TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP92B00181R000300270041-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 12
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 22, 2013
• Sequence Number: 41
• Content Type: MISC

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TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTS
Real time long distance communications -- telecommunications
-- have only been possible since the development of electricity.
The telegraph appeared in 1844 and the telephone in 1876. The
first successful use of wireless radio transmissions occurred in
1895; by 1901 radio was being tested over a transatlantic path.
The next major innovative transmission concepts was not
introduced until 1962, when the world's first communication
satellite, TELSTAR 1, was placed in service. The latest major
innovation surfaced in 1970, when optical fibers began to replace
copper wire. Optical fibers are now competing successfully with
large segments of the radio relay and communication satellite
market.
In parallel with these transmission technology breakthroughs,
the electronic industry was moving ahead at the component level,
especially during and immediately following World War II, as a
result of the remarkable efforts of the MIT Radiation Laboratory,
which researched and developed higher frequencies, wider
bandwidths, greater powers, and increased reliability. It was
invention of the transistor in 195 however which heralded the
beginnings of the information age, in much the same way that the
steam engine ushered in the industrial age about 200 years ago.
Transistors, and their evolutionary descendents integrated
circuits microprocessors, minicomputers, personal computers, etc.
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-- constitute the core technology of the new, digitally based
information and communication systems.
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS
International commercial communications have been and
continue to be developed according to "international standards,"
that is, according to recommendations that are agreed to by the
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160 member nations of the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU), which regulates, standardizes, coordinates, and plans all
international telecommunications. The ITU hosts dozens of
conferences, attended by thousands, to discuss technical,
economic, legal, and policy issues relating to all aspects of the
industry, HR satellite broadcasting, regional networks (Africa
constitutes a "region" for this purpose), maritime services,
international civil aviation, and space communications. The ITU
manages frequency assignments and spectrum usage, assigns
satellite locations, recommends interference protection,
standardizes radio-navigation systems. One of the ITU's
committees, the CCITT, works closely with the world's
communications industry leaders, in order to develop, by
consensus, international standards that will ensure total system
compatibility, regardless of country of origin or destination.
Many national systems now specify only international standards,
to ease the cost and difficult of connecting with the
international network. This, in effect, creates a world
for all the new systems.
and
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No country is now going it alone. The PRC is modernizing at
a rapid pace--and following the international standards, as
developed by Japan and West. The Soviet Union is also
modernizing, but at a slower pace. Both countries are active in
the ITU and the CCITT.
FOUR BASIC TRANSMISSION MODES
1. Wire, cable. and optical fibers
The use-of wire and cable predates the invention of
radio, but is still used as a major media for the transmission of
information. Obviously, it is limited to point-to-point
applications. It also is subject to environmental problems, such
as corrosion and breakage, as well as electrical problems (signal
attenuation, distortion, electrical interference). But in
general, it has been very reliable and relatively inexpensive.
The recent introduction of fiber optics is an exciting
improvement for cable transmissions, because it solves most the
problems of copper wire: It does not corrode, it is lightweight,
have very low signal attenuation and distortion, is immune to
noise pickup, has extremely wide handwidth capabilities, and is
relatively inexpensive. It has made major inroads into the
markets traditionally held by the wire industry, and is also
impacting some of the microwave radio relay markets, as well as
intercontinental satellite traffic thru the use of fiber undersea
cables.
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2. Short-wave Radio
The term short-wave refers to the High Frequency band and
those bands just below it on the spectrum chart. High Frequency
(HF) = 3-30 Mhz; Medium Frequency (MF) = .3-3 Mhz; Low Frequency
(LF) - .03-.3 Mhz. Radio transmissions in these bands are
characterized by an important operational feature -- they travel
over extremely long distances, well beyond the horizon, and until
the invention of satellite communications, they were the only
method of radio communications over the ocean or other hostile
environments. These frequencies propagate by means of reflection
from the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere and subsequent
reflections from the earth's surface. Such a process has many
uncertainties and variations, therefore the unpredictable nature
of the signal path causes a variety of distortions, any of which
can be minimized, but seldom eliminated. The major shortcoming
is that only narrow bandwidth signals -- just a few channels --
can be sent. The other major problem is the susceptibility of
these frequencies to static, noise, fading, and other
interference problems. In spite of the difficulties, the medium
is still heavily used throughout the world, because it is fairly
reliable and inexpensive, and the equipment is simple and
portable. In recent years, computers and microprocessors have
been incorporated into these systems, in order to model in real
time the signal path, based on technical measurements and
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continous analysis of the received signal quality. Immediate,
automatic adjustments to the transmission are then made,
including changing the frequency, if necessary. Such "adaptive"
signalling is allowing the short-wave bands to continue to be
competitive with the newer transmission modes. Military and
diplomatic applications is this band are now increasing, and
greater reliance is being placed on it.
Most of the world's communications travel over line-of-sight
systems, which offer high capacity, excellent quality and
reliability, and reasonable costs.
3. Line-of-Sight
All signals at frequencies generally above 30 Mhz travel in
straight paths, line-of-sight, and are not reflected by the
ionosphere. Radio transmissions of this type include most
portable two-way radios (portable military, CB, cellular)
microwave radio relay systems, commercial television, and
satellite communications. The upper ranges of this category are
the millimeter wave band (30-300 Ghz), which is beginning to be
used for some special applications, and the optical (laser and
infra-red) band, used for very short range, high capacity
applications.
4. Satellite
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Although satellite signals are in the line-of-sight frequency
bands, they are so unique they require a separate category to
adequately describe their operational aspects. The new
generation of digital signal satellites have tremendous capacity,
typically 10,000 voice channels plus TV. These line-of-sight,
high capacity signals can span great distances, providing
communications to remote, inaccessible areas that wire or radio
relay cannot reach. Most satellites are linked to one or more
earth terminals for two-way communications, but a new generation
of Direct Broadcast Satellites are going into service for one-way
transmission for wide area coverage.
MILITARY AND COMMERCIAL COMMUNICATIONS
Technical differences between military and commercial
communications systems of a country are generally not severe.
Equipment manufacturers and vendors usually handle both product
lines, therefore the basic technology is similar or identical.
Differences arise in parametric choices (frequency, bit rates,
modulation states, coding schemes, etc.), all of which are within
the limits of the electronic technology that is available.
Military systems can be aggregated into two groupings:
1) strategic, national level, command and control, and
2) tactical, mobile, or portable radios.
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Strategic systems tend to be quite sophisticated, and may push
the state of the art. These systems are generally large fixed
installations having excellent maintenance and operation.
Technical risk is thereby minimized and the equipment tends to
?reflect this consideration. Tactical systems, however, are
operated and maintained by less skilled persons, and the
equipment is often subject to a much. harsher environment. These
equipments tend to use proven technology and less sophisticated
designs.
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National priorities have a major influence on the
relationship of military communication systems and those of the
commercial sector.
Western Europe -- Although military communications are very
advanced technically, the commercial systems are in the
forefront. European vendors are very competitive and sell
commercial equipment world wide, including the Soviet Union and
the PRC.
Japan -- Because of the Japanese reluctance to maintain
offensive military forces, as well as their aggressive marketing
of superior electronic equipment, they have one of the best lines
of commercial equipment in the world, but are not recognized as
vendors of military communications systems.
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USSR - The Soviet Union does not produce quality commercial
radio equipment for export. Their indigenous equipment, although
adequate, requires modernization and expansion. The Soviet
semiconductor industry does not have the capacity to support an
expansion program, nor the technical base to improve its
manufacturing processes at the required pace. They are
attempting to import the necessary technology from abroad, but in
spite of some successes, they continue to lag behind the West,
with no indications that they will close the gap significantly.
Soviet military communications dominate their electronics
industry, and their strategic military communications are quite
good. Their communications satellite technology is excellent,
utilizing digital signaling, zonal beams, multiple access, spread
spectrum, secure encryption, and packet switching. Tactical
radios, on the other hand, are based on older technology,
although some of them are being replaced by newer models which
have the capability for digital control by microprocessors.
PRC -- Rapid modernization, through high technology
importation, is the announced goal of the Chinese leadership.
All major communications industries are affected by this decision
HF, microwave, satellites, fiber optics, computers, digital
switches, etc. Both the military and the non-military (civil and
commercial) systems are being upgraded. Foreign factories, as
well as foreign equipment, are being imported. The results of
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these improvements are not yet much in evidence, but in several
years time the signals should represent the newly acquired
technology.
Lesser Developed Countries -- The LDCs, when they do decide
to improve their communications systems, have generally opted for
a European or Japanese firm to provide a total system, including
long-term maintenance. In the case of African countries, the
company selected is frequently from the former colonial power
(England, France, Italy, Netherlands). Satellite systems are
often selected over radio relay or cable systems, because the
cost of communications to remote areas can best be borne by a
time-shared satellite system, such as ARABSAT or INTELSAT.
Newly Industrialized Countries -- The NICs are moving into
high technology areas very rapidly, but are becoming
manufacturers of equipment, rather than designers and inventors
of new systems and communications networks.
DIPLOMATIC COMMUNICATIONS
The Ministries for Foreign Affairs of foreign governments
transmit their diplomatic communications over various
governmental and international commercial circuits including
international or regional satellite systems, international
submarine cables, HF systems, regional terrestrial microwave
systems and various nationally-owned networks. A variety of
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communications media is employed including Morse, voice,
teleprinter, data, facsimile, text, graphics, and video which are
passed by methods ranging from conventional analog to the most
modern digital systems. Ciphere systems range from relatively
simple to complex machine-operated systems. The trends for these-
diplomatic communications are toward more use of encipherment
devices and complex transmission modes (e.g., packet switching
and use of high-speed computer-relay systems), increased use of
enciphered facsimile, and upgrading of existing, or establishing
new, HF radio networks.
FIBER OPTICS
There is much discussion and debate over the future of fiber
optics and its possible mergence as the principal communications,
media, possibly replacing satellite and radio relay networks.
Such concerns seem to be exaggerated, however, as each media has
specific market areas wherein each performs best, both
technically and economically. The current evidence indicates
that fiber excels in three major market areas. First is the
local exchange; local loop, intro city market, which is
characterized by high volume and short distances. It is cheaper
to buy, cheaper to install, and provides better service. Second
is the medium distance market, where the cost of satellite or
radio relay systems is too expensive. At distances greater than
1000 miles, it is more economical to switch from fiber to
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satellite. Third is the intercontinental market, or other areas
involving long ocean distances. High-capacity undersea cables
have competed successfully against satellite, but the newer
generation satellites will be offering better and cheaper
service. Because fiber optic undersea cables offer so many
advantages over copper cable, all future undersea cables world
wide will be optical. These cables, due to their high capacity,
low cost, and low maintenance will begin to replace satellite
service on the long-haul, high-volume routes, such as US-Europe,
US-Hawaii-Japan, etc. Also, for telephone traffic, fiber is
preferred over satellite because it eliminates the time delay
associated with satellite. For thin route traffic, especially to
remote areas, satellite will remain the choice.
Radio relay systems may have difficulty competing with
optical fiber or satellite systems. Their strength lies in the
short and medium market, especially over rough terrain where
cable would be impracticable, and for low density traffic areas
that are not too remote. Military operations will rely heavily
on mobile radio relay rather than cable or satellite for many
situations.
Fiber optics offer a unique feature not available from other
modes of communications. Fiber is immune to unauthorized
intercept by conventional means, therefore, it affords the user a
high degree of privacy and communication security. The PRC,
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because of this feature, is very interested in fiber networks and
is pursuing an aggressive program of manufacturing and
installation.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Networks, ISDN, is a modern
communication network concept whereby all types of information
services -- voice, data, printer, video -- are digitized, merged,
and transmitted to any subscriber, without the user having to
perform any technical operations. The system is now under going
test in Europe, Japan, and North America, and is in process of
being internationally standardized by the IIU and the CCITT.
Narrow bandwidth systems are being tested first, and the wideband
systems will follow shortly. There are few technical impediments
to the ISDN Program, as the technology is well in hand. What is
not resolved yet is the economic base to support the huge
up-front investment required to implement the program. All
potential users must procure the necessary digital interface
equipment prior to start-up of the system, and until volume
discounts are readily available, most users find the cost too
high at present.
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