the
reflexive basis of sensory processes was played by E. N. Sokolov's
studies of the orienting reflex and those of complex forms of
orientation and information-seeking behavior by A. V. Zaporozhec
and co-workers.
Also important for the development of Soviet psychophysiology
was the research work of B. M. Teplov and co-workers, who
developed exact methods for the investigation of the main
characteristics of nervous processes, and a concept for the
objective study of types of human nervous activity and
individual differences.
A new branch of neuropsychology developed by A. R. Luria and
co-workers has also won considerable importance: it is con-
cerned with the investigation of the changes in psychic
processes occurring with local lesions of the brain.
Further important contributions to the development of
psychology in the USSR have been made by e.g., P. A. Blonskii,
S. L. Rubinstein, A. A. Smirnov and B. G. Ananiev.
Present-day psychology in the USSR is a complex and
differentiated research system extending throughout general
psychology (A. N. Leontiev, A. A. Smirnov, B. G. Ananiev,
A. N. Sokolov, etc.), genetic and child psychology (A, V.
Zaporozhec, L. I. Bozhovich, N. A. Mechinskaia, D. B. Elkonin),
psychosomatic disorders (J. M. Soloviev, M. I. Zemcova,
Z. S. Sif), medical psychology (B. V. Zeigarnik), psy-
chophysiology (E. N. Sokolov, V. D. Nebylicyn), and engineer-
ing psychology (B. D. Lomov, V. D. Zinchenko).
The most important work in psychology is carried out in the
Psychological Institute of the Academy of Educational Sciences
in Moscow, and the Faculty of Psychology of the Universities of
Moscow and Leningrad. Original work is also produced in
Georgia--in the D. N. Uznadze Institute for Psychology of the
Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR and by the Professors
of Psychology at the University of Tiflis. Another important
center is the Psychological Institute of the Ukranian Ministry
of Education in Itiev.
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DISTRIBUTION LIST
DOD AND JOINT ACTIVITIES
A024 DEF NUCLEAR AGCY
A125 OSD (USD R&E)
B134 DIA/DE-2
B150 DIA/DT
B155 DIA/RDS-3A4 PP
B158 DIA/DT-1,
B162 DIA/DT-1A2
B163 DIA/DT-1A3
B351 DIA/RDS-3D2
B352 DIA/RDS-3A2C STOCK
B390 DIA/DB-4H
B573 DIA/DB-4E1
B677 DIA/DB-1G
B581 DIA/DB-1B
B582 DIA/DB-1C
B583 DIA/DB-1D
B591 DIA/DB-1E
B615 DIA/DN-2C
B645 DIA/DB-4D3
B737 DIA/RDS-3B3 (LIB)
U.S. ARMY
C043 USAI4IIA
C204 TCATA
C239 CO D 519MI BN FLDA
C309 50pTH MIG
C464 ACADEMY HEALTH SCI
C515 CHEMICAL SYS LAB
C569 MOB EQPT R&D CMD
C591 FSTC
C619 MIA REDSTONE
C768 USAITAC (IAX-A)
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
50
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
U.S. NAVY
D150 CMC (INT)
D220 ONR
D248 NAVSEASYSCOM
D261 NUSC NPT
D263 NOSC
D560 NMEDRSCHINST BETH
D700 CGMCDEC
U.S. AIR FORCE
E046 7602 AINTELG/INOAA
E054 AF/INAKB
E230 AF/SGHXO
E411 ASD/FTD/NICD
E420 FTD/NICD
E451 AUL/LSE
E706 USAFSS/IN
UNIFIED AND SPECIFIED COMMANDS
11300 USAICE(USAREUR)
H522 USAREUR ENG TOPO
K005 CINCPAC
K300 IPAC (CODE IC-L)
K616 FIRST MAF
OTHERS
P005 DOE/DDI
P055 CIA/OCR/ADD/SD
P085 STATE
P090 NSA
TOTAL PRINT
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
7
5
135
DISTRIBUTION LIST (MICROFICHE)
DOD AND JOINT ACTIVITIES
B352 DIA/RDS-3A2C STOCK
B737 DIA/RDS-3B3 (LIB)
U.S. ARMY
C591 FSTC
U.S. AIR FORCE
E420 FTD/NICD
UNIFIED AND SPECIFIED COMMANDS
K516 FIRST MAF
TOTAL PRINT
10
1
4
1
19
Approved For Release 2003/09/11 : CIA-RDP96-00788R001600440001-7