REAGAN NOT IN CONTROL OF STATE DEPARTMENT

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CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2
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May 17, 1982
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STAT Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 quip. wMlaeioa, IM. Actlonabk Inf,.matlon fort? .. TheAmericanSentinel TM Foreign Affairs and Internal Security ort on National Defense Your Inside Re , p May 17, 1982 Washington, D.C. Issue #283 A year and a half ago, conservatives and anti-communists rejoiced at the election of RONALD REAGAN, the ultimate achievement by conservatives in the past half century. Or was it? As I point out in the article below, while the President may occupy the White House, he is not in control of the nQn-conservative career diplomats at the State Department. Meanwhile, there is some encouraging news on the defense front. Reporter RICHARD SALEM writes on page 3 of a probable change in the right direction for our advanced laser weapon program, and on page 4 of planned improvements for tomorrow's Army. In this issue we also cover anti-terrorism measures, the latest activities of LYNDON LAROUCHE and a primer on why socialism fails. The untold story in the nation's capital that explains so many mishaps and disasters in our foreign policy is that RONALD REAGAN is not in control of the U.S. State Department. Instead, the agency is being run by the same group of career diplomats, CARTER holdovers and HENRY KISSINGER proteges who have been in charge for the past 2 decades. Result: De- spite tough-sounding rhetoric at the top, the department continues to follow soft-lining policies that undercut our allies and our vital interests. As one high-level source tells THE AMERICAN SENTINEL: "There are virtually no Reaganites in the Department. (Secretary) HAIG has staffed it with the very people RONALD REAGAN was elected to replace." Exhibit A in terms of policy is recent State Department action undercutting efforts by Sen. STEVE SYMMS (R-ID) to toughen our stance toward Cuba's FIDEL CASTRO. SYMMS had moved to reaffirm a policy statement adopted 20 years ago--and supported by every administration since--opposing Soviet-Cuban expansion in this hemisphere. At a crucial moment in the Senate debate, the State Department shot the SYMMS amendment down in flames. Its spokesman wrote Senate Majority leader HOWARD BAKER that it was "not... helpful." Enough Republicans switched over against SYMMS to defeat the resolution by 2 votes. This is only the latest in a series of such actions by the State Department, going direct- ly counter to the hard-line statements stemming from the White House and from HAIG. Other examples include: State Department underlings working to undermine the U.S. position on the "law of the ss aT treaty--a massive giveaway of minerals and money to the Third World and the Marx- ists. 0 State Department spokesman intervening--despite public statements to the contrary--to Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 scotch repeal of the so-called Clark Amendment, which keeps us from aiding the anti- communist freedom fighters in Angola. State Department careerists at the Voice of America dictating soft-line policies to- ward Moscow and helping purge anti-communist writer/strategist PHILIP NICOLAIDES. State Department bureaucrats constantly pushing for a sell-out of our anti-communist allies on Taiwan--and making progress in that direction. Such actions are always alibied--as in the State Department contention that it was against the SYMMS amendment because it wanted hearings on the subject (not even mentioned in the note to BAKER). The truth, as told to THE AMERICAN SENTINEL by one insider: "There is a Cuba lobby in the State Department"--and that network didn't like the SYMMS amendment. THE AMERICAN SENTINEL will continue to monitor this disastrous situation and report more details in future issues. Meanwhile, you should write your Congressman, Senators and the White House demanding a top-to-bottom clean-out of the pro-appeasement elements at the State Department. ...AS SOLZHENITSYN SNAFU DISPLAYS Internal problems in the administration--reaching into the White House itself--also ac- count for the recent foul-up involving Nobel Prize-winning Soviet emigre ALEXANDER SOLZHENITSYN. A world-renowned symbol of anti-communist resistance because of his Gulag Archipelago, SOLZHENITSYN was barred from the White House by HENRY KISSINGER during the tenure of President GERALD FORD--in the interests of not offending Moscow and preserving "detente." 0 Getting SOLZHENITSYN to the White House under REAGAN has been a 'major project of conserva- tives and anti-communists--opposed, for reasons yet to be explained, by elements of the White House staff. The issue was finally handled by an invitation to SOLZHENITSYN to come to the White House along with several other emigres, thus de-emphasizing his personal role and blending him into the group. Congressional anti-communists and others went to bat to get SOLZHENITSYN a private inter- view with the President--and this was supposedly agreed to. The letter extending this par- ticular invitation, however, mysteriously got "mislaid," and was never sent. Observers who have followed this behind-the-scenes struggle doubt that a letter from the President to the world's foremost anti-Soviet spokesman simply got lost--particularly in view of the earlier foot-dragging on the subject. THE AMERICAN SENTINEL has learned, meantime, that efforts are under way to reset the meet- ing between SOLZHENITSYN and the President, and this will reportedly occur in a few weeks' time. The very fact that something as obvious and desirable as a meeting between REAGAN and SOLZHENITSYN can take place only after a long and bitter struggle, however, is testimony to the serious troubles afflicting the administration from within. The American Sentinel (ISSN 0278-0585), formerly The Pink Sheet on the Left, is published 25 times per year by Phillips Publishing, Inc., 7315 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814. Edhor. M. Stanton Evans Publisher Thomas L. Phillips Founding Editor. Phillip Abbott Luce Business Manager. Stanley I. Hartman Executive Editor. John W. Farley Marketing Managers: Jacqueline Billings, Susan Tulkein Asst. Managing Editor. Vincent A. Drosdik III Contributing Editors: Max Friedman, Joel Skousen Subscription, $49 per year. Index included every 6 months. Copies of back issues available to subscribers at $3 each. ?Copyright 1982 by Phillips Publishing Inc., Founding Member, Newsletter Association of America. 0 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 0 GAO, HOUSE PANEL CHART NEW U.S. LASER COURSE... The Pentagon believes that laser weapon research has a poten- tially high payoff--deployment in space to protect the U.S. from a surprise Soviet missile'attack. But is the program on the right track? The General Accounting Office (GAO) recently issued a digest of a classified report to Con- gress on the laser program. The summary asserts that "...emerging technology has progress- ed to the point at which its military use is clear." But the report also cautions that "significant technological uncertainties remain to be resolved..." The GAO recommends that the Secretary of Defense: *Establish a space-based laser program with clear and specific objectives reflecting the importance of lasers as potential weapons. *Commit the necessary funds to meet those objectives. SEstablish a management structure to reach program goals efficiently. The current Pentagon program does not meet GAO approval. The program has also been crit- icized strongly by the House Armed Services Committee. In a report accompanying the De- partment of Defense Authorization Act 1983, the committee says the Pentagon's laser pro- gram is emphasizing the wrong technology. The committee wants the Pentagon to shift its emphasis from chemical (long wavelength) la- sers--currently the favored approach to a militarily useful weapon--to a short wavelength laser. "The U.S. could. spend billions... over a 4 or 5 year period to explore the wrong technology= says the report. It leaves the type of short wavelength laser unspecified. 40 Defense officials who testified before the committee agreed. So the committee recommended authorization for the short wavelength program and deletion of the long wavelength laser program. The advantages of the short wavelength laser, say the experts, are two: It gives a more sharply defined beam of light and it has a lower failure rate than the long wavelength type. A knowledgeable expert told THE AMERICAN SENTINEL that he agrees with the GAO assessment that the laser weapon program needs proper structuring. He also believes the House Armed Services Committee recommendation to augment the short wavelength program is correct. Speaking of one type of short wavelength laser called the free electron laser, the expert said: "There are some excellent techniques available that can lead to success in this dec- ade." He said the free electron laser is extremely promising, with the basic physics well understood. It would also give the Pentagon an operational weapon sooner than by any oth- er method. This type of weapon will have the ability to survive major threats from Soviet laser satellites while performing strategic missions of high value for the U.S. ...WHILE THE SOVIETS MAY BE FAR AHEAD The Soviets are known to have a very extensive program in laser weapon research (see Issue #278). Testifying before the Senate Armed Services Committee, Dr. JOHN RATHER said he be- lieves there are about 700 PhD level physicists working at theLebedev Institute in Moscow. RATHER is a very experienced physicist in the area of laser research. He told THE AMERICAN SENTINEL that clues in the Soviet technical publications indicate the Soviets are far ahead of the U.S. in developing laser technology. "We are not keeping p. 3 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 pace," he said. "The Soviets are moving at top speed on an operational laser system," RATHER told the Senate committee. He believes laser technology in the U S. is adequately developed to proceed on a prototype weapon. RATHER also favors the free electron laser concept. The REAGAN administration should decide what type of laser weapon it wants, set a definite time schedule for its attainment and allocate the necessary funds. The laser weapon pro- ject needs the urgency and magnitude of the Manhattan Project. IS THE U.S. ARMY READY FOR THE FUTURE? "This nation needs a strong conventional army to prevent escalation to a nuclear war in case of a major conflict with the Soviet Union," said Secretary of the Army JOHN 0. MARSH recently. He was trying to underscore the importance of a conventional army in the age of the nuclear deterrent. Without a conventional army, one capable of fighting a prolonged war with the Soviet Union's vastly more numerous forces, the U.S. may face the unacceptable choices of either surrendering or using nuclear weapons. Because of Congressional shortsightedness in the past--shortchanging the Pentagon to buy conventional weapons, ammunition, spare parts and to spend money on training--the U.S. Army lacks readiness to fight a sustained conventional war anywhere in the world. But un- der the REAGAN administration, the situation is at last changing for the better. There is increased emphasis today on the Army's readiness, sustainability and mobility. However, Department of Defense officials candidly admit in public and private that the U.S. Army has a long way to go before it is capable of meeting all its goals. A major problem-in the Army today is, in the words of Secretary MARSH, "lack of intercon- tinental airlift capability to deploy (U.S. armed forces in different parts of the world) before they become trouble spots." Army planners also face the increased technical com- plexity of today's battleground. As Army Chief of Staff General EDWARD C. MEYER told an audience at the conservative think- tank American Enterprise Institute: "The infantryman of today will not just have a rifle. He will be in a fighting vehicle, he will have to be able to fire precision-guided ammuni- tions, he will have night vision devices... because he will be fighting round the clock. Perhaps he will also have to fight in a chemical and tactical nuclear environment." MARSH says: "The Soviets must not be allowed to achieve a technical breakthrough on the battlefield." He emphasized the need to maintain a strong and well-funded research and de- velopment effort in the U.S. How does the Army manpower situation look in Fiscal Year '83? According to MARSH, the re- cruitment projection is positive, the retention number and quality of personnel are up, and modernization is under way. There is also, in the administration as well as in Con- gress, general acceptance of the need for a more flexible force capable of advancing U.S. objectives anywhere in the world. 'NO NEGOTIATING WITH GUERRILLAS'--ADMINISTRATION In testimony presented before the Senate Foreign Affairs Committee recently, the REAGAN administration repeated its opposition to negotiations with the leftist guerrillas in El Salvador. The citizens of that embattled country, by turning out in huge numbers, presented a "mas- 0 sive repudiation of the guerrillas in the elections," said STEPHEN BOSWORTH, Deputy Ass st- ant Secretary for Inter-American Affairs. With future elections planned to choose a presi- dent and other officials, democracy is on its way in El Salvador, he said. p. 4 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Terrorism REAGAN TAKES TOUGH MEASURES TO COUNTER TERRORISM ABROAD Terrorism against U.S. officials and businessmen constantly occurs abroad. For example, last year 256 terrorist acts (36% of the global total) were directed against the U.S., resulting in the deaths of 7 U.S. citizens. In 1980, 278 such attacks took place, resulting in 10 deaths. To protect U.S. diplomats and secure our embassies, the REAGAN administration has put into practice a number of tough and sophisticated-programs. The administration has declared a policy not to make concessions, such as paying ransom or freeing "political prisoners " to terrorists blackmailing the U.S. Henceforth, the U.S. will not even bargain for the re- lease of hostages. Intelligence gathering against transnational terrorist groups, especially those operating in Europe, has been significantly improved. THE AMERICAN SENTINEL has learned from a re- liable official source that U.S. embassies in Europe now receive excellent advance warning of impending terrorist acts. Moreover, protection of U.S. government personnel and facilities overseas is receiving great emphasis. The State Department has: r Manned defenses against a Tehran-style mob attack. 1Constructed safe havens inside many embassies and consulates to protect personnel and classified papers. tlmproved controls for access to buildings. llnstalled automatic tear gas and other non-lethal defensive systems. 1Concentrated on other miscellaneous measures to protect life and property. lEstablished the Special Program and Liaison Staff at the department itself to manage all aspects of the program to combat terrorism abroad. Futhermore, last year the department conducted surveys at 25 of the most seriously threat- ened posts to plan enhanced security for them. Construction for the increased safety of the embassy building has already begun in El Salvador and at a number of other places abroad. The department has also instituted a 2-day seminar, required for all officials serving overseas, called "Coping With Violence Abroad." According to FRANK PEREZ, director of the Office for Combating Terrorism, "This course advises our people on how to reduce their vul- nerability to terrorist attacks, how to protect their residences, and also what to expect if they are taken hostage." Contingency planning for embassy personnel and proper management of sudden terrorist ac- tions is also receiving due emphasis from the State Department. These plans depend on the country. "Unlike the era before the Iranians took U.S. diplomats hostage, there are now plans to get officials out of a country in time of crisis," said Dr. ROBERT KUPPERMAN, a senior analyst at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington. During the waning days of the CARTER administration, a paramilitary force was created by the Pentagon to take direct action against terrorists if necessary. The Joint Counter- Terrorist Task Force is, according to Dr. KUPPERMAN, "The Pentagon's recognition of the danger of terrorism abroad and the program offers the same training as State Department personnel traveling overseas receive." ? "Among its other responsibilities, the Task Force (known as the Delta Force) is entrusted with security of weapons depots," said Dr. KUPPERMAN. The State Department--despite its seeming schizophrenia (see page 1)--is also taking steps to improve international coopera- tion, especially with the European allies, to counter the threat of terrorism. p. 5 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 On the Left LYNDON LAROUCHE EMPIRE STILL ACTIVE DESPITE DEFECTIONS Of all the Marxist extremist groups in recent American history, the National Caucus of. Labor Committees/U.S. Labor Party re- mains the most mysterious and unpredictable. Frequently re- ferred to in press accounts as a "right wing" group, it is in fact far left in origins and ideolo. Headed by former Socialist Workers Party member and expellee LYNDON LAROUCHE (aka LYNN MARCUS), the NCLC/USLP has run the gamut from Trot- skyite to neo-Stalinist, anti-Stalinist, anti-Semitic, pro-Arab and pro-fascist, often all at the same time. Now known as the National Democratic Policy Committee (NDPC), LA ROUCHE's group: 40 Claimed to have raised over $121,000 in just over 5 months, and possibly up to a mil- lion dollars or more over the years, through its National Anti-Drug Coalition, Fusion Energy Foundation, seminars on terrorism and national defense, and the weekly.Execu- tive Intelligence Review. 0 Attempted to help Sen. HARRISON WILLIAMS (D-NJ) fight his expulsion from the Senate over his ABSCAM conviction. Accused the conservative think-tank the Heritage Foundation of being a part of a Soviet "spy" operation. Accused Jews and the English of being behind heroin smuggling into the U.S. The LAROUCHE empire's latest ploy is an assault charge by one of its members, ELLEN L. KAPLAN, filed against NANCY KISSINGER, for an alleged attack on KAPLAN on Feb. 7. KAPLAN hounded the KISSINGERS at Newark Airport while they were waiting for a plane to. take the former Secretary of State to Boston for heart surgery. KAPLAN's question contained a sex- ual innuendo about HENRY KISSINGER and Mrs. KISSINGER took great offense, reportedly "touching" KAPLAN in an attempt to keep her away from her ailing husband. A trial date is set for May 16. The LAROUCHE front, the Fusion Energy Foundation, in the words of its-regional coordinator, DENNIS SPEED, intends to make a "laughingstock" out of HENRY KISSINGER via the assault charge against his wife. Meanwhile, Chicago and Illinois government investigators are looking into charges that LAROUCHE's fronts collected funds for his political campaigns under false pretenses, and similar investigations are taking place in Michigan, California, Pennsylvania, Massachu- setts and Maryland. Internal memoranda of the LAROUCHE group indicate its various activi- ties can bring in as much as 30,000 a day--much more than publicly claimed. To add further trouble, High Times magazine, a pro-drug publication, charged that LA- ROUCHE's workers have cultivated ties to union officials who are linked to organized crime and that some of this money may have gone to a crime figure's firm. Lastly, 117 important followers left LAROUCHE allegedly because of his authoritarian rule and the low salaries he pays his workers while he lives high off the hog. ? The LAROUCHE network--in 20 U.S. cities and 9 foreign countries--once numbered about "300 hard-core organizers and 2,000-3,000 followers" in the U.S., according to.an article by leftist CHIP, BERLET in the Bay Guardian of Sept. 23, 1981. How many are left after any de- fections since then no one knows, but the defections will hurt both the image and fund- raising abilities of LAROUCHE's fronts, especially in Chicago. Meanwhile, LAROUCHE and his leftists keep marching on, fooling the gullible and attacking legitimate organizations with slanderous charges and harassment. THE AMERICAN SENTINEL will report on the trial and what is happening to LAROUCHE and company. p. 6 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 HANOI AID GROUP RECREATED FOR EL SALVADOR Medical Aid for El Salvador (MAFES), a leftist-organized "humanitarian aid" group recently formed and led by actor/unionist ED. ASNER, is the reincarnation of Medical Aid to Indo- china (MAI), an organization active in 1971-75. A new fund-raising appeal by ASNER's group uses the same logo and design as MAI did 10 years ago. One member of MAI's Board of Directors, BILL ZIMMERMAN, was the key organizer of MAI (see Issue #51). He has a long history of radical activism, including flying supplies to the leftist Indians who took over Wounded Knee, South Dakota-in 1973 (see Issue #51). Other members of the Board for MAFES, besides ASNER (see Issue #269), include: IBERT SCHNEIDER--the far-left movie producer of such pro-Hanoi propaganda films as "Hearts and Minds" IJOAN ANDERSONN, J.D. 1DR. ROBERTO ALVAREZ, M.D. 1PROF. ARNON HADAR, Ph.D. The letter makes many claims of atrocities by the El Salvadoran "junta", including having killed 36,000 "civilians".since January, 1980, alone. This figure has no substance in fact and is far higher than even the leftist opposition has claimed. ASNER even claims, Hanoi-style, that "the junta's armed forces have destroyed the countryside with concussion bombs and napalm", another falsehood. So far, MAFES claims to have sent more than $75,000 to the "victims of the war" (including the Marxist forces inside the country) and is aiming for $1 million more. But who is get- ting the aid? In Vietnam, Communist forces, often based in Cambodia, ended up with so- called "humanitarian" aid sent to the "victims of the war". HANOI LOBBY STILL APOLOGIZING FOR COMMUNISTS The remnants of the "Hanoi Lobby" held a national "Reconciliation with Vietnam Conference" on May 1 (May Day) at Princeton University. More than "100 antiwar activists, veterans, scientists and other scholars" met to "address the problem of normalization of relations", according to the Marxist weekly, the Guardian, of May 12. 0 Among those participating were the cream of Hanoi's friends in the U.S.: ? DAVE DELLINGER--radical leftist, Hanoi traveller and self-proclaimed "non-violent revolutionary". ?DON LUCE--now with the leftist Southeast Asia Resource Center, NYC, and formerly with the pro-Hanoi Indochina Mobile Education Project and Clergy & Laity Concerned. Luce was also a featured speaker in New York at the May 7 "Vietnam Festival 7th Anniversary of Lib- eration", along with convicted Soviet spy MORTON SOBELL and Indochinese communists. * TOD ENSIGN and MICHAEL UHL--from Citizen Soldier and the pro-Hanoi Citizens Commis- sion of Inquiry on U.S. War Crimes in Vietnam. ?JOHN MCAULIFF--American Friends Service Committee, veteran Hanoi supporter. ?TONY RUSSO--U.S. Vietnam Friendship Association of Southern California, co-defendant in the Pentagon Papers case along with DANIEL ELLSBERG, and now with the Los Angeles Coun- ty Department of Health Services. The sponsors of the conference were Citizen Soldier; the Princeton Faculty-Student Ad Hoc Committee. for Peace & Human Rights; Southeast Asia Resource Center; and Women's Center, Princeton University. Many of Hanoi's most loyal supporters were there, including former New York Times corre- spondent GLORIA EMERSON, talking about how bad the U.S. was in Indochina and how we should aid the kindly Stalinists of Hanoi. It's a shame that they don't have to live under Viet- namese communism, under which you cant hold conferences like this one. p. 7 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2 cxm=unism WHY SOCIALISM FAILS While anti-communists usually take for granted that socialism fails as an economic system, few have a sound understanding why it doesn't work. To help overcome this shortcoming, a pan-0 el of free market economists gathered April 29 at George Ma- son University in Fairfax, Virginia, in "A Seminar of Economic Problems of Socialism," sponsored in part by the Institute for Humane Studies. The failures of socialism are fairly well known: Soviet citizens have a standard of living only 1/3 that of Americans, despite a large country rich in natural resources...gross eco- nomic inefficiencies...a constant struggle to produce enough food to feed themselves. At base, lack of freedom and private property explain the failures. The economists detail- ed the communist economic problems: *Lacking private ownership, there are no incentives to produce--only to lie and to hide any innovation which might force higher output goals on a manager without any necessary rewards. *With no free market price system, "ignorance is not apparent," said Prof. ISRAEL KIR- ZNER. Misallocation of resources will persist, bottlenecks in production occur, and consumers don't get what they need. *The centralization of planning means, in effect, trusting that the bureaucrats have all the facts and know how to coordinate the data in master "5-year plans" to reach desired goals. In fact, only a free market with individualism and decentralization is efficient in meeting consumer demand. Only an extensive "underground" (that is, free) economy has kept the Eastern Bloc from starvation and chaos. Private farms in Poland, for example, are at least 3 times as pro- ductive as the state farms, said ZDZISLAW RURARZ, former Polish ambassador to Japan. Yet in some perverse ways, socialism is not a failure. Prof. GERTRUDE GREENSLADE said "central planning has succeeded in imposing the preferences of the leaders on the workers ...in achieving rapid industrialization, but at an enormous human cost...in carrying the bureaucratization of economic life to a great degree." JAMES DORN of Towson State University told of some of the "diagnoses" laid against dissi- dents by Soviet psychiatrists: "pathological individualism", "mania for social justice", "poor adaptation to the social environment" and "paranoid development of the personality." The bottom line perhaps was best summed by KIRZNER, who said "Socialism's goal is to per- petuate the ruling elite." At least so far. P.S. The political arena is lively with arguments and debates about what is best for Amer- ica. But the liberal news media don't give you the whole story. Don't risk losing your best source of information on national defense, foreign affairs and internal security. Use the enclosed reply envelope to renew your subscription to THE AMERICAN SENTINEL today. M. STANTON EVANS, Editor of THE AMERICAN SENTINEL, is Director of the National Journal- ism Center, a nationally syndicated. columnist and a commentator on National Public Radio. THOMAS L. PHILLIPS, Publisher of THE AMERICAN SENTINEL, received a B.A. in political science from Dartmouth College and holds an M.A. in journalism from American University. He is the immediate past President of the Newsletter Association of America. Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2010/06/07: CIA-RDP90-00845R000100010004-2