STUDY OF GOVERNMENT POLICY - MAKING MACHINERY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP91-00965R000300080004-6
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 6
• Document Creation Date: December 15, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 3, 2003
• Sequence Number: 4
• Publication Date: January 1, 1959
• Content Type: OPEN

1 959
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CONGRESSIONAL
Tfwse billions for foreign aid are provided
reluctantly by the American people out of
record taxes, on the theory that every penny
thus it lent is essential to American security.
This, money is spent in the far corners; of
the wor\d, out of sight of the average citizen.
As is the% ase whenever huge sums are freely
available, ere is inclination toward waste
and extrava ante which can be prevented
only by canst pt vigilance.
This is a cask where, in our opinion, Con-
gress is right and. Ike is wrong.
Congress appropriates this money and
Congress certainly'1;hould insist on full ac-
counting. We hope; the Senate adopts a
similar 20-day rule anh insists it be enforced.
Mr. BYRD of West~` irginia. Finally,
Mr. President, in addit' on to all these
accusations of waste, mis Be and secrecy,
there is a growing feeling America, ' aid
believe, that our farflung foreign ,program actually is not a good invest-
ment for the American taxpayers. I
think that many Americans ark. begin-
ning to wonder how long our country can
continue to shoulder the economic`llur-
dens of more than half a hundred tia-
tions, while our own national debt'-,is
greater than the total of the national
debts of all other countries in the world.
I think that many Americans are be-
ginning to ask, Why do we keep buying
air conditioners for Vietnam when we
cannot afford proper schools for our own
children and proper medical care for our
own aged?
A very lucid example of this home-
generally and not just in spots, is going to that to falter or to hesitate in dealing with
grow stronger and expand as it should, then Khrushchev can only lead to more trouble.
Federal projects such as this and hence nmpro- The ore by the Kremlin can pressure be on the free world
met by steady
vide new job opportunities,
national income and more tax revenues, and determined resoluteness. For us to ap-
should be undertaken. We cannot afford to pear to be begging the Communists for peace
continue supporting public works projects all or to try to Boll odo us ver their heads
good. to The the Rus-
over the world (which Ike likes) -we simply sian people
will not have the tax revenues to do it-un- sian people have no voice in their dictator-
less we undertake new projects at home ship and are being kept in total ignorance
which will boost our own economy. The about the United States- and the conditions
good old goose that lays the golden eggs in the world as a whole.
might quit laying one of these days. The situation-already bad-could become
Ike's viewpoint, in our opinion, is the even more serious if we give Khrushchev
short-sighted one. Balancing the budget is reason to think that we of the West are
why.balance It at weak, confused, divided
a desirable goal. But the expense of the future of Princeton and bluff us into bargaining away our rights
other U.S. communities? Why not shave and security by threats of total destruction.
a little more off of aid for Pakistan, or wher- tThe visit to he United Russia a by would, under a Vice President halfway
ever the money is going now?
Princeton and Mercer County, we submit, reasonable circumstances, be seized upon by
could use some foreign aid. And the re- the Soviet Government to help toward a
turns, we wager, would be, considerably more more hopeful understanding. But the
over from globe, of Kremlin tension, because it atmphere of
its
the tangile
sent all realized
we have those
The prospect of reclaiming land that can plan for government control and exploita-
be used for new business and industrial de- tion of all its satelliites'and ford further ex
here in our own bailiwick fully justifies ----
Federal appropriation, we think. We hope
Ike sees it that way.
Mr. BYRD of West Virginia. So, Mr.
tlig charges of official secrecy, and the It meeting, how to cope with an attempted
grassroots feeling that perhaps some of blockade of West Berlin and nuclear weap-
the 1 mense quantities of money which ons in France.
we ar scattering overseas might be bet- Clearer leadership on our part should have
ter spe'zlt at home-in view of all these prevented these matters from developing
things, h epeat my proposal. Into differences among the allies.
Under present conditions, one of the most
I respe ully submit that the Senate important responsibilities of our leadership
should wit bold approval of any more is to keep our allies together. This is not
foreign aid appropriation bills until the easy. Our allies are free and, of course, have
findings of the investigation being con- views of their own. But in recent Years there
ducted by the'enator from Montana has been a feeling on the part of some of
[Mr. MANSFIELD].nd his subcommittee them that we have lacked sympathy and
have been made known. understanding of their problems. For my
Mr. President-" part, I think that this feeling grew out of
The PRESIDING' OFFICER (Mr. our actions during the Suez crisis, and I must
add that feeling was in some measure justi-
GRUENING in the cha). The Senator fid.
from West Virginia. I have an impression that our friends and
neighbors in Cuba and South America are
disturbed about our policies toward them
UNITED STATES MUST\ STAND UP today. And I hope we do something about
town-American view was contained in an editorial which was published in the July 21 edition of the Sunset Nevys Ob- server of Bluefield and Princeton, W. Va. The editorial was titled, "Pakistan 'Ver- sus Brush Creek." I ask unanimous consent that it may be printed in the RECORD as a part of my remarks. There being no objection, the edi- torial was ordered to be printed in theRECORD, as follows: PAKISTAN VERSUS BRUSH CREEK - It will be hard for Princeton and area residents to understand President Eisen- bower's logic If he vetoes the public works appropriations bill which contains the funds
the oject.yFor h e its aassituation n which
an expenditure 01 a mouesv tt-- ,,. -
eral funds could give an economic lift to Washington Post, there was Copy
an area of our own country as badly in. need righted article by former Pr sident
of help as any place you can find. Maybe Harry S. Truman, entitled, "Harp Tru-
we'd stand a better chance of getting help if man Writes: United States Must Band
we could fool the President into thinking Up Against Khrushchev."
Princeton is in Pakistan instead of West I feel that there is great wisdom~n
Virginia. the contents of the article. I feel th t
We are not sure, of course, that the Presi- the words of caution voiced by our disc
dent is going to veto the measure. But
yesterday's story from Washington in which tinguished former Chief Executive could
he criticized Congress for appropriating well serve as guides to each person who
for new domestic public works prof- helps direct our Nation's course in these
We sometimes make the mistake of as-
suming that dictators underestimate our
strength and determination to resist them.
I was sorry to see the West give the Impres-
sion recently of being unable to arrive at
that situation so that we co not blunder
into the hands of the Communist fifth col-
umn now active in this hemisphere.
For instance, in Cuba, I think that Fide'
Castro is a good young man, who has made
mistakes but who seems to want to do the
right thing for the Cuban people, and we
ought to extend our sympathy and- help him
to do what Is right for them.
During Franklin D. Roosevelt's adminis-
tration and my own, we sought to do what
we thought was in the interest of the- na-
tions of South America, to do what was
best for their people, without regard to spe-
money t
ects was not encouraging. Privately, our tense days.
rcn,",p ts.tivAs in Washington are saying In order that the Congress may have
erica knew we were not out to exploit
that me may zwu tyu~uwuy 5., --- ..-"" peilelll, us vui ivaaaaa,a ---.--
his threat. They point out that the overall on this crucial world question, I ask meet'Orce with force and to confront bluff
t and b ster with cool and determined reso-
more
htl
li
l
th
y
g
y s
a
amounts in the bill are on
unanimous consent, Mr. Presiderit,.than the President requested. But what the article be printed in the body of the lutenesf the Communists should block-
apparently irks Ike is that 44 new projects ads Wes Berlin, we ought to break through
were added by the House and 38, of which RECORD. we;r,ti ~~ nhianttnn_ the article it, and th t should be the end of the biock-
re added
^+
1$rusn Creek is ne, e
ate. - He sees the thing as a challenge to his was ordered to be printed in the RECORD, If we pe it the Communists to cut us
determination to balance the budget what- as follows: out of Berlin, we will provide them with the
ever it may cost in terms of domestic pro- HARRY TRUMAN WRITES: UNITED STATES MIIST means to take ver the rest of Germany, and
It's the old familiar story, of course. cut- (By Harry S. Truman) fin ESS STRESSED
ting government spending is fine so long as Our current morepto it than ethat. er Ife he U.S. economy, diplomacy should se vet as add d warning there w will beh no stopping thim anywhere fin
No. 130-8 -
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.Approved For Release 2003/10/16: CIA-RDppgg~~ 0~p~ 658000300080004-6CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - SENAT August 3
Europe. Unless we keep this in mind in our hours-is a privileged sanctuary for him,
dealings with the Communist dictatorship, from which he can shake his fist, threaten
we shall run the risk of hesitating and fal- with missiles and make irresponsible state-
tering and thus encourage the Soviet dic- ments with diplomatic immunity.
tators in their mad adventure. HARRIMAN CRITICIZED
Strong leadership by the United States is I have the highest regard for Averell
the one possible way of arresting the trend Harriman as a keen observer. He has served
toward war through a miscalculation. The his country with distinction. As a matter
only one who dares to engage in warlike be- of fact, he was among the first to sense
havior is Khrushchev, aided and abetted by the trend in Russia's course of hostilities
his comrades es in in arms in Red China. toward the West. I wish that he had re-
We certainly never did ,and do not now ported what transpired between him and
want war, but o would be the Kremlin and grossest Red Khrushchev to the President or the Secre-of misca n China believed l if the stand for. apeace Red at M tar of State and stopped there.
e
China bevd we would stand Mr. Harriman understood Sarin with rare
any price. insight and communicated it, as he should
I am disturbed by the continuing specta- have done as Ambassador, to Washington.
cle of so many well-intentioned, distin- But I think Khrushchev may have over-
guished Americans traveling to Moscow on im ressed him.
their own and intruding into the conduct of I am glad that, at long last, the admin-
cultca iituation is about to avail itself of the
our foreign
It is difficult and trying nough for propaganda, this special talents and experience of Chip Boh-countr which y to confseek len in recalling him to the high councils of
which has been seeking to divide and cony the State Department. Ambassador Bohlen
serv us, but seldom by have been so badly not only possesses the knowledge of the Rus-
come are now an a procession of visa- Stan language-he knows the Russians.
toed as
ters who caback and rush into print t He should be of great help and strengthen
tel us wonder if what these visitors I r r ealize intends that to they do. are I the hand of the Secretary of State. Bohlen
woy acted as my Russian interpreter at the
being used by Khrushchev to serve his pur- Potsdam Conference. I was impressed with
poses, which are to confuse, intimidate, and his alertness to shadings and evasion in the
frighten free nations into surrendering to translation of Stalin's own interpreter, Pav-
the Communists on their terms. by. Frequently, Bohlen would correct ' the
A fellow Missourian, Mark Twain, once interpretation made by Pavlov and clarify
talked of "Innocents Abroad," but he was obscure meanings. Salin, too, appreciated
referring to Americans who went abroad for Bohlen's performance, for he would smile
amusement and not to meddle into foreign each time Bohlen corrected Pavlov.
affairs. The Kremlin has seized upon the When you caught up with Stalin, he was
willingness of recent visitors to propagand- always easy to deal with, perhaps because
ize this country over the heads of our Gov- he had in the back of his mind that he
ernment. did not intend to keep his word and his
It makes it more difficult for the President commitments.
and the Secretary of State to carry out the /
established policy of the Government.
MEDDLING DECRIED ~,TUDY OF GOVERNMENT POLICY-
the three-man Senate Government Opera-
tions Subcommittee conducting the in-
quiry.
Senator JACKSON said in a statement that
the White House cooperation would make
possible an unprecedented congressional
study of the adequacy and the shortcomings
of the present organization for devising na-
tional strategy.
SCHOLARLY EVALUATION
"Never before have the Congress and the
executive branch worked together in a
scholarly and nonpartisan evaluation of our
national policy machinery," the Senator de-
clared.
An exchange of letters with the President
made public by the Senator disclosed that
President Eisenhower early had serious objec-
tions to the proposed inquiry and had ex-
pressed his concern in a letter to the Senate
majority leader, LYNDON B. JOHNSON, Demo-
crat of Texas. From the exchange it was evi-
dent that the President was concerned that
the inquiry might infringe upon executive
privileges and go into the sensitive area of
National Security Council deliberations.
To meet these Presidential objections, pro-
posed guidelines for the inquiry were
worked out in discussions between Senator
JACKSON and Bryce N. Harlow, a Deputy As-
sistant to the President.
STUDY, NOT INVESTIGATION
The proposed guidelines specify that the
inquiry, so far as it relates to the National
Security Council, "will be a study, not an
investigation" and "will not attempt, by
legislation or otherwise, to infringe upon the
constitutional privilege of the President to
obtain advice through such organization and
procedures as he deems appropriate."
The guidelines also state that the study of
the National Security Council will be
directed to its purposes, composition, organ-
ization, and procedures and will not go into
substantive matters considered by the
council.
In a letter to Senator JACKSON on July 10,
the President said that the guidelines "re-
lieve the most serious of the concerns" ex-
pressed in his earlier letter to Senator JoHN-
soN. He gave assurances, therefore, that the
White House staff would "work cooperatively
with your subcommittee in an effort to help
make this study of value not only to the
legislative branch but to the executive,
branch as well."
PRESIDENTIAL STUDY CITED
The President's letter indicated that the
study might play a role in the reorganiza-
tion plans he intended to submit to Con-
gress before retiring from office. At his news
conference this week, the President observed
that the present organization imposed "un-
solvable" burdens upon higher Government
officials and said that he planned to submit
some reorganization recommendations to.
Congress so his successor will have the bene-
fitof a better organization. I
Senator JACKSON, who is. a member of the
Senate Armed Services Committee and the
Joint Congressional Committee on Atomic
Energy, has criticized the present policy-
making machinery on the ground that it
does not "produce clearly defined and pur-
poseful strategy for the `cold war."'
He has made some proposals for revising
the present organization, including estab-
lishment of several policy planning staffs in
various Government agencies to relieve the
All Americans should, of course, be free to MAKING MACHINERY
travel and meet and converse with anyone Mr. MANSFIELD. Mr. President, matter when they these choose, but visits it
by 3 weeks ago the Senate approved Senate
and d mquiteeetings are another used ed by
the Russians to meddle in the business of Resolution 115, under which a special
our constitutional policy makers. subcommittee of the Senate Government
If any of these travelers wish to undertake Operations Committee is undertaking an
personal missions, they ought to make sure unprecedented study of our Govern-
that they have the approval of the Govern- lment's policymaking machinery for deal-
ment of the United States. They should trig with the cold war. This study has
bear in mind that the Logan Al prohibits 'been given front-page treatment and
s with any formal
mar, by Americans negotiations,
powers erswers extensive favorable editorial comment
foreign or
with
at any time. in the Nation's press.
. With the present explosive situation be- I share the conviction of the editorial
tween the free and the Communist-slave writers that this study is in excellent
worlds, the dangers of misunderstanding hands, under the chairmanship of the
caused by public statements of prominent distinguished junior Senator from Wash-
Americans, in my judgment, calls for some- ington [Mr. JACKSON].
one to put a stop to these activities. I ask unanimous consent to have
I am not talking about curbing the fullest
reporting by competent and professional re- printed in the RECORD a number of edi-
porters, just as I am in favor of giving the torials and news stories attesting to the
widest publicity to all matters pertaining importance of this study.
to the conduct of our foreign affairs so that There being no objection, the matters,
we may have a fully informed public; but were ordered to be printed in the RECORD,
what I am opposing is the use of visits to as follows:
Moscow by prominent people-in or out of
public life with no official responsibility for [From the New York Times, July 19, 1959]
conducting our foreign negotiations-mak- PRESIDENT BACKS SENATORS' STUDY OF POLICY-
ing statements and purporting to speak with MAKING-HE SHIFTS STAND AND AGREES To
some authority to the American people when FACILITATE INQUIRY ON DEVISING STRATEGY-
they who speak, themselves, are not fully in- NOT AN INVESTIGATION-LEGISLATORS Vow
ADVraiNG BY
formed of all the circumstances involved. THEY WILL NOT INFRINGE ON
affairs with a strong and firm hand, he can-
not tolerate intrusions by unauthorized per-
sons or groups of persons, no matter what
their aims. The President is in the best
position to know' all the facts and conditions
in the exercise of his leadership. This is no
place for amateurs who get themselves ex-
posed to only one facet of a complicated sit-
uation.
Any one of these private interviews with
Khrushchev-whether for 15 minutes or 8
W tLAt1a,Y V i~i~, ., bay a
hower, reversing his earlier opposition, has planning responsibilities and creation of a
pledged White House cooperation in a forth- national academy to. act as a permanent
coming congressional study of the Govern- policy study group in all phases of defense
ment's organization for reaching national strategy.
policy decisions. FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES SEEN
The President's assurance of cooperation "The fundamental Issues," Senator JACK-
In the unusual congressional Inquiry was SON said in his statement today, "is
disclosed today by Senator HENRY M. JACK- whether a free society can so organize its
SON, Democrat, of Washington, who will head human and material resources so as to out-
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.1959 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - SENATE
think, outplan and outperform totalitarian-
ism."
In carrying out its study, the subcommit-
tee plans to hear testimony from officials
who have held policymaking jobs in both
Republican and Democratic administra-
tions. Preliminary hearings are expected
to begin next month.
Senator JACxsoN announced the appoint-
ment of three men to the subcommittee
staff :
Kenneth Mansfield former staff member
on the Joint Congressional Committee on
Atomic Energy and now assistant to the di-
rector of Combustion Engineering, Inc., of
Windsor Conn., who will serve as staff di-
rector; Robert W. Tufts, former member of
the State Department policy planning staff
and now Professor of Economics at Oberlin
College, and Greenville Garside, a New York
lawyer.
[From the New York Times, July 20, 19591
A LOOK AT NATIONAL POLICY
Senator HENRY M. JACKSON, Democrat
from the State of Washington, believes that
today's "fundamental issue is whether a free
society can so organize its human and ma-
terial resources as to outthink, outplan and
outperform totalitarianism." He has over-
come President Eisenhower's original reluc-
tance to cooperate in a scholarly and non-
partisan evaluation of our national policy
machinery.
Anyone Who delves Into that illuminating
publication called the U.S. Government; Or-
ganization Manual is likely to come out with
a headache and a realization of the need
for some study of this sort;
The trouble is not that we lack policy-
making machinery, especially in the obvious
fields of foreign programs and defense. We
have the National Security Council, whose
members include the President, Vice Presi-
dent, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense
and the Director of the Office of Defense
Mobilization.
We have a Planning Board to formulate
policy recommendations to be considered by
the Council; we have an Assistant Secretary
for Planning in the State Department, with
the modest task of evaluating current for-
eign policy in the formulation of long-range
policies; the Office of Defense Mobilization
coordinates all mobilization activities of the
executive branch of the Government; the
Central Intelligence Agency advises the
Council concerning such intelligence activi-
ties of the Government" departments and
agencies as relate to national security, and
all the Operations Coordinating Board has
to do is to provide for the Integrated' imple-
mentation of national security policies.
in this setup there are little wheels and
big wheels. Senator JACKSON, who is a
member of the Committee on Government
Operations and therefore familiar with the
work of the Hoover Commissions, will under-
stand the problems and the difficulties.
A layman might suspect that what the
Government needs is a simplified structure
of responsibility and command. Who does
the original thinking when everybody is
either being coordinated or is coordinating
somebody else? The Government is over-
weight, perhaps not so much with squan-
dered money as with overlapping agencies.
Senator JACKSON'S three-man Government
Operations Subcommittee may get some-
where if he sticks to his announced princi-
ples and resists the temptation to put on a
circus. A scholarly congressional Inquiry
would be refreshingly new.
[From the Christian Science Monitor, July
20, 1959]
PRESIDENT, CONGRESS LAUNCH POLICY VENTURE
(By Neal Stanford) '
WASHINGTON.-A uxlique experiment in
legislative-executive cooperation is in the
making, now that President Eisenhower has
pledged his support of a forthcoming con-
gressional study of the government's ma-
chinery for reaching national policy deci-
sions.
Normal procedure would have resulted in
a congressional study-with Senators trying
to pry into the administrations mechanics
of formulating national policies-and the
administration adamant against congres-
sional encroachment.
It is only stating facts to report that the
White House was more than a little cool
to the original proposal as presented by
Senator HENRY M. JACxsoN, Democrat, of
Washington, who will head the three-man
committee making the investigation.
INVESTIGATION OUT
The President was concerned lest the in-
vestigation infringe upon executive privileges
and get into the sensitive area of specific
National Security Council decisions.
It is the NBC-with members including
the President, Vice President, Secretary of
State, Secretary of Defense, and the director
of the Office of Defense Mobilization-which
does the final fact finding and correlation on
all major national-security problems.
But after some exchanges, a number of
guide lines were agreed to by White House
and Senate leadership to keep this from be-
coming either a witch hunt or a whitewash.
It was agreed that the inquiry would be
a study, not an investigation-investigation
carrying unsavory overtones.
It also was agreed that the Senators would
not attempt In any way to infringe the con-
stitutional prerogatives of the President to
seek advice and help in any way he deems
appropriate.
And thirdly, it was agreed that the study
would not get involved in specific substan.
tive matters considered by the National Se-
curity Council-which could only result in
aid and comfort to unfriendly powers.
PRESIDENT DISSATISFIED
One reason President Elsenhower-assur-
ing himself of adequate safeguards-was
ready to cooperate with the Congress in
this matter was disclosed at a recent press
conference.
The President let it be known that he is
himself quite dissatisfied with some govern-
mental machinery in general and certain
features specifically. As he told newsmen,
the present machinery imposes unsolvable
burdens on government officials.
And he announced that he himself would
before long present some reorganization
plans with the One purpose of leaving his
successor a. more workable system.
ISSUE PINPOINTED
No one is arguing that there is not enough
"machinery" in the Federal Government to
handle decisionmaking. But both White
House and Congress are Increasingly per-
suaded that the machinery that exists is in-
adequate, inefficient, overlapping, and
archaic.
In sponsoring this study Senator JACKSON
asserted: "The fundamental issue today is
whether a free society can so organize its
human and material resources as to outthink,
outplan, and Outperform totalitarianism."
It is his position that the United States
and its allies can do just that but not with
the present machinery, staff structure, re-
sponsibilities.
Members of the Senate making the study
are to be: Senator JACKSON, Senator HUBERT
H. HUMPHREY, Democrat, of Minnestota, and
Senator KARL E. MUNDT, Republican, of South
Dakota.
In the forthcoming hearings both Demo-
crats and Republicans who have held or hold
policymaking jobs in the Government will be
heard. ,
Present machinery for reaching national
policy decisions includes such a variety of
councils, boards, agencies as: the National
13623
Security Council, the Operations, Coordinat-
ing Board, the Central Intelligence Agency,
the Office of Defense Mobilization, the Bureau
of the Budget, the National Aeronautics and
Space Council.
OBSOLESCENCE HIT
The trouble, then, as Senator JAcxsox
publicly charges and the President suggests,
is not there is not enough machinery. It is
rather that it is obsolescent.
Senator JACKSON hails the President's co-
operative effort in this congressional inquiry
as "unprecedented."
"Never before have the Congress and the
executive branch worked together-in a schol-
arly and nonpartisan evaluation of our na-
tional policy machinery," the Senator de-
Glared.
And, just. as neither branch of Government
can be expected to have a monopoly of wis-
dom, neither can either political party, as the
Senator puts it, "have a monopoly of wis-
dom or a monopoly of error on this vital
matter."
If the two parties and the two branches
of Government carry through this study as
envisaged it can indeed claim to being some-
thing unprecedented-as the Senator claims.
[From the Spokane Spokesman Review,
July 20, 19591
A FAIR AGREEMENT FOR POLICY STUDY
President Eisenhower and Washington's
Senator HENRY M. JACKSON have pledged
mutual cooperation between Congress and
the executive branch in the conduct of an
unusual evaluation of the purpose and op-
erations of the national security council.
As chairman of a subcommittee on na-
tional policy machinery of the Senate Gov-
ernment Operations committee, Mr. JACxsox
secured Senate approval last week of a resolu.
tion authorizing this study.
According to the Senate-White House
agreement, this is not to be an investiga-
tion of the national security council, It
is planned as a study Into the "effectiveness
of Government organization and procedure
in the contest with world communism."
In pressing for this evaluation, Mr. JACK-
SON stated that "the fundamental issue is
whether a free society can so organize its
human and material resources so as to out-
think, outplan and outperform totalitarian.
ism."
Following conferences with White House
officials, certain guidelines for the study
were established and these were deemed sat-
isfactory to the President in his correspond.
ence with the Senator.
This is a vital field for consideration by
both the executive and legislative branches
of the Government. Mr. JACKSON should be
encouraged to keep this study on a non-
partisan basis and to effect searching ap-
praisal of how the United States can
best utilize its superior talents and resources
to strengthen America-militarily, diplo-
matically, economically and psychologi-
cally-in the contest that confronts this
Nation and its people.
[From the Providence Journal, July 21, 19591
STATESMANSHIP AT ITS BEST IN WASHINGTON
The agreement between President Eisen-
hower and Senator HENRY M. JACKSON, Dem-
ocrat, of Washington, concerning a study of
the policymaking machinery of the U.S.
Government represents statesmanship of the
highest order.
It is impossible to tell in advance, of
course, how the study will be conducted or
what It may disclose. But there is ample
evidence of the need to take a long, hard
look, as Senator JACKSON puts it, at the
question of "whether a free society can so
organize its human and material resources
as to out-think, out-plan and out-perform
totalitarianism." The decision to make the
inquiry a joint undertaking of the legisla-
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CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - SENATE August 3
tive and executive branches should assure
its scope and depth.
When Senator JACKSON first proposed that
a three-man subcommittee of the Senate
Government Operations Committee might
look into the functioning of the National
Security Conuncil, the President properly
and understandably was alarmed. As he
pointed out in a letter of objection to the
majority leader, Senator JoHNsoN, Demo-
crat, of Texas, a congressional Investigation
of the usual sort in that area almost cer-
tainly would infringe upon executive privi-
leges and risk the disclosure of sensitive
information.
In negotiations between Senator JACKSON
and a presidential assistant, however, it was
found that guidelines for the inquiry could
be established. One specifies that the sub-
committee will conduct "a study, not an
investigation" of the workings of the Na-
tional Security Council. Another provides
that the congressional group will "not at-
tempt, by legislation or otherwise, to in-
fringe upon the constitutional privilege of
the President to obtain advice through such
organization and .procedures as he deems
appropriate." The fact that the study is to
be headed by a responsible and informed
Senator like Mr. JACKSON is the best guaran-
tee that these necessary limitations will be
observed.
A third guideline stipulates that the study
will be confined to the purposes, composi-
tion, organization, and procedures of the Na-
tional Security Council but will not touch
any substantive matters decided by the
Council. This could come close to frustrat-
ing the entire undertaking. For example,
Senator JACKSON may want to learn whether
we, have overinvested in nuclear power to fit
the doctrine of "massive retaliation," and
have underinvested in the kinds of balanced,
mobile conventional-nuclear power most
necessary to serve our political purposes un-
der the still operative but unpopular doc-
trine of containment. It is difficult to see
how he can get answers to such vital ques-
tions if he is obliged to consider the policy-
making apparatus entirely in the abstract.
The hope that the study will be permitted
to deal with some specific matters rests an
President Eisenhower's pledge that the White
House staff will work cooperatively with your
subcommittee. Having taken the necessary
precautions to prevent an irresponsible con-
gressional intrusion into executive functions
in the fields of foreign policy and military
strategy, the President now says he is anxious
to make this study of value not only to the
legislative branch but to the executive
branch as well.
If it is to have such value, it must have
enough freedom to determine by examining
the evidence how well the policymaking ma-
chinery is working. Senator JAcKsoN sus-
pects that it has not produced clearly de-
fined and purposeful strategy for the cold
war. This is a legitimate subject for a con-
gressional inquiry, provided it is conducted
with scrupulous care and receives the cooper-
ation of the executive. Both sides deserve
credit for recognizing these requirements.
[From the Washington Post, July 22, 1959]
A LOOK AT POLICY FORMATION
The potential value of the study of gov-
ernmental machinery for the shaping of
national policy has been greatly enhanced
by the decision of President Eisenhower to
cooperate with the Senate Government Op-
erations Subcommittee,in this undertaking.
White House participation in the study be-
came feasible when Senator JACKSON, chair-
man of the subcommittee, agreed with
Bryce N. Harlow, Deputy Assistant to the
President, on a set of guidelines. The result
could well be the most valuable survey of
national policy formation that has ever been
undertaken.
Neither the congressional leadership nor
the White House is wholly satisfied with the
present system for the formulation of major
national security policies, although the ma-
chinery has been substantially improved in
recent years. Mr. Eisenhower indicated at
his last news conference that he will send
reorganization plans to Congress during his
last year in office in the hope that his suc-
cessor will be given a better organization to
work with than he has had. Senator JACK-
SON and other leaders on Capitol Hill also
,have some definite ideas of how the country's
best talents may be mobilized in the present
struggle against the spread of totalitarianism.
At least these ideas can now be brought to-
gether in a thoughtful and nonpartisan
search for agencies and relationships that
Will best promote the national interest.
The study will not be an investigation. It
will, not be concerned with the problems be-
fore the National Security Council but rather
with how that agency operates as an instru-
ment for the shaping of international poli-
cies and defense planning. It would be a
happy outcome, indeed, if the study should
produce a plan satisfactory to both the con-
gressional leaders and the White House,
which would give virtual assurance of its
enactment.
[From the Manchester Guardian Weekly,
July 23, 1959]
WASHINGTON COMMENTARY-REFORMING NA-
TIONAL SECURITY METHODS
(By Max Freedman)
WASHINGTON, July 21.-President Eisen-
hower made the right decision when he
agreed to support Senator JACKSON's study
of the Government's procedures In establish-
ing national security progralls. It did not
require weeks of reflection hi the executive
branch to reach the conclusion that Senator
JACKSON would conduct a responsible study
of the National Security Council rather than
a destructive Investigation. His entire rec-
ord in Congress, together with his special in-
terest in defense problems, confirms his cre-
dentials as one of the most reliable and use-
ful Members of the Senate. More than the
usual measure of responsibility rests, in a
study of this kind, on the staff director. It
is therefore a matter for general rejoicing
that Senator JACKSON has been able to per-
suade Mr. Kenneth Mansfield to return to
Washington for this duty. During his years
of service with the congressional Committee
on Atomic Energy he was universally re-
garded as an official whose rare intellectual
gifts were enhanced by his austere and dis-
interested concepts of public duty. It will
be good to have him in Washington again.
Senator JACKSON, like many other respon-
sible students of government, has criticized
the National Security Council because it
often fails to debate and to decide the
crucial issues of policy. All too frequently,
the problem, when it reaches the Council, is
presented in the form of an agreed compro-
:mise. This procedure prevents the Presi-
dent and the Council from seeing the ques-
tion in all its tangled and urgent complexity.
Senator JACKSON has suggested more plan-
ning staffs for the departments, so that they
will be able to make the strongest possible
case for the Council's judgment. These de-
partments in turn can often exact a respon-
sible and searching decision by the Council,
for it will know that its policy will be sub-
ject to friendly but detailed review by inde-
pendent experts.
Mere administrative machinery will not
solve very much. The project of reform will
collapse in failure if the members of the
Council do not accept the painful duty of
making the ultimate national decisions
which they alone are qualified to make. But
at least Senator JACKSON wants to give them
a fair chance by improving the methods of
consultation with the various departments,
by presenting the opposed Issues with chal-
lenging clarity, and by producing the neces-
sary information for a candid and courageous
debate. Senator JACKSON deserved the Presi-
dent's support, if only for this high purpose.
When he discussed this whole question in
April before the National War College. Sen-
ator JACKSON regretted the lack of planning
throughout the executive branch. Officials
are inclined to leave this task to the Na-
tional Security Council or to agencies that
are given specific duties. The result can be
seen In the absence of Ideas for new policies.
A great deal of talent in the Government is
never used. The National Security Council
itself is most active after a crisis has burst
upon Washington. It usually shows less
wisdom and less zeal in applying the policies
which will prevent a dangerous situation
from slipping out of control. It requires no
morbid precision of memory to recall numer-
ous episodes in recent American policy that
confirm the accuracy of Senator JACKSON's
analysis. One proof that the indictment has
hit the mark is provided by the special com-
missions and study groups doing the work
which should be done by the National
Security Council if it were functioning
properly.
President Eisenhower's guarded and enig-
matic remarks at his recent press conference
have been taken to mean that his personal
discontent with existing procedures will lead
him to propose a detailed reorganization
plan to Congress next year. There will be no
conflict between the President's proposals
and the Senator's study. Both will try to
strengthen the Government for the diverse
tasks of peace and for the constant chal-
lenge of Communist power.
Senator JAcKsoN has suggested that the
staff of the National Security Council be re-
organized so that it would consist of the
heads of the policy-planning staffs in the de-
partments. These men would have direct
access at all times to their departmental
chief and would be responsible to them. He
believes this kind of staff would be better
prepared to define issues in a way that would
compel responsible decisions by the council
than is the present staff which is responsible
to an independent director. This change
would be frankly designed "to force the
chiefs of departments and the President to
make the choices between alternatives that
they should make." The Secretary of State
would have a central role on the council, as
it would be his duty to make the first pre-
sentation in which the choices of policy are
defined.
Another suggestion calls for the establish-
ment of an Academy of National Policy.
This agency would be outside the Govern-
ment, but it could see secret information. It
would conduct special investigations for the
confidential use of the Government. Many
of its reports could be published, for the
academy would have as one of its tasks the
preparation of public opinion in under-
standing the issues which would one day
have to be settled by the National Security
Council. Being a permanent agency, con-
sisting of nationally respected citizens and
having easy access to the thinking of the
Government's leading officials, the academy
might come to exercise a central influence in
the development of policy.
Senator JACKSON has not intended either
to anticipate or to limit the results of his
forthcoming study. The Inquiry may begin
next month but it will almost certainly run
into next year. Few activities in Washing-
ton will better reward thoughtful attention.
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1959 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - S ATE
[From the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 26, the doing something is just as important as MCoe Eisenhower h d this made a JAmajor con
19591 seeing what is going to happen.
NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL COMES UNDER The Council, which in potentialities ranks tribution" to the study which should pro-
PUBLIC STUDY BY U.S. SENATE COMMITTEE-- higher than the Cabinet, I. headed by the duce some practical results in the national
GOVERNMENT'S HIGHEST POLICY ADVISORY President, who presides at weekly meetings interest.
GROUP CALLED A DANGEROUSLY MISLEADING when he is in Washington, The other statu- JACKSON'S concept of the NBC organization
FACADE BY A SENATORIAL CRITIC-Loxes- tory members are Vice President Nixon, Sec- and the President's responsibilities for for-
TERM PLANNING SAID To BE NEGLECTED-- retary of State Christian A. Herter, Secretary eign policy and national security is much
Mr. Eisenhower's.
ore c of Defense
A. Hoegh, ofetheiOffice of Civil and Defense mHis basic complaint is that we are losing
NIXON INCIDENT IS CITED
(By Raymond P. Brandt) Mobilization, the cold war when we could be winning it.
WASHINGTON, July 25.-With limited Co- The Council's papers are only advisory Committee after committee, he points
our
operation promised by President Eisen- recommendations to the President who con- ou,t has nopoe d cold grams for fortify new
hower, a Senate subcommittee is preparing stitutionally is responsible for foreign policy, p t every
for the first public study of the National once he has signed them, however, they be- crisis is a seeformidabm lia new c m it,e for opera
l
onal
," he Security Council, the highest policy advisory me is andtiagenc es,e primarilytState,F De- example the Finletter committee, the Gray
off
? group the Government.
Chairman of the three-man subcommittee Pense, OCDM, and the U.S. Information ccommittee, ommission,htheaPresiden i'sssiCommitteeon, the
JACKSON, Agency.'
Democratic Government Operations Committee
Democraatic c Senator HENRY M. JACKSON, , of in practice, about 10 other high ranking Scientists and Engineers, Citizens Advisers
Washington, a severe but constructive critic officials, backed by their experts, attend the on Mutual Security, the Gaither committee,
of the Council's setup, recommendations and Council meetings. They include Treasury the Draper committee, the Boeschenstein
operations. He is also a member of the Secretary Anderson, Attorney General Wil- committee-not to mention the Committee
Armed Services and the Joint Atomic Energy liam P. Rogers, Budget Director Maurice H. on Economic Development and the study
Committees. The other members are Demo- Stans, Chairman Raymond Saulnier of the groups of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.
crat HUBERT H. HUMPHREY, of Minnesota, a President's economic advisers, Gordon Gray, "Over and over again these committees
member also of the Foreign Relations Con- Presidential Assistant for National Security warn. that we are- losing the cold war, Their Chairman
r mittee, and Republican KARL E. MUNDT, of Affairs, General of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,iDirector George aced ortsuponare. noTheyf are simplyneitherreferredare
South h Dakota, also on the Appropriations
Oo Stee. V. Allen, of the USIA, and Director Allen some other committee for 'study'."
JACKSON is convinced that the Security W. Dulles, of the Central Intelligence Agency. JACKSON believes that policy planning hould
e Council has failed, under Presidents Truman These officials do not have a vote on policy staffs sht a d agency set up with as h m j rrcie-
and Eisenhower, to live envisioned to its it promises papers.
and Plan-
established iasitan integral part of the 1947 are almost tinvar ably opened by Dulles with ni g pStaffgin the State Departmentyduring
National Security Act. a briefing on the latest international intelli- the Truman Administration. He would also
"As it now functions," he told the Post- gence. Its agenda is handled by Gray, who is consider establishing an "academy of na-
Dispatch, "the NSC is a dangerously mislead- a principal member both of the planning tion policy" outside the Government, the
ing facade. The American people and even staff, composed of experts from various de- equivalent of a permanent Gaither commit-
the Congress get the impression that when partments and agencies, and the Operations tee, which would have access to classified
the Council meets, fresh and unambiguous Coordinating Board, of which an Under Sec- information.
retary of State Is chairman. The Washington Senator does not expect
case strategies are decided upon. That's not the case though it ought to be. The NSC spends The Jackson resolution authorizing the immediate radical changes in the NBC or-
most of its time readying papers that mean study of the NSC setup was unanimously ganization as a result of the subcommittee
all things to all men. approved by the Senate July 14 and carried study. Much will depend on who is elected
"As a result, national decision making be- with it an appropriation of $60,000. Prelim- President next year because the NSC is an
comes in fact a series of ad hoc, spur of Ino- inary work has already been started by a intimate advisory group for the President.
ment, crash actions, when there is action at three-man expert staff and public hearings
all. Because. the NSC does not produce post- may be held within a few months. The first [From the New York Times, Aug. 2_19591
tively worded strategy and see that it is car- report must be made by January 31. The Nzw APPROACH TO FOREIGN POLICY-COM-
ried out, the handling of day-to-day problems subcommittee's life probably will be extended. MrrrEE To STUDY U.S. PLANNING
President Eisenhower agreed to cooperate (gy Russell Baker)
because con with the study only if rather severe limita- WASHINGT-(B, Au Russell Baker)
erned. c necessarily left it the departments
- Without fan-
s posefu1, poseful, oEach goes hard-driving, own way pug- tions were accepted by the subcommittee. fare, them GTON eg has begun it rut fan-
which alone can give cutting goal-directed str y-t y' These were worked out between Jackson and
day to tical can givesis lac edge to day-to- Bryce N. Harlow, the President's deputy for a joint White House-Congressional un-
A tactical but timely lacking: ' assistant. dertaking that could be of immense impor-
A mit but tily example was he lack In summary, these conditions were: tance in the decade ahead.
Incidence executi ve Vice President sitht wathe co- 1. The inquiry will be a study, not an The object is review and possible revision
Msof Vice Nthe American arrival investigation. of the fundamental processes through which
in Moscow Thursday s open the A2. The testimony of executive branch offs- the United States Government makes and
fair, with President Eienhwer's pr nations s s cials must not deal with substantive consid. carries out the highest national policy.
tion for a Week of Prayer for the m natio erations before the Council or its subordinate The prime mover is Senator HENRY M.
held captive by Russian communism, machinery.. JACKSON, Democrat, of Washington, who has Krem- For their own political purpose the other 3. The study will be confined to matters been arguing for months that the existing
lin undoubtedly would have found other involving purposes, composition, organiza- cumbersome and labyrinthine bureaucracy
ways to downgrade the NIXON goodwill yes- tion and procedures, all subject to appropri- charged with policymaking has proved a
sure if this Government had not given ate safeguards regarding classified projects. dismal failure against the peculiar chal-
Khrushchev and Pravda a readymade target 4. All testimony by present and former lenge of cold war.
for propaganda blasts. officials who have served on the NSC and its A few weeks ago Senator JACKSON finally
NIxoN's trip to Russia was a high-level subordinate bodies will first be taken in exec- found an influential and not unenthusiastic
policy decision. It was not the Security utive session. Decision as to later public supporter for his thesis that it was .time at
Council's function to try to guess what hearings and release of testimony will be least to start reexamining the policymak-
probable counter actions the Kremlin would agreed upon by the committee and a repre- ing machinery.
take. That would be the job of the lower sentative of the President. President Eisenhower, after an initial cool-
level Operations Coordinating Board which is On June 25, Mr. Eisenhower wrote to Sen- ness tword the project promised White
expected to see that the approved policy is ate Majority Leader LYNDON B. JOHNSON House cooperation. in a nonpolitical Senate
carried out in the most effective way. The what, in effect, was a protest against the study that will examine and recommend im-
coincidence of the visit and the proclamation resolution. This letter has not been made provements in the present system.
probably was an accident. public but it expressed a natural concern The study will be managed by a three-
But the accident could have been avoided that an investigation might get into the man panel of the Senate's Government Op-
if someone in the State Department, the sensitive area of President's foreign policy erations Committee. Senator JACKSON. is
U.S. Information Service, or Central Intelli- responsibilities and undermine the useful- the chairman. His colleagues will be Sen-
gence, all represented on the Coordinating ness of the Council itself. ators HUBERT H. HUMPHREY, Democrat, of
Board, had been able to delay the issuance After the subcommittee guidelines had Minnesota, and KARL E. MUNDT, Republican,
of the proclamation until after NIXON's visit. been agreed upon, the President wrpte Jack- of South Dakota.
JACKSON wants the Council to act in ac- son that within those bounds his staff, In.
BTAFF READY
cordance with Bernard M. Baruch's personal eluding personnel of the NBC organization
definition of a speculator as "a person who would cooperate to help make this study The President has assigned Charles A.
sees what is going to happen and does some- of value not only to the legislative branch Haskins, senior staff member of the Na-
thing about it." Baruch emphasizes that but to the executive branch as well. tional Security Council, to work closely
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CONGRESSIONAL RECORD - SENATE .
with them. A professional staff has al-
ready been assembled and is at work. A
few hearings may be held later this summer
but the bulk of the work that will attract
public notice is unlikely to begin until
early 1960.
Behind these unstartling facts lie prob-
lems and issues of the greatest sensitivity
and the most profound importance. Na-
tional security policy touches in some de-
gree, every activity of public life and lies
at the heart of most contemporary political
controversy.
Into its formulation go questions great
and small: How extensive a military com-
mitment will national resources safely per-
mit? What should be the policy toward the
Middle East? Would the psychological value
of an expensive technological demonstra-
tion justify expenditures that threaten the
economy's stability? What are the United
States' long-term goals in the cold war? Is
it wise to build a grain elevator in Pakis-
tan and deny Idaho's demand for a new
dam?
Ideally, the thousands of daily decisions
made by the executive branch would con.-
form to a set of policy guidelines charted by
the President in consultation with his high..
est advisers, the whole directed toward mov-
Ing the Nation along a defined course to..
ward an understood goal.
AGREED GOALS
Obviously this directed course would be
Impossible and unthinkable In a nontotali..
tartan state, even if it were blessed with a
leader of the omniscience required to chart
it.
In an effort to fit democratic government
for a prolonged competition with totalitar-?
ianism, Congress and the President have
gradually created a system of organizations
where, in theory, agreed goals are synthe..
sized from the constant clash of Ideas and
interests. within government, and where al-,
ternatives are prepared for the President to
weigh when he must make an important
decision in crisis.
Senator JACKSON'S. charge Is that the or-
ganization has fatal flaws for the cold war
situation. President Eisenhower, through
his recent discussion of the need for well
defined national goals, of the lack of time
for top Government men to think, and of the
need for a White House reorganization after
1960, has Indicated his own dissatisfaction
with the present system.
"The central Issue of our time," Senator
JACKSON said in a speech to the National
War College in April, "is can a free society
so organize its human and material re-
sources as to outperform totalitarianism?"
"Come a crisis, we may arouse ourselves to
take emergency action," he said. "We ap-
point a science adviser to the President, we
rush wheat to India, we Improvise an airlift
to Lebanon, we consent to a summit meet-
ing. But at no time are the vital energies
of our people fully engaged. * * * At no time
are the tasks of the cold war presented in
terms that are meaningful to men at the
work bench, to shopkeepers, to children in
school, and to housewives."
FLAW NOTED
Directly under the President at present
are the Cabinet and the National Security
Council with its subsidiary Planning Board
and Operations Coordinating Board. In ad-
dition, there are the Joint Chiefs of Staff in
the Pentagon, the offices of the Secretaries of
State and Defense, . various departmental
planning staffs, hundreds of advisory boards,
steering groups, Interdepartmental commit-
tees and special Presidential committees.
Under the organization charts, the Plan-
ning Board of the NSC plans new policies
and programs which are then considered
by the appropriate department heads be-
fore an agreed paper Is presented to the
NSC. The NSC functions as a presiden-
August 3
tial advisory board. Decision rests with the "The failures from which we have learned
President. least are the human failures, the individual
The agreed policy is then carried out un- citizens who, for all our diligent planning
der the supervision of the Operations Coordi- and provision, nevertheless fall sick, turn
nating Board. back from their goals and even attack the
Senator JACKSON contends that the flaw very community which has given them life.
in this picture is that the NSC simply does About such failures we expect psychiatrists
not operate as the charts depict. In fact, to have something to say to us, because
he argues, NSC papers are Inevitably no psychiatrists see these failures. Of course
more than compromises worked out among lawyers see them too, and clergymen and
conflicting departments and, therefore, lack- general physicians. But psychiatrists see
ing in the "sharply defined policy issues and more of them than anyone, especially of those
choices" that a President should have be- whose behavior suggests a deep frustration
fore him. of human needs and purposes. Some of the
CRASH ACTION lacks in these damaged lives may reflect an
"An NSC paper is commonly so ambigu- omission or an error in the planning and
ous and so general that the issues must all building of human habitations. What can
be renegotiated when the situation to which you, a psychiatrist, tell us that will help us
it was supposed to apply actually arises," he to know how to plan and build better for
said In his War College speech. people?"
As a result, he contends, high decision- This is not the kind of question which
making becomes a series of "crash actions." psychiatrists ordinarily must answer. In
The NSC was established by Congress in practice, we are usually faced with an im-
1947 but it has not been subject to congres- mediate problem of damage done. Frustra-
sional study since. Senator JACKSON, real- tions have become unbearable; disappoint-
izing the sensitive area he will be treading, ments, temptations, and aggressions have
has agreed with the President that his study overwhelmed control. Reactions have oc-
is to be apolitical, without attempts to em- curred which necessitate special maneuvers
barrass or sensationalize, and dedicated to by the doctor, from consolation to hos-
strengthening the hand of the President of pitalization or even incarceration. This is
the future, to whichever party he may be- our daily practice, In theory, a few re-
long, search projects have been developed which
The prospect for headlines is dim. The engage the cooperation of sociologists, but
opportunity for Senator Jackson to make a psychiatry for the most part concentrates
significant contribution to the art of Gov- upon the individual's capacity to make the
We have made some progress away from
th
e ancient notion that behavior programs
HUMAN NEEDS IN URBAN SOCIETY are Inherited along with the family silver.
ment of Dr. Karl Menninger, the famed
chief of staff of the Menninger Founda-
tion at Topeka, Kans., that wilderness
and near wilderness areas are essential
to the mental health of both children
and adults.
Upon inquiry about the statement, Dr.
Menninger sent me the text of an ar-
ticle he wrote for the Architectural Rec-
ord of July 1959, on "Human Needs in
Urban Society," where the statement is
made.
I ask unanimous consent to have the
text of Dr. Menninger's article printed
in the RECORD.
There being no objection, the article
was ordered to be printed in the RECORD,
as follows:
PLANNING FOR AN INCREASING -LEISURE-
HUMAN NEEDS IN URBAN SOCIETY
By Karl Menninger 1)
If a psychiatrist were to be interviewed by
a group of architects and builders, they
might ask him some such question as this:
"There are many of us engaged in the sci-
ences and arts involved in planning and
and Grandmother Wright's asthma. We
are not quite in agreement with the Russian
psychiatrists for whom it is an axiom that
nothing is inherited, but we no longer use
heredity as a whipping boy or an alibi.
Nor do we go along with the Russians in
dispensing with individual responsibility,
picturesquely and improperly labelled "free
will." But most psychiatrists throughout
the world would probably concur that much
human maladjustment-or let us just say
crime and Illness-is directly related to so-
cial structures, social pathology, and social
improvidences. I am using the word social
here In a sense which includes the work of
architects, engineers, and builders.
HUMAN NEEDS: BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
In speaking of human needs generally, I
would divide them into biological needs
such as the need for air and preferably un-
polluted air; for food and prefererably
fresh and not too expensive food; for water-
and need I say unpolluted water and easily
available water; for temperature control;
for sleep undisturbed by noise, alarms,
movement and the like; for bathing; for
clothes storing (I am including this as a
biological need); for exercise of various
kinds; for excretory convenience and pri-
vacy. For all of these I know architects try
to provide.
To these more classical bi
l
i
l
o
og
ca
needs I
visions and cities. Our aim in the long view would add the psychological. needs. Of
Is the more complete fulfillment of human these the most important are for maintain-
needs insofar as these depend upon physical ing contacts of different degrees Of intensity
structures. For our guidance we must de- and intermittency with other human being's,
pend upon the experience of previous fail- i.e., very intimate (as in the family), mod-
ures, failures which we can analyze and try erately intimate (as with friends) and less
to make provision against in the ever-open- 'Intimate (as with acquaintances of differ-
ing future. In this way, we believe, we cre- ent groupings.) There is also a need to have
ate more and more stately mansions and some privacy and retreat from all of these.
more and more comfortable human colonies. The long childhood in the human species
requires special provisions for the proper
Dr. Menninger Is chief of staff of the nurture, protection and training of the
Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kans. He baby, little child, older child and teenager.
is the author of "The Human Mind," "Man These may be considered psychological needs
Against Himself," "Love Against Hate," and considering our state of cultural develop-
many other books and papers. This paper ment. They require certain places in the
is based on an address given at the Na- home, places In the neighborhood to play
tional Construction Industry Conference, and to go to school and, ideally, a place in
December 1, 1958, in Chicago. the neighborhood to do some kind of work.
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