LETTER TO WILLIAM H. WEBSTER FROM THOMAS G. BYRNE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP90M01364R000700190020-9
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 106
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 18, 2013
• Sequence Number: 20
• Publication Date: April 27, 1988
• Content Type: LETTER

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IL
U.S. Department of Justice
Drug Enforcement Administration
-at 88-1888X
Washington. D.C. 20537
Honorable William H. Webster
Director of Central Intelligence
Central Intelligence Agency
Washington, D.C. 20505
Dear Judge Webster:
APR 27 1938
Six copies of the National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers
Committee (NNICC) Report are enclosed. This letter also serves
to provide you with a brief background of the development of the
report and questions and suggested answers which may prove
useful. Quantities of the report are being sent to your agency's
NNICC representative.
The NNICC Report is the product of a cooperative effort involving
Federal agencies with drug-related law enforcement, foreign and
domestic policy, treatment, research, and intelligence responsi-
bilities. In April 1978, the NNICC was established to coordinate
the collection, analysis, dissemination, and evaluation of
strategic drug-related intelligence, both foreign and domestic,
that is essential to effective policy development, resource
deployment, and operational planning. Membership consists of the
Central Intelligence Agency, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Customs
Service, Department of Defense, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Immigration and Naturalization
Service, Internal Revenue Service, National Institute on Drug
Abuse, Department of State, Department of the Treasury, and the
White House Drug Abuse Policy Office. The Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Intelligence of the Drug Enforcement
Administration serves as Chairman.
The NNICC Report 1987, which is based on the best data currently
available and on the combined expertise of NNICC member agencies,
is a comprehensive assessment prepared for the Federal Government
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4two
2
on the worldwide illicit drug situation in 1987. The report is a
blending of facts and analysis to produce informed judgments on
the major aspects of the worldwide situation concerning cannabis,
cocaine, dangerous drugs, opiates, and drug money.
Sincerely,
Thomas G. Byrne, Chairman
National Narcotics Intelligence
Consumers Committee
Enclosures
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?,
Questions and Answers
The NNICC Report 1987
1. What countries were the leading producers of marijuana
available in the United States in 1987?
Mexico (3,100-4,200 metric tons)
Colombia (2,300-6,600 metric tons)
United States (3,000-3,500 metric tons)
2. A National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)-sponsored survey
found a continuation of the downward trend of mariluana use
among high school seniors. What were some of the findings?
The proportion of seniors who used marijuana daily declined
from 10.7 percent at its peak in 1978 to 3.3 percent in
1987.
The proportion of seniors perceiving "great risk" in
regularly smoking marijuana increased from 34.9 percent in
1978 to 73.5 percent in 1987.
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ep; a
3. Cocaine was readily available throughout the United States
in 1987. Was there an increase from 1986 to 1987 in the
number of cocaine-related hospital emergencies reported by
DAWN?
The projected increase (based on figures for 9 months of
1987) was more than 60 percent.
4. The NIDA-sponsored survey also found a downward trend of
cocaine use among high school seniors. What were some of
the findings?
A decrease of about one-third (from 6.2 percent to 4.3
percent) in the proportion of high school seniors who had
used cocaine at least once in the past month.
The percentage of high school seniors who perceived "great
risk" associated with ingesting cocaine even once or twice
increased from 34 percent in 1986 to 48 percent in 1987.
5. Laboratories in Colombia produced most of the cocaine HC1
that was exported to the United States. What countries
were the principal producers of coca leaves and cocaine
paste and base used for conversion to cocaine HC1?
Peru and Bolivia
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6. Indicators of the availability and use of dangerous drugs
were mixed in 1987. Describe the trends.
Trafficking and availability of methamphetamine continued
at levels above those of previous years. The number of
amphetamine-related hospital emergencies remained relatively
stable. The use of depressants declined., Hospital emergen-
cies involving phencyclidine (PCP) and lysergic acid diethy-
lamide (LSD) rose in 1987.
7. Clandestine laboratory removals in the United States rose to
an all-time high of 509 in fiscal year 1986. What was the
fiscal year 1987 figure?
682
8. What dangerous drug accounted for most of the hospital
emergencies and drug-related deaths in 1987?
PCP
9. What was the retail purity of heroin in 1987?
Street-level purity was almost 6 percent.
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10. How serious was the connection between Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and intravenous heroin use?
It was the most serious health issue associated with
heroin. In 1987, almost one-fourth of all AIDS cases
involved intravenous drug users who transmitted the
disease through blood by the sharing of needles/syringes.
11. Heroin used in the United States was made from opium
produced in three areas of the world - Southeast Asia,
Southwest Asia, and Mexico. How much opium was produced
in each area in 1987?
Southeast Asia - 1,095 - 1,575 metric tons
Southwest Asia - 735 - 1,360 metric tons
Mexico - 45 - 55 metric tons
12. The retail price of heroin (per milligram pure) during the
first 9 months of 1987 was about $2.00. How does this
compare with 1985 and 1986?
1985 - $2.30
1986 - $2.12
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?
13. What area in the United States continued to be the center of
money laundering activities?
South Florida, Miami in particular.
14. Which foreign financial centers were primary recipients of
drug proceeds?
Caribbean - Antigua, Anguilla, Montserat, Cayman Islands
Central America - Panama
Europe - Switzerland, Luxembourg
Middle East - Dubai
Far East - Hong Kong
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U.S. Department of Justice
Drug Enforcement Administration
Washington. D.C. 20537
EMBARGOED FOR RELEASE
(9:30 A.M., FRIDAY, APRIL 29, 1988)
The tenth National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee
(NNICC) Report, covering 1987, was released today by Thomas G.
Byrne, Chairman of the 12-agency Committee.
A product of the cooperative effort of Federal agencies with
drug-related enforcement, policy, treatment, research and
intelligence responsibilities, the report is the most comprehensive
assessment prepared by the Federal government on the illicit drug
situation.
Despite significant progress in the areas of law enforcement
and drug demand reduction, the report noted a general increase in
the availability of illicit drugs.
Other findings:
Marijuana use by high school seniors fell to its lowest
level. While Mexico and Colombia continued to be the major
suppliers of marijuana to the United States, Jamaica and Belize
faded considerably as source countries because of their successful
eradication programs.
Domestic production of marijuana represented approximately 25
percent of the total supply available in 1987, up from 18 percent in
1986.
Low wholesale prices and continued high purity levels reflected
the widespread availability of cocaine. Cocaine-related hospital
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emergencies increased more than 60 percent over tne 1986 total.
Crack cocaine abuse, although readily available, did not increase
appreciably during 1987. Colombia continued to be the largest
supplier of illicit cocaine to the United States.
An optimistic note in the cocaine picture, presented by a
survey cited in the NNICC Report, was that cocaine use by high
school seniors dropped measurably. Since 1979, cocaine abuse by
this group had either increased or remained relatively stable.
A significant amount of the heroin available in the United
States in 1987 originated in Mexico. Although opiates from
Southeast Asia showed the greatest percentage rise, Southwest Asia
continued to be the second largest supplier of heroin to the nation
The, connection between intravenous drug use and the Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome remained a serious concern throughout 1987.
In other drug areas, the use of depressant substances declined
while the traffic of methamphetamines increased. One area of major
concern was the abuse of phencyclidine (PCP), with Washington,D.c.
accounting for about one-third of the total PCP-related hospital
emergency incidents reported during the year.
Seizures of clandestine laboratories rose to 682 during the
fiscal year ending September 1987. Illicit laboratory seizures
during the preceding comparable period numbered 509. Most of these
criminal facilities manufactured methamphetamine.
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Southern Florida, California, New York and the Southwest were
the 1987 "centers for the collection and laundering of monies
associated with the importation and distribution of illegal drugs."
Other foreign recipients of drug monies were Panama, Switzerland,
Luxembourg, Hong Kong and several Caribbean islands. Indicative of
law enforcement efforts to make inroads against these ill-gotten
assets, seizures for the second consecutive year were over $500
million. The report points out that during the 1987 fiscal year,
more than $50 million in trafficker assets were turned over to
state and local law enforcement agencies that assisted the DEA in
its investigations.
Membership of the NNICC consists of the Coast Guard, Customs
Service, Department of Defense, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Immigration and Naturalization
Service, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Department of State,
Department of the Treasury, White House Drug Abuse Policy Office,
and Central Intelligence Agency.
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National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee
(NNICC)
The NNICC Report
1987
The Supply of Illicit Drugs
to the United States
April 1988
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Preface
List of Figures iii
Executive Summary 1
Chapter One: Cannabis 5
Chapter Two: Cocaine 25
Chapter Three: Dangerous Drugs 38
Chapter Four: Opiates 52
Chapter Five: Drug Money 79
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Preface
The National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee
(NNICC) Report is the product of a cooperative effort
involving Federal agencies with drug-related law enforcement,
foreign and domestic policy, treatment, research, and intelligence
responsibilities. In April 1978, the NNICC was established to
coordinate the collection, analysis, dissemination, and evaluation
of strategic drug-related intelligence, both foreign and domestic,
that is essential to effective policy development, resource
deployment, and operational planning. Membership consists of
the Central Intelligence Agency, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Customs
Service, Department of Defense, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Immigration and Naturalization
Service, Internal Revenue Service, National Institute on Drug
Abuse, Department of State, Department of the Treasury, and
the White House Drug Abuse Policy Office. The Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Intelligence of the Drug Enforcement
Administration serves as Chairman.
The NNICC Report for 1987 is the 10th estimate prepared by the
NNICC. In recent years, the NNICC has reviewed and updated
various estimation methodologies. This continuing effort has
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resulted in a number of revised estimates for previous years.
Since illicit production and distribution of controlled
substances are, by definition, illegal, there are little
reliable data upon which to base estimates of the quantities
of drugs involved. This document, which is based on the best
data currently available and on the combined available expertise
of NNICC member agencies, is a comprehensive assessment prepared
for the Federal Government on the worldwide illicit drug
situation in 1987.
A primary source for production estimates and drug control
efforts in foreign countries is the Department of State's
International Narcotics Control Strategy Report. This
report is prepared annually in accordance with the provisions
of Section 481 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended
(22 U.S.C. 2291).
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List of Figures
Page
Figure 1 7
Marijuana Abuse Indicator, 1984-1987
Figure 2 9
Marijuana Trafficking Indicators, 1984-1987
Figure 3 18
Estimated Sources and Quantities of
Marijuana Available for Use in the
United States, 1985-1987
Figure 4 22
Hashish Production in Major Source
Countries, 1984-1987
Figure 5 26
Cocaine Trafficking Indicators, 1984-1987
Figure 6 27
Cocaine Abuse Indicators, 1984-1987
Figure 7 33
Estimated Maximum Cocaine HC1
Production by Country, 1986-1987
Figure 8 39
Selected Dangerous Drugs Trafficking
Indicators, 1984-1987
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Page
Figure 9 40
Selected 'Dangerous Drugs Use Indicators,
1984-1987
Figure 10 41
Clandestine Laboratory Seizures in the
United States, FY 1984-1987
Figure 11 - 48
Narcotics/Analgesics and Heroin
Substitutes/Supplements Use Indicators, 1984-1987
Figure 12 49
Narcotics/Analgesics and Heroin
Substitute's/Supplements Trafficking
Indicators, 19841987
Figure 13 55
Heroin and Morphine Use Indicators, 1984-1987
Figure 14 56
Heroin-Related Hospital Emergencies, 1986-1987
Figure 15 61
Opium Production Mexico, 1984-1987
Figure 16 63
Opium Production Golden Triangle, 1983/84-1986/87
Figure 17 70
Opium Production Southwest Asia, 1984-1987
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Executive Summary
Marijuana was readily available in the United States during
1987. The supply of marijuana available for consumption in the
United States generally increased. Mexico and Colombia were the
primary foreign sources; an increased supply of domestic (U.S.)
marijuana also was available in spite of the eradication of about
2.7 million more cultivated cannabis plants in 1987 than in ,1986.
Successful eradication efforts in Jamaica and Belize decreased
the supply of marijuana from those countries. Data for 1987
indicate a projected increase (based on nine-month.figures): in
hospital emergencies involving marijuana. A National Institute
on Drug Abuse (NIDA)-sponsored survey, however, found that
marijuana and hashish use by high school seniors fell to its
lowest level.
Cocaine hydrochloride (HC1) also was readily available in the
United States in 1987. Colombian trafficking groups remained
the principal producers and distributors of cocaine hydrochloride
sold in the United States. Wholesale prices during the year were
the lowest ever reported, and the purity remained at high levels,
reflecting widespread availability. Crack continued to be a
problem in 1987. It can be sold i in small quantities, and a
dealer can sell it for a low unit price and still realize greater
profits than from cocaine hydrochloride. Most manufacture and
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distribution of crack was at the retail level, but some wholesale
level ventures were reported. The number of cocaine-related
hospital emergencies is projected to be almost four times more
than the 1984 figure, based on data available for the first nine
months of 1987.
It is estimated that all the phencyclidine (PCP) and most of
the methamphetamine illicitly available came from clandestine
laboratories in the United States. The abuse of PCP was a major
concern in several metropolitan areas in 1987. An increase of
approximately 30 percent in PCP-related hospital emergencies is
forecast (based on nine-month figures) for the year. PCP abuse
was particularly prevalent in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan
area, which accounted for approximately one-third of the total
number of PCP-related hospital emergencies reported in 1987.
The illicit manufacture and distribution of methamphetamine
continued to increase. Based on nine-month figures, an increase
of about 30 percent in methamphetamine-related hospital emergen-
cies is projected for 1987. During fiscal year (FY) 1987, 561
clandestine methamphetamine laboratories were seized, compared to
372 in FY 1986. Clandestine laboratory seizures in the United
States again rose to a record high of 682 (FY 1987). Methamphet-
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amine laboratories accounted for over 80 percent of the seizures.
During 1987, two analogues of MDA were temporarily placed into
Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act.
Heroin was generally available in most metropolitan areas of the
United States. Based on the analysis of a limited number of
Heroin Signature Program samples, Mexican heroin was the
predominant variety in 1987. There are also indications that
the availability of Southeast Asian heroin has increased since
1985. The U.S. retail purity averaged 5.9 percent in 1987,
compared to 6.1 percent in 1986. An increase of approximately
7 percent in heroin- and morphine-related hospital emergencies
is projected (based on nine-month figures) for 1987. The use of
needles/syringes to administer heroin and the connection to
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) remained a serious
health concern. Southeast Asia was the leading producer of opium
with an increase in production in Burma, Thailand, and Laos.
Production of opium in Mexico also increased in 1987.
Southern Florida, northern and southern California, New York, and
the Southwest were the centers for the collection and laundering
of monies associated with the importation and distribution of
illegal drugs. The Republic of Panama continued to be the
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Latin American country most frequently used for these activities.
The Cayman Islands was also a prime locale for drug money
activity. In Europe, Switzerland and Luxembourg were primary
recipients of drug monies, while Hong Kong remained the preferred
financial center in the Far East. In 1987, several major
cases against money launderers resulted in numerous arrests and
seizures of drugs and assets. Assets valued at more than $500
million were seized from traffickers by the Drug Enforcement
Administration (DEA) in FY 1987.
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CANNABIS
Domestic Availability and Use
During 1987, marijuana availability reflected seasonal fluctua-
tions in both domestic and imported supplies. Marijuana was
available in wholesale quantities in most metropolitan areas
throughout the year. However, seasonal shortages and high prices
were noted in some locations. Generally, the wholesale prices
of commercial grade marijuana declined from the 1986 levels.
Although there was a decrease from 1986, most foreign marijuana
(about 72 percent) intended for shipment to the United States
was seized from noncommercial vessels. There was a significant
increase, however, in the percentage of marijuana seized from
land conveyances -- 6 percent in 1986 to 14 percent in 1987.
A 1987 NIDA-sponsored survey conducted by the University of
Michigan's Institute for Social Research found a continuation
of the long-term downward trend of marijuana use among high
school seniors. The results of this 13th annual survey of drug
abuse among some 16,000 high school seniors in about 130 public
and private schools nationwide indicated that marijuana and
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hashish use fell to its lowest level during 1987. The proportion
of seniors who used marijuana daily declined by more than two-
thirds, from 10.7 percent at its peak in 1978 to 3.3 percent in
1987. The proportion of seniors who reported marijuana usage
during the past year declined by more than one-quarter, from 50.8
percent at its peak in 1979 to 36 percent in 1987. Additionally,
the percentage of high school seniors who perceived "great risk"
associated with trying marijuana once or twice increased from 8.1
percent in 1978 to 18.4 percent in 1987. Over the same period,
the proportion perceiving "great risk" in regularly smoking
marijuana increased from 34.9 percent to 73.5 percent.
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The number of marijuana-related hospital emergencies reported
through the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) increased by 11
percent from 1984 to 1985 and by 14 percent from 1985 to 1986.
Data for 1987 indicated an increase of about 40 percent over the
figure reported during the previous year (see Figure 1).
Figure 1
Marijuana Abuse Indicator, 1984-1987
1984
1985
1986
1987
Hospital Emergencies
2,887
3,213
3,674
5,180
Reported Through the
DAWN System*
*Data represent the DAWN Consistent Panel which includes only
those data reported by facilities on a consistent basis, i.e.,
at 90 percent or more during each year. Data representing the
total DAWN system are no longer used because of reporting
fluctuations. Although the Consistent Panel numbers are lower
because fewer facilities report consistently, they are more
accurate indicators of trends. Figures for 1987 are projected
based on nine-month data.
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Marijuana is generally used as a part of a poly-drug profile
of abuse. In approximately four out of five of all marijuana-
related hospital emergencies reported in 1987, marijuana was
used in conjunction with other drugs, primarily alcohol,
cocaine, or PCP. Alcohol use in combination with marijuana
accounted for 34 percent of all marijuana-related hospital
emergencies in 1986 and increased to 48 percent in 1987.* Cocaine
use in combination with marijuana accounted for 34 percent of all
marijuana-related hospital emergencies in 1986 and increased to
43 percent in 1987. Fifty-one percent of all marijuana-related
hospital emergencies involved persons in the age category 20 to
29, while 23 percent involved persons under the age of 20.
*Some of the increase may be the result of changes to the report
form which made it easier to report alcohol use.
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Figure 2
Marijuana Trafficking Indicators,
Marijuana Prices
Commercial Grade
Wholesale (pound)
Retail (ounce)
Potency (THC**)
Sinsemilla
Wholesale (pound)
Retail (ounce)
Potency (THC**)
1984
$400-$600
$45-$75
3.49%
$1,200-
$2,500
$120-$180
6.73%
1984-1987
1985
1986
$300-$600 $350-$700
$50 -$100
3.12%
$1,200-
$2,000
$120-$200
7.28%
$45 -$120
3.33%
$ 800-
$2?.000
$100 -$200
8.43%
1987
$350-$1,450*
$60-$130
3.39%
$1,4007
$2,100
$165 -$210
6.99%
*The wide range reflected temporary shortages.
**THC (Delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol) is the principal psycho-
active ingredient in cannabis. THC percentages for 1986 have
been amended to reflect complete reporting. THC percentages
for 1987 are not final due to lag time in reporting.
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The primary sources of supply for marijuana available for
consumption in the United States were Mexico, Colombia,
and the United States. While domestically produced marijuana
was believed to have constituted approximately 19 percent of
the total available in the United States in 1985 and 18 percent
in 1986, it was estimated that 3,000 to 3,500 metric tons of
marijuana - about 25 percent of total availability - were
harvested for use in the United States in 1987 (see Figure 3).
Eradication figures for 1987 were indicative of the United States'
increasing role in the production of commercial grade marijuana.
In 1987, approximately 7.4 million cultivated cannabis plants
were eradicated in the 46 states participating in the Domestic
Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program. These figures compare
to 4.7 million cultivated cannabis plants eradicated during the
1986 campaign. Seven states, including Kansas, Hawaii, Tennessee,
Louisiana, Kentucky, Missouri, and California, accounted for
approximately 79 percent of the cultivated cannabis eradicated in
the United States in 1987. In addition, 105 million low potency,
fiber-type cannabis plants were destroyed, primarily in Indiana.
Arrests made in conjunction with the eradication effort increased
17 percent from 5,537 in 1986 to 6,502 in 1987, the highest
figure to date.
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Although the use of violence and booby traps, both to deter
thievery and thwart law enforcement efforts, has reportedly
decreased during the past several years, a majority of the states
still noted the occurrence of such measures.
Since the early 1980s, the percentage of the U.S. crops reported
as sinsemilla, the unpollinated female cannabis plant with
its higher THC content, has continued to increase. During the
1987 Domestic Cannabis Eradication/Suppression Program,
sinsemilla accounted for over 40 percent of the domestic
cultivated cannabis eradicated as compared with 26 percent in
1983. Coinciding with increased sinsemilla production has been
the evolution of innovative cannabis growing techniques, such as
cloning, hydroponics, and indoor cultivation. Both the number of
states in which greenhouses were seized (45 in 1987 compared with
39 in 1986) and the total number of greenhouses seized (1,077
in 1986 compared with 1,192 in 1987) continued to increase.
Foreign Sources
Mexico: Mexico is a major source country for marijuana supplied
to the United States. An estimated 9,000 hectares of cannabis
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were cultivated in Mexico during 1987. The large agribusiness-
type fields in northern Mexico were not cultivated by small-scale
farmers. Several large trafficking organizations, which have
controlled the Mexican drug trade for years, directed most of the
cannabis cultivation. These organizations have taught many
farmers advanced growing techniques involving the use of
irrigation and improved seed and fertilizer to increase yields,
improve potency, and extend the crop growing season. In recent
years, traffickers have encouraged the cultivation of illicit
crops in nontraditional growing areas, so that cannabis is now
grown in virtually every state in Mexico. The estimated quantity
of Mexican marijuana available for use in the United States in
1987 remained about the same as in 1986. In 1987, 3,100 to 4,200
metric tons of marijuana were available for use in the United
States (see Figure 3).
Figures provided by the Government of Mexico indicate that
3,580 hectares of cannabis were eradicated in 1987, an increase
over the 2,970 eradicated in 1986. Narcotics traffickers
attempted to thwart the efforts of the eradication campaign by
planting smaller cannabis fields in remote, mountainous areas.
Growers further responded to the aerial application of
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herbicide by immediately harvesting mature plants and/or by
washing the plants to remove the herbicide. When younger plants
were sprayed, growers replanted their fields.
There is limited information concerning the extent of drug abuse
in Mexico. Drug treatment centers in Mexico, however, reported
that marijuana, which is inexpensive and widely available, was
the most frequently abused drug.
Approximately 400 metric tons of marijuana were seized by the
Mexican Government in 1987, an increase over the 190 metric
tons seized in 1986. Seizures along the U.S./Mexico border
indicated that the majority of Mexican marijuana was smuggled
into the United States by vehicle. The use of private aircraft
for smuggling Mexican marijuana into the United States was
sporadic, accounting for only 5 percent of the total marijuana
seizures along the U.S./Mexico border in 1987. Land seizures
of marijuana along the border increased by 120 percent, from
66 metric tons in 1986 to 146 metric tons in 1987. This increase
in amount seized is believed to be the result of improved law
enforcement efforts along the border rather than the result of
increased production.
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Colombia: Colombian marijuana production rose in 1987 after
two years of decline. The eradication program, using the
herbicide glyphosate proved highly effective in the traditional
cannabis growing areas of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and
the Serrania de Perija. This Government of Colombia initiative,
conducted throughout the year, sprayed 8,000 hectares of cannabis.
As a result of the eradication program, cultivation in areas
once considered secondary growing areas surpassed that of
traditional areas and overall production. The San Lucas Mountains
and Darien Mountains produced over half of the marijuana estimated
to have been harvested in Colombia.
From the four cultivation areas surveyed in 1987 (noted above),
marijuana harvested was estimated to range from 3,400 to 7,800
metric tons. Other reported secondary growing areas, e.g.,
southwestern Colombia, were not surveyed in 1987 and production
estimates for these areas are not available. A 10-metric ton
seizure of marijuana in the Department of Cauca in December 1987
indicated commercial cultivation in that area.
Bulk seizures of marijuana by Colombian authorities amounted to
1,032 metric tons and in-country consumption was estimated at
100 metric tons, leaving between 2,300 and 6,600 metric tons
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available for export. Noncommercial vessels of all types
travelling traditional maritime smuggling routes continued to be
the most common mode of transporting marijuana from Colombia to
the United States.
Jamaica: During the summer of 1987, the Jamaican Government
continued to increase pressure on cannabis cultivators, not
only through manual eradication, but by backpack spraying of
glyphosate. The success of the program was evidenced in the
western portion of the island where most of the cannabis crop
was eradicated. An estimated 2,700 hectares of cannabis
were cultivated in 1987 compared to 4,000 to 5,000 hectares
in 1986. The amount of cannabis was less as a direct result
of two previous eradication programs. Farmers avoided planting
large areas of cannabis as in the past, resorting to large
numbers of smaller plots in areas not accessible by road. An
estimated 650 hectares of cannabis were eradicated in 1987
compared to about 2,200 hectares in 1986. In-country seizures
of marijuana increased from 196 metric tons in 1986 to 215
metric tons in 1987. It was estimated that 145 to 285 metric
tons of marijuana were available for export from Jamaica in
1987 (see Figure 3).
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Traffickers continued to use vessels to transport multiton
quantities of Jamaican marijuana to the United States. General
aviation aircraft also were used to smuggle much of the marijuana;
the smugglers used airdrops to waiting vessels or landed in the
Bahamas as well as in the United States.
Belize: At the beginning of 1987, an estimated 1,100 hectares
of cannabis were under cultivation in Belize. Most cultivation
was in remote mountainous areas where ground access was difficult.
In Belize, it was estimated that about 900 kilograms of marijuana
can be harvested from a hectare of cannabis. A continuous aerial
eradication effort proved effective in destroying approximately
80 percent of the cannabis by the end of 1987. The production
of marijuana was cut from about 500 metric tons in 1986 to about
200 metric tons in 1987 (see Figure
to sustained eradication operations
at intervals in 1986.
3), a reduction attributed
in 1987 versus those conducted
Small aircraft, often using airdrops and pickup vessels,
transported marijuana to the United States from the many
clandestine airstrips in remote areas of Belize where law
enforcement presence was slight. Marijuana was also smuggled
to the United States in private vessels.
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Other Latin American Countries: Cannabis cultivation was
extensive in Brazil and was located in ?at least half of Brazil's
states and territories. The heaviest concentration was located
in the northeastern part of Brazil. Although there were no
reliable estimates of the number of hectares of cannabis under
cultivation, 33,900 metric tons of cannabis were reportedly
eradicated in 1987. It is believed that Brazil was the major
consumer of Brazilian-grown cannabis.
Cannabis cultivation in Paraguay was estimated in 1987 at 3,000
hectares. Most of the 3,000 metric tons of marijuana produced
was exported to Brazil and, to a lesser degree, Argentina.
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Figure 3
Estimated Sources and Quantities of Marijuana Available
for Use in the United States, 1985-1987
Percentage
Quantity* of Total
Percentage
of Total
Country
(metric tons)
Imports**
Supply**
1985
Mexico
3,000-4,000
40
32
Colombia
2,600-4,000
38
31
Jamaica
350- 850
7
6
Belize
550
6
5
Domestic
2,100
0
19
Other
800
9
7
Gross Marijuana
Available:
9,400-12,300
100
100
Less U.S. Seizures,
Seizures in Transit,
and Losses:***
3,000-4,000
Net Marijuana
Available:
6,400-8,300
1986
Mexico
3,000-4,000
37
30
Colombia
2,200-3,900
32
27
Jamaica
1,100-1,700
15
12
Belize
500
5
4
Domestic
2,100
0
18
Other
800-1,200
11
8
Gross Marijuana
Available:
9,700-13,400
100
100
Less U.S. Seizures,
Seizures in Transit,
and Losses:***
3,000-4,000
Net Marijuana
Available:
6,700-9,400
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Figure 3 (continued)
Percentage
Quantity* of Total
Country (metric tons) Imports**
1987
Percentage
of Total
Supply**
Mexico
Colombia
Jamaica
Belize
3,100-4,200
2,300-6,600
145- 285
200
37.1
43.3
2.2
2.0
27.9
32.5
1.7
1.6
Domestic
3,000-3,500
0
24.9
Other
Southeast Asia
500-1,000
7.7
5.7
Latin America
500-1,000
7.7
5.7
Gross Marijuana
Available:
9,545-16,585
100.0
100.0
Less U.S. Seizures,
Seizures in Transit,
and Losses:***
3,000-4,000
Net Marijuana
Available:
6,545-12,585
*Some NNICC Report figures differ from those in the International
Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR) because the NNICC
subtracts in-country seizures and consumption from production
totals. INCSR production estimates for 1987 are: Mexico 5,970-
7,130; Colombia 3,435-7,760; Jamaica 325-535; Belize 200; Other
1,000-2,000.
**The percentages reflect the midpoints of the quantity ranges.
seizures include coastal, border, and internal (not
domestic eradicated sites); seizures in transit include those
on the high seas, in transit countries, from aircraft, etc. The
loss factor includes marijuana lost because of abandoned ship-
ments, undistributed stockpiles, and inefficient handling and
transport, etc.
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Southeast Asian Countries: Thailand continued to be the leading
producer and exporter of marijuana in Southeast Asia, although
other countries, such as Laos and the Philippines, are becoming
more significant as marijuana producers. In Thailand, the
majority of cannabis cultivation takes place in the northeast
provinces of the country. In the past several years, cultivation
has spread to other parts of Thailand with cannabis now being
grown in southern Thailand, southeastern Thailand, along the
border with Kampuchea, and in the central part of the country,
adjacent to the border with Burma.
Cannabis cultivators have been developing smaller plots in order
to make detection more difficult. In some cases, cannabis is
mixed with legitimate crops, such as corn, peppers, cassava, and
potatoes. A number of Thai traffickers have shifted some of
their cultivation into neighboring Laos and Kampuchea. In
addition to providing financial support for these operations,
traffickers also provide seeds, fertilizer, technical assistance,
and equipment to the farmers.
During 1987, the Royal Thai Government eradicated 250 hectares of
cannabis and seized over 257 metric tons. In the United States,
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over 47 metric tons of marijuana were seized which were
identified as originating in Southeast Asia. Most of this
marijuana was believed to have originated in Thailand.
After Thailand, both Laos and the Philippines were identified
as being the next largest cultivators and suppliers of cannabis.
Like Thailand, the extent of the cultivation, as well as the
amount available for foreign consumption, is unknown.
Small amounts of cannabis are also grown in countries such as
Indonesia, Kampuchea, and Burma. It is unknown how much of the
cannabis cultivated in those countries is destined for export.
American, Canadian, and European nationals are reported to be
heavily involved in the production and trafficking of marijuana
in Southeast Asia. These individuals not only participate in
the transportation of marijuana to consumer countries, but are
also involved in supporting cultivation activities, especially
in Thailand.
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Hashish Production and Trafficking
Countries in the Middle East and Southwest Asia are the main
sources of hashish (see Figure 4).
Figure 4
Hashish Production in Major Source Countries, 1984-1987
(metric tons)
1984 1985 1986 1987
Lebanon 350-400 720 600 600
Afghanistan 200-400 200-400 200-400 200-400
Pakistan 200 200 200 200
Morocco 60-225 30-60 30-60 60
Total
810-1,225 1,150-1,380 1,030-1,260 1,060-1,260
Hashish is the resinous secretion of the cannabis plant, which is
collected, dried, and then compressed into a variety of forms,
such as balls, cakes, or sheets. Much of the hashish is consumed
in the source countries and other countries in Southwest Asia and
the Middle East. Lebanon continued its role as the major hashish
producer; the area under cannabis cultivation probably remained
at about 16,000 hectares from which about 600 metric tons of
hashish were produced. In 1987, Lebanese hashish was exported
primarily into Egypt, where approximately 350 metric tons were
consumed. Lesser quantities were shipped, primarily by commercial
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vessels, to other Middle Eastern countries, western Europe,
and North America. The remainder of the hashish was consumed
locally. Cyprus was used as a meeting place for the arrangement
of international hashish transactions. Hashish produced in
Afghanistan and Pakistan was consumed locally and large amounts
were smuggled into India for both local consumption and
transshipment to other countries. Indian, Pakistani, and Afghan
nationals were most frequently associated with hashish smuggling
out of India.
Southwest Asian source country smugglers utilized commercial
vessels sailing from Karachi, Bombay, or other ports to ship
large quantities of hashish to Europe and North America. Afghan
and Pakistani hashish was smuggled overland to Iran and by sea
from Pakistan's Makran coast in launches to various destinations
in the Persian Gulf. Smaller amounts of Southwest Asian hashish
were secreted in commercial air freight shipments.
Morocco, with an estimated output of 60 metric tons of hashish in
1987, remained a relatively minor producer. Most of the hashish
was smuggled to Europe via all modes of transportation.
Jamaica remained the only known producer of hashish oil (a dark,
viscous liquid) in the Western Hemisphere. Limited amounts were
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consumed locally. Hashish oil from Jamaica was smuggled into
the United States in small amounts via couriers on commercial
flights; however, most hashish oil seized at U.S. airports was
en route to Canada. Hashish oil also was smuggled in boats through
traditional maritime routes.
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COCAINE
Domestic Availability and Use
Cocaine hydrochloride (HC1) was readily available in multi-
kilogram quantities in virtually all of the larger metropolitan
areas and in no less than multiounce quantities in less populated
ones during 1987. The primary domestic entry point for much of
the nation's cocaine supply continued to be the south Florida
area. Other domestic areas of significance included New York
City and those states adjacent to the Mexican border. Cocaine
continued to be trafficked by individual entrepreneurs and a
variety of groups varying in ethnic composition and size.
Colombian nationals continued to be the predominant ethnic group
involved in cocaine processing and distribution.
Nationally, wholesale cocaine hydrochloride prices ranged from
$12,000 to $40,000 per kilogram and $800 to $2,100 per ounce at
end-of-year 1987. These represent the lowest wholesale prices
reported to date. The price at the retail level continued to
range from $80 to $120 per gram in most areas. Based on analyses
performed by Drug Enforcement Administration laboratories, the
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purity of cocaine hydrochloride remained relatively constant at
high levels, averaging 85 to 90 percent per kilogram, 75 to 80
percent per ounce, and 50 plus percent per gram (see Figure 5).
Figure 5
Cocaine Trafficking Indicators, 1984-1987
1984
1985
1986
1987
Cocaine Retail
Purity (%)
35
50-60
55-65
50+
Cocaine Prices
Wholesale (kg.)
(thousands)
$40-$50
$30-$50
$22-$45
$12-$40
Retail (gm.)
$100-$120
$100
$80-$120
$80-$120
Laboratories
Seized (U.S.)
21
33
23
17
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The number of DAWN cocaine-related hospital emergencies reported
nationwide during 1987 was the highest yet recorded, increasing
by more than 60 percent over the previous year's record total.
During 1987, 26,186 cocaine-related hospital emergencies are
projected through DAWN, as compared to 15,952 emergencies reported
during 1986 (see Figure 6). Since 1980, there has been a near
tenfold increase in the number of cocaine-related hospital
emergencies reported through DAWN nationwide.
Figure 6
Cocaine Abuse Indicators, 1984-1987
1984
1985
1986
1987
Hospital Emergencies
Reported Through the
DAWN System*
7,054
8,864
15,952
26,186
Cocaine-Related
(Jan-Sept)
Deaths (less
New York City)**
666
748
1,253
909
*Data represent the DAWN Consistent Panel which includes only
those data reported by facilities on a consistent basis, i.e., at
90 percent or more during each year. Data representing the total
DAWN system are no longer used because of reporting fluctuations.
Although the Consistent Panel numbers are lower because fewer
facilities report consistently, they are more accurate indicators
of trends. Figures for 1987 are projected based on nine-month
data.
**Data represent the total DAWN system. DAWN medical examiner
data are not subject to the same reporting inconsistencies as
DAWN emergency room data. Medical examiner data for New York City
are incomplete and not included. Data for the first nine months
of 1987 are incomplete due to lag time in reporting.
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Hospital emergencies involving the use of cocaine in the more
dangerous modalities such as smoking, injection, and combining
cocaine with heroin in speedballs continued the rise which had
been noted during the last decade or so. The number of hospital
emergencies involving smoking rose from 3,382 in 1986 to 7,254
in 1987, an increase of 114 percent, while those involving
injection rose from 4,722 in 1986 to 7,568 in 1987, an increase
of 60 percent. Hospital emergencies involving the use of
speedballs rose from 2,474 in 1986 to 3,776 in 1987, an increase
of 53 percent. Hospital emergencies involving snorting also
increased but at a considerably lower rate. From 1986 to 1987,
the number of hospital emergencies involving snorting as the route
of administration rose from 3,844 to 4,321, an increase of 12
percent.
One positive development pertaining to cocaine use concerns the
results of the 13th annual survey of drug use among some 16,000
seniors in approximately 130 public and private high schools
nationwide. Conducted by the University of Michigan's Institute
for Social Research and sponsored by the National Institute on
Drug Abuse, the survey found a decrease of about one-third (from
6.2 percent in 1986 to 4.3 percent in 1987) in the proportion of
seniors who had used cocaine at least once in the past month, and
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a decline of about one-fifth (from 12.7 percent in 1986 to 10.3
percent in 1987) in the proportion who had used the drug at least
once in the past year. Furthermore, the proportion of seniors
who had used cocaine at least once in their lifetime decreased by
about one-tenth (from 16.9 percent in 1986 to 15.2 percent in
1987). In each of the previous high school senior classes since
1979, cocaine use had either increased or remained relatively
stable. Additionally, the percentage of high school seniors who
perceived "great risk" associated with ingesting cocaine even
once or twice increased from 34 percent in 1986 to 48 percent in
1987.
Reports indicated that overall crack availability, although
relatively widespread in a limited number of metropolitan areas,
did not appear to increase appreciably from 1986 to 1987. The
majority of crack available in most areas was in retail amounts
only, manufactured and distributed by numerous, street-level
distributors. Although these decentralized, retail-level
suppliers continued to dominate the traffic, crack cocaine
distribution was no longer solely confined to street-level sales
and crack houses within a particular city neighborhood, as was
the case during the latter half of 1985 and early 1986. Since
that time, a number of large, dentralized organizations operating
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in one or more cities and capable of manufacturing, trafficking,
and distributing wholesale quantities of crack have come into
existence. Strong law enforcement responses have eliminated
some of these organizations, while others continue to operate.
Domestic conversion of cocaine base to cocaine HC1 appeared to
decrease for the second consecutive fiscal year in 1987 when 17
such laboratories were confiscated. Eight of the laboratories
seized were located in Florida and nine were located in New York
State. This continuing decrease in seizures was perhaps due to
traffickers moving their operations back to South America where
they are less likely to be detected rather than risk seizure
by United States law enforcement officials. This is reflected in
the rather significant drop-off in seizures since 1985 when a
record total of 33 cocaine conversion laboratories were
seized.
Seizure data available at the El Paso Intelligence Center
indicated that the use of general aviation aircraft was the
primary mode of cocaine smuggling in 1987. There was, however,
a decrease in the percentage of cocaine seized from this type
of transportation. In 1987, 36 percent of the cocaine seized
was from general aviation aircraft, compared to 48 percent in
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1986. Also in 1987, about 22 percent (23 percent in 1986) of
the cocaine seized was taken from noncommercial vessels and
another 22 percent (11 percent in 1986) was removed from
commercial vessels.
Foreign Sources
Peru: Peru continued to be the world's foremost producer of
coca leaves and a major source country for coca paste and cocaine
base. In 1987, an estimated 98,000 to 121,000 hectares of coca
were cultivated in Peru (see Figure ..7). Over 90 percent of the
coca cultivations were illegal, since the national legal limit
was 10,000 hectares. The Huallaga Valley was the principal
illicit coca growing area.
Drug control efforts in the Upper Huallaga Valley included the
seizure of coca paste and cocaine base processing laboratories,
disruption of distribution activities, and eradication of coca
fields. Total drug-related arrests increased to 7,212 in 1987
compared with 5,817 in 1986. Seizures of coca paste and cocaine
base, however, declined. Security of personnel involved in drug
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enforcement operations was seriously threatened by terrorist/
insurgent attacks and the violent resistance of coca growers.
Coca eradication was not effective and coca cultivation continued
to expand. Owing to personnel security problems, only 355
hectares of coca were eradicated in 1987; about 2,600 hectares
were eradicated in 1986.
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Figure 7
Estimated Maximum Cocaine HC1 Production by Country, 1986-1987
(based on Coca leaf origin)
Gross Coca
Cultivation
(hectares)
Estimated'
Coca Leaf
Yield*
(metric tons)
MaxiffiuM
Cocaine HC1
Capacity**
(metric tons)
1986
1987
Peru
1986
95,000-
95,000-
190-240
120,000
120,000
1987
98,000-
98,000-
196-242
121,000
121,000
Bolivia
1986
32,000-
44,800-
90-106
38,000
53,200
1987
33,000-
46,200-
92-134
48,000
67,200
Colombia
1986
15,000-
12,000-
24-27
17,000
13,600
1987
20,000-
16,000-
32-40
25,000
20,000
Ecuador
1986
1,000-
1,000-
2-4
2,000
2,000
1987
510
840
2
Maximum Cocaine HC1 Production:
*Annual dry leaf yield per hectare of cultivation:
1 metric ton
.8 metric ton
1.4 metric tons
1.65 metric tons
Peru/Ecuador
(1986)
1
hectare
=
Colombia
1
hectare
=
Bolivia
1
hectare
=
Ecuador (1987)
1
hectare
=
306-377 322-418
metric metric
tons tons
**Based on an average conversion rate of 500 kilograms of dry
leaf = one kilogram of cocaine HC1.
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Coca leaves were processed into coca paste and, to some extent,
cocaine base in the coca growing areas of Peru. Chemicals
essential to the two conversion stages are not controlled and
were easily obtained in-country. For the most part, Peruvian-
produced coca paste and cocaine base were exported to Colombia
for conversion to cocaine HC1; some conversion to cocaine HC1
also took place in Peru and Brazil.
Bolivia: In 1987, it was estimated that approximately 33,000 to
48,000 hectares were devoted to coca cultivation in Bolivia. This
was an increase in coca cultivation in Bolivia over the previous
two years. Coca cultivation in Bolivia was estimated at 30,000
to 38,000 hectares in 1985 and 32,000 to 38,000 in 1986 (see
Figure 7).
The primary coca cultivation area in Bolivia was in an area known
as the Chapare in the Department of Cochabamba. It accounted for
about 65 percent of Bolivia's coca cultivation. The second most
prominent area of cultivation was in the Yungas area of the
Department of La Paz. Coca was also cultivated in the Apolo
sector of the La Paz Department and portions of Santa Cruz and
Tarija Departments.
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Most Bolivian coca was earmarked for conversion into cocaine
hydrochloride in laboratories in Bolivia and Colombia. Bolivian
grown coca was smuggled into Colombia in the form of coca paste
or cocaine base for final processing into cocaine hydrochloride.
Argentina is also becoming increasingly active in the processing
of Bolivian cocaine base into hydrochloride. An estimated 3.2
metric tons of cocaine hydrochloride were produced in Argentina
in 1987 utilizing Bolivian coca paste or cocaine base.
There were eight cocaine hydrochloride laboratories destroyed in
Bolivia in 1987. There were also 18 cocaine base and 1,112 coca
paste laboratories seized in 1987. Most of the precursor
chemicals used in clandestine laboratory activity in Bolivia were
obtained from Brazil. Small quantities of chemicals were also
smuggled from Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Paraguay into Bolivia.
Much of the cocaine produced in Bolivia exited South America
through Brazil or Colombia. Chile and Argentina were also
conduits for the export of cocaine to the United States, Europe,
and other areas. It is estimated that 5.6 metric tons of cocaine
HC1 were processed in Argentina for shipment to the United States
and Europe.
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Bolivian narcotics control was hampered by inadequate legal
restrictions on the control of coca cultivation and ineffective
enforcement of existing narcotics laws. Coca eradication efforts
in Bolivia achieved limited success in 1987; approximately 1,000
hectares of coca were voluntarily eradicated. Bolivian authori-
ties, however, were successful in seizing 6,424 kilograms of
coca products. A new narcotics law has been proposed in Bolivia
which may help to restrict coca cultivation and other narcotics-
related activities in Bolivia.
Colombia: Surveys conducted in Colombia estimated that 20,000
to 25,000 hectares of coca were cultivated in Colombia in 1987,
up from 15,000 to 17,000 in 1986. Production of dry coca leaves
,
was estimated at 16,000 to 20,000 metric tons (see Figure 7).
Cultivation was primarily located in the Departments of Caqueta,
Guaviare, Vaupes, and Putumayo. Manual eradicaticin operations
removed only 457 hectares of coca in 1987. Until a safe,
effective herbicide is approved for use in Colombia, eradication
efforts will continue to be limited.
In 1987, Colombians controlled most of the production of cocaine
HC1, and the distribution of cocaine HC1 by large Colombian
trafficking organizations continued unabated. Despite expanded
coca cultivation in Colombia, laboratory operators remained
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heavily dependent on coca paste and cocaine base from Peru and
Bolivia for conversion to cocaine HC1. In 1987, the Colombian
National Police seized 1,357 laboratories, of which only 30
were cocaine HC1 finishing laboratories. The vast majority of
the laboratories were small leaf-to-paste-to-base laboratories
whose production was a small percentage of the total cocaine
base refined into cocaine HC1 in Colombia.
Other Countries: An estimated 840 metric tons of coca leaves
were produced in Ecuador in 1987, down from an estimated 1,000
to 2,000 metric tons in 1986 (see Figure 7). Coca cultivation
in Ecuador was located primarily along Ecuador's border with
Colombia, with cultivation also reported in the Pichincha
Province in the Sierra region. Coca was also cultivated in Brazil
and Venezuela; there was no estimate of the number of hectares
under cultivation. In 1987, 2,665 metric tons of coca leaves were
eradicated in Brazil and 180 metric tons in Ecuador.
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DANGEROUS DRUGS
The term dangerous drugs refers to broad categories of abusable
substances, both licit and illicit, which include the following:
stimulants other than cocaine; narcotics/analgesics other than
opiates; psychotomimetics/hallucinogens other than cannabis
products; and all depressants and sedatives other than alcohol.
Each class of substance is generally unlike other classes in its
primary action and effect on the user.
In 1987, trafficking and availability of methamphetamine continued
at levels above those of previous years (see Figures 8 and 9).
The use of depressant substances, including diazepam and methaqua-
lone, has declined since the early 1980s. Hospital emergencies
involving phencyclidine (PCP) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
rose in 1987.
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Figure 8
Selected Dangerous Drugs Trafficking Indicators, 1984-1987
1984 1985 1986 1987
Prices
Wholesale
Amphetamine (d.u.*)
$1.50
$1.50
$1.50
$1.50
Methamphetamine (oz.)
$1,100-
$800-
$1,000-
$1,000-
$2,000
$2,000
$1,800
$1,500
Methaqualone (d.u.)
$1.75-
$0.50-
$0.50-
$0.50-
$2.50
$2.00
$2.00
$2.00
PCP (oz.)
$1,200
$1,200
$1,000
$1,000
LSD (d.u.)
$1.50
$1.50
$1.00-
$0.75-
$2.30
$3.00
Retail
Amphetamine (d.u.)
$3.00
$3.00
$3.00
$3.00
Methamphetamine (gm.)
$60-
$60-
$60-
$60-
$100
$100
$120
$120
Methaqualone (d.u.)
$4.00-
$3.00-
$3.00-
$3.00-
$15.00
$10.00
$10.00
$10.50
Methaqualone
$3.00-
$3.00-
$3.00-
$3.00-
(counterfeit) (d.u.)
$5.00
$10.00
$10.00
$10.00
PCP (d.u. 100 mg.,
5% pure)
$10.00-
$15.00
$10.00-
$15.00
$10.00-
$15.00
$10.00-
$15.00
LSD (d.u.)
$2.00-
$2.00-
$3.00-
$2.00-
$5.00
$5.00
$6.00
$8.00
*dosage units
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Figure 9
Selected Dangerous Drugs
Hospital Emergencies
(DAWN*)
Use Indicators, 1984-1987
1984 1985 1986
1987
Amphetamine
912
787
787
866
Methamphetamine
1,093
972
874
1,017
Methaqualone
658
397
228
215
PCP
4,705
4,089
4,367
5,641
LSD
622
750
722
1,053
Drug-Related Deaths**
(Less New York City)
(Jan-Sept)
Amphetamine
60
79
66
32
Methamphetamine
82
65
116
91
Methaqualone
11
12
5
5
PCP
239
201
263
133
,LSD
1
2
1
3
*Data represent the DAWN
Consistent
Panel which
includes
only
those data reported by facilities on a consistent basis,
i.e., at
90 percent or more during each year. Data representing the total
DAWN system are no longer used because of reporting fluctuations.
Although the Consistent Panel numbers are lower because fewer
facilities report consistently, they are more accurate indicators
of trends. Figures for 1987 are projected based on nine-month
data.
**Data represent the total DAWN system. DAWN medical examiner
data are not subject to the same reporting inconsistencies as DAWN
emergency room data. Medical examiner data for New York City are
incomplete and not included. Data for the first nine months of
1987 are incomplete due to lag time in reporting.
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Clandestine Laboratories
In fiscal year (FY) 1987, clandestine laboratories continued to
produce much of the supply of illicit dangerous drugs in the ,
United States. All of the PCP and the majority of the metham-
phetamine and amphetamine illicitly available in the United
States during the year are believed to have been produced in
clandestine laboratories. During FY 1987, a total of 682 clan-
destine laboratories were reported seized, a 34 percent increase
over FY 1986 seizures (see Figure 10).
Figure 10
Clandestine Laboratory Seizures in the United States, 1984-1987
FY 1984
FY 1985
PCP
26
23
Methamphetamine
184
257
P2P
0
25
Amphetamine
31
67
Methaqualone
4
5
Cocaine
24
29
Other Drugs
.21
13
Total
290
419
-41-
FY 1986
FY 1987
8 13
372 561
21 15
66 68
4 'j:
23 , 17?,
15 7
509
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Stimulants
Methamphetamine: The illicit manufacture and trafficking of
methamphetamine continued to increase during 1987. The number of
methamphetamine-related hospital emergencies reported through
DAWN increased by about 30 percent from 1986 to 1987 and currently
is at the highest level since at least 1980. Domestic clandestine
laboratories remained the principal source of methamphetamine.
Eastern Texas southern and northern California, and the North-
western United States, primarily Oregon, constituted the principal
areas of illicit methamphetamine production during 1987. Outlaw
motorcycle gangs and their associates were a factor in the
manufacture and distribution of methamphetamine during the year.
Amphetamine: The number of amphetamine-related hospital
emergencies has remained relatively stable during the last four
years but is well below the number reported during the early
1980s.
'Look-alikes': The term 'look-alikes' refers to capsules or
tablets containing'noncontrolled ingredients and manufactured
to closely resemble controlled substances. 'Look-alikes' are now
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limited by Federal regulation to contain only one active
ingredient, such as caffeine, rather than a potentially syner-
gistic and dangerous combination of active ingredients.
Legislation enacted in 47 states further requires that
'look-alikes' can no longer physically resemble controlled
substances. As a result, manufacturers produce tablets and
capsules which often do not resemble controlled substances.
These 'act-alikes' are advertised as stimulants, diet aids,
sleep aids, and decongestants. They contain the same active
ingredients as 'look-alikes.' These substances continue to
be sold through the mail to individuals who desire the
mild stimulant effect of these caffeine-, ephedrine-, or
phenylpropanolamine-containing products. The excessive use
of any of these substances, alone or in combination, however,
poses the very real danger of severe health consequences to
users.
Depressants
Methaqualone: The availability and use of methaqualone
(Quaalude) has substantially decreased each year since 1980
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and it is expected that this downward trend will continue
because of domestic actions and significant international
initiatives. The number of reported methaqualone-related
emergencies has decreased from 658 in 1984 to a projected 215
in 1987, representing the lowest number reported to date (see
Figure 9).
In 1984, the U.S. Government placed methaqualone in Schedule
of the Controlled Substances Act. This action prohibited the
legal manufacture, distribution, or possession of methaqualone
in the United States and its territories except for research
purposes. In addition, the availability of methaqualone continued
to decline due to worldwide shortages of bulk methaqualone powder
in international commerce, a consequence of controls on its
production and distribution which have been adopted by virtually
all producing nations. Some countries (including Austria,
Hungary, West Germany, India, and Czechoslovakia) still maintain
large inventories of methaqualone powder. In many countries,
methaqualone has legitimate medical uses as an antianxiety,
anticonvulsant sedative and hypnotic agent. Therefore, inven-
tories may be used to satisfy medical requirements. Unsuccessful
attempts have been made by traffickers to purchase large
quantities of the remaining stockpiles.
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Faced with a shortage of bulk methaqualone powder, traffickers
have manufactured counterfeit Quaalude and Mandrax using alterna-
tive depressant or sedative-hypnotic substances as the active
ingredient. In 1987, most of the purported Quaaludes available
in the United States were counterfeit, and generally contained
diazepam, phenobarbital, secobarbital, or diphenhydramine.
Diazepam remained the primary active ingredient in counterfeit
Quaaludes smuggled into the United States from Canada; counter-
feit Mandrax tablets smuggled from Mexico contained secobarbital,
methaqualone, phenobarbital, propoxyphene, caffeine, and ephedrine
hydrochloride.
Hallucinogens
PCP: The illicit manufaCture and distribution of PCP in 1987
continued to be dominated by inner-city traffickers reflecting
the demographic characteristics of the primary PCP-using popula-
tion. Sources of supply for much of the PCP available throughout
the nation are believed to be located in the Los Angeles/southern
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California area. The principal areas of PCP use in the United
States were Los Angeles, Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco,
New York, New Orleans, Baltimore, and, in particular,
Washington, D.C.
Since 1983, PCP has been one of the most prevalent illicit
drugs of abuse in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. All
available indicators show that abuse of this substance continues
to escalate. During 1987, Washington, D.C. led the nation in
the number of PCP-related hospital emergencies with nearly double
the number of the next highest city, Los Angeles. In fact,
Washington, D.C. accounted for approximately one-third of the
total number of PCP-related hospital emergencies reported through
DAWN nationwide during that year. Furthermore, the number of PCP-
related hospital emergencies reported in this area increased from
992 in 1986 to a projected 1,959 in 1987. Additionally, drug-
screening urinalysis conducted on all criminal defendants arrested
in the District of Columbia during end-of-year 1987 showed that
43 percent tested positive for PCP.
LSD: LSD availability was generally described by law
enforcement officials as either moderate or limited throughout
most areas of the United States in 1987. Principal sources of
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LSD for much of the nation continued to be clandestine
laboratories located on the west coast, primarily northern
California and the Pacific Northwest. LSD sold for $0.75-$3.00
per wholesale dosage unit and $2.00-$8.00 per retail dosage unit.
Blotter acid and microdots were the primary forms encountered
and continued to range in potency from 20 to 60 micrograms per
dosage unit which is considerably below the range of 100 to
200 micrograms per dosage unit encountered during the late 1960s.
Despite this, LSD-related hospital emergencies increased by more
than 40 percent during 1987, as compared to the previous four
years when abuse levels were essentially stable.
Narcotics/Analgesics and Heroin Substitutes/Supplements
Pharmaceutical products containing narcotics remained a
significant part of the overall illicit drug trafficking and
abuse situation in the United States during 1987. These
products were used alone or in combination, both as substitutes
for and as supplements to heroin, and were primary drugs of
choice for a substantial portion of the narcotics addict
population of the United States (see Figures 11 and 12).
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Figure 11
Narcotics/Analgesics and Heroin Substitutes/Supplements
Use Indicators, 1984-1987
1984 1985 1986 1987
Hospital Emergencies
(DAWN*)
Pentazocine 490 411 318 397
Hydromorphone 517 382 339 420
Oxycodone 836 836 825 884
Glutethimide 337 238 211 219
*Data represent the DAWN Consistent Panel which includes only
those data reported by facilities on a consistent basis, i.e., at
90 percent or more during each year. Data representing the total
DAWN system are no longer used because of reporting fluctuations.
Although the Consistent Panel numbers are lower because fewer
facilities report consistently, they are more accurate indicators
of trends. Figures for 1987 are projected based on nine-month
data.
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Figure 12
Narcotics/Analgesics and Heroin Substitutes/Supplements
Trafficking Indicators, 1984-1987
Prices
? Pentazocine/
1984
1985
1986
1987
Tripelennamine
$15.00
$10.00-
$10.00-
$10.00-
('set')
$20.00
$20.00
$20.00
Codeine/
Glutethimide
$7.00-
$7.00-
$7.00-
$7.00-
('set')
$14.00
$14.00
$14.00
$14.00
Hydromorphone
(per 4 mg.)
$40.00
$50.00
$30.00-
$20.00-
(Dilaudid)
$65.00
$60.00
Oxycodone (Percodan) and, to a lesser extent, hydromorphone
(Dilaudid) continue to be widely abused narcotic/analgesic heroin
substitutes. Abuse of oxycodone has remained relatively stable
during the last decade or so; abuse of hydromorphone has declined
somewhat during the last three to four years. The trafficking
and use of pentazocine (Talwin) in combination with the anti-
histamine tripelennamine, commonly referred to as T's and B's or
T's and Blues, continues to be well below levels reported prior
to the addition of the narcotic antagonist naloxone to the
pentazocine tablets in 1983. Users are reportedly not using the
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reformulated product, Talwin Nx, as frequently due to the adverse
effects brought about by the antagonist. Abuse of codeine/.
glutethimide combinations, commonly known as Fours and. Doors has
remained essentially stable at.comparatively low levels during the
last four years.
Controlled Substance Analogues
The term 'controlled substance analogues' refers to clandestinely-
produced substances which are chemically and pharmacologically
similar to substances listed in the Controlled Substances Act
but which are not themselves controlled. In terms of the number
of users and extent of distribution, the problem of controlled
substance analogues appeared relatively small when compared to
that of other abused substances such as heroin, cocaine, and
marijuana. Nevertheless, in those areas of the United States
where controlled substance analogues were-available, substantial,
numbers of people used them and many suffered severe adverse
reactions, including death.
A serious aspect of the current wave of controlled substance
analogues is the production of narcotic analogues. These
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substances consist of variations of the parent compounds fentanyl
and meperidine (pethidine). Some of the clandestinely-produced
analogues of fentanyl are more than 1,000 times more potent than
morphine; they have been associated with more than 100 overdose
deaths.
During 1987, two analogues of MDA, N-Hydroxy MDA, and N-Ethyl MDA,
were temporarily placed into Schedule I qf-the Controlled
Substances Act, using the emergency scheduling provision of the
comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984. In addition to these,
other amphetamine-related analogues:were found in the illicit
traffic during 1987. These substances currently are under review
for possible.-scheduling-action as well.
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OPIATES
Domestic Availability and Use
Data used to measure heroin availability and use trends as well as
intelligence field reporting indicated that heroin was generally
available in most metropolitan areas of the United States. In
general, indicators pointed to an increase in availability in the
last several years. Street-level purity rose from 4.7 percent in
1984 to almost 6 percent in 1987. Heroin-related emergency room
admissions continued to rise.
Heroin used in the United States originated from three areas:
Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, and Mexico. Southwest Asian
heroin is made from Southwest Asian opium and converted into
heroin primarily in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran. Southeast
Asian heroin is usually made from morphine derived from Southeast
Asian opium and processed in Burma, Laos, and Thailand (the
Golden Triangle). Mexican heroin refers to heroin usually made
from morphine derived from Mexican opium and processed in that
source country.
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Data from the Heroin Signature Program (HSP)* indicated that
about 47 percent of the samples analyzed in 1985 were from
Southwest Asia. Southeast Asian heroin accounted for 14 percent
of the HSP samples analyzed in 1985, and 39 percent of the samples
were identified as Mexican.
While HSP data were limited for 1986, the general trend showed
a slight increase in the proportion of Mexican heroin in the
United States and a more significant increase in the proportion
of Southeast Asian heroin. HSP data are generally lacking for
1987, but preliminary data indicated that Mexican heroin was the
predominant variety.
In 1987, Southwest Asian heroin was trafficked by numerous ethnic
groups, the most dominant of which were Pakistanis, Indians, and
Nigerians. It was trafficked to the United States directly from
producing countries and was also shipped through Europe and
Africa en route to the United States. New York City was the
primary point of entry, although other cities were also used.
*Heroin Signature chemical analysis identifies and quantifies
selected heroin characteristics and secondary constituents. From
the resultant data, heroin exhibits are classified according to
the process by which they were manufactured, which in turn enables
the association of exhibits with geographic regions. These
exhibits include random samples of purchases and seizures as well
as seizures made at U.S. ports of entry. Based on the exhibits
analyzed, percentages of the total U.S. supply are assigned to
each source region.
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Southwest Asian heroin entered the United States in small ship-
ments usually via couriers travelling on commercial air flights.
Primary areas of availability were the northeastern and south-
eastern areas of the United States.
Southeast Asian heroin was trafficked mainly by ethnic Chinese
traffickers at the wholesale level. It was shipped primarily
from producing countries - Burma, Laos, and Thailand - directly
to New York, San Francisco, or Los Angeles, or indirectly to
New York through the west coast. It was also transshipped to
the United States primarily through Thailand, and also through
Japan, Hong Kong, or Taiwan. Southeast Asian heroin was usually
transported by steamships in commercial cargo, although some was
shipped by commercial air. Primary areas of availability were
the northeast and the west coast.
Mexican heroin was usually trafficked directly over the U.S./
Mexico border in small amounts by couriers using either motor
vehicles or body carry. It was trafficked primarily in the West.
Mexican heroin was also available in certain midwestern cities,
namely Chicago and Detroit. Mexican heroin has become more
prominent in recent years partly because of the availability
of black tar heroin, a crudely processed, high purity form of
heroin which spread to virtually all western cities by end of
1985.
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Figure 13
Heroin and Morphine Use
Indicators, 1984-1987
1984 1985 1986
1987
Hospital Emergencies
Reported Through the
8,723
10,013
10,670
11,390
DAWN System*
Heroin/Morphine-
(Jan-Sept)
Related Deaths
(less New York
1,114
1,442
1,699
918
City)**
*Data represent the DAWN Consistent Panel which includes only
those data reported by facilities on a consistent basis, i.e., at
90 percent or more during each year. Data representing the total
DAWN system are no longer used because of reporting fluctuations.
Although the Consistent Panel numbers are lower because fewer
facilities report consistently, they are more accurate indicators
of trends. Figures for 1987 are projected based on nine-month
data.
**Data represent the total DAWN system. DAWN medical examiner
data are not subject to the same reporting inconsistencies as
DAWN emergency room data. Medical examiner data' for New York
City are incomplete and not included. Data for the first nine
months of 1987 are incomplete due to lag time in reporting.
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Heroin-related hospital emergencies reported from the Drug
Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) have increased each year from
1980 through 1987. Projected emergencies for 1987 were
11,390, a 7 percent increase over the 10,670 figure reported
for 1986 (see Figure 13). Emergencies from 1984 through 1987
rose approximately 30 percent.
The rise in heroin DAWN figures for 1987 reflected either
moderate or substantial increases in a number of cities, most
of which are located on the east coast. This can be seen in
Figure 14.
Figure 14
Heroin-Related Hospital
Emergencies*, 1986-1987
1986
1987
% Change
Baltimore
507
634
+25%
Boston
197
235
+19%
Buffalo
21
133
+533%
Chicago
494
769
+56%
New York
2,435
2,758
+13%
Philadelphia
309
443
+43%
Washington, D.C.
722
838
+16%
*Data represent the DAWN Consistent Panel which includes only
those data reported by facilities on a consistent basis, i.e., at
90 percent or more during each year. Data representing the total
DAWN system are no longer used because of reporting fluctuations.
Although the Consistent Panel numbers are lower because fewer
facilities report consistently, they are more accurate indicators
of trends. Figures for 1987 are projected based on nine-month
data.
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It is believed that the rise in emergencies in the Eastern States
has been influenced to a great extent by the availability of high
purity heroin sold at retail-level in some areas.
Several cities,
most notably New York reported this trend. In New York,
sampling of retail heroin purchases made in DEA's Domestic Monitor
Program (DMP)* in 1987 showed that heroin packages with purities
between 28 and 67 percent were available on the street in several
areas of the city.
The pure milligram cost of this heroin ranged from $.40 to $.97
in the high purity exhibits, compared to a national cost of $2.00
per milligram in the first nine months of 1987.
Intelligence information from New York City indicates that ethnic
Chinese traffickers are emerging as significant wholesalers of
heroin in the city and that much of the high purity heroin on the
street is from Southeast Asian sources. Since New York is also
major distribution point for heroin into other east coast cities,'
the rise in hospital emergencies and reports of high purity heroin
in satellite areas is believed to be influenced by the trafficking
situation in New York.
*The Domestic Monitor Program is an intelligence program in which
retail purchases are made to gather information on price, purity,
and origin.
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While the number of hospital emergencies remained well above pre-
1984 levels in the western United States, when black tar heroin
was less prominent, it appeared that emergency levels may have
peaked in 1986, particularly in San Francisco and Los Angeles.
In San Francisco, emergencies declined from 1,013 in 1986 to 585
projected in 1987, representing a decrease of 42 percent. In Los
Angeles, emergencies declined from 1,684 in 1986 to 1,080
projected in 1987, representing a decrease of 36 percent. While
the reasons for this decline in emergencies are not known (there
is no evidence pointing to major decreases in availability),
there are several possible explanations. First of all, the
presence of black tar heroin is no longer a recent development.
It is possible that dealers are selling black tar in smaller
quantities and at prices comparable to traditional heroin.
Similarly, heroin users may be ingesting smaller amounts per dose
as knowledge of black tar's high purity becomes wider spread.
Data from DAWN and from epidemiologists and treatment officials
in the United States show the average age of the heroin user
admitted for treatment to be rising. In 1978, 34 percent of
those admitted to hospital emergency rooms in the DAWN system
were 30 years or older. This compares to 42 percent in 1980, 64
percent in 1986, and 67 percent in the first half of 1987.
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Also, the use of heroin in combination with other drugs has
continued to increase. In 1978, 30 percent of heroin emergencies
involved another substance. This figure rose to 41 percent in
1986, and through half of 1987, rose to 54 percent. About 63
percent of these 1987 combinations involved cocaine.
The connection between AIDS and intravenous (IV) use is the most
serious health issue associated with heroin. In 1987, almost
one-fourth of all AIDS cases involved IV drug abusers who .
transmitted the disease through blood by the sharing of
needles/syringes. In New York City, evidence has surfaced to
suggest that over half of all AIDS victims are IV drug users.
Fear of contracting AIDS has caused some addicts to curtail
needle sharing. Also, although injection was still the most
common method of heroin administration, there were indications
from DAWN as well as drug treatment sources that it was slightly
less prevalent than in previous years compared with other forms
of administration. Currently, some treatment outreach programs
are now more actively involved in teaching AIDS prevention, to
include distribution of bleach to addicts to be used to sterilize
needles.
In 1987, about 64 percent of the heroin seized at U.S. ports of
entry was from commercial air passengers, down from about 87
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percent in 1986. The quantity seized from land transportation,
mainly along the U.S./Mexico border, increased from 8 percent
in 1986 to 18 percent in 1987. The amount seized from commercial'
vessels increased from 5 percent in 1986 to 15 percent in 1987.
Developments in Source Countries - Mexico
Opium Production: An estimated 7,300 hectares of opium poppy
were cultivated in Mexico in 1987. While the tri-state area of
Sinaloa, Chihuahua, and Durango continued to be the primary
growing area for opium poppy, cultivation was increasingly found
in the states of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Nayarit, and Jalisco.
Figures provided by the Government of Mexico indicated that about
2,530 hectares of opium poppy were eradicated in Mexico in 1987,
an increase over the 2,380 hectares eradicated in 1986. The net
opium production in Mexico for 1987 was estimated at 45 to 55
metric tons (see Figure 15) which were converted into about 4.5
to 5.5 metric tons of heroin.
? ;
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Figure 15
Opium Production -- Mexico, 1984-1987
(metric tons)
1984 1985 1986 1987
21 28.4 20-40 45-55
Consumption: No accurate information was available on the
extent of drug abuse in Mexico. The use of heroin did not appear
to be a problem; its high price discouraged use by the average
Mexican.
Laboratories/Refineries: The Government of Mexico reported the
destruction of four heroin laboratories in Mexico in 1987; six
were seized in 1986. The characteristics of illicit laboratories
in Mexico make their discovery difficult; the laboratories are
small, portable, and usually located in remote areas. Two types
of heroin continued to be produced in Mexico in 1987, the
traditional brown heroin and the less-refined, more potent black
tar heroin.
Trafficking Trends: Heroin was smuggled to and across the U.S./
Mexico border primarily by vehicles and pedestrians. Seizures of
Mexican heroin along the U.S./Mexico border in 1987 indicated that
it continued to be smuggled into the United States in small
quantities; the average size of a heroin seizure along the U.S./
Mexico border in 1987 was 367 grams. Total heroin seizures along
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the border increased from 26 kilograms in 1986 to 70 kilograms in
1987, an increase of 170 percent. This increase in amount seized
is believed to reflect increased law enforcement efforts along the
border rather than increased production.
Drug Control Efforts: Mexico had a broad-based antinarcotics
program which included opium poppy eradication, interdiction of
shipments, and suppression of refining laboratories. Mexican
authorities eradicated slightly more opium poppy in 1987 than in
1986, and the Government reported the seizure of 73.5 kilograms
of heroin, an increase over the 46 kilograms seized in 1986.
Developments in Source Countries - Southeast Asia
Opium Production: Favorable weather conditions combined with
increased opium poppy plantings and improved cultivation
techniques contributed to an overall increase in the amount of
opium produced in the Golden Triangle. For the 1986/1987 growing
season, an estimated 1,095 to 1,575 metric tons of opium were
produced (see Figure 16). This was a slight increase over the
amount of opium produced during the 1985/1986 season, which was
820 to 1,415 metric tons.
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Figure 16
Opium Production -- Golden Triangle, 1983/84-1986/87
(metric tons)
? 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87
Burma 740 490 700-1,100 925-1,230
Thailand 45 ? .35 20-25 20-45
Laos. 30 . . 100 100-290 ? 150-300
Total -815 . 625- 820-1,415... 1,095-1,575 .
Burma is the location for the majority of opium poppy cultivation
in Southeast Asia. During the 1985/1986 growing season, the
estimated amount of opium production for Burma was 700 to 1,100
metric tons. In the 1986/1987 season, production increased to an
estimated 925 to 1,230 metric tons.
Most of the increased cultivation/production took place in the
Shan State, located in northeastern Burma. This area is primarily
controlled by various insurgent groups. Aerial eradication
conducted by the Burmese Government had an impact on cultivation
in those areas which were under government control. As a result
of this eradication, more cultivation shifted to insurgent-
controlled areas of the Shan State which increased the overall
production for that area. This increase, combined with favorable
weather conditions, resulted in another large opium crop for
Burma.
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The estimated opium production in Laos during the 1986/1987
season showed an increase over the previous season. The range
for opium production in Laos changed from 100 to 290 metric tons
for the 1985/1986 season to 150 to 300 metric tons for the 1986/
1987 season.
In Thailand, despite opium poppy eradication efforts, opium
production increased from the estimated 20 to 25 metric tons for
the 1985/1986 season to between 20 to 45 metric tons for the
1986/1987 season.
Consumption: The majority of opium which was produced in the
Golden Triangle was consumed in either the source countries or
in other Southeast Asian countries. Opium smoking is still a
part of everyday life for many of the hill tribe peoples of
Southeast Asia. Opium smoking also takes place in various parts
of Asia by groups of elderly Chinese users. In Thailand, there
are an estimated 35,000 opium addicts; most are hill tribesmen.
Of Burma's 47,000 registered addicts, an estimated 33,000 are
opium addicts. Hong Kong and Singapore have small opium user
populations of about 2,000 addicts each.
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Heroin use is a much larger problem. Most of the heroin used in
Southeast Asia is number 3 heroin*, which is most commonly used
by smoking, although it can also be injected. Number 4 heroin**,
which is almost always injected, is used on a much smaller scale.
In Hong Kong, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore, number 3 heroin is
the preferred form. In Thailand, number 4 heroin is most
popular. Thailand has the largest heroin addict population with
an estimated range of 100,000 to 500,000 addicts. Thailand i
followed by MalaySia with an estimated 250,000 addicts. Hong Kong
has an estimated 40,000 heroin addicts, and in Burma there are
approximately 9,000 heroin users.
*Number 3 heroin, also known aS smOking.heroin, varies-in -color
from tan to grey to red and is granular or lumpish in composition
like fish tank gravel 'or pet litter. The heroin isno-t'prOdUCed
with a purity higher than 50 percent and it usually ranges between
20 and 40 percent pure. In the Manufacturing process :Of::nuMbe-a
heroin,. large amounts of caffeine are added. Caffeine is the one
common Chemical characteristic in number3 heroin, and is readily-
found in the chemical analysis despite any attempts to dilute the
heroin. The normal usage for number 3 heroin' is smoking; but it'
can also be dissolved in lemon and/or lime juice and be injected.
**Number 4 heroin is injectable, highly soluble in water, and
normally sold as a fluffy white powder which may vary in color
to creamy yellow. The consistency has been likened to that of
laundry detergent. The wholesale purity of number 4 heroin
usually ranges from 80 to 100 percent.
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Laboratories: Although the majority of heroin refineries are
still located along the Thailand/Burma border, with increased
enforcement pressure from both the Thai and Burmese Governments
this situation has become more fluid and some refineries are -
being relocated or established in areas away from the border,
such as in northern Thailand and Laos. The Shan United Army
(SUA), the Burmese Communist Party (BCP), and the 3rd Chinese
Irregular Force (CIF) continue to dominate heroin refining in
the Golden Triangle. Other groups such as the Kachin Independence
Army (KIA), which is aligned with the BCP, and the Wa National
Army (WNA) are also actively involved in heroin refining
activities. Although the SUA still remains the dominant
refining group along the Thailand/Burma border, its position
is being threatened by the BCP/3rd CIF/WNA coalition whose
share in the narcotics business has continually expanded at
the expense of the SUA.
In the British colony of Hong Kong, Malaysia, and some other
Southeast Asian countries, heroin base and, to a lesser degree,
morphine are converted into number 3 heroin in local laboratories.
In some instances, small amounts of number 4 heroin are being
converted to number 3 heroin in Hong Kong.
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Trafficking Trends: During 1987, the BCP and its allied
insurgent groups continued to strengthen their hold on all.
phases of-drug production and trafficking along the Burma/
Thailand border. At the same time, the BCP's main rival,.
,
the SUA, has come .under increased pressure from not only the
BCP and. its allies, but also from both Burmese and Thai
Government operations. Although the SUA is still the dominant
trafficking group along the Burma/Thailand border, its
position is rapidly becoming less tenable.
Although Thailand remains the major conduit for opiate products
destined for international markets, enforcement pressures on
trafficking organizations in Thailand have resulted in an
increase in the use of alternate routes. One route, which has
been used for a number of years and is becoming increasingly
popular, is through India. India also continues to be a major
supplier of precursor chemicals used in the heroin refining
process. In the opposite direction, China is emerging as a
route for opiates destined for Hong Kong and other countries.
From Thailand, opiate products are frequently smuggled directly
out of Bangkok via couriers or air and vessel cargo shipments.
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A large portion of these opiates are also transported across the
Thailand/Malaysia border via both sea and land routes. Although
Malaysia consumes a large portion of these products in the form
of number 3 heroin, some drugs are transshipped to other
countries.
Hong Kong, and to a lesser extent, Singapore and Japan are used
as transshipment points for Southeast Asian heroin destined for
the United States and other consumer nations.
Although Hong Kong is not a consumer of number 4 heroin, seizures
of number 4 heroin have increased. There is evidence that small
amounts of number 4 heroin are being converted back to number 3
heroin for local consumption, but most of this form of heroin is
for export. Unconfirmed estimates indicate that much of this
exported number 4 heroin is destined for the United States.
Southeast Asian heroin seizures in the United States dramatically
increased in 1987. About 240 kilograms of Southeast Asian heroin
were seized in 1987 compared with 117 kilograms seized in 1986.
Most of these seizures were made in New York, in which an
estimated 40 percent of the available heroin is believed to be
from Southeast Asia. Some of the larger seizures involved cargo
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shipments. Small amounts of opium are still being seized,
primarily from mail parcels sent by Lao refugees in Thailand
to friends and relatives in the United States.
Drug Control Efforts: During 1987, a total of
16,300 hectares of opium poppy were eradicated
this amount, approximately 9,200 hectares were
aerial spraying. In addition to conducting an
approximately
in Burma. Of
destroyed through
opium poppy
eradication campaign, the Burmese Army launched a number of
significant operations against refining sites, narcotics caravans,
and insurgent bases.
In Thailand, an estimated 1,600 hectares of opium poppy were
destroyed through manual eradication. In conjunction with
eradication, the Thai Government has maintained an active
enforcement program against narcotics traffickers. A large part
of their enforcement activities involves the interdiction of
precursor chemicals destined for refineries located along the
Burma/Thailand border, and the destruction of a number of these
refineries. During the first nine months of 1987, a total of
nine heroin refineries were destroyed in Thailand.
In other countries, such as Malaysia and Singapore, tough
antinarcotics laws are actively enforced. Mandatory death
sentences are frequently handed down for drug offenses.
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Developments in Source Countries - Southwest Asia
Opium Production: Southwest Asia continued to be one of three
reservoirs of opium in the world. In 1987, between 735 and
1,360 metric tons of opium were produced in Afghanistan,
Iran, and Pakistan (see Figure 17). Much of the opium was
consumed in those countries, but a large quantity was refined
into heroin for illicit use worldwide.
Figure 17
Opium Production -- Southwest Asia, 1984-1987
(metric tons)
1984
1985
1986
1987
Afghanistan
140-180
400-500
500-800
400-800
Iran
400-600
200-400
200-400
200-400
Pakistan
40-50
40-70
140-160
135-160*
Total
580-830
640-970
840-1,360
735-1,360
*This estimate uses yield factor of 14.82 kilograms per hectare,
down from a factor of 19.76 used in previous years' estimates.
The reduced value reflects Pakistani assessments of the impact
of poor weather in the 1986/1987 season. Other U.S. officials
believe yields may have been in the 20 kilogram range, which
would result in a higher estimate of production.
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The 1987 opium poppy harvest in Afghanistan yielded approxi-
mately the same quantity of opium as in 1986 (see Figure 17).
Afghanistan has no narcotics control program and does not ban
opium poppy cultivation.
Iran has antinarcotics laws, but no narcotics control program;
the Iranian media, however, repeatedly reported narcotics
interdictions by Iranian authorities. In early December 1987,
it was reported that about one ton of opium was confiscated.
Despite Iranian Government statements to the contrary, U.S.
officials believe that 200 to 400 metric tons of opium were
produced in 1987.
In 1987, Pakistan continued its efforts to reduce the illicit
opium harvest by introducing aerial spraying. Despite increased
enforcement effort and adverse weather conditions in the growing
areas, the 1987 opium production figure remained at about the
1986 level (see Figure 17). This result may be due to an
increased domestic demand which probably caused an increase in
the cultivation area. The Government of Pakistan, however,
announced that it intends to achieve zero opium production by
1990.
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The Indian Government reemphasized its commitment to controlling
the legitimate opium industry. There is believed to be disagree-
ment, however, among government officials about the amount of
diversion which admittedly is occurring. Diversion figures range
from 5 to 10 percent of the total production. In order to remain
a licensed opium producer, a farmer must meet a minimum yield
requirement set by the Indian Government. The lower the yield
requirement the greater the chance that a farmer can overproduce
and sell some opium illicitly. Significantly reduced yield
requirements in 1987 due to unfavorable weather conditions in the
licensed growing areas, together with reports of opium poppy
cultivation in nontraditional growing areas, might indicate an
overall increase in the availability of illicit opium.
Opium poppy cultivation in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley continued on
an estimated 4,000 hectares or more in 1987.
Consumption: The number of heroin addicts in Pakistan grew from
virtually zero in 1980 to at least 300,000 in 1985, according to
the Pakistan Narcotics Control Board. The heroin addict popula-
tion continued to increase in 1986, reaching an estimated 660,000.
The number of opium addicts seems to have decreased slightly to
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about 260,000. Awareness of and attention to the heroin problem
by the public, the media, and the Government of Pakistan continued
to increase in 1987 and demand reduction efforts were broadened.
Treatment facilities, however, remained inadequate. Efforts
continued to train private physicians and social workers in drug
abuse treatment, and a drug orientation curriculum for use in
schools has been developed.
Although India has a large opium-using population, estimated at
3 to 5 million, heroin addiction, nearly unheard of only a few
years ago, has been increasing. Authorities reportedly estimate
a heroin user population of approximately 250,000 to 700,000.
Drug use data for Iran and Afghanistan are difficult to obtain.
In the past, Iran had an estimated 100,000 heroin addicts, and
about 500,000 opium users. In Afghanistan, there were believed
to be 100,000 to 125,000 chronic opium users and a small but
growing number of heroin smokers.
While opium use in Egypt was significant in 1985 and 1986, heroin
use, considered insignificant before 1984, increased sharply in
1985 and remained at high levels in 1987.
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Laboratories/Refineries: Heroin laboratories in Pakistan
remained concentrated in the tribal areas of the North-West
Frontier Province (NWFP), primarily the Khyber Agency. , In
1985, six functioning refineries were seized by law enforcement
officials; another 23 laboratories in the Khyber Agency, NWFP,--
were surrendered under governmental pressure. While the 1985 ,
removals were significant, the number of. laboratories probably
increased-in 1986--because.the Governor of the NWFP and the
Political Agent of the Khyber Agency were unwilling to use force
against the laboratory operators, .In 1987, preliminary] figures
indicated that 21 heroin laboratories were surrendered t
government officials. No change in the surrender policy, which
is not considered to be as effective- as it cOuld be, is expected
in the near future.
Heroin laboratories also were located in Afghanistan and Iran.
The principal area of laboratory activity in Afghanistan was
located in Nangarhar Province., which adjoins Pakistan's NWFP.
In the past, - lesser concentrations were found in Helmand Province
in the south and near the Iranian border in the southwest. Heroin
refined in these laboratories was usually exported. Iranian
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opiate refineries reportedly were active in Kurdestan near, the
Turkish border, as well as in or around the cities of Tabriz
and Zahedan.
During 1987, clandestine heroin conversion continued on a moderate
scale within India, although no heroin laboratories were seized.
There was, however, the reported seizure of a morphine laboratory.
Most of the refineries used raw opium gum or morphine base
obtained in India for production into finished heroin. Heroin
base for other Indian laboratories came from Pakistan and
Afghanistan.
It is likely that refineries in the Bekaa Valley and in north-
western Lebanon processed locally produced opium as well as
opiates from Southwest Asia. A large portion of this heroin
was destined for the United States.
In 1987, three laboratories were detected and destroyed in Turkey
by police officials, revealing heroin refining activities in that
country. Generally, Turkish heroin laboratories, so-called
kitchen laboratories, are primitive and portable and often are
set up to produce no more heroin than is required for a single
transaction.
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Trafficking Trends: Most of the opium and heroin produced in
Afghanistan was exported to or through Pakistan or Iran. Iran
continued to be a net importer of opiates. Heroin seizures in
Pakistan for the first nine months of 1987 were reported to be
an estimated 2.3 metric tons. This points to a possible decrease
in the yearly seizure figure, as in 1986, a reported 4.5 metric
tons were seized. In comparison, opium seizures significantly
increased from 2.7 metric tons in 1986 to 3.4 metric tons for the
first nine months of 1987. Major Pakistani traffickers were
active in Southwest Asia, the Persian Gulf, Europe, and North
America.
Large amounts of heroin produced in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and,
to a lesser extent, the Golden Triangle continue to enter India.
Preliminary figures for 1987 reflect that more than 2.6 metric
tons of heroin were seized. Heroin is imported into India via
the Rajasthan and Punjab borders with Pakistan. Individual
seizures effected at this border frequently are in the multi-
hundred kilogram range. Large seizures also occurred in Bombay
and the surrounding area in 1987. The heroin seized was
frequently destined for onward smuggling to western countries.
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Turkey was used as a major transshipment center for opiates,
primarily from Southwest Asia. These opiate products were then
smuggled through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia to western Europe and/or
the United States. Reportedly, some of these opiates transited
southern Turkish seaports or were reportedly smuggled along
traditional land routes to Syria and Lebanon with the ultimate
destination of the United States and Europe.
The 1987 total heroin seizures for Egypt are expected to have
decreased as compared to 1986 figures. Based on Egyptian seizure
statistics, less heroin appears to have been transshipped through
Egypt, while heroin destined for Egypt seems to have increased.
Drug Control Efforts: During 1987, the Government of Pakistan
amended the Dangerous Drug Act of 1930 and included a provision
for asset seizure. These assets include real estate, stock, or
money derived from drug trafficking. A Pakistani court ruled that
a Pakistani national who conspires to commit a narcotic offense
in the United States may be extradited to the United States.
Parliament passed a so-called speedy trial law which was designed
to eliminate delays in the prosecution of narcotics cases. The
Government of Pakistan is also actively pursuing programs to
eliminate opium poppy cultivation. During 1987, opium poppy
fields were sprayed with the herbicide 2,4-D.
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In 1987, the Indian Government continued to implement the asset
seizure provisions of the 1985 Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic
Substances Act. The Government also established a reward system
as encouragement for enforcement officials to continue to make
seizures of illicit drugs. Finally, the Indian Narcotics Control
Bureau plans to enlarge its staff in the near future by over 300
percent to aid enforcement efforts.
Vigilant Turkish law enforcement efforts resulted in the seizure
of more than 1.5 metric tons of heroin and morphine base. Asa.
result of increased cooperation with other European law enforce-
ment agencies, several cases were pursued jointly. The licit
opium poppy cultivation in seven provinces and the concentrate
of poppy straw production at the Solvadin factory in Turkey
remained under the control of the Turkish Government; no diversion
was reported.
In the spring of 1987, the Syrians who control the Bekaa Valley
conducted an operation.to eradicate opium poppies; however, the
results were negligible.
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DRUG MONEY
The illicit drug trade is a multibillion dollar criminal
enterprise fueled by the international demand for illicit drugs.
Cash is the breath and life blood of drug distribution networks.
Traffickers and their financial advisors are well aware of both
domestic and international efforts of law enforcement authorities
and legislators to identify and seize illegally obtained assets
generated by their criminal activities. Consequently, they employ
a myriad of techniques to covertly transfer large amounts of cash,
both domestically and internationally. They must also disguise
the origin and ownership of profits and assets.
While the varied cash transfer techniques are primarily utilized
to frustrate detection by law enforcement agencies, secondary
reasons would include the protection of assets from rival
organizations or other criminal groups as well as to project an
image of legitimacy to those profiting from the drug trade.
Southern Florida, specifically Miami, has been the U.S. focal
point for the importation and distribution of cocaine and
marijuana. California, New York, and the Southwest have
principally been associated with heroin and marijuana importation.
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These areas were also the centers for the collection and
laundering of monies associated with these activities.
While southern Florida remained the center for drug money
laundering activities in the United States in 1987, the
importation and distribution of cocaine expanded to the
Southwest. As importation and distribution points change, so
does the flow of money as evidenced by the increase in the number
of cash seizures in the Los Angeles area. Likewise, traditional
metropolitan drug distribution areas, such as New York, and
emerging areas, such as Houston, produced monies which also needed
to be moved.
There are virtually millions of dollars in illicit revenue in the
United States at any given time which require laundering. This
process can be accomplished anywhere, but because of previous
success, it is routinely accomplished in major metropolitan areas.
The domestic movement of funds is handled via air or land routes.
Several years ago, State police organizations, concerned about
the impunity with which drug traffickers transported bulk
quantities of drugs and cash, initiated an aggressive and
ingenious program of vehicle stops. Vehicles were stopped by
virtue of probable cause and searched through passenger/driver
consent. Many drug and cash seizures resulted. As a general
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rule, multikilogram drug seizures were effected from taffic.
going in one direction, and cash seizures from traffic going in
the opposite direction. Money and drugs continued to be seized
via this method in 1987.
Money was also transported domestically via commercial airlines,
as evidenced by the millions of dollars in cash seizures made at
domestic airports. The greatest number of seizures was made at:
the Los Angeles International Airport, with seizures also
effected at JFK Airport, the Atlanta International Airport, and
Others.
Although against company policy, commercial transport companies
such as DHL and Federal Express experienced an increase in
attempted currency transfers, originating primarily from New York,
Miami, and Los Angeles. Information also indicated that in
addition to U.S. currency, monetary instruments such as checks
and money orders were also shipped via these companies. In one
instance, $76,000 in cashier's checks and money orders were
shipped from California to Florida via Emory Express. In
addition, the U.S. Postal Service reported an apparent increase
in attempts by traffickers to ship money via Express Mail.
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Drug monies were also moved through legitimate financial .insti-
tutions in the form of cashier's.checks,,money orders, wire
transfers, and checks drawn on corporate or personal accounts
These transactions were often disguised to resemble legitimate
business transactions or were carried out by the use of ficti-
tious names. Smurfing remained popular in 1987. Smurfing
involves money couriers traveling to specific areas to pick-up
drug profits and then purchasing cashier's checks in denomina-
tions of less than $10,000, frequently in nominee names, from .
several different banks. Thus, traffickers avoided the U.S.
Treasury Department reporting requirements.* These checks were
then physically conveyed or mailed to an individual who deposited
them into bank accounts. Once deposited, the money was easily
transferred to another domestic or foreign financial institution.
Smurfing not only involves cashier's checks, but money orders as
well. However, because of the relatively low maximum denomina-
tion limits on money orders, large numbers must be purchased.
Avoiding the cash transaction reporting requirement was also
?
synonymous with structuring. Structuring involves couriers
arriving in banks with cash and depositing the cash in increments
of less than $10,000 into the same bank account.
*Provisions of the U.S. Bank Secrecy Act require that financial
institutions report currency transactions in excess of $10,000.
This act also requires the reporting of the movement of over
$10,000 in currency or negotiable instruments by individuals into
or out of the United States.
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Although some of thecapital generated by drug trafficking
remained in the United States, a large percentage of the profits
were laundered and transmitted to countries with strict bank
secrecy laws. Wire transfer was just one of the methods Used to
move these profits to a safe haven.* Drug profits in the form of
currency or negotiable instruments were sent through the inter-
national mail or, as mentioned previously, unwittingly by
professional Courier services Private aircraft, vessels, and
couriers utilizing commercial carriers physically transported
money. from one location to another. Commercial air cargo is also
a familiar Method employed to smuggle the currency out of the
United States. The safe haven location receiving the profits is,
for the most-partfirelated to the geographic location of the
activity and the home of the trafficker.
Substantial amounts of the funds remaining in the United States
must be immediately available for a variety of recurring expenses
(attorney fees, salaries, travel, hired guns). Cash must also be
available to support the expensive standard of living of many
drug traffickers. Race horses, cars, jewelry, real estate, and
legitimate businesses are only some of the assets purchased by
these traffickers.
*Safe haven - a country perceived by the drug trafficker to be a
secure location to invest or launder proceeds.
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The banking systems in the Caribbean and Central America
continued to be primary recipients of proceeds associated with
Latin American cocaine and marijuana trafficking and, to some
extent, Mexican heroin trafficking. The Republic of Panama
continued to be the Latin American country most frequently used
for these activities. Panama's appeal is attributed to its ideal
location, banking and commercial secrecy laws, relative economic
stability, and its use of the U.S. dollar as paper currency. The
banking industries in the Bahamas and Netherlands Antilles also
continued to be utilized to some extent by Colombian drug
traffickers.
Antigua, Anguilla, Montserat, and other Caribbean territories
are also locales for drug money activity. The Cayman Islands
continued to play a major role in the laundering of drug profits
despite the 1984 U.S.- U.K. Agreement for Cayman Islands Narcotics
Assistance. Due in part to this agreement, members of several
Latin American trafficking organizations were reportedly reluc-
tant to deposit currency in Caymanian banks. However, 1987
investigative activity reflects a continued flow of illicit
cash to Caymanian banks. In general, some of the capital from
drug trafficking remains in these Caribbean safe havens; however,
some of the funds are transferred to secondary holding sites,
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such as Switzerland and Luxembourg. Since the enactment of the
agreement relative to the Cayman Islands, records have been
received pursuant to approximately 90 requests. With very few
exceptions, the records reflected the accounts were strictly
laundering accounts, and the money was transferred out of the
accounts quickly.
Financial centers in Europe and the Middle East were the primary
recipients of drug proceeds associated with Southwest Asian heroin
and hashish trafficking. In Europe, Switzerland and Luxembourg
were probably the most significant recipients of drug monies;
Liechtenstein and the Channel Islands also were important
depositories. Other locales, such as Gibraltar and Andorra,
surfaced as potential laundering sites. Information surfaced
suggesting that Luxembourg gained ground in 1986-87 in terms of
foreign deposits (estimated $160 billion), sharing second place
with Switzerland behind the Cayman Islands. How much of this
money is illicit is unknown. In the Middle East, banks in
Dubai, United Arab Emirates have become the financial institu-
tions of choice for Pakistani and Indian heroin and hashish
traffickers.
Hong Kong remained the preferred financial center in the Far
East. When Hong Kong reverts to the control of the People's
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Republic of China in 1997, it is speculated that billions of
dollars, both legitimate and illicit, will move from Hong Kong
to Singapore banks. Singapore has strict bank secrecy laws and
houses over 200 foreign banks. This, coupled with its geographic
location and political stability, makes Singapore one of the most
attractive financial centers of the world.
The Far East and the Middle East are also the centers for under-
ground money transfer systems, which rely on a chit* or some
variation thereof for payment. These systems remained popular
vehicles for the international movement of funds. These ancient
systems predate modern banking and are integral parts of most
well-established Far Eastern and Middle Eastern smuggling organi-
zations. A network is often made up of members of a single
family, and the trust inherent in the system precludes the
necessity of keeping a complete set of records. In this way,
proceeds are concealed until the money finally reaches legitimate
financial institutions where it is protected by bank secrecy laws.
Since the enactment of effective asset seizure/forfeiture legis-
lation, and most recently, the Money Laundering Control Act of
1986, U.S. agencies have trained hundreds of investigators and
prosecutors. The results speak for themselves. For example, in
*A voucher or promissory note given by a money changer to the
customer for receipt of payment.
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May 1987, the Drug Enforcement 'Administration concluded a multi-
agency undercover money laundering investigation, Operation
Pisces. This two-plus year investigation resulted in the arrest
of over 400 defendants, the seizure of over 20,000 pounds of
cocaine, and the seizure of $80 million in assets. This was the
second consecutive year that DEA seized trafficker assets. valUed
above its operating budget; over $504 million in assets were
seized. Also noteworthy is that during FY 87, over $50 million
in trafficker assets were transferred to those State and local
law enforcement agencies which assisted DEA in its investigations.
The successes realized by DEA, the FBI, U.S. Customs Service,
and the Department of State and local law enforcement agencies
are receiving positive international response with respect to
drug-related asset forfeiture initiatives.
Concern over the magnitude of the money generated by the
illicit drug trade has led to the negotiation or signing of
numerous treaties and informal agreements allowing for the
exchange of financial records. This information is crucial
for the successful prosecution of drug traffickers. The
United States has Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties, or is in
the process of negotiating treaties with several countries,
including Switzerland, Italy, the Netherlands, the Bahamas,
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and Turkey. These treaties provide a vehicle for obtaining
testimonial and documentary evidence concerning banking
information in investigations of certain criminal offenses.
The treaty between the United States and Switzerland has
proven to be an effective tool for seizing and forfeiting drug
proceeds. New legislative initiatives, such as those enacted
in the Republic of Panama and the United Kingdom, are also
effective. The Republic of Panama enacted new antidrug
legislation in 1986 which was utilized for the first time in
May 1987. The law basically allows the government to seize
bank accounts based on information from a foreign country and
provide banking records to that country.
As a result of the law, and a request by DEA, the Panamanians
froze over $14 million in drug profits from numerous bank
accounts based on information provided through Operation Pisces.
The government is in the process of forfeiting approximately
$12 million. Copies of the bank records have been provided to
DEA for review. The law has since been utilized in several
other instances.
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In 1986, the United Kingdom also passed a new drug bill which
allowed the government to provide copies of bank records to
foreign countries, based on criminal charges against the account
holder. The law also allows the government to assess criminal
fines against a drug trafficker in the amount of his assets.
The United States has received financial records on at least
three occasions from the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom,
the Republic of Panama, and other countries have recognized
asset removal and money laundering legislation as both a
deterrent to drug trafficking and also as a source of revenue.
In addition to the United Kingdom and Panama, Finland, Ecuador,
Egypt, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Malaysia, and Thailand are just a
few countries which have adopted some form of asset removal or
money laundering legislation. Other countries are in the process
of studying the asset seizure possibilities.
It is significant to note that the international community is
becoming increasingly aware of the extent of the illicit drug
trade and its potential for dramatic adverse impact on the world
community, our people, our governments, and our economies. As
previously stated, cash is the breath and life blood of the drug
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trafficker. A strong international commitment to remove the
profits from the trafficker and render the organization impotent
exists and that commitment was strengthened in 1987.
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