A PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL FOR INFORMATION TRANSFER OVER KILOMETER DISTANCES. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RECENT RESEARCH

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• Publication Date: March 1, 1976
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A PERCEPTUAL CHANNEL FOR INFORMATION
TRANSFER OVER KILOMETER DISTANCES:
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RECENT RESEARCH
by
Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ
Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory
Stanford Research Institute
333 Ravenswood Avenue, Menlo Park, California 94025
To be published in the PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE March, 1976
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For more than one hundred years, scientists have attempted to deter-
mine the truth or falsity of claims for the existence of a perceptual
channel whereby certain individuals are able to perceive and describe
remote data not presented to any known sense. This paper presents an
outline of the history of scientific inquiry into such so-called para-
normal perception and surveys the current state of the art in parapsycho-
logical research in the United States and abroad. The nature of this
perceptual channel is examined in a series of experiments carried out in
the Electronics and Bioengineering Laboratory of Stanford Research Insti-
tute. The perceptual modality that we have investigated most extensively
is the ability of both experienced subjects and inexperienced volunteers
to view, by innate mental processes, remote geographical or technical
targets including buildings, roads, and laboratory apparatus. Our ac-
cumulated data indicate that the phenomenon is not a sensitive function
of distance, and Faraday cage shielding does not in any apparent way
degrade the quality and accuracy of perception. On the basis of this
research, some areas of physics are suggested from which a description
or explanation of the phenomenon could be forthcoming.
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
II BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
III SRI INVESTIGATIONS OF REMOTE VIEWING . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
A. Subject Si: Experienced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
B. Subject S4: Learner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
C. Subjects S2 and S3: Experienced . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
D. Subjects S5 and S6: Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
E. Normal and Paranormal: Use of Unselected
Subjects in Remote Viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
F. Technology Series: Short-Range Remote Viewing . . . . . 51
G. Summary of Remote Viewing Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1 . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
IV CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING TIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
V DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
VI CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
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APPENDICES
A SIGNAL ENHANCEMENT IN A PARANORMAL COMMUNICATION
CHANNEL BY APPLICATION OF REDUNDANCY CODING . . . . . . 91
B REMOTE VIEWING TRANSCRIPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
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I Airport in San Andres, Colombia, Used as Remote Viewing
Target Along with Sketch Produced by Subject in
California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2 Occipital EEG Frequency Spectra, 0-20 Hz, of One Subject
(H.H.) Acting as Receiver Showing Amplitude Changes in
the 9-11-Hz Band as a Function of Strobe Frequency . . . . .
24
3 Swimming Pool Complex as Remote Viewing Target
(a) City Map of Target Location
(b) Drawing by Price (Si) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
4 Subject Hammid (S4) Drawing Described as "Some Kind
of Diagonal Trough up in the Air" . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
36
5 Subject Hammid (S4) Response to Bicycle Shed Target
Described as an Open "Barn-Like Building" with "Slats
on the Sides" and a "Pitched Roof" . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
6 Subject Elgin (S2) Drawings in Response to Tennis
Court Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
7 Subject Swann (S3) Response to City Hall Target . . . . . . .
44
8 Subject (S6) Drawing of White Plaza, Stanford University . .
48
9 Subject (V1) Drawing of Merry-Go-Round Target . . . . . . . .
50
10 Drawings of a Typewriter Target by Two Subjects . . . . . . .
54
11 Drawings by Three Subjects (S2, S3, and V3) for Xerox
Machine Target
When subject (V3) was asked to described the square at
upper left, the subject said, "There was this predominant
light source which might have been a window, and a working
surface which might have been the sill, or a working surface
or desk." Earlier the subject had said, "I have the feeling
that there is something silhouetted against the window." . .
55
12 Drawing by Two Subjects of a Video Monitor Target . . . . . .
56
13 Subject (S4) Drawing of Drill Press Showing Belt Drive,
Stool, and a Graph that Goes Up and Down . . . . . . . . . .
60
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14
Subject Hammid (S4) Described "Some Kind of Congealing
Tar, or Maybe an Area of Condensed Lava .... That Has
Oozed Out to Fill up Some Kind of Boundaries" . . . . . . . .
76
15
Subject (S4) Described a Formal Garden "Very Well
Manicured" Behind a Double Colonnade . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
16
Subject (S4) Saw a "Black Iron Triangle That Hal Had
Somehow Walked Into" and Heard a "Squeak, Squeak,
About Once a Second" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
17
Subject (S4) Described a Very Tall Structure Located
Among City Streets and Covered With "Tiffany-Like Glass" . .
80
A-1
Enhancement: of Signal-to-Noise Ratio by Sequential
Sampling Procedure (p0 = 0.4, pl = 0.6, a = 0.01,
8 = 0.01) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
A-2
Reliability Curve for Sequential Sampling Procedure
(p0 0.4, p1 = 0.6, a = 0.01, a = 0.01) . . . . . . . . . .
98
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I Critical Values of Sums of Ranks for Preferential
Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2 Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Experienced Subject Price (Si) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Learner Subject Hammid (S4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Experienced Subjects Elgin (S2) and Swann (S3) . . . . . . . 45
5 Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for
Subjects S5 and S6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6 Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Transcripts
Associated with Each Target Location for Visitor
Subjects Vl and V2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7 Distribution of Rankings Assigned to Subject Drawings
Associated with Each Target Location . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8 Summary: Remote Viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9 Experimental Protocol: Precognitive Remote Viewing . . . . . 73
A-1 5-Bit Code for Alphanumeric Characters . . . . . . . . . . . 92
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Foundation for Parasensory Investi-
gation and the Parapsychology Foundation of New York City, the Institute
of Noetic Sciences, Palo Alto, California, and the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, NAS 7-100. We wish to express our gratitude
to our principal subjects, Mrs. Hella Hammid, Mr. Pat Price, and Mr. Ingo
Swann, who showed us patience and forbearance in addition to their en-
thusiasm and outstanding perceptual abilities. We note with sadness the
death of one of our subjects, Mr. Price. We express our sincere thanks
also to Mr. Earle Jones, Mr. Bonnar Cox, and Dr. Arthur Hastings, of SRI,
and Mrs. Judith Skutch and Mr. Richard Bach, without whose encouragement
and support this work could not have taken place.
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A Perceptual Channel for Information
Transfer over Kilometer Distances:
Historical Perspective and Recent Research
Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ
I INTRODUCTION
"It is the province of natural science to investigate nature, impar-
tially and without prejudice [1]." Nowhere in scientific inquiry has this
dictum met as great a challenge as in the area of so-called extrasensory
perception (ESP), the detection of remote stimuli not mediated by the
usual sensory processes. Such phenomena, although under scientific con-
sideration for over a century, have historically been fraught with unre-
liability and controversy, and validation of the phenomena by accepted
scientific methodology has been slow in coming. Even so, a recent sur-
vey conducted by the British publication New Scientist revealed that
67 percent of nearly 1500 responding readers (the majority of whom are
working scientists and technologists) considered ESP to be an established
fact or a likely possibility, and 88 percent held the investigation of ESP
to be a legitimate scientific undertaking [2].
A review of the literature reveals that although experiments by
reputable researchers yielding positive results were begun over a century
ago (e.g., Sir William Crookes' study of D. D. Home, 1860s) [3], many con-
sider the study of these phenomena as only recently emerging from the realm
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of quasi-science. One reason for this is that, despite experimental re-
sui'its, no satisfactory theoretical construct had been advanced to corre-
late data or to predict new experimental outcomes. Consequently, the
area in question remained for a long time in the recipe stage reminiscent
of electrodynamics before the unification brought about by the work of
Ampere, Faraday, and Maxwell. Since the early work, however, we have
seen the development of information theory, quantum theory, and neuro-
physiological research, and these disciplines provide powerful conceptual
tools that appear to bear directly on the issue. In fact, several
physicists (Section V) are now of the opinion that these phenomena
are not at all inconsistent with the framework of modern physics: the
often-held view that observations of this type are a priori incom-
patible with known laws is erroneous in that such a concept is based
on the naive realism prevalent before the development of quantum theory.
In the emerging view, it is accepted that research in this area can
be conducted so as to uncover not just a catalog of interesting events,
but rather patterns of cause-effect relationships of the type that lend
themselves to analysis and hypothesis in the forms with which we are
familiar in the physical sciences. One hypothesis is that information
transfer under conditions of sensory shielding is mediated by extremely
low frequency (ELF) electromagnetic waves, a proposal that does not seem
to be ruled out by any obvious physical or biological facts. Further,
the development of information theory makes it possible to characterize
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and quantify the performance of a communications channel regardless of
the underlying mechanism.
For the past three years, we have had a program in the Electronics
and Bioengineering Laboratory of SRI to investigate those facets of
human perception that appear to fall outside the range of well-understood
perceptual/processing capabilities. Of particular interest is a human
information-accessing capability that we call "remote viewing." This
phenomenon pertains to the ability of certain individuals to access and
describe, by means of mental processes, information sources blocked from
ordinary perception, and generally accepted as secure against such access.
In particular, the phenomenon we have investigated most extensively
is the ability of a subject to view remote geographical locations up to
several thousand km distant from his physical location (given only a known
person on whom to target).` We have carried out more than 50 experiments
under controlled laboratory conditions with several individuals whose re-
mote perceptual abilities have been developed sufficiently to allow them
at times to describe correctly--often in great detail--geographical or
technical material such as buildings, roads, laboratory apparatus, and
the like.
Our initial work in this area was reported in Nature 252, October 18,
1974 [4], and reprinted in the IEEE Communications Society 13, January 1975.
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As observed in the laboratory, the basic phenomenon appears to cover
a range of subjective experiences variously referred to in the literature
as autoscopy (in the medical literature); exteriorization or disassocia-
tion (psychological literature); simple clairvoyance, traveling clairvoy-
ance, or out-of-body experience (parapsychological literature); or astral
projection (occult literature). We choose the term "remote viewing" as
a neutral, descriptive term free from prior associations and bias as to
mechanisms.
The development at SRI of a successful experimental procedure
to elicit this capability has evolved to the point where: persons such
as visiting government scientists and contract monitors, without any
previous exposure to such concepts have leared to perform well; and sub-
jects who have trained over a one-year period have performed excellently
under a variety of experimental conditions. Our accumulated data thus
indicate that both specially selected and unselected persons can be as-
sisted in developing remote perceptual abilities up to a level of useful
information transfer.
In experiments of this type, we have three principal findings. First,
we have established that it is possible to obtain significant amounts of
accurate descriptive information about remote locations. Second, an in-
crease in the distance from a few meters up to 4000 km separating the sub-
ject from the scene to be perceived does not in any apparent way degrade
the quality or accuracy of perception. Finally, the use of Faraday cage
electrical shielding does not prevent high-quality descriptions from being
obtained.
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To build a coherent theory for the explanation of these phenomena,
it is necessary to have a clear understanding of what constitutes the
phenomena. In this paper, we first briefly summarize previous efforts
in this field in Section II. We then present in Sections III and IV the
results of a series of more than 50 experiments with nine subjects carried
out in our own laboratory, which represent a sufficiently stable data base
to permit testing of various hypotheses concerning the functioning of this
channel. Finally, in Section V we indicate those areas of physics and
information theory that appear to be relevant to an understanding of cer-
tain aspects of the phenomena.
First, however, we present an illustrative example generated in an
early pilot experiment. As will be clear from our later discussion, this
is not a "best-ever" example, but rather a typical sample of the level
of proficiency that can be reached and that we have come to expect in our
research.
Three subjects participated in a long-distance experiment focusing
on a series of targets in Costa Rica. These subjects said they had never
been to Costa Rica. In this experiment, one of the experimenters (Dr.
Puthoff) spent ten days traveling through Costa Rica on a combination
business/pleasure trip. This information was all that was known to the
subjects about the traveler's itinerary. The experiment called for Dr.
Puthoff to keep a detailed record of his location and activities, includ-
ing photographs of each of seven target days at 1330 PDT. A total of twelve
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daily descriptions were collected before the traveler's return: six re-
sponses from one subject, five from another, and one from a third.
The third subject who submitted the single response supplied a draw-
ing for a day in the middle of the series. (The subject's response, to-
gether with the photographs taken at the site, are shown in Figure 1.)
Although Costa Rica is a mountainous country, the subject unexpectedly
perceived the traveler at a beach and ocean setting. With some misgiving,
he described an airport on a sandy beach and an airstrip with the ocean
at the end (correct). An airport building also was drawn, and shown to
have a large rectangular overhang (correct). The traveler had taken a
one-day, unplanned side-trip to an offshore island and at the time of the
experiment had just disembarked from a plane at a small island airport as
described by the subject 4000 km away. The sole discrepancy was that the
subject's drawing showed a Quonset-hut type of building in place.of the
rectangular structure.
The above description was chosen as an example to illustrate a major
point observed a number of times throughout the program to be described.
Contrary to what may be expected, a subject's description does not neces-
sarily portray what may reasonably be expected to be correct (an educated
or "safe" guess), but often runs counter even to the subject's, own expec-
tations.
We wish to stress again that a result such as the above is not unusual.
The remaining submissions in this experiment provided further examples of
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AIRPORT IN SAN ANDRES, COLOMBIA, USED AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
FIGURE 1 AIRPORT IN SAN ANDRES, COLOMBIA, USED AS REMOTE VIEWING TARGET
ALONG WITH SKETCH PRODUCED BY SUBJECT IN CALIFORNIA
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excellent correspondences between target and response. (A target period
of poolside relaxation was identified; a drive through a tropical forest
at the base of a truncated volcano was described as a drive through a
jungle below a large bare table mountain; a hotel room target description,
including such details as rug color, was correct; and so on.) So as to
determine whether such matches were simply fortuitous--that is, could
reasonably be expected on the basis of chance alone, Dr. Puthoff was
asked after he had returned to blind match the twelve descriptions to
his seven target locations. On the basis of this conservative evaluation
procedure, which vastly underestimates the statistical significance of the
individual descriptions, five correct matches were obtained. This number
of matches is significant at p = 0.02 by exact binomial calculation.*
The observation of such unexpectedly high-quality descriptions early
in our program.led to a large-scale study of the phenomenon at SRI under
secure, double-blind conditions (i.e., target unknown to experimenters as
well as subjects), with independent random target selection and blind judg-
ing. The results, presented in Sections III and IV, provide strong evi-
dence for the robustness of this phenomenon whereby a human perceptual
modality of extreme sensitivity can detect complex remote stimuli.
The probability of a correct daily match by chance for any given tran-
script is p = 1/7. Therefore, the probability of at least five correct
matches by chance out of twelve tries can be calculated from
12-i)
12 12: (
p = E 0.02
7
i=5 is(12-i)! (0'_
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II BACKGROUND
Although we are approaching the study of these phenomena as physicists,
it is not yet possible to separate ourselves entirely from the language
of the nineteenth century when the laboratory study of the paranormal was
begun. Consequently, we continue to use terms such as "paranormal, "telep-
athy," and the like. However, we intend only to indicate a process of
information transfer under conditions generally accepted as secure against
such transfer and with no prejudice or occult assumptions as to the mecha-
nisms involved. As in any other scientific pursuit, the purpose is to
collect the observables that result from experiments and to try to deter-
mine the functional relationships between these observables and the laws
of physics as they are currently understood.
Organized research into so-called psychic functioning began roughly
in the time of J. J. Thomson, Sir Oliver Lodge, and Sir William Crookes,
all of whom took part in the founding of the Society for Psychical Research
(SPR) in 1882 in England. Crookes, for example, carried out his principal
investigations with D. D. Home, a Scotsman who grew up in America and re-
turned to England in 1855 [3]. According to the notebooks and published
reports of Crookes, Home had demonstrated the ability to cause objects to
move without touching them. We should note in passing that, Home, unlike
most subjects, worked only in the light and spoke out in the strongest
possible terms against the darkened seance rooms popular at the time [5].
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Sir William Crookes was a pioneer in the study of electrical discharge
in gases and in the development of vacuum tubes, some types of which still
bear his name. Although everything Crookes said about electron beams and
plasmas was accepted, nothing he said about the achievements of D. D. Home
ever achieved that status. Many of his colleagues, who had not observed
the experiments with Home, stated publicly that they thought Crookes had
been deceived, to which Crookes angrily responded;
Will not my critics give me credit for some amount of common
sense'? Do they not imagine that the obvious precautions, which
occur to them as soon as they sit down to pick holes in my ex-
periments, have occurred to me also in the course of my prolonged
and patient investigation? The answer to this, as to all other
objections is, prove it to be an error, by showing where the
error lies, or if a trick, by showing how the trick is performed.
Try the experiment fully and fairly. If then fraud be found,
expose it; if it be a truth, proclaim it. This is the only
scientific procedure, and it is that I propose steadily to
pursue [3].
In the United States, scientific interest in the paranormal was cen-
tered in the universities. In 1912 John Coover [6] was established in the
endowed Chair of Psychical Research at Stanford University. In the 1920s,
Harvard University set up research programs with George Estabrooks and
L. T. Troland [7],[8]. It was in this framework that in 1930 William
McDougall invited Drs. J. B. and Louisa Rhine to join the Psychology
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Department at Duke University [9]. For more than thirty years, significant
work was carried out at Rhine's Duke University Laboratory. To examine
the existence of paranormal perception, he used the now-famous ESP cards
containing a boldly printed picture of a star, cross, square, circle, or
wavy lines. Subjects were asked to name the order of these cards in a
freshly shuffled deck of twenty-five such cards. To test for telepathy,
an experimenter would look at the cards one at a time, and a subject suit-
ably separated from the sender would attempt to determine which card was
being viewed.
Dr. Rhine together with Dr. J. G. Pratt carried out thousands of ex-
periments of this type under widely varying conditions [10]. The statis-
tical results from these experiments indicated that some individuals did
indeed possess a paranormal perceptual ability in that it was possible to
obtain an arbitrarily high degree of improbability by continued testing of
a gifted subject.
The work of Rhine has been challenged on many grounds, however, includ-
ing accusations of improper handling of statistics, error, and fraud. With
regard to the statistics, the general consensus of statisticians today is
that if fault is to be found in Rhine's work, it would have to be on other
than statistical grounds [11]. With regard to the accusations of fraud,
the most celebrated case of criticism of Rhine's work, that of G. R. Price
[12], ended 17 years after it began when the accusation of fraud was re-
tracted by its author in an article entitled "Apology to Rhine and Soal,"
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published in the same journal in which it was first put forward [13].
It should also be noted that parapsychological researchers themselves
recently exposed fraud in their own laboratory when they encountered it
[14].
At the end of the 1940s, Professor S. G. Soal, an English mathemati-
cian working with the SPR, had carried out hundreds of card guessing exper-
iments involving tens of thousands of calls [15]. Many of these experi-
ments were carried out over extended distances. One of the most notable
experiments was conducted with Mrs. Gloria Stewart between London and
Antwerp. This experiment gave results whose probability of occurring by
chance were less than 10-8. With the publication of Modern Experiments
in Telepathy by Soal and Bateman (both of whom were statisticians), it
appeared that card guessing experiments produced significant results, on
the average.*
The most severe criticism of all this work, a criticism difficult to
defend against in principle, is that leveled by the well-known British
parapsychological critic C.E.M. Hansel [17], who began his examination of
the ESP hypothesis with the stated assumption, "In view of the a priori
arguments against it we know in advance that telepathy, etc., cannot oc-
cur.'", Therefore, based on the "a priori unlikelihood" of ESP, Hansel's
Recently, some of the early Soal experiments have been criticized [16].
However, his long-distance experiments cited here were judged in a double-
blind fashion of the type that escaped the criticism of the early experi-
ments.
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examination of the literature centered primarily on the possibility of
fraud, by subjects or investigators. He reviewed in depth four experi-
ments which he regarded as providing the best evidence of ESP: the Pearce-
Pratt distance series [18]; the Pratt-Woodruff [19] series, both conducted
at Duke; and Soal's work with Mrs. Stewart and Basil Shackleton [15], as
well as a more recent series by Soal and Bowden [20]. Hansel showed, in
each case, how fraud could have been committed (by the experimenters in the
Pratt-Woodruff and Soal-Bateman series, or by the subjects in the Pearce-
Pratt and Soal-Bowden experiments). He gave no direct evidence that fraud
was committed in these experiments, but said, "If the result could have
arisen through a trick, the experiment must be considered unsatisfactory
proof of ESP, whether or not it is finally decided that such a trick was
in fact used" [17, p. 18]. As discussed by Honorton in a review of the
field [21], Hansel's conclusion after 241 pages of careful scrutiny there-
fore was that these experiments were not "fraud-proof" and therefore in
principle could not serve as conclusive proof of ESP.
Even among the supporters of ESP research and its results, there re-
mained the consistent problem that many successful subjects eventually lost
their ability and their scores gradually drifted toward chance results.
This decline effect in no way erased their previous astronomical success;
but it was a disappointment since if paranormal perception is a natural
ability, one would like to see subjects improving with practice rather
than getting worse.
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One of the first successful attempts to overcome the decline effect
was in Czechoslovakia in the work of Dr. Milan Ryzl, a chemist with the
Institute of Biology of the Czechoslovakian Academy of Science and also
an amateur hypnotist [22]. Through the use of hypnosis, together with
feedback and reinforcement, he developed several outstanding subjects,
one of whom, Pavel Stepanek, has worked with experimenters around the
world for more than ten years.
Ryzl's pioneering work came as an answer to the questions raised by
the 11956 CIBA Foundation conference on extrasensory perception. The CIBA
Chemical Company has annual meetings on topics of biological and chemical
interest, and that. same year they assembled several prominent para-
psychologists to have a state-of-the-art conference on ESP [23]. The con-
ference concluded that little progress would be made in parapsychology re-
search until a repeatable experiment could be found; namely, an experiment
that different experimenters could repeat at will and that would reliably
yield a statistically significant result.
Ryzl had by 1962 accomplished that goal. His primary contribution
was a decision to interact with the subject as a person, to try to build
up his confidence and ability. His protocol depended on "working with"
rather than "running" his subjects. Ryzl's star subject, Pavel Stepanek,
has produced highly significant results with many contemporary researchers
[24]'-[29]. In these experiments, he was able to tell with sixty percent
reliability whether a hidden card was green side or white side up, yield-
ing'statistics of a million to one with only a thousand trials.
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As significant as such results are statistically, the information
channel is imperfect, containing noise along with the signal. When con-
sidering how best to use such a channel, one is led to the communication
theory concept of the introduction of redundancy as a means of coding a
message to combat the effects of a noisy channel [30]. A prototype experi-
ment by Ryzl using such techniques has proved to be successful. Ryzl had
an assistant select randomly five groups of three digits each. These fif-
teen digits were then encoded into binary form and translated into a se-
quence of green and white cards in sealed envelopes. By means of repeated
calling and an elaborate majority vote protocol, Ryzl was able after 19,350
calls by Stepanek (averaging nine seconds per call) to correctly identify
all fifteen numbers, a result significant at p = 10-15. The hit rate for
individual calls was 61.9 percent, 11,978 hits, and 7,372 misses [31].*
The characteristics of such a channel can be specified in accordance
with the precepts of communication theory. The bit rate associated with
the information channel is calculated from [30]
R = H(x) - H (x)
y
(1)
where H(x) is the uncertainty of the source message containing symbols
with a priori probability p,
i
x
Note added in proof. It has just come to our attention that a similar
procedure was used to transmit without error the word "peace" in Inter-
national Morse Code: J. C. Carpenter, "Toward the Effective Utilization
of Enhanced Weak-Signal ESP Effects," presented at the annual meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, New York,
N.Y. (January 27, 1975).
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H(x) = Pi log2 Pi
i=1
(2)
and H (x) is the conditional entropy based on the a posteriori probabil-
y
ities that a received signal was actually transmitted,
2
H y (x) L P(i,j) log2 Pi (j)
i, j=1
(3)
For Stepanek's run, with pi = 1/2, pj(j) = 0.619, and an average time of
nine seconds per choice, we have a source uncertainty H(x) = 1 bit and a
calculated bit rate
R': 0.041 bits/symbol
or
R/T ti 0.0046 bits/s
[Since the 15-digit number (49.8 bits) actually was transmitted at the
rate of 2.9 x 10-CE bits/s, an increase in bit rate by a factor of about
20 could be expected on the basis of a coding scheme more optimum than
that used in the experiments. (See, for example, Appendix A.)]
Dr. Charles Tart at the University of California has written exten-
sively on the so-called decline effect. He considers that having subjects
attempt to guess cards, or perform any other repetitious task for which
they receive no feedback, follows the classical technique for decondition-
ing any response. He thus considers card guessing "a technique for extin-
guishing psychic functioning in the laboratory" [321.
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Tart's injunctions of the mid-sixties were being heeded at Maimonides
Hospital, Brooklyn, New York, by a team of researchers that included Dr.
Montague Ullman, who was director of research for the hospital; Dr. Stanley
Krippner; and, later, Charles Honorton. These three worked together for
several years on experiments on the occurrence of telepathy in dreams.
In the course of a half-dozen experimental series, they found in their
week-long sessions a number of subjects who had dreams that consistently
were highly descriptive of pictorial material that a remote sender was
looking at throughout the night. This work is described in detail in
the experimenters' book Dream Telepathy [33]. Honorton is continuing
work of this free-response type in which the subject has no preconceived
idea'as to what the target may be.
In his more recent work with subjects in the waking state, Honorton
is providing homogeneous stimulation to the subject who is to describe
color slides viewed by another person in a remote room. In this new work,
the subject listens to white noise via earphones and views an homogeneous
visual field imposed through the use of Ping-Pong ball halves to cover the
subject's eyes in conjunction with diffuse ambient illumination. In this
so-called Ganzfeld setting, subjects are again able, now in the waking
state, to give correct and often highly accurate descriptions of the ma-
terial being viewed by the sender [34].
In Honorton's work and elsewhere it apparently has been the step away
from the repetitive, forced-choice experiment that has opened the way for
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a wide variety of ordinary people to demonstrate significant functioning
in, the laboratory, without being bored into a decline effect.
This survey would be incomplete if we did not indicate certain aspects
of the current state of research in the USSR. It is clear from trans-
lated documents and other sources that many laboratories in the USSR are
engaged in paranormal research [35].
Since the 1930s in the laboratory of L. Vasiliev (Leningrad Insti-
tute for Brain Research), there has been an interest in the use of tel-
ep4thy as a method of influencing the behavior of a person at a distance.
In Vasiliev's book Experiments in Mental Suggestion, he makes is very
clear that the bulk of his laboratory's experiments were aimed at long-
distance communication combined with a form of behavior modification;
for example, putting people at a distance to sleep through hypnosis [36].
Similar behavior modification types of experiments have been carried
out in recent times by I.M. Kogan, Chairman of the Bioinformation Section
of the Moscow Board of the Popov Society. He is a Soviet engineer who un-
til 1969 published extensively on the theory of telepathic communication
[36]-[40]. He was concerned with three principal kinds of experiments:
mental suggestion, without hypnosis over short distances, in which the per-
cipient attempts to identify an object; mental awakening over short distances,
in which a subject is awakened from a hypnotic sleep at the "beamed" sug-
gestion from the hypnotist; and long-range (intercity) telepathic communica-
tion. Kogan's main interest has been to quantify the channel capacity of
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the paranormal channel. He finds that the bit rate decreases from 0.1
bits/s for laboratory experiments to 0.005 bits/s for his 1000-km inter-
city experiments.
In the USSR, serious consideration is given to the hypothesis that
telepathy is mediated by extremely low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic
propagation. (The pros and cons of this hypothesis are discussed in
Section V of this paper.) In general, the entire field of paranormal
research in the USSR is part of a larger one concerned with the interac-
tion between electromagnetic fields and living organisms [41],[42]. At
the First International Congress on Parapsychology and Psychotronics in
Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1973, for example, Kholodov spoke at length
about the susceptibility of living systems to extremely low-level ac and do
fields. He described conditioning effects on the behavior of fish resulting from
the application of 10 to 100 ?W of RF to their tank [43]. The USSR take
these data seriously in that the Soviet safety requirements for steady-
state microwave exposure set limits at 10 4W/cm2, whereas the United States
has set a steady-state limit of 10 mW/cm2 [44]. Kholodov spoke also about
the nonthermal effects of microwaves on animals' central nervous systems.
His experiments were very carefully carried out and are characteristic
of a new dimension in paranormal research.
The increasing importance of this area in Soviet research was indi-
cated recently when the Soviet Psychological Association issued an unprece-
dented position paper calling on the Soviet Academy of Sciences to step up
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efforts in this area [45]. They recommended that the newly formed Psycho-
logical Institute within the Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Psycholog-
ical Institute of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences review the area and
consider the creation of a new laboratory within one of the institutes to
study persons with unusual abilities. They also recommended a comprehen-
siveevaluation of experiments and theory by the Academy of Sciences'
Institute of Biophysics and Institute for the Problems of Information
Transmission.
The Soviet research, along with other behavioristically oriented
work, suggests that in addition to obtaining overt responses such as
verbalizations or key presses from a subject, it should be possible to
obtain objective evidence of information transfer by direct measurement
of physiological parameters of a subject. Kamiya, Lindsley, Pribram,
Silverman, Walter, and others brought together to discuss physiological
methods to detect ESP functioning, have suggested that a whole range of
electroencephalogram (EEG) responses such as evoked potentials (EPs),
spontaneous EEG,.and the contingent negative variation (CNV) might be
sensitive indicators of the detection of remote stimuli not mediated by
usual sensory processes [46].
Early experimentation of this type was carried out by Douglas Dean
at the Newark College of Engineering. In his search for physiological
correlates of information transfer, he used the plethysmograph to measure
changes in the blood volume in a finger, a sensitive indicator of autonomic
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nervous system functioning [47]. A plethysmographic measurement was made
on the finger of a subject during telepathy experiments. A sender looked
at randomly selected target cards consisting of names known to the subject,
together with names unknown to him (selected at random from a telephone
book). The names of the known people were contributed by the subject and
were to be of emotional significance to him. Dean found significant changes
in the chart recording of finger blood volume when the remote sender was
looking at those names known to the subject as compared with those names
randomly chosen.
Three other experiments using the physiological approach have now
been published. The first work by Tart [48], a later work by Lloyd [49],
and most recently the work by the authors [4] all follow a similar procedure.
Basically, a subject is closeted in an electrically shielded room while
his EEG is recorded. Meanwhile, in another laboratory, a second person
is stimulated from time to time, and the time of that stimulus is marked
on the magnetic tape recording of the subject's EEG. The subject does
not know when the remote stimulus periods are as compared with the non-
stimulus periods.
With regard to choice of stimulus for our own experimentation, we
noted that in previous work others had attempted, without success, to
detect evoked potential changes in a subject's EEG in response to a single
stroboscopic flash stimulus observed by another subject [50]. In a discus-
sion of that experiment, Kamiya suggested that because of the unknown
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temporal characteristics of the information channel, it might be more
appropriate to use repetitive bursts of light to increase the probability
of detecting information transfer [51]. Therefore, in our study we chose
to use a stroboscopic flash train of 10-s duration as the remote stimulus.
In the design of the study, we assumed that the application of the
remote stimulus would result in responses similar to those obtained under
conditions of direct stimulation. For example, when an individual is stim-
ulated with a low-frequency (H
I-
J 0
0
U
DECISION 1
Accept "1" as
the Bit Being
Transmitted
DECISION 2
the Bit Being
20 30 40 50 60
NUMBER OF TRIALS
FIGURE A-1 ENHANCEMENT OF SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO BY
SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING PROCEDURE (p0 = 0.4,
pt = 0.6, a = 0.01, a = 0.01)
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El = d1 + SN,
E 0 = -d0 + SN,
d
0
log
p1 1-P0
log-
p0 1-P1
pl 1-P0
log-
p0 1-P1
S is the slope
N is the number of trials
d1 and d0 are the y axis intercepts.
A cumulative record of receiver-generated responses to the target bit is
compiled until either the upper or lower limit line is reached, at which
point a decision is made to accept 0 or 1 as the bit being transmitted.
Channel reliability (probability of correctly determining message
being transmitted) as a function of operative psi parameter * is plotted
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in Figure A-2. As observed, the sequential sampling procedure can result
in 90 percent or greater reliability with psi parameters on the order of
a few percent.
Implementation of the sequential sampling procedure requires the
transmission of a message coded in binary digits. Therefore, the target
space must consist of dichotomous elements such as the white and green
cards used in the experiments by Ryz1.
In operation, a sequence corresponding to the target bit (0 or 1) is
sent and the cumulative entries are made (Figure A-1) until a decision
is reached to accept either a 1 or 0 as the bit being transmitted. At
a prearranged time, the next sequence is begun and continues as above
until the entire message has been received. A useful alternative, which
relieves the percipient of the burden of being aware of his self-
contradiction from trial to trial, consists of cycling through the entire
message repetitively and entering each response on its associated graph
until a decision has been reached on all message bits. The authors have
used this technique successfully in a pilot study, but a discussion of
this would take us beyond the intended scope of this paper.
From the results obtained in such experiments, the channel bit rate
can be ascertained for the system configuration under consideration.
Furthermore, bit rates for other degrees of reliability (i.e., for other
p0, pl, cx, and p) can be estimated by construction of other decision
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? c 0.8
0
I I I I I I N I 1 1
+0.4 +0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4
' (psi parameter)
FIGURE A-2
RELIABILITY CURVE FOR SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING
PROCEDURE (po = 0.4, p, = 0.6, a = 0.01, 0 = 0.01)
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curves over the same data base and thus provide a measure of the bit rate
per degree of reliability.
In summary, the procedures described here can provide a specification
of the characteristics of a remote sensing channel under well-defined
conditions. These procedures also provide for a determination of the
feasibility of such a channel for particular applications.
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Appendix B
REMOTE VIEWING TRANSCRIPT
Following is the unedited transcript of the first experiment with
an SRI volunteer (S6), a mathematician in the computer science laboratory,
with no previous experience in remote viewing. The target, determined
by random procedure, was White's Plaza, a plaza with fountain at Stanford
University (shown in Figure 8). The capital letters correspond to the
experimenter's statements and questions. As is our standard protocol,
the experimenter with the subject is kept ignorant of the specific target
visited as well as of the contents of the target pool.
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TODAY IS MONDAY, OCTOBER 7TH. IT IS 11:00 AND THIS IS A REMOTE VIEWING
EXPERIMENT WITH RUSS TARG, PHYLLIS COLE, AND HAL PUTHOFF. IN THIS EX-
PERIMENT HAL WILL DRIVE TO A REMOTE SITE CHOSEN BY A RANDOM PROCESS.
PHYLLIS COLE WILL BE THE REMOTE VIEWER, AND RUSS TARG IS THE MONITOR.
WE EXPECT THIS EXPERIMENT TO START AT TWENTY MINUTES AFTER ELEVEN AND
RUN FOR FIFTEEN MINUTES.
IS IS JUST ABOUT TWENTY MINUTES AFTER ELEVEN AND HAL SHOULD BE AT HIS
TARGET LOCATION BY NOW.
WHY'DON'T YOU TELL ME WHAT KIND OF PICTURES YOU SEE AND WHAT YOU THINK HE
MIGHT BE DOING OR EXPERIENCING.
The first thing that came to mind was some sort of a large, square kind
of a shape. Like Hal was in front of it. It was a ... not a building or
something, it was a square. I don't know if it was a window, but some-
thing like that so that the bottom line of it was not at the ground.
About where his waist was, at least. That's what it seemed to me.
It seems outdoors somehow. Tree.
DOES HAL SEEM TO BE LOOKING AT THAT SQUARE?
I don't know. The first impression was that he wasn't, but I have a
sense that whatever it was was something one might look at. I don't know
if it would be a sign, but something that one might look at.
CAN YOU TELL IF :CT IS ON THE GROUND OR VERTICAL?
It seemed vertical.
I don't have a sense that it was part of anything particular. It might
be on a building or part of a building, but I don't know. There was a
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tree outside, but I also got the impression of cement. I don't have the
impression of very many people or traffic either. I have the sense that
he is sort of walking back and forth. I don't have any more explicit
picture than that.
CAN YOU MOVE INTO WHERE HE IS STANDING AND TRY TO SEE WHAT HE IS LOOKING
AT?
I picked up he was touching something--something rough. Maybe warm and
rough. Something possibly like cement.
IT IS TWENTY-FOUR MINUTES AFTER ELEVEN.
CAN YOU CHANGE YOUR POINT OF VIEW AND MOVE ABOVE THE SCENE SO YOU CAN
GET A BIGGER PICTURE OF WHAT'S THERE?
I still see some trees and some sort of pavement or something like that.
Might be a courtyard. The thing that came to mind was it might be one
of the plazas at Stanford campus or something like that, cement.
Some kinds of landscaping.
I said Stanford campus when I started to see some things in White Plaza,
but I think that is misleading.
I have the sense that he's not moving around too much. That it's in a
small area.
I guess I'll go ahead and say it, but I'm afraid I'm just putting on my
impressions from Stanford campus. I had the impression of a fountain.
There are two in the plaza, and it seemed that Hal was possibly near the,
what they call Mem Claw.
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WHAT IS THAT?
It's a fountain that looks rather like a claw. It's a black sculpture.
And it has benches around it made of cement.
ARE THERE ANY BUILDINGS AT THE PLACE YOU ARE LOOKING AT? ARE THERE ANY
BUILDINGS? YOU DESCRIBED A KIND OF A COURTYARD. USUALLY AT SOME PLACES
THERE SHOULD BE A BUILDING, LARGE OR SMALL THAT THE COURTYARD IS ABOUT.
LOOK AT THE END OR THE SIDES OF THE COURTYARD. IS THERE ANYTHING TO BE
SEEN?
I have a sense that there are buildings. It's not solid buildings. I mean
there are some around the periphery and I have a sense that none of them
are very tall. Maybe mostly one story, maybe an occasional two story one.
DO YOU HAVE ANY BETTER IDEA OF WHAT YOUR SQUARE WAS THAT YOU SAW AT THE
OUT SET?
No. I could hazard different kinds of guesses.
DOES IT SEEM PART OF THIS SCENE?
It ... I think it could be. It could almost be a bulletin board or some-
thing with notices on it maybe.
Or something that people are expected to look at. Maybe a window with
things in it that. people were expected to look at.
WHAT KIND OF TREES DO YOU SEE IN THIS PLACE?
I don't know what: kind they are. The impression was that they were shade
trees and not terribly big. Maybe 12 feet of trunk and then a certain
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amount of branches above that. So that the branches have maybe a 12 foot
diameter, or something. Not real big trees.
NEW TREES RATHER THAN OLD TREES?
Yeah, maybe 5 or 10 years old, but not real old ones.
IS THERE ANYTHING INTERESTING ABOUT THE PAVEMENT?
No. It seems to be not terribly new or terribly old. Not very interesting.
There seems to be some bits of landscaping around. Little patches of grass
around the edges and peripheries. Maybe some flowers. But, not lush.
YOU SAW SOME BENCHES. DO YOU WANT TO TELL ME ABOUT THEM?
Well, that's my unsure feeling about this fountain. There was some kind
of benches of cement. Curved benches, it felt like.
They were of rough cement.
WHAT DO YOU THINK HAL IS DOING WHILE HE IS THERE?
I have a sense that he is looking at things trying to project them.
Looking at different things and sort of walking back and forth not cover-
ing a whole lot of territory.
Sometimes standing still while he looks around.
I just had the impression of him talking, and I almost sense that it was
being recorded or something. I don't know if he has a tape recorder,
but if it's not that, then he is saying something because it needed to
be remembered. IT'S 11:33. HE'S JUST PROBABLY GETTING READY TO COME
BACK.
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1. J. R. Smythies, ed., Science and ESP (Routledge and Kegan Paul,
London, England, 1967).
2. C. Evans, "parapsychology--what the questionnaire revealed," New
Scientist, pp. 209 (January 25, 1973).
3. Alan Gauld, The founders of psychical research (Schocken Books,
New York, New York, 1968). See also Wm. Crookes, Researches in the
phenomena of spiritualism, J. Burns, London, England, 1874.
4. R. Targ and H. Puthoff, "Information transmission under conditions
of sensory shielding," Nature 252, 5476, pp. 602-607 (October 18,
1974).
5. D. D. Home, Lights and shadows of spiritualism (G. W. Carleton, New
York, New York, 1877).
6. J. Coover, Experiments in psychical research (Stanford University
Press, Palo Alto, California, 1917).
7. G. Estabrooks, Bulletin of the Boston Society for Psychical Research
(1927) [See also reference 12, pp. 18-19.].
8. L. T. Troland, Techniques for the experimental study of telepathy
and other alleged clairvoyant processes (Albany, New York, 1928).
9. J. B. Rhine, New frontiers of the mind (Farrar and Rinehart, New
York, New York, 1937).
10. J. Pratt and J. B. Rhine, et al., Extra-sensory perception after
sixty years (Henry Holt, 1940).
11. C. Scott, "G. Spencer Brown and probability: A critique." J. of
the Society for Psychical Research 39, pp. 217-234 (1958).
12. G. R. Price, "Science and the supernatural," Science 122, pp. 359-
367 (1955).
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13. G. R. Price, "Apology to Rhine and Soal," Science 175, p. 359 (1972).
14. J. B. Rhine, "A new case of experimenter unreliability," J. Para-
psychology 38, pp. 215-225 (June 1974).
15. S. G. Soal and F. Bateman, Modern experiments in telepathy (Faber
and Faber, London, England, 1953).
16. C. Scott and P. Haskell, "'Normal' explanation of the Soal-Goldney
experiments in extra-sensory perception," Nature, 245, pp. 52-54
(September 7, 1973).
17. C.E.M. Hansel, ESP--A scientific evaluation (Charles Scribners, New
York, New York, 1966).
18. J. B. Rhine and J. G. Pratt, "A review of the Pearce-Pratt distance
series of ESP tests," J. of Parapsychology 18, pp. 165-177 (1954).
19. J. G. Pratt and J. L. Woodruff, "Size of stimulus symbols in extra-
sensory perception," J. of Parapsychology 3, pp. 121-158 (1939).
20. S. G. Soal and H. T. Bowden, The mind readers: recent experiments
in telepathy (Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1954).
21. C. Honorton, "Error Some Place!" J. of Communication 25:1 (The
Annenberg School of Communication, Winter 1975).
22. M. Ryzl, "Training the psi faculty by hypnosis," J. Amer. Soc. Psych.
Res., vol. 41, pp. 234-251 (1962).
23. CIBA foundation symposium on extra sensory perception (Little Brown,
Boston, Massachusetts, 1956).
24. M. Ryzl and J. Pratt, "A repeated-calling ESP test with sealed cards,"
J. Parapsychology, vol. 27, pp. 161-174 (1963).
25. M. Ryzl and J. Pratt, "A further confirmation of stabilized ESP per-
formance in a selected subject," J. Parapsychology, vol. 27, pp. 73-
83 (1963).
26. J. Pratt, "Preliminary experiments with a 'borrowed' ESP subject,"
J. Amer. Soc. Psych. Res., vol. 42, pp. 333-345 (1964).
27. J. Pratt and J. Blom, "A confirmatory experiment with 'borrowed'
outstanding ESP subject," J. Amer. Soc. Psych. Res., vol. 42,
pp. 381-388 (1964).
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28. W. G. Roll and J. G. Pratt, "An ESP test with aluminum targets,"
J. Amer. Soc. Psych. Res., vol. 62, pp. 381-387 (1968).
29. J. Pratt, "A decade of research with a selected ESP subject: an
overview and reappraisal of the work with Pavel Stepanek," Proc.
Amer. Soc. Psych. Res., vol. 30 (1973).
30. C. Shannon and W. Weaver, The mathematical theory of communication
(University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1949).
31. M. Ryzl, "A model for parapsychological communication," J. Para-
psychology, vol. 30, 18-31 (March 1966).
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