ESP: TEACHING 'SCIENTIFIC METHOD' BY COUNTEREXAMPLE

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• Publication Date: December 1, 1975
• Content Type: MAGAZINE

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g sen nc method" by counterexample
S. L. Blatt
Department of Physics
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio 43210
(Received 4 March 1975)
Increasing the students' understanding of the methods
of science is often one of the goals of an introductory
course in physics for nonscientists. To supplement the
examples arising directly from the usual subject matter
and to stimulate clearer thought concerning the nature
of scientific inquiry, discussion of some subjects which
have a surface resemblance to science is proposed. The
history of research into extrasensory perception appears
to be ideal as such a counterexample, allowing for
explicit comparisons which illuminate the subject of
methodology in science while maintaining high student
interest. Lecture suggestions. including demonstrations,
? are discussed.
century world?it is important to also present some coun-
terexamples. A study of the claim's and methods of a
nonscientific area can provide, by way of contrast, a new
perspective in which to view the processes involved in the
development and advancement of physics.
Many areas of current interest and controversy may be
considered appropriate for the role of "nonscientific coun-
terexample," depending on the inclinations of the instruc-
tor and students. Astrology is one possibility that can be
logically discussed after a study of planetary motions or
other astronomical phenomena."' Unidentified flying ob-
jects, catastrophic cosmological events in the recent his-
tory of the earth, and related lore could be introduced,
similarly, to compare with the nature of physical theory
and observation. The subject of extrasensory perception,
more familiarly known as ESP, has been found to be
especially good for this purpose. The remainder of this
paper is devoted to providing (a) some background on
ESP, with some of the contrasts between its historical de-
velopment and the methods followed by physicists, and
(b)an outline for a lecture on the subject, complete with
demonstrations. This lecture format has been used for the
past several years; it has never failed to capture the in-
terest of the students and has always generated long and
fruitful discussions concerning criteria for evidence, mod-
els of reality, and the whole gamut of science methodolo-.
I. PRELUDE
The following question appears at the beginning of a
final examination in introductory physics for nonscience
fudents. The reader also is invited to answer the question
ore proceeding.
Please write, in the spaces provided, the name of
one item in each of the following categories:
I. A color . .
2. A flower . .
3. A piece of furniture. . .
II. INTRODUCTION
? The objectives of a course in introductory physics for
nonscience students often require that, in addition to the
basic subject matter of physics, an explicit attempt be
made to increase the students awareness of the processes
rough which scientific knowledge is obtained. While
oc
gy?
III. BACKGROUND ON ESP
The subject of ESP has been, historically, a controver-
sial one. A new wave of interest has recently emerged,
accompanied by a host of new books and new claims
(both of authenticity and of fraud). The recent publication
of a study of the phenomena produced by one well-known
ESP practitioner, Uri Geller, appearing in a prestigious
scientific journa1,3 has been countered by articles in the
general public media' suggesting where the scientists may
have been misled. Photographic studies 5 of a mysterious
"aura" surrounding living objects, said by some to be re-
lated to the "thought-transfer" process and by others to
be simple, predictable electrostatic effects, have been
made with impressively complicated apparatus. All the
appearance of conventional scientific investigation is pres-
ent, and it is truly a challenge to attempt to analyze
these new efforts in an old field objectively. However, the
interest generated by this revival of ESP research provides
an excellent opportunity to introduce the subject in its his-
torical context, and to contrast its development with that
of physics.
merits, m
'8'id a
coveries can be noted in laboratory sessions, lectures an
readings on historical developments, and all other aspects
of the course. However, if any development of a critical
facility is desired?such as the ability to sort out what is
science and what is not science in the modern twentieth
eon given distinctive nameS:
(i) Clairvoyance is usually defined as the ability to
have knowledge of events which are taking place in the
present, but about which no sensory input can be had.
(ii) Precognition is defined as the ability to have
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w e ge o events before t ey happen. subject who later faltered was usually explained by ad
(iii) Telepathy is defined as the ability to transfer hoc "interfering factors" attributed to the delicacy of
thoughts directly from one person to another, with no in-
ESP: tiredness, skeptical observers, etc. Certain subjects
tervening sensory means. were found to be "forward targeting"; that is, their
,
(iv) Psychokinesis is defined as an interplay of scores were improved if one assumed they were calling
thoughts and material objects, most often the ability of the symbols on the card after the one in use. Unfortunate-'
ht to jnfluence Oe.b,ehavior,of an object. , , it was never possible to determine in advance when
graTPstroWgi44.44i:S11;0116f dVtl:k14fy Pei'- i'ifd-taYgetilig',4ilas`,taking''place,,,Probabilities were
-robtiliiy, eitOialki?dt trl.Mllticed6gitkPation- '- Of re- thns tigetPiii a soinzwhat cavalier fashion,
' iirrAeAlgl~lliriee4IN".lt liisch*,,v-upori re- .5'r A finaI'shortcoming of these'experirhents, 'a thigwback
lo (NJ\ iintrAlic4g- 4 tbittievdyaike ot;13'=-7'fr othe-da`flieSt days of 'ESP, i the ever present possibilityi
ic 1eckailii01eig. 111611ibkrftliU's fefkiikis" .tharm'ibeelleilliprehli6e"elliVIOqly:',,,b.r t4kib
gl!g,iy:,!AT,04 of
ttri , inVifellgaiftlifge,'"`inliffefing-P-airirlateTrwmi,11VUZeXperimen-itiV te'nlie-d to 'si-i-OW that i'll'O'se ftavo-
she learns that at that moment the child had been in- disposed toward ESP sometimes reported higher scores
volved in an accident and is now hospitalized. Such for a given subject than did skeptical experimenters, and
events seem too real and personal, to those involved, to the subjects were often able to cheat directly. Some pre-
be dismissed as mere coincidence. Consideration is rarely cautions were taken to reduce this possibility, but, as Dr.
given to those numerous times when a similar "feeling" Rhine reports,6 "Elaborate precautions take their
turns out to be unrelated to any happening?such occur- toll . . . ." In other words, ESP ability drops, owing to
rences are forgotten at once. Furthermore, the lack of the delicacy of the phenomenon and the sensitivity of the
specific details of the actual event in the premonition is subjects, when precautions against cheating are used. The
usually ignored or even altered in the retelling to indicate suggestion that perhaps, in fact, some cheating had been
a more accurate "vision" than that which may have, in suppressed apparently was not seriously considered.
fact, occurred. A final point on the history of ESP should be noted.
Further indications of the existence of an extrasensory
facility appeared in the form of demonstrations of appar-
ent telepathic communication. In the late 1800s, scien-
tists reported enthusiastically on exhibitions of telepathy
by the four teen-age daughters of a Rev. Andrew Mac-
reight Creary: contents of closed boxes were divined,
selected cards named, and selected people's names cor-
rectly identified by any of the girls who were out of the
room when the selections were made.? Controversy
raged, but it was not until many years later that the full
truth was revealed: the sisters had been signaling each
other through coughs, sniffles, and a variety of subtle
body motions. It had all been a joke, but by that time
there were dozens of imitators, and thousands of believ-
ing spectators, and the ESP movement had begun. (Scien-
tific American has a recent note" pointing out that, ear-
lier, Michael Faraday spent some time uncovering the de-
ceptions of the so-called psychics of his day, without dis-
suading any confirmed believers.)
Research into ESP was put into a laboratory setting by
J. B. Rhine of Duke University. The most common ex-
periments are conducted with a special set of 25 cards,
containing five each of five different symbols: a circle, a
cross, a square, three wavy lines, and a star. These cards
can be simply turned facedown in a stack; the subject
tries to determine what symbol is on each card without
seeing the faces (thus testing the subject's clairvoyance
and/or precognition). Alternately, one subject (or the ex-
perimenter) can look at the cards, one at a time, and at-
tempt to "send" the symbols, via telepathy, to another
subject. Tests of psychokinesis are usually performed
with dice.
Due to the lack of a theoretical model of the ESP pro-
cess, performance of any subject on these experiments is
ordinarily compared with the null hypothesis, that is, the
results to be expected if no special phenomena were oc-
curring. However, the inevitable subjects scoring above
one or two standard deviations from the mean expected The instructor places five cards facedown, one at a
on a random basis are traditionally subjected to further time, without looking at their faces. As each is set down,
testing, and some seemingly incredible runs of correct the students write one of the five ESP symbols on a sheet
calls have been recorded in this fashion. A high-scoring of paper, as their "hunch" for that card. The instructor,
Throughout the past half-century, professional magicians
have often reproduced so-called extrasensory effects by
undetectable, but wholly physical methods. While produc-
ing an effect by one means does not rule out its produc-
tion by another, a proper test of ESP must rule out, as far
as possible, the clandestine use of any physical process.
Often, scientists are not sufficiently versed in the methods
of deception to properly rule out certain innocuous-
seeming ploys, and employing persons trained in fooling ,
the public as observers might be beneficial. In this re-
gard, it should be noted that Uri Geller, the ESP expo-
nent mentioned earlier, was a nightclub magician before
he achieved his present notoriety.
IV. SUGGESTIONS FOR A LECTURE
A lecture on ESP can be based on some of the points
made in the previous section. Reading a few quotations at
the lecture's opening by those who have experienced par-
ticularly dramatic spontaneous "ESP" occurrences sets j
the mood appropriately. After talking about the early. ESP
experiments, it is well to do some demonstrations, just as
would be done for a discussion of some physical
phenomenon. The form of the demonstrations should fol-
low closely, although in a much abbreviated form, the 4,
typical experiments done in the past in the search for
ESP. At least one experiment should utilize a statistical 6!
analysis; the class should be prepared for this from earlier
lectures in kinetic theory or atomic structure. A variety of
ESP phenomena should be touched on, and one experi-
ment should purposely be done in a manner that seems to
rule out "cheating."
The following three demonstrations have been found to
work well in this context. All are performed with a stan-
dard set of ESP cards.
A. Group experiment in clairvoyance/precognition
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then shows the cards, one at a time, and the students note Table I. Probabilities for randomly guessing fSP syth'bls, There are
which one they matched properIy. The scores of all stu- five symbols, and five cards are guessed.
.. .
dents aretabulated on th'e ,b ackboard.'' TheS'e' 'are di?)-
. .. c, _
cussed briefly: In a moderate-sized class, several student?" ?-ld Nuraei g.ril'esser
,
will have gotten three out of five correct, Vwhich violates .eorrectly
the students' sense that one out of five is the best that
could be expected; one or more students May,have four or 0 0.33
PrktiOn of population Fraction of population
achieving this number with fori,vard targeting?
dliQtru
tiffolOrWhat tuth0!6
\NV..
1P-1,4, '41
"
0 .08
0.26
0.35
mtli;
B. Experiment in telepathy
The instructor holds up cards, one .at a time, with their
targeting" is allowed (see Table I). Trickery on the sec-
faces to the class, asking them all to think of the symbol ond experiment is then admitted ("I even have, 'right here
on that card. The first symbol is correctly called by the in my lecture notes, 'Get four out of five,' since getting
instructor, even though he cannot see it. The students are all five would appear too suspicious!"). A list of several
asked to keep score of how well the instructor does? possible ways the "cheating" could have been ac-
these scores can later be compared to see if any "experi- complished may be presented: having an assistant among
menter bias" has crept in. In this demonstration, the in- the students.sending signals; using a small mirror to catch
structor hits on four out of five cards, much to the a glimpse .of the faces of the cards; using cards whose
amazement of the class. Of course, to assure that result, backs are marked to indicate the symbol on the front;
some subterfuge is employed (as explained in the Appen- having a prearranged order to the cards; etc. It is not
dix), but all will be admitted later, during the discussion necessary to reveal which method you actually employed;
period,
this list shows how easily the effect could have been
achieved. The final "experiment" is also revealed as a
C. Psychokinesis/clairvoyance effect
fraud, since purely physical means were employed here,
Since the possibility that the instructor is "cheating" too; however, after this disclaimer, leaving the students
may come to the students' minds at this point, a third with one remaining bit of mystery is much more effective
demonstration is done that is apparently out of his hands, than a complete explanation of the method employed..
One card of each symbol is taken from the set and placed Following the discussion of the experiment, the corn-
out of sight behind the lecture table. Each of four stu- parisons with physical science methodology can be made
dents is allowed to select one symbol and seal it in an explicitly. Material from Sec. III can be used as a start in
envelope while the instructor is at the back of the room. this direction. The analysis can conclude with remarks on
The envelopes are mixed, and the instructor then proceeds some of the current controversial aspects of ESP study, as
to tear open one envelope at a time, gaze at the symbol,
outlined at the beginning of that section. The recent dis-
and point out the student that had selected it. After three missal" (for faking experimental results) of the director
students have thus been matched with their chosen sym- of the research institute founded by J. B. Rhine may be
bol, only one student remains; the instructor therefore ob- pointed out as an example of the.sontinuing difficulties of
viously knows which student chose the last symbol. this field of investigation.
However, he demonstrates a final telepathic flash by nam-
ing, instead, the symbol, while it is still sealed in the en- V. REPRISE OF PRELUDE
velope. Again, a page has been taken from the magician's When I wrote the prelude, I was thinking red, rose,
manual, but the effect at that moment is sheer incredulity, and chair. What did you write down? Among the hun-
The straightforward approach of the physicist demands dreds of subtle hues, flower varieties, and items of furni-
that the fact that trickery was going on be revealed, but ture, did you hit any of those I thought of? The vast
the gullibility of the public in the face of the famous majority of students having that question on an exam in
"mind readers" and "clairvoyants" of the past can most the past hit at least one; many hit two, and a few even
easily be appreciated when one has, himself, been "gul- got all three! Is this a demonstration of ESP? Discuss.
led." Any "magic" effects can be employed for these
purposes, but those described above have been found to APPENDIX: THE "MAGIC SHOW"
lend themselves particularly well to the ESP format. Their
modus operandi is described in the Appendix, together The second and third effects suggested as demonstra-
tions for a lecture on ESP are ,performed by using very
with some suggestions on their presentation.
simple methods. However, the mode of presentation is
D. Analysis very important; any similarities between the appearance of
these demonstrations and a typical magic show will de-
The demonstrations are now analyzed. A discussion of stroy the atmosphere which is such an important part of
the expected probabilities for the distribution of correct the lecture. Thus all words and gestures must be corn-
guesses in the first experiment should be presented, not- pletely natural.
ing the increased chances for success when "forward Any of the methods listed in the discussion of the
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Am. J. Phys. Vol. 43, No. 12, December 1975 S. L. Blau 1 1081
down to 3/5.
Approved For Releaue2001/03/26?: CIA-RDP96-007874p00200080051-8
'tetepathy' experiment may, in fact, be employed, order,. of course) by looking at their cards, it is a sirnple
However, the simplest by far is to haye a subtle method matter to note subtly the unselected symbol card remain-
of marking on the backs of the ESP symbol cards.. .The . .,ing behind the table. Having thus accounted for all but
symbols themselves suggest an easily memorized proce- one symbol, that one must be in the fourth student's en-
dure: the circle is drawn with one stroke; the cross with velope, and you announce the symbol before tearing open
two; there are three wavy lines; the square has four sides; the envelope and showing that you were, indeed, correct.
and the star is five-pointed. Thus, marks. representing The effect of the last trick is usually so striking that it
1-5, respectively, are needed. In fact, using no mark at: would be anticlimactic to explain it. A blanket admission
all. in place, of the 5. produces a ?further simplification of guilt, of trickery by pure physical means, is enough to
ArdpeoillpAitbtfeliatiltVpEiffis ii el.htith'.*11164440fOijAgetkkil itook-sk81,03,X,Wile leav
matchsbdesigh ith 4h bank Vrthei'etilidSv!.;464giloric, ling a Ifygingkltpze?s4:41,ARtvqqtrIetbi's t.?ppR11.' has trans
a;cfk,fiegifcle;dattlypateseiltaltiptiX,11,84,01410?;ttPon ipired Tli?itmlote,FituftwiA)P.qtr.F4PcM340,ziNtt,e!:, vffi
ped: " 400.3,,t4tr4he'.-tban*.,46Sthecasirdf pithis b1tpfike0/4,1sTngtf,Mf ESP: 4N the Q4r:
griyeti,pga#6.16ic)diic?it42pmattlolly:nii,,:E.Jitijocodlkti4' that 4ithti061,14140e' ilet2,1''
The other effect, guessing correctly which student 1M. Zeilik II, Am. J. Phys. 42, 538 (1974); 41, 961 (1973).
picked each symbol, is equally simple, although it looks 2E. E. Snyder, Physical Science for Today (Merrill, Columbus, OH,
much less possible for the instructor to "cheat." The 1973), Chap. 1. '
, R. Targ and H. Puthoff, Nature (Lond.) 251, 602 (1974); see also G.
method depends not on markings on the Cards, but rather M. Walker, Electronics 37, 82 (7 February 1974).
on markings on the envelopes! Simple fingernail marks 4c. Reynolds and Y. Joel, Pop. Photogr. 74, 74 (1974); see also edito-
on one edge indicate the four envelopes?zero, one, two, rial accompanying publication of Ref. 3, above.
and three marks. In order to avoid suspicion, the en- 5The Kirlian Aura, edited by S. Krippner and D. Rubin (Anchor, Gar-
velopes are taken to each student, separately, by the in- den City, NY, 1974).
structor as he selects them for the demonstration. He then ?J. B. Rhine and J. G. Pratt, Parapsychology (Thomas, Springfield, IL,
simply remembers the order the students were chosen, 1957); Parapsychology, from Duke to FRNM, edited by J. B. Rhine
which corresponds exactly to the markings on the en- (Parapsychology, Durham, NC, 1965).
velopes. The instructor can then move on to the back of 7L. Le Shan, The Medium, the Mystic, and the Physicist (Viking, New
the room while the students, one at a time (apparently to York, 1974).
8P. Davidovits, Communication (Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New
avoid collusion, but in fact to prevent the exchange of
York, 1972), Appendix II.
envelopes) select and seal their cards in the envelopes. It 9m. Christopher, ESP, Seers and Psychics (Cromwell, New York,
is a good precaution always to talk about "the en- 1970).
velope," not "your envelope." After returning to the iosci. Am. 232, 52 (January 1975).
front and identifying the first three students (in arbitrary "Sci. Am. 231, 68 (September 1974).
,
1082 APPRY.O. PLr,Th9rg9501/03/26 : CIA-RDP96-00787R000200080051-8
inquiry, CIISCUSSIOn Of some subjects which
'dce resemblance to science is proposed. The
csearch into extrasensory perception appears
' as such a counterexample, allowing for
qparisons which illuminate the subject of
, in science while maintaining high student
2ture)giuggestions, including demonstrations,
d. 1:5
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Aing Etestion appears at the beginning of a
,lation a introductory physics for nonscience
readt0 also is invited to answer the question
edingN
(3)
! ?
e write" in the spaces provided, the name of
in in h of the following categories:
A col& . . .
A fltr . . .
A pi of furniture.
CD
.)UCTRON
-ives g a course in introductory physics for
iudengoften require that, in addition to the
' mattla of physics, an explicit attempt be
a
.ase t students' awareness of the processes
11 :
. sc tific knowledge is obtained. While
codigations of these processes under the
1 "scantific method" result in too incom-
e to 8 very useful, the experiences of the
)selveo3during the course usually provide a
tion discussions of the characteristics of
I
A
- T interplay of observations, experi-
buildtg, deductions, and "accidental" dis-
're not:Pd in laboratory sessions, lectures and
istorical developments, and all other aspects
However, if any development of a critical
ired?such as the ability to sort out what is
hat is not science in the modern twentieth
Jeers. catastrophic cosmological events in the recent his-
tory of the earth, and related lore could be introduced,
similarly, to compare with the nature of physical theory
and observation. The subject of extrasensory perception,
more familiarly known as ESP, has been found to be
especially good for this purpose. The remainder of this
paper is devoted to providing (a) some background on
ESP. with some of the contrasts between its historical de-
velopment and the methods followed by physicists, and
(b) an outline for a lecture on the subject, complete with
demonstrations. This lecture format has been used for the
past several years; it has never failed to capture the in-
terest of the students and has always generated long and
fruitful discussions concerning criteria for evidence, mod-
els of reality, and the whole gamut of science methodolo-
gy.
III. BACKGROUND ON ESP
The subject of ESP has been, historically, a controver-
sial one. A new wave of interest has recently emerged,
accompanied by a host of new books and new claims
(both of authenticity and of fraud). The recent publication
of a study of the phenomena produced by one well-known
ESP practitioner, Uri Geller, appearing in a prestigious
scientific journa1,3 has been countered by articles in the
general public media' suggesting where the scientists may
have been misled. Photographic studies5 of a mysterious
"aura" surrounding living objects, said by some to be re-
lated to the "thought-transfer" process and by others to
be simple, predictable electrostatic effects, have been
made with impressively complicated apparatus. All the
appearance of conventional scientific investigation is pres-
ent, and it is truly a challenge to attempt to analyze
these new efforts in an old field objectively. However, the
interest generated by this revival of ESP research provides
an excellent opportunity to introduce the subject in its his-
torical context, and to contrast its development with that
of physics.
Background reading on ESP should include works by
investigators in the field itself, 6 proponents of the scien-
tific merits of the findings of those researchers,7 and crit-
ics who reject these studies in the context of the sci-
ences9 or of professional "magic."9 All agree in linking
any definition of ESP to the thought process, and several
manifestations of the nonsensory transfer of thought have
been given distinctive names:
(0 Clairvoyance is usually defined as the ability to
have knowledge of events which are taking place in the
present, but about which no sensory input can be had.
(ii) Precognition is defined as the ability to have
of Physics Vol. 43, No. 12, December 1975 Copyright c) 1975 by the American Association of Physics Teachers 11070