AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY: WORLD CLASS DISASTER FIGHTER

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP91-00587R000100190006-7
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• Document Page Count: 6
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 24, 2011
• Sequence Number: 6
• Content Type: OPEN SOURCE

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INFORMATION SOCIETY
Volume 3, Number 4 (1985)
ARTICLE APPEARED
Aerial Photography:
World Class Disaster Fighter
Arthur C. Lundahl
Former Director
National Photographic Interpretation Center
Dino A. Brugioni
Former Senior Official and Reconnaissance and Photo
Interpretation Expert for the C.I.A.
Abstract The value of utilizing aerial photographic col-
lection systems along with varied photo interpretation and
photogrammetric techniques in connection with disaster man-
agement is better understood with each passing year. Not only
is it possible to compare new sensor coverage with historical
graphic records. but analytical methods allow a sophistication
of data manipulation considered impossible in the recent past.
Damage assessment, together with a remarkable capability for
predictive reporting, has brought a new dimension to emer-
gency management.
Man has constantly sought new windows on his world and has.
with each increase in altitude attained by aircraft, and now space-
craft, gained an ever widening view of the earth. This insatiable
quest for knowledge of every aspect of his environment has led
man to photograph the planet from a wide range of platforms-
from balloons and helicopters hovering a few feet above the earth
to meteorological satellites photographing the hemispheres and
oceans from an incredible 23.400 miles in space. Man has also
broadened his view and increased his perception by using a wide
variety of sensing devices.
Aerial photography has three important roles to play in natural
and technological disasters. First, it is a valuable historical rec-
ord. Second. it is unparalleled for conducting damage assess-
ment surveys. Third. it could become a most important vehicle
for predicting disasters. Affording precise knowledge of how,
when, and where a disaster might occur, aerial photography
could play an invaluable role in planning how to avoid or mitigate
disasters. Using a variety of modern interpretation and pho-
togrammetric techniques. data from aerial photography and mul-
tisensor imagery can be derived in a relatively short period of
time on such subjects as ground areas, volumes, heights, shapes.
occupancies, relative age, and state of repair.
High-altitude photography is extremely useful in these endeav-
ors because so few photos are needed to cover a given area,
compared to conventional lower-altitude photography which has
to be pieced together in order to get the overall view. Surveying
the earth from orbiting platforms fitted with remote sensing
devices could be the most significant technological development
of our time. There are many who are convinced that the impact
of overhead photography and remote sensing on modern life will
be more significant than the impact of gunpowder in an earlier
time. Looking down on our planet with increasing frequency
from vantage points in space has shown us the complex and
continuously changing interrelationships of land. sea, and air and
has added immeasurably to our knowledge of the fragile rela-
tionship between man and his environment. The combination of
synoptic observations, broad area coverage, and large-scale pho-
tography has permitted many unique interpretations and pos-
sibilities for application to both natural and technological
disasters. The continuing search for improved methods of secur-
ing the data required to assess, mitigate, or prevent disasters
should be an endeavor of the highest priority for our government.
Historical Record
As a historical record, aerial photography has few equals. Each
photographic exposure is an irreplaceable record of a moment in
time, as to what was happening at that very moment, and each
photo establishes a baseline that is of critical importance in
recognizing the inevitable changes that will occur in the future.
Sequential aerial photography, taken over a period of years. has
yielded valuable information on the impact of man and natural
forces on the environment. This repetitive coverage allows the
observation and notation of change over a given period of time
and is especially valuable when one looks back to document
weather, volcanic, fire, earthquake, flood, technological, and
other phenomena pertinent to disasters.
Aerial photography was for many years primarily a military
reconnaissance tool but shortly after World War I the potential
for peaceful applications of this art was recognized. The need for
more accurate surveying and mapping to support rapid industrial
development in the United States became a priority project of the
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.' The rapid advances in aviation
also dictated a need for compiling charts specifically designed for
aerial navigation. Until that time, most pilots used rudimentary
road maps. On February 26. 1919, President Wilson recom-
mended legislation placing the licensing and regulation of all
aerial navigation under the U.S. Department of Commerce.2 In
the late 1920s and early 1930s, hundreds of aerial surveys and
thousands of aerial photos were utilized in the routing and con-
struction of new transcontinental highways. Aerial photography
was instrumental in determining how to straighten roads and for
estimating the volume of earth moving needed to reduce hills to
valleys and to make the roads as straight and level as possible in
the most economical manner. In the 1930s, the Agricultural Ad-
justment Administration systematically photographed the na-
tion's crop and grazing lands: the Forest Service photographed
the nation's timber reserves: the Soil Survey mapped the soils of
the United States; the Tennessee Valley Authority mapped areas
in efforts to resolve chronic flooding and erosion problems: and
aerial photography was also used in site selection for the many
dams and hydroelectric projects undertaken during this period.
Most of these photographs are now stored in the National
Archives and constitute a most important historical trust. They
continue to be used for a variety of comparison purposes: to
review beach erosion, to observe sedimentation in rivers and
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lakes, to chart expansion of cities and towns, to decide on the
cutting of timber, and determine the effects of locating missile.
nuclear, and chemical proving grounds in desert areas. The full
potential of this mass of photographs has been recognized by the
Environmental Protection Agency which uses it regularly to
solve operational problems. Entrusted with the responsibility for
locating and inventorying hazardous waste sites, the Environ-
mental Protection Agency has found these photographs to be the
most valuable record of the existence and location of waste sites
used decades ago, then abandoned and forgotten. but still consid-
ered dangerous) These old sites are of particular concern be-
cause they often have been covered over, overgrown with
vegetation, reconfigured, or built upon. There are few precise
written records of the what, how, when of the ways and methods
that were used to store the hazardous wastes.
Photographs taken over a period of years frequently show the
precise location and size of the facility, and the methods used to
store hazardous wastes: i.e., drum, tank, pit, lagoon. etc. The
effects of any released pollutants and the routes of migration of
the waste materials away from the source either through ditches,
drainage canals, swales, or to low-lying areas can still be charted
through aerial photography. Knowing the potential areas of con-
tamination, monitoring teams can quickly sample soil, water.
food, and air to assess the degree and extent of pollution.' On a
number of occasions, these photos have been used in litigation
against individuals and corporations charged with breaking anti-
pollution laws.
Rain is a continuing, natural phenomenon which results in a
pattern of water flowing down through the earth's surface to find
its way to underground channels and saturation areas from where
it subsequently moves to the sea. But on its way, it moves in
random and little known routes and may thus come into contact
with anything that we bury. Anything that is buried in the earth is
therefore subject to solution and transportation away from the
site where it was originally placed. This fact could mean potential
danger for everyone. We are already hearing about the con-
tamination of well water in some areas of our country and the
possibility of contamination of aquifers in others. One of the
greatest challenges in the future will he to sense the flow of these
waters and the effects on them as they pass through areas where
we have buried our hazardous wastes. Historical aerial photogra-
phy could play an important role in this endeavor.
Assessment of Disaster Damage
Earthquakes
Whenever a major earthquake strikes a large area, there are
massive breakdowns in communication, transportation, public
safety, and health facilities. The first requisite for any responsive
plan of action is to acquire timely and quality information on the
scope and magnitude of the destruction. The second requirement
is to establish the ability to quickly transmit that information to
the highest echelons of government where the necessary deci-
sions can be made and concerted actions taken. Such was the
case when a massive earthquake measuring 7.5 on the Richter
Scale struck Guatemala at 3:02 A.M. on February 4, 1976. The
quake caused widespread destruction over a large portion of the
country but was especially severe in the populated central high-
lands which sit astride the fault that runs from east to west. The
quake caused many bridges to collapse and triggered numerous
landslides in the mountains which buried roads and rail lines and
isolated the devastated mountain villages. Although medical and
relief aid was rushed to Guatemala by neighboring nations, little
was known in Guatemala City as to the extent of damage done to
over 300 cities, towns, and villages.
The Guatemalan government appealed to the U.S. State De-
partment for aid, not only in determining the extent and magni-
tude of the destruction but also to establish the level of medical
and relief aid necessary. A U-2 overflight of Guatemala was
quickly authorized and the exposed film was rushed to the CIA's
National Photographic Interpretation Center for processing and
interpretation. Working through the night, the interpreters
quickly pieced together the patterns of destruction. A list of the
most hard-hit cities and towns was created and transmitted to
Guatemala City, along with a damage assessment report. The
towns of Joyabaj, San Pedro, Tecpan, Patzicia, Chimaltenango,
Comalapa. El Progreso, Zaragoza. and San Miguel Jilotepeque
were flattened. Enlarged photos dramatically showed the
damaged adobe homes, the rubble-filled streets, the downed
bridges, and the landslides blocking road and rail lines. Of par-
ticular interest to geologists were the photos which showed the
dramatic earth slippage where the fault movement had bent rail
lines and scissored roads in excess of three feet. The interpreters
could also follow the visible serpentine fissures for distances of
over 150 miles.
U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force personnel, along with support-
ing aircraft and helicopters, were flown in from bases in the
continental United States and from U.S. bases in Panama. The
heavier aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and the Guatemalan Air
Force were of little use in the relief efforts in the mountainous
terrain. Rescue teams, medical personnel, and relief experts were
either helicoptered into the stricken areas or were flown in by
light aircraft-piloted by the Civil Air Patrol and volunteers-
which landed on fields near the stricken areas or on nearby
roads.
The quake left more than 23,000 dead, injured more than
77,000, and left more than a million homeless. To avert the
spread of disease, massive pits were dug and bodies placed in
common graves. These graves could be seen on aerial photos.
along with thousands of tents fashioned from blankets and sheet-
ing that provided meager shelter in the streets for the thousands
of refugees who were afraid to return to weakened or damaged
homes.
Although the casualties were astronomical, they could have
been much higher had it not been for the information obtained
from the aerial photos that vectored medical and relief aid to the
stricken; the blocked rail lines and roads were precisely pin-
pointed so that they could be reopened and relief supplies could
proceed to the devastated areas. The photos were subsequently
used to plan the reconstruction effort.
Another kind of disaster occurred when Hurricane Camille
roared onto the Gulf Coast on August 7, 1969, with sustained
winds of over ISO m.p.h.. pounding miles of Mississippi, Loui-
siana, and Alabama beaches with devastating force. At the peak
of its fury, Camille developed 190 m.p.h. winds and 20-ft. storm
tides. It was the most violent storm ever to hit the U.S. mainland.
The storm slammed ashore in the Gulfport-Biloxi area and hun-
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dreds of beacbfront homes were shattered, roofs of houses were
torn off, walls caved in. thousands of trees snapped or were
uprooted. and power and telephone lines were down throughout
a large area. Walls of water swept ashore and boats and fishing
trawlers were heaped atop one another or blown completely out
of the water to land in residential areas or pine forests. Three
large oceangoing freighters, the Hulda, the Alamo Victory, and
the Silver Hook, were beached by the winds and water. Low-
lying areas experienced severe flooding.
Although the hurricane was closely monitored and ample
warnings were given, there was an unrealistic notion that a hur-
ricane could not wreak such damage and people went about their
business as usual, ignoring repeated warnings to evacuate their
homes voluntarily. As a result of not heeding the warnings, more
than 300 people died.
Although President Nixon declared Mississippi a disaster area
the next day, conflicting reports were being received in Wash-
ington on the extent and nature of the damage sustained. The
President asked that a proper assessment of the damage be
completed as soon as possible. A U-2 mission was flown over the
distressed area and the CIA's photo interpreters again were
called upon to conduct a damage assessment. Along with the
damage report, dramatic photo enlargements showed the fury of
Hurricane Camille, its winds, its rains, and the attendant flood-
ing. Hurricane Camille eventually swung northward, leaving
more death and destruction in its wake. Torrential rains and the
attendant flooding pummeled mountainous western and central
Virginia, washing out a number of towns. The James River
crested at 28.6 feet, 19.5 feet above flood stage.
The total losses would reach over a billion dollars before
Hurricane Camille turned northeastward and dissipated its wrath
in the Atlantic Ocean on August 25, 1969. A number of states
would be declared disaster areas as more aerial reconnaissance
missions were flown and more damage assessment reports were
created and submitted to federal and state officials. The lessons
learned from Camille were many-not the least of which was the
use of aerial reconnaissance in the spotting. tracking, and assess-
ment of damage.
Technological Disasters
The use of aerial photography to support emergency responses
to technological disasters has increased dramatically in recent
years. It has been used to provide information on the extent and
magnitude of chemical spills. explosions, fires, pollutant leakage
into waterways, aerial pollution, oil spills, acid rain, nuclear
accidents, and waste and sewage problems. Not only have state
and federal agencies become concerned with the public's ex-
posure to toxic chemicals, but a number of federal and state laws
have been enacted in the past two decades requiring states.
cities, and localities to inventory and monitor activities related to
air, water, soil, and food contamination.
Whenever such accidents occur, in addition to concern about
the public safety. the possible contamination of water and food
supplies also become major concerns. Aerial photography can be
a most effective tool for the quick assessment of potential
damage to food supplies. For example, when the Three Mile
Island nuclear power plant accident occurred, all of the dairies in
the area were quickly catalogued for investigation of possible
contamination by using aerial photos.
Aerial photos can also be used in cleanup and environmental
damage studies. An aircraft flying at 60.000 feet can photograph a
swath some 40 to 50 miles wide. The entire state of Pennsylvania.
for example, can be photographed in less than eight hours using
such a system.
The operational feasibility of using high-altitude aircraft to
make quick damage assessment surveys of technological disas-
ters was proven on numerous occasions in the 1960s and 1970s.
Leakage from an offshore oil well in Santa Barbara Channel off
the California coast became a river of oil on January 31. 1969.
spewing out more than 235.000 gallons of oil before the blowout
was capped. An 800-square-mile slick developed in the Pacific
and began washing onto about 50 miles of California beaches.
There are many kelp beds in the affected area and, on black and
white photography, some of- the apparent oil slicks were. in
reality, kelp beds. Secretary of the Interior Walter J. Hickel called
upon Dr. Lee A. DuBridge, Science Adviser to President Nixon,
for help in assessing the disaster. A U-2 mission was directed
over the area. The forward camera contained black and white
film while the aft camera was loaded with color film. This en-
abled a quick and accurate discrimination of the kelp beds from
the oil slick. Full information on the damage to the beaches and
marinas was rushed to the President, along with enlarged photos
of the slick, the oil-damaged marinas, and the contaminated
beaches and estuaries. Duplicate copies of these materials were
sent to the Secretary of the Interior and to state officials in
California. The maps and photos were used by experts to deter-
mine the most effective way of trapping the spilled oil, and to aid
in the cleanup of the beaches and marinas.
Volcanic Eruptions
Among the more recent dramatic disasters was the eruption of
Mount St. Helens on May 18. 1980. The subsequent destruction
of approximately 230 square miles of vegetation afforded a
unique opportunity for the use of airborne platforms. not only for
damage assessments but also to chart the geological and other
changes that occurred subsequent to the eruption.5 Shortly after
the eruption. Mount St. Helens was photographed by both U-2
and SR-71 aircraft using conventional and multisensor imagery
for a quick assessment of the immediate dangers posed by the
eruption. The pre- and post-eruption images provide a dramatic
view of the destruction resulting from the eruption. The pho-
tographs revealed that almost a cubic mile of the Mount St.
Helens crown had been blown away. Trees as far as 28 kilometers
away had been toppled like match sticks and timber was
scorched for some distance beyond that. Sediment filled Swift
Reservoir and Spirit Lake was filled with debris. The massive
flow of debris that swept down the North Toutle Valley raised its
floor more than 600 feet. damming tributary rivers, and creating
new lakes and ponds. The formation of these lakes and ponds
posed a serious problem since they might erode swiftly and
release a deluge of water and mud down nearby valleys. A layer
of pumice and ash covered the area. High-altitude winds carried
the ash into neighboring states, evidence of that fallout could be
clearly seen on the aerial photos. Meteorological satellites pho-
tographed the ash cloud as it moved eastward and warnings were
issued to aircraft flying in or near the cloud. Aerial photos were
used to seek methods to alleviate problems created by swollen
lakes and ponds, and the same photos were used by foresters
seeking methods to retrieve the blown-down and damaged tim-
ber.
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Aerial photographs are being taken periodically of Mount St.
Helens and will continue for years to come. Eventually, this
photography will provide the most complete record possible of
what happened prior, during, and after the volcanic eruption of
Mount St. Helens.
Additional Applications
Forest Fires
Forest managers dread that period during the summer months
when the lack of moisture creates a "tinderbox" situation on the
forest floor. When this occurs, normal fire prevention precautions
include the closing of state and national forests to camping.
fishing, hiking, and logging. In addition, travel is restricted to the
main highways.
The dread of the forester eventually becomes a reality-igni-
tion either by human accident, lightning, or arson. Of particular
concern are the violent "dry" thunderstorms that plague the
West in which lightning will ignite a number of fires but without
the accompanying rain to extinguish the blazes. Often, there is a
capricious wind that builds and creates what the forester fears
the most: a wildfire that shifts directions, leaps across- roads and
firebreaks. creates powerful convection columns, and produces
fire whirlwinds that pick up and carry firebrands the size of
dinner plates for long distances and start still other fires which, in
turn, destroy thousands of acres of timber.
The burned timber is not the only loss, because fires affect
more than just the trees. Fire destroys shrubs that provide food
and cover for wildlife, and the intense heat destroys root systems
and vaporizes important soil nutrients.
Spotting the fires and reporting their locations were, for more
than a century, the job of the fire spotter in the lookout tower.
There are, of course, many drawbacks to such a system. The
spotter's vision is limited and often obscured by dense tree cover,
haze, or smoke. The towers also had to be located in areas with
access to nearby roads. There are, however, other thousands of
acres of timber in inaccessible, unprotected areas.
After World War II. the search for a better, more effective
means of protection of our forests was intensified. The ideal
system, of course, would be operational 24 hours a day to detect
and precisely locate a fire before it could cause serious damage.
Aerial surveys over remote areas using surplus World War II
aircraft were instituted by the Forest Service in the postwar
period. Although the observation point was thus lifted and the
horizons widened, aerial surveys were not economical or satis-
factory methods for fire protection over large areas.
In the 1950s. the U.S. military began experimenting with air-
borne thermal infrared sensors to be used in intelligence-gather-
ing operations. These heat-sensing instruments react to even the
smallest blaze and maps of the areas of burning can be quickly
created. Fire shows up in varying degrees of intensity, usually
against a cool background of vegetation or water. Infrared sens-
ing can be employed day or night. It can penetrate dense smoke
and certain types of clouds. During the Vietnam conflict, thermal
infrared scanners were used to pinpoint the small fires used by
the Viet Cong to cook their evening meals.
The Forest Service, profiting from the military experience,
began using infrared scanners in their aircraft in the late 1960s.
From aircraft flying at 15,000 feet, approximately 250.000 acres of
terrain could he encompassed on the infrared scope.' Areas of
particular concern could then be transferred to a film record.
Infrared scanners were also installed in the NASA U-2s giving an
even more impressive view of unprotected forests. But whether it
was a light aircraft or a U-2 flying over the forests, the cost of
maintaining continuous aircraft sweeps over large areas becomes
prohibitive and flying over inaccessible areas can also be very
dangerous.
With the advent of the NASA "ERTS" and the later Landsat
orbital imaging systems, forest fires could be frequently seen
blazing out of control in inaccessible areas. In the near-infrared
spectrum, the outlines of the fires could be quickly determined.
Recent experimentation with thermal infrared sensors aboard
NOAA polar orbiting satellites has demonstrated their potential
usefulness as an effective, efficient, and economical means of
detecting and monitoring not only forest fires but range and
tundra fires as well. Using the 3.8 micron channel, the NOAA
satellites "paint" a swath of 2,600 kilometers with a latitude
coverage of about 15 degrees. For example, most of Alaska can
be covered in a single frame and any forest or tundra fire can be
detected. The same area would be covered twice daily, once
during the daytime and once at night. At the present time. NOAA
has two satellites aloft, affording four coverages of the same
specific area during each 24-hour period. While the infrared
system cannot penetrate certain cloud covers, and cannot dif-
ferentiate between controlled and uncontrolled fires. it has the
potential to become the most economical system for the detec-
tion of fire in large, remote geographical areas.?
Floods regularly account for 90 percent or more of the nation's
property damage from natural disasters. Since the turn of the
century, for a number of sound'and logical reasons, floodplain
land has become both attractive and desirable for high-density
urban development. However, most of this construction has been
accomplished through a permissive and speculative policy which
has allowed an enormous and continuous encroachment onto
floodplains. There has also been a tendency to minimize the
adverse consequences of these actions. This encroachment, how-
ever. has raised and will continue to raise the potential level of
damage that people and structures will face when rivers overflow
their natural confines."
In 1983, flooding in the United States claimed 204 lives and
caused property damage totaling more than four billion dollars.
For 1984, U.S. Weather officials predicted flood damage that
would exceed 1983 by some four to six billion dollars. There has
been flooding in New England, the Mississippi Basin, and the
South, but the Far West has experienced the worst flooding ever.
Record snowpacks in the Rockies have caused flooding condi-
tions in eight Western states. The massive flooding from snow-
melt plaguing the Far West could have been largely prevented or
mitigated by the Federal Government which had the technology,
methodology, data, and expertise to do so, but for a variety of
bureaucratic reasons, chose not to do so.`' A task force of recon-
naissance. mapping. photogrammetric. and photo interpretation
experts-augmented by Western regional experts-could have
been constituted at a relatively modest cost to prevent billions of
dollars of property damage. not to mention the loss of life that
could have been averted. Such a collaborative effort could plan
actions to prevent flooding, give advance warnings. pre-position
equipment in areas of concern, and evacuate people in danger.
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The technology now available includes sophisticated satellite
systems, the SR-7I which could cover the 1,450-mile length of the
Colorado River in less than 45 minutes. the U-2, and other
military reconnaissance and civilian mapping aircraft. The U.S.
Geological Survey has detailed maps of the areas of concern for
snow-melt measurement and analysis. The Defense Mapping
Agency, the CIA. and the Geological Survey have excellent
photogrammetric equipment, and the expertise that could be
used to compute the snow volume on the mountains. Using this
technology, hydrologists could determine the potential runoff.
The lay of the snow in the mountains, and the conditions of
streams and rivers to which the water would flow, could be
readily determined by photo interpreters. The California Water
Authority and the Tennessee Valley Authority have experts on
drawing down dams to prevent flooding. The Federal Govern-
ment has the computer capacity to process and analyze the
information to accomplish such a task.
The aerial reconnaissance data, along with information gar-
nered from local, state, and regional experts. would permit deter-
mination of potential flooding areas. Equipment and experts from
the Army Corps of Engineers, the National Guard, other military
services, state agencies, and private contractors could then be
put in place to prevent or mitigate flooding.
Modern reconnaissance systems, properly used, could con-
tribute materially to the better understanding of, and a capability
to better assess, the damage from floods or other natural and
technological disasters. Using this advanced technology, the ca-
pability to predict the magnitude of natural and technological
disasters is within our grasp. With the capability to predict also
comes the incumbent responsibility to take preventive mea-
sures. "'
Volcanic Ash
The greatest terror any airline pilot can experience is to see
instrumentation warning lights indicating that all engines are
experiencing severe mechanical problems which could result in
multiple engine shutdowns or failures. Such was the case on June
24 and July 13, 1982, when two Boeing 747s experienced severe
engine problems and shutdowns from the ingestion of airborne
volcanic ash from eruptions of Mt. Galunggung in Indonesia.
Both aircraft were forced to make emergency landings at
Djakarta. A DC-9 on May 18. 1980. and a 727 on May 26. 1980,
experienced similar problems from the eruption of Mount St.
Helens. The loss of an airliner with all passengers aboard would
be a calamitous event and these sobering facts prompted a study
of volcanic eruptions as they impact airline operations.
Although volcanic eruptions have always been of concern to
air operations. the ingestion of volcanic ash into jet engines
poses not only that immediate problem of operations but also the
damage that could be done to engines, airframes; and sensing
devices. The volcanic cloud carries a variety of particles, of
varying sizes. composition, and hardness. Some of the particles
have a low melting point and deposit on turbine blades: other
particles are hard and abrasive, damaging engine blades, wind-
shields, and airframes. Since the particles vary in size. they can
be ingested into the many and varied filters, contaminating oil,
air conditioning, and sensing systems.
There have been significant increases in volcanic activity since
1979 worldwide, including the eruptions of Soufriere, St. Vincent.
in 1979, Ulawun in the South Pacific in 1980, Mount St. Helens in
1980, Alaid in the Kuriles in 1981, Garcloi in the Aleutian Islands
in 1981, Pagan in the Pacific in 1981. El Chichon in Mexico in
1982, and Galunggung and Soputan in Indonesia in 1982. Two-
thirds of all volcanic sites are in the northern hemisphere. This is
especially significant since the majority of all air traffic is also in
this hemisphere.
The potential for unanticipated disruption of air operations has
prompted the U.S. and the more scientifically advanced nations
to look for means to understand the nature of the volcanic clouds
in order to issue or cancel volcanic warnings." To do this,
knowledge of the plume's height, direction of drift, and the mag-
nitude of the eruption is essential. Once these are determined,
which of course must be done quickly, warnings can be issued
covering the affected airspace.
Presently, there is no adequate system available for the making
of such warnings. There is a variety of systems offering some
potential but, unfortunately, each has limited advantages and
serious disadvantages. Combined in a synergistic manner they
might go far in providing the answer:
1. National Weather Service meteorological radar and FAA
surveillance radar systems can detect the general area and
altitude of ash clouds. But there may be other areas of ash
not visible on these systems. Then, too, only the more
advanced nations have such systems.
2. U.S. Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites
(GOES), because of their constant surveillance capabilities,
can provide images quickly in the visible and infrared spec-
trums following a volcanic eruption; but there is often diffi-
culty differentiating between an ash cloud and cumulo-
nimbus features. Since this satellite is geostationary, sur-
veillance is only possible between 55? N and 55? S.
3. NOAA polar orbiting meteorological and environmental
satellites, because of their multispectral capabilities, offer
the greatest possibilities for distinguishing ash clouds from
other weather phenomena. These satellites do not have
constant surveillance capabilities, imaging any given area
usually only twice a day. Processing time for the imagery
acquired requires at least an additional six hours.
4. Visible observations made in the daytime usually give the
first indication of the magnitude of an eruption. the height
of the plume, and the direction of the drift.
In the past. volcanic eruptions were not considered a standard
aviation problem and accurate reporting has not been optimal or
specifically required by the United States and other nations.
Since multi-engine failure can occur within a 2-4 minute period,
with the possible loss of an airliner and all passengers. the
problem of volcanic ash clouds with respect to aviation opera-
tions merits a high international priority for scientific and tech-
nical research.
Even with all the foregoing digested and understood, there re-
main complex, undefined scientific problems ahead that might be
resolved with the studied application of future advances in pho-
tography and multisensor imagery. Definite cause-and-effect re-
lationships have been established between the magnitude and
distribution of volcanic dust in the atmosphere and the weather
patterns which follow. If, in the future, we can advance the
scientific precision of the detection and precise measurement of
Continued
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volcanic dust distribution in the atmosphere. we might provide
meteorologists with still another valuable tool for more accurate
prediction of the world's weather)
The acquisition. processing, storage, and retrieval of imagery-
derived data have progressed in quantum leaps in recent years.
Those intimately engaged in the imagery field realize the im-
mense breadth and unlimited capabilities inherent in these en-
deavors. Although it may not be as clearly defined as, say, the
physical science or chemistry disciplines, its applications tra-
verse nearly every field of scientific endeavor from archeology to
zoology."
The future portends even greater opportunities because imag-
ery can now be digitized. and the combining of imagery interpre-
tation expertise with computer technology, and their interactions
and manipulations. provides us with numerous innovative ap-
plications. We are already becoming familiar with terms like
"change detection." "computer assisted." and "automatic" as
applied to new interpretation. photogrammetric, and analytical
techniques. Whereas in the past. photo interpretation studies
might only be concerned with local or specific targets. we are
beginning to see imagery-derived data utilized in the preparation
of technical reports on entire states, regions. or countries. The
enormous volume of imagery-derived data now under computer
control provides untold opportunities for utilization by analysts
in Emergency Operations Centers.
Exploiting aerial photography and multisensor imagery re-
quires unique talent and equipment. In the early 1960s. the
National Photographic Interpretation Center, through its staff of
specialists, recognized the value of photography and multisensor
imagery and its numerous applications in the civilian sector. The
creation of a "White Center" where pertinent aerial photography
could be used for emergency management purposes was sug-
gested at the time, with the National Photographic Interpretation
Center serving as an organizational model.
The capacity to mitigate and prevent disasters exists. The
technology, the equipment. the methodology, and the expertise
are there. We are simply not using them to their full potential.
Although today there are some collaboration and cooperation
among people on the ground and the aerial collector, in the future
sensors on the ground will be read and interpreted by collectors
in space. We must create an ongoing mechanism that will enable
us to monitor key technological developments and bring proper
pressure to bear on the responsible agencies to apply tech-
nological advances in the prevention and mitigation of tech-
nological and natural disasters.
Congressman Albert Gore, Chairman of the Subcommittee on
Investigations and Oversight. Committee on Science and Tech-
nology, U.S. House of Representatives, on November 16. 1983
opened the hearings concerning the role of information tech-
nology in emergency management with the following statement:
"We are all aware of the tremendous technological advances
made in the last few years. We have seen and benefited from their
applications in the areas of health and medicine, the environ-
ment, and other scientific fields. But we must also ensure that
this technology is applied to our nation's ability to predict, pre-
vent, and respond quickly and effectively to natural or man-made
disasters."
It is doubtful that anyone would disagree with the above state-
ment and, hopefully, this paper may be a stimulus for concerted
and collective action which could result in the achievement of
this stated objective.
4O?
Notes
1. John T. Smith, Jr., National Ocean Survey, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. A His-
tory of Flying and Photography in the Photogrummetrv Division of the
National Ocean Survey, 1919-1979 (Washington, D.C.: 1979). 486 pp.
2. A. Joseph Wright and Elliott B. Roberts, The Coast and Geodetic
Survey, U.S. Department of Commerce, The Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey 1807-1957 (Washington. D.C., 1959), 90 pp.
3. Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. United States
Environmental Protection Agency, "Aerial Photography for Inventories
of Hazardous Waste Sites," Las Vegas, Nevada. August 1983. 3 pp.
4. Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory. United States
Environmental Protection Agency, "Aerial Photography to Support
Chemical Exposure Assessments." Las Vegas. Nevada. October 1982.
4 pp.
5. Charles G. Bohn, Belden G. Bly, Applications Directorate, Mis-
sions Utilization Office, Goddard Space Flight Center, N.A.S.A.,
"Landsat Observations of Mount St. Helens," Greenbelt, Maryland,
1981. 9 pp.
6. Southern Forest Fire Laboratory, Forest Service. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture. "Fire and the Forest," Macon, Georgia. 1970. 25
PP.
7. Michael Matson and Stanley R. Schneider. National Environmen-
tal Satellite Data and Information Center, Billie Aldridge and Barry
Satchwell, National Weather Service. "Fire Detection Using the
NOAA-Series Satellites," National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
istration Technical Report NESDIS 7, Washington. D.C., January 1984.
34 pp.
8. Glenn R. Wall, Tennessee Valley Authority. "Two Decades of
Flood Plain Management-The TVA Regional Experience." Knoxville,
Tennessee, 1974. 14 pp.
9. Dino A. Brugioni, "Why Didn't the Feds Block the West's
Floods?" Washington Post, Outlook Section, Washington. D.C. July 3.
1983. p. C-5.
10. Subcommittee on investigations and Oversight. Committee on
Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, "Statement of
Dino A. Brugioni Concerning the Role of Information Technology in
Emergency Management." Washington. D.C. November 16, 1983. 6 pp.
II. Appendix F, VAW-Memo 2, 22 February 1984. AN 10/18.
"Material Received from Dr. W. Smith (United States) on the Effects of
Volcanic Ash on Air Operations," Washington. D.C. 1984. 32 pp.
12. Alan Robock and Michael Matson. "Circumglobal Transport of
the El Chichon Volcanic Dust Cloud." Science Magazine, July 8. 1983.
3 pp.
13. Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, United States
Environmental Protection Agency. "Aerial Photography for Emer-
gency Response." Las Vegas. Nevada. December 1983. 3 pp.
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