WORLDWIDE TANK FIRE-CONTROL SYSTEMS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP84M00044R000200890001-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 94
• Document Creation Date: December 21, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 30, 2008
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: November 1, 1983
• Content Type: REPORT

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Directorate of
Intelligence
Worldwide Tank
Fire-Control Systems
ARMY review completed.
DIA review
completed.
Secret
Secret
SW 83-10068
November 1983
copy 2 3 0
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,S< r*r Directorate of Secret
Intelligence
Worldwide Tank
Fire-Control Systems
Branch, OSWR,
Office of Scientific and Weapons Research.
Comments and queries are welcome and may be
directed to the Chief, General Purpose Weapons
This paper was prepared by
Secret
SW 83-10068
November 1983
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Preface
Information available
as of 5 July 1983
was used in this report.
Worldwide Tank
Fire-Control Systems 25X1
the world.
Many countries are importing sophisticated fire-control devices and signifi-
cantly upgrading their aging tank fleets. Additionally, newer tanks already
equipped with modern fire-control systems are being exported worldwide.
Fire-control systems determine tank accuracies and firing rates and extend
tank capabilities by enabling effective weapon firing at night, in poor
visibility, at moving targets, or on the move. This reference aid describes
the fire-control systems known to be deployed on main battle tanks (the
tanks descended from the World War II class of medium tanks) throughout
AMX-13; Soviet PT-76; and US M3, M5, M24, M41, and M551.
Fire-control systems for heavy and light tanks are not discussed in this
paper. Tanks classified as heavy have not been built for 20 years, although
several new main battle tanks are actually heavier than the old heavy
tanks. The heavy tanks-mostly Soviet T-10 and Josef Stalin (JS-1, 2, 3)
tanks-probably are in service only in reserve units or in dug-in defensive
positions. Light tanks weigh less than 25,000 kilograms. They are in
widespread use, and some have sophisticated fire-control systems. But they
do not have enough armor protection to withstand hits from main battle
tanks. Examples of light tanks include the Austrian SK-105; Brazilian
X 1 A 1 and X 1 A2; British Scorpion; Chinese Types 62 and 63; French
Secret
SW 83-10068
November 1983
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Preface
Organization and Definitions
Soviet Union
Original-Production T-54, T-55, and T-62 Weapons and
Fire-Control Systems
27
T-54, T-55, and T-62 Fire-Control Modifications
29
Soviet Coincidence-Rangefinding Tanks: T-64A and T-72
32
Soviet Tanks Without Coincidence Rangefinders
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Sweden
37
Strv
-103B 37
Switzerland
39
Pz6
1 and Pz68 39
United Kingdom
41
Comet
42
Centurion
42
Modifications to Exported Centurions
44
Chieftain, Khalid, and Challenger
44
Chieftain, Khalid, and Challenger Tanks With IFCS
46
United States
49
West Germany
55
Leopard I
55
Future Fire-Control Retrofit of German-Army
Leopard I's
57
Other Exported Leopard I's
58
Ar
gentine/ Ge
rman TAM Tanks
61
OF-40 With OG-14LR Fire-Control System
63
OG-14LS Fire-Control System
63
A.
Glossary
Tutorial on Tank Fire-Control Technology
75
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Worldwide Tank
Fire-Control Systems
In this reference aid, main battle tanks and their fire-
control systems are arranged according to the national
design origin of the tank.
Each national section contains a:
? Brief history and identification of the different
tanks designed by the topic country.
? Table providing the characteristics and designators,
when known, of the tank weapons and fire-control
systems.
? Discussion of the operation of the fire-control sys-
tems of the tanks.
All of the tanks currently deployed, except the Swed-
ish Strv-103B, are turreted designs. The crews of
turreted tanks built since the 1950s have consisted of
a commander and gunner in the turret, a driver in the
hull, and usually a loader in the turret. The Strv-103B
is turretless with an automatic gun loader (auto-
loader). The Strv-103B crew consists of a commander,
gunner-driver, and radio operator. The Soviet T-64,
T-72, and T-80 series of tanks all have autoloaders
and do not have the loader crewmember.
Turreted-tank guns tilt on mountings in the turrets to
elevate, and the turrets traverse-rotate on the tank
hull-to swing the guns in azimuth. The objective of
all tank fire-control systems is to traverse the turret
and elevate the gun to the correct azimuth and
elevation angles for the ammunition to hit a target.
Throughout this paper, tank fire-control systems are
described in a gunnery context unless a missile-firing
tank is being discussed. Tank weapons are mainly
large-caliber guns firing different types of ammuni-
tion. A few tanks have been designed to fire antitank
guided missiles (ATGMs) and these have ATGM-
guidance subsystems within their fire-control systems.
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X-30 Tank Project
The Brazilian firm Bernardini is developing a 30-ton
tank, referred to as the X-30 by the Brazilian press,
for production in Brazil. Brazilian tank development
officials have said that the X-30 will have a 105-mm
or 120-mm gun of European design, but, in press
reports, European officials have denied any involve-
ment in the project. Specifications for the fire-control
system for the X-30 cannot be completed until the
Brazilians have chosen the gun for the tank and are
closer to production.
Brazil can choose among several possible fire-control
systems for the X-30. It may choose a relatively
simple system, consisting of a coaxial telescope on the
gun and manually cranked turret-traverse and gun-
elevation gears. Brazil has produced similar systems
for other indigenously developed armored fighting
vehicles.
If Brazil chooses a more sophisticated fire-control
system, it would probably have to import some of the
components. Brazilian firms have experience in tank
and tank gun production, but we do not know the
extent of their expertise in fire control. Bernardini has
rebuilt Brazil's US-made M3A1 Stuart light tanks
into the X 1 A, X 1 A 1, and X 1 A2 light tanks. The
Brazilian firm Engesa has built 90-mm guns under
license, such as the French-designed D921 and Bel-
gian-designed Cockerill Mark 2, for the Brazilian
light tanks and reconnaissance vehicles. The EE-9
Cascavel, an armored car built by Engesa, is offered
with an Nd:YAG laser rangefinder, the LV3 built by
the British firm Avimo. The Brazilians have stated an
interest in night sights after the successful night
tactics used by the British in the Falklands, but we
believe that Brazil will initially have to import night
sights.
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China has designed and produced tanks similar to
Soviet tanks, which it calls Type 59 and Type 69. The
Type 59 tank-a Chinese copy of the Soviet T-54
tank-is in China's ground forces and has been
exported to its principal client states. The newer Type
69 tanks have probably entered production for the
Chinese ground forces, and a variant, the Type 69
Model 2, is exported.
Chinese tank design, including the design of fire-
control systems, has mimicked Soviet tank design.
China did not have direct access to Soviet tank
designs after the T-54. But the Type 69 tank may
incorporate some features of the T-62 because in 1969
China captured at least one T-62 in the Ussuri River
battles with the Soviets.
We do not know whether to expect a new Chinese
tank based on the Soviet T-72 design. T-72s are in
Soviet forces in Mongolia and in India. China's army
acknowledges that it may have to counter T-72s in
future battles, but it may decide to counter them with
weapons other than tanks (for example, infantry-
carried ATGMs). We do not know whether the
Chinese have gained access to the design of the Soviet
T-72 tank. Chinese tank designers have asked US
attaches about the composition of T-72 armor.
Table 1
Chinese Type 59 and Type 69
Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
Model I
Model -2
Main gun
100-mm rifled
gun
Possibly 105
mm, probably
smoothbore gun
100-mm rifled
gun
Gunnery
devices
Coaxial
telescope
Externally
mounted laser
rangefinder
White/IR
searchlight
Coaxial
telescope
Possible laser
rangefinder
White/IR
searchlight
Coaxial
telescope
Other devices
unknown
Gun drive
Motorized with
Possibly stabi-
Unknown
-'- "
stabilized gun
elevation
lized gun eleva-
tion and turret
traverse
Commander's
sights
Binocular peri-
scope with
stadiametric
rangefinder
Unknown
Unknown
Other
weapons
7.62-mm coaxial 7.62-mm coaxial Probably same
machinegun machinegun as Type 69
Model I
7.62-mm bow
machinegun
12.7-mm AA 12.7-mm AA
machinegun machinegun
Type 59
The fire-control devices for the Type 59 are similar to
those used on T-54s. The model evolution of the Type
59 paralleled that of the T-54. Like the early T-54s,
Type 59 tanks of the 1950s and 1960s had 100-mm
rifled guns without bore evacuators, gun-drive stabi-
lizers, or night-vision devices. Type 59s of the 1960s
and 1970s had guns with bore evacuators behind their
muzzles-similar to the D-10TG guns on T-54As.F-
aiming reticles. The gunner aims by elevating the gun
until the estimated range mark is on the target image,
and then he fires the gun
The Type 59 fire-control system basically consists of a
coaxial telescope and the gun drive. The coaxial
telescope is rigidly linked to the gun and contains
'
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Weapons trade publications state that China has
probably bought passive night-vision sights for Type
59 tanks from the British MEL equipment company.
We have no details on this purchase, but MEL does
advertise passive night-vision periscopes specifically
designed for Type 59 tanks. The MEL designators for
the periscopes are the DC-1024 gunner's sights,
DC-1026 commander's sights, and DC-1028 driver's
sights. All of the sights use image intensifiers, and the
gunner's sight can be linked with the gun for night
firing
An open British publication stated that in 1981 China
acquired a thermal imager, the IR- 18, offered by the
British firm Barr and Stroud, probably for testing on
a Type 59 tank.
Main gun
Users of the Type 59 have expressed interest in
increasing its night-vision capabilities. Photographs in
military journals in the early 1980s show Type 59s
being built in an unspecified plant (almost certainly
the Baotou armored vehicle plant). The tanks have
infrared searchlights mounted on top of the main
guns. The Chinese searchlights are similar to Soviet,
tungsten-bulb, white/IR searchlights. The search-
lights are probably linked to follow the guns, indicat-
ing a night-firing capability.
The photograph of the searchlight on a Type 59 in
figure 1 shows what is probably a laser rangefinder of
unknown type externally bolted to the starboard side
of the searchlight. The device looks like laser range-
finders on some other armored vehicles, such as the
US M551 Sheridan armored reconnaissance vehicle.
The Chinese have captioned photographs of the de-
vices as laser rangefinders, but we do not know if they
are for battle or training.
We do not know what night sights are currently used
in Type 59 tanks. The Chinese practice of mimicking
Soviet designs and the Soviet-style searchlights seen
on Type 59s imply that the Type 59s have Soviet-style
active-IR, image-converting night sights.
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Pakistan is trying to acquire US night sights for the
Type 59 tanks it has imported. A tank night-firing
suit made by the US firm Joanell was demonstrated
to a Pakistani delegation visiting Fort Knox in 1981.
Type 69
The Type 69 tank is probably entering production for
the Chinese ground forces. Its fire-control system
probably works similarly to that of the Type 59, but it
may have some new features such as stabilization of
the gun drive for both traverse and elevation.
The Type 69 was confirmed in a photographic display
US and foreign attaches have reported that the Type
69 has a 105-mm gun. Photographs at the Dalian
display lead US military attaches to conclude that the
gun has a smoothbore. The photographs show ammu-
nition that includes APFSDS rounds typically associ-
ated with smoothbore guns. The new guns have longer
bore evacuators than the Type 59 guns
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1
t
t
The Type 59 and 69 fire-control systems probably
work similarly; that is, the Type 69 gunner aims the
gun by looking through a coaxial telescope and oper-
ating the gun drive. This is based on our assessment
that the Type 69 evolved from the Type 59, and the
similarity in the sight heads on the two tanks. We
believe that laser rangefinders of unknown type may
be used to display ranges to the gunner, who then
finds the appropriate range mark inside the coaxial
telescope. The Type 69 laser rangefinder probably
does not automatically feed range signals into a
mechanized or computerized fire-control system.
On the basis of trends in the tank programs of other
nations, US projections of characteristics of the Type
69 include an "improved" fire-control system, includ-
ing a laser rangefinder and a gun drive stabilized for
traverse and elevation. The new guns and ammunition
for the Type 69 indicate that its fire-control system
differs from that of the Type 59. If the guns for the
Type 69 have longer range capabilities than those for
the Type 59, an accurate rangefinding capability,
such as that offered by a laser rangefinder, probably
would be needed.
Type 69 Model 2
The export version of the Type 69 tank has a 100-mm
rifled gun. Exported Type 69s may not have laser
rangefinders and stabilized gun drives
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The French firm GIAT designed the AMX-30,
AMX-32, and AMX-40 tanks. France is upgrading
its AMX-30s and will designate them AMX-30B2s;
the upgrade includes major fire-control retrofits. The
AMX-32 is intended for export, but it has not been
popular. GIAT is developing the AMX-40 to replace
the AMX-32 and is conceptualizing a tank to replace
the AMX-30B2 in the 1990s. Only the AMX-30 and
AMX-32 series of tanks are discussed here
AMX-30
The AMX-30 design grew out of an aborted Franco-
German tank project of the 1950s. (The German
result was the Leopard I.) Production of the AMX-30
began in 1966 and about 1,000 have been built for
France. Spain has imported and coproduced between
225 and 435 AMX-30s for its armed forces.
The French intended to test a missile-firing AMX-30,
fitted with 142-mm ACRA ATGMs in the early
1970s, but the tests were canceled in 1973
The French Army AMX-30s remained unchanged
until the late 1970s. By then, French firms had
developed a variety of new tank sights, including
many with laser rangefinders, passive image intensifi-
ers, and LLLTVs and were beginning to develop
thermal-imaging sights. The new sights are offered in
several combinations, such as the COTAC (Conduite
de Tir Automatique) and COSTAC (Conduite de Tir
Stabilisee Automatique pour Char) families of fire-
control equipment. By June 1979 the French Army
had ordered the AMX-30B2 version with a new fire-
control system based on the COTAC M581 fire-
control devices. The COTAC system is described in
the AMX-30B2 section. The COSTAC system has
not been bought yet but may be ordered by AMX-32
customers; it is described at the end of the French
tank section.
Most exported AMX-30 tanks have the same weapons
and fire-control systems as the AMX-30s in the
French Army.
minute.
have the 105-mm British-designed L7 gun. The barrel
of the main gun is 56 calibers long and is covered by a
magnesium-alloy thermal sleeve. The gun has no
muzzle brake or external bore evacuator; a com-
pressed-air evacuator in the turret keeps combustion
gases out of the turret. The breech has a vertically
sliding wedge breechblock. The gun can be elevated to
20 degrees and lowered to -8 degrees. It can fire
French or NATO ammunition at about 8 rounds per
The coaxial weapon left of the main gun was initially
a Browning 12.7-mm M2-HB machinegun. These
machineguns may still be on some older exported
AMX-30s. The coaxial machineguns were replaced
early in AMX-30 production by French gas-operated,
20-mm M693 Model F2 automatic cannons. The
M693 cannon traverses with the main gun. It can be
elevated with the main gun to 20 degrees or independ-
ently of the main gun to 40 degrees and can fire up to
740 rounds per minute. High-explosive incendiary
(HEI) and AP rounds are usually loaded into its dual
feed mechanism, each feed holding one type; either
feed can be selected for firing. Either the commander
or gunner can fire the cannon when it is linked to the
main gun elevation.
The commander acquires targets from within the
TOP-7 rotating cupola. The cupola can counterrotate,
enabling the commander to keep an acquired target in
sight as the turret traverses toward the target. The
cupola has 10 fixed vision blocks around its sides and
an M270 periscopic head on top. The image from the
M270 mirror enters an M267 day sight or OB-23-A
night sight. The commander interchanges the sights.
The night sight requires a near-infrared light source,
supplied by a PH-9-A white/IR spotlight on the
cupola. A 7.62-mm Fl machinegun is on the cupola
and is fired from within the cupola by using the sights
and spotlight. A servomechanism can be engaged to
link the M270 mirror elevation to the 20-mm cannon,
enabling the commander to aim the cannon independ-
ently of the main gun.
The AMX-30 has a 105-mm gun of French design,
unlike the NATO tanks produced at the same time as
the AMX-30 (Leopard I, Chieftain, and M60), which
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Table 2
AMX-30 Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
not stabilize the gun.
Main gun
105-mm CN-105-F1 rifled gun
105-mm CN-105-F1 rifled gun
Coaxial weapon
20-mm M693 Model F2 coaxial automatic cannon
20-mm M693 Model F2 coaxial automatic cannon
Gunnery devices
M271 coaxial telescope
COTAC M581 system:
M544 coaxial telescope
M550 Nd:YAG laser rangefinder
M579 electronic controller
M421 deviation computer
M267 day sight and OB-23A night sight in M270
periscopic mount
DIVT- 13 LLLTV system:
video camera
RR-107C monitor
PH-9-A white/IR spotlight
CH27-1S nonstabilized electrohydraulic system
The commander is responsible for rangefinding and
uses the Sopelem M208 coincidence-rangefinding
sight mounted across the turret. The M208 is de-
signed to measure ranges from 600 to 3,500 meters.
The gunner aims through a coaxial-sight mount, right
of the gun, with either an M271 day sight or OB-17-A
night sight. For night sighting, the target is illuminat-
ed with near-infrared light provided by a Sopelem
PH-8-B searchlight mounted left of the 20-mm can-
non. The French may have replaced the OB-17-A on
some AMX-30s with the newer OB-47 periscopic
night sight-a passive image intensifier.
PH-9-A white/IR spotlight
CH27-1S nonstabilized electrohydraulic system
modified for COTAC interface
7.62-mm F1 AA machinegun
The AMX-30 cannot fire on the move. None of the
sights are stabilized. A model CH27-1S electrohy-
draulic system built by the French firm SAMM
drives the turret traverse and gun elevation but does
SAMM once tested stabilized versions of the CH27
gun drive in an AMX-30 and Swiss Pz61 tank, but
they were never adopted.
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i
Some AMX-30 tanks in the French Army have been
fitted with RAPACE battlefield surveillance radars,
which do not direct fire from the tank guns. We do
not know whether the RAPACE radar provides target
acquisition for individual tanks or conventional battle-
field surveillance for armored units.
Exported AMX-30 Tanks. Spanish-produced AMX-
30s have the French AMX-30 fire-control systems,
but they have 7.62-mm MG42/59 machineguns on
their cupolas instead of 12.7-mm machineguns.F__
Weapons trade publications have reported that the
Sopelem OB-47 gunner's night sight is on exported
AMX-30s in an unspecified foreign country, where it
is used with a Sopelem M427-02 Nd:YAG or
AMX-30B2
The fire-control system of the AMX-30B2 is very
different from earlier AMX-30 systems (see figure 2).
It has different commander's sights, COTAC gunnery
sights, and an LLLTV system. The COTAC sights
are a series of electronically controlled fire-control
devices marketed by GIAT. The AMX-30B2 gun
drive is not stabilized.
All of the AMX-30B2 armament is specified in
weapons trade publications to be the same as the
AMX-30 armament. The main gun on the
AMX-30B2, however, may have been modified to fire
the new French Fleche APFSDS rounds and NATO
105-mm APFSDS rounds (for example, the US
M735). APFSDS firing could shorten the barrel life
of the original gun on the AMX-30s because it may
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Nd:glass laser rangefinder.
France offers an AMX-30 variant with a simplified
fire-control system, but we do not know if any have
been ordered. The simplified system has no night
sights, an S470 cupola with a 12.7-mm machinegun
instead of the TOP-7 with the 7.62-mm gun, and a
7.62-mm coaxial machinegun instead of the 20-mm
coaxial cannon.
France offers an AMX-30S ("Sahara" version) of the
AMX-30 tailored for Middle Eastern desert condi-
tions with engine, transmission, and track modifica-
tions. Saudi Arabia and Qatar have purchased these
tanks.
The AMX-30S has the same fire-control system as
the French Army AMX-30, with the exception that
some AMX-30S tanks have different commander's
sights. At least one customer (unspecified by France)
in the Middle East has AMX-30S tanks with Sopelem
M409 sights on the cupola rather than M270 sights.
The M409 is a combined day and night sight with a
CILAS Company Nd:glass or Nd:YAG laser range-
finder. The M409 enables the commander to range
from the cupola, without traversing the turret toward
the target. We do not know whether the M409 sights
were installed as original equipment or retrofitted
after the tanks were shipped. The M409 can measure
ranges between 400 and 10,000 meters.
The AMX-30B2 commander's primary sights are the
M496 periscope and probably the TJN-223 passive
night sight. The sights are in front of the cupola. The
M496 can be mechanically linked to the main gun
and coaxial cannon to aim both weapons, but it has no
electronic links to the COTAC computing elements.
The gunnery devices are packaged into a gunsight
designated the COTAC M581. The M581 contains an
M544 coaxial telescope, M550 laser rangefinder,
M579 electronic controller, M421 angle-computing
module, and a two-axis gyroscope. The M421 module
contains an electronically driven aiming reticle.
The M550 laser rangefinder contains an Nd:YAG
laser and can measure ranges between 320 and 10,000
meters. The M550 is sold by CILAS under the trade
name TCV-80.
In operation, the electronic elements of the M581
sight accept ballistic inputs from several sources,
including the laser rangefinder, and generate superel-
evation and traverse-offset angle signals. The angle
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Figure 2
French AMX-30B2 Fire-Control System
1. Gunner's LLLTV monitor
11.
Commander's control handle
2. DIVT- 13 LLLTV camera
12.
105-mm ammunition
3. COTAC M581 gunsight
13.
Traverse handwheel
4. Commander's LLLTV monitor
14.
Gunner's control handles
5. 7.62-mm machinegun
15.
Elevation handwheel
6. M496 periscope
16.
Automatic cannon feed
7. PH-9-A spotlight
17.
PH-8-B searchlight
8. TJN-223 image intensifier
18.
M693 Model F2 20-mm automatic cannon
9. Commander's console
19.
CN-105-Fl 105-mm main gun
10. TOP-7 cupola
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signals drive the M421 reticle to show the gunner
where to aim. The gunner drives the gun until the
reticle is centered in the sight and then fires. The
range is displayed to the gunner for use if he chooses
to aim manually.
The ballistic inputs consist of target ranges, ammuni-
tion type, cant angle, turret-traverse and gun-eleva-
tion angles, ambient temperature and pressure, and
windspeed. Ranges are automatically fed to the
COTAC gunsight directly from the laser range-
finder's electronic output or are entered manually by
the commander from a console in the cupola. Ammu-
nition selection causes electronically stored ballistic
characteristics for the selected round to be fed into
the M581 sight. The ammunition memory may be in
the M581 gunsight but could be in the commander's
panel because the commander selects ammunition.
Cant angles are fed directly into the gunsight elec-
tronics from a cant sensor. Signals indicating the
traverse and elevation angles enter the gunsight
electronics from the gun-drive machinery. Ambient
temperature, pressure, and windspeed are manually
entered by the commander.
The COTAC M581 gunsight can aim at moving
targets. The two-axis gyroscope inside the sight pro-
vides traverse- and elevation-rate signals to the com-
puter when the gun moves. The sight and gun are not
stabilized by the gyroscope.
The AMX-30B2 has a night-firing capability provid-
ed by a Thomson-CSF DIVT-13 LLLTV system. The
DIVT-series systems are marketed as the CANASTA
systems outside of France and have previously been
designated TMV-560, TMV-561, and TMV-562. A
DIVT- 13 system on an AMX-30B2 consists of a CC8
TV camera mounted right of the main gun, a
BC-458A control unit usually at the commander's
side, and two RR-107C TV screens-one each for the
commander and gunner. The CC8 camera can view
dimly lit areas without a searchlight. The system
displays a video reticle on the RR-107C screens. The
video reticle is electronically positioned by the
COTAC electronics. The screens also can display a
stadiametric reticle for backup range estimation and
aiming if the COTAC electronics fail.
Although the LLLTV does not need a searchlight,
many AMX-30B2 tanks still have the PH-8-B search-
light. All of the AMX-30B2s need the PH-9-A cupola
spotlight to fire the cupola machinegun because the
LLLTV system only points where the main gun is
pointing.
The AMX-30B2 gun drive machinery is the CH27
electrohydraulic system. The system does not stabilize
the gun, but it has gyroscopic tachometers (rate gyros)
to provide angle-rate signals to the COTAC gunsight
for ballistic computation.
AMX-32
France displayed the first prototype AMX-32, mount-
ing a 105-mm gun, at the Satory show in 1979. The
second prototype, with a 120-mm gun, was at the
show in 1981. The AMX-32 was originally intended
to be the AMX-30 follow-on in the French Army, but
it has been offered solely for export. To our knowl-
edge, France has not yet received any orders for the
tank.
The AMX-32 tank is in a prototype stage of develop-
ment. The most significant difference observed
between the AMX-32 and AMX-30B2 fire-control
systems is the addition of an M527 stabilized sight on
the AMX-32 cupolas. We,do not know whether the
guns on the AMX-32 will be stabilized guns.
The first AMX-32 prototype had the 105-mm CN-
105-Fl gun. The second had a new 120-mm smooth-
bore gun developed by GIAT. The 120-mm gun is
designed to fire German Rheinmetall 120-mm tank
ammunition.
Both AMX-32 prototypes have COTAC M581 gun-
sights. The prototype shown in 1979 had the video
camera for the DIVT-13 LLLTV system mounted to
the right of the 105-mm gun, and a PH-8-B search-
light mounted to the left of the coaxial cannon. The
prototype shown in 1981 had the DIVT-13 camera
mounted to the left of the cannon, and no searchlight
was used.
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The M527 cupola sight on the AMX-32 is made by
GIAT and allows acquisition and designation while on
the move. The M527 sights are made to traverse a full
circle because AMX-32 cupolas do not rotate. The
M527 contains its own elevation-stabilizing gyro-
scope. The sight is electronically linked to the
COTAC M581 electronics and to the turret-traverse
gyroscope in the gun drive. If the M527 sight is
traversing to follow a moving target, a resolver in the
sight receives signals from the turret-traverse and
sight gyroscopes. The resolver adds the signals to
obtain the azimuth of the M527 sight with respect to
the turret and sends the azimuth to the COTAC
gunsight, which shows the gunner where to traverse
the turret. The AMX-32, however, probably must
stop moving to fire.
The commander can select one of two day channels
and a night channel on the M527 sight. One day
channel can be elevated from -12 to 24 degrees. The
other day channel can be elevated from - 20 to 40
degrees. The commander can use the channel with
higher elevation when firing the 20-mm coaxial can-
non. The night channel can be elevated from - 8 to 24
degrees.
The AMX-32 has an electrohydraulic gun drive sys-
tem designated the ATS-GS-32. We do not know
whether the gun drive will be stabilized. The gun
drive has the traverse and elevation gyrotachometers
used to feed angle-rate signals to the COTAC elec-
tronics, but we do not know if the gyrotachometers
were designed as stabilizer references or simply used
to smooth the gun drive's operation. We do not know
if the gun drive has the necessary feedback circuits to
provide gun stabilization.
GIAT is developing a "stabilized COTAC" fire-
control system designated COSTAC. The stabilized
COTAC could be either the COTAC with a stabilized
M527 sight or the COTAC with a stabilized gun. The
COSTAC may be defined by whatever stabilized fire-
control system is ultimately adopted for production-
model AMX-32s or future French tanks.
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Merkava
The Merkava tank is the first tank designed and built
by Israel. It was designed in the 1970s and officially
unveiled in Jerusalem in 1978. Merkavas were in full
production and entering service in the Israeli Army by
1981 and were in combat in the invasion of Lebanon
in June 1982.
Not all Merkava components are made in Israel. An
Israeli publication states that 40 percent of the Mer-
kava components are made in Israel, 24 percent are
imported, and 36 percent are assembled in Israel
using imported parts. Each Merkava tank is fully
assembled at the Israeli Ordnance Factory at Tel a
Shumer.
US attaches have reported the existence of a project
(Project 761) to standardize the fire-control proce-
dures of all of the various Israeli Army tanks by
retrofitting them with a standard computer-based
system. The Israelis have approached US companies
about terms of sale or licensed production of gyro
scopes; resolvers; analog-to-digital converters; micro-
processors; and large-capacity, random-access memo-
ries suitable for use in tank fire-control systems.
Table 3
Merkava I Weapons and
Fire-Control Systems
Main gun 105-mm M64-L71A (Israeli-made M68)
Gunnery devices Periscopic daylight sight with Nd:YAG
laser rangefinder _
MI3A1 digital electronic computer
Optional night sight
EOS xenon white/IR searchlight
Gun drive S. H. L. electrohydraulic drive with
optional or retrofitted stabilizing kit
Commander's sights Panoramic periscope similar to German
TRP-2A
Separate passive night sight
Other weapons 7.62-mm coaxial machinegun left of
main gun
7.62-mm machinegun at commander's
station
Optional 7.62-mm machinegun at loader's
station
Optional possibly 12.7-mm coaxial
machinegun above main gun
60-mm mortar carried on turret with 30
rounds
These inquiries may be related to Project 761.
The Israelis have announced two newer Merkava
models-the Merkava II and III. The Merkava II is
in development, and a prototype may be completed.
Israeli press reports claim that the Merkava II may
enter production in 1983. The Merkava III is in a
design stage and is intended for production in the late
1980s. It may have a turbine engine. The new Mer-
kava models are planned to have improved fire-control
systems, armor protection, and suspensions. The Is-
raelis have not specified the fire-control changes.
The first Merkava gun drives may have been installed
without stabilizing provisions; historically, the Israelis
Merkava's 105-mm rifled gun is built by Israel
Military Industries and is designated the M64-L71 A.
The gun is a version of the US M68 gun. (The M68,
in turn, is a US adaptation of the British L7 gun.) A
thermal sleeve is provided with most Merkava guns.
The Israelis specify that their gun can fire 7 rounds
per minute in the field; a trained crew once demon-
strated a firing rate of 12 rounds per minute.
have preferred to fire from a halt. Stabilizing circuits
have been retrofitted and adopted for new production.
The Merkava machineguns are supplied by Israel
Military Industries and are licensed copies of the
7.62-mm MAG58 machineguns made by the Belgian
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firm Fabrique Nacional. One machinegun is mounted
coaxially left of the main gun, and one or two more
are mounted on top of the turret. Some published
photographs of Merkavas show a larger machinegun,
probably a copy of the Browning 12.7-mm M2-HB,
mounted coaxially on top of the main gun mantlet.F_
Merkava I tanks carry a 60-mm mortar on the turret
roof, with up to 30 mortar rounds in external stowage
areas. Currently, the crew must exit the tank to use
the mortar. The Israelis are developing a version of
the mortar that is loaded and fired from within the
tank.
The Merkava commander has a panoramic periscope
probably identical to the TRP-2A commander's sight
in West German Leopard I tanks. The external sight
head resembles the Leopard I's, and published specifi-
cations are identical to those of the TRP-2A. The
commander's sight is supplied by Israel Aircraft
Industries. The Israeli sight is specified to have 4- to
20-power zoom magnification, a counterrotating link,
and coupling to the gunner's sight. The counterrotat-
ing link keeps the sight pointed at an acquired target
as the turret traverses toward the target.
The Merkava gunner's sight is mounted in a channel
cut into the right front of the turret. Steel ribs set
across the channel protect the sight from ricocheting
small arms rounds. An armored lid covers the sight
when it is not in use.
The gunner's sight is a daylight periscope containing
an Nd:YAG laser rangefinder made by the Israeli
firm El-Op and a computer-driven reticle. The exact
designation and configuration of the sight in deployed
Merkavas is unknown. Different international publi-
cations have described the sight as having zoom
magnification to 12 power or as having two magnifi-
cations, unity and 8 power. The acronym SLS, men-
tioned by some Israelis, may refer to the sight, part of
the sight, or an optional night sight.
The Merkava computers are M13-series digital-elec-
tronic ballistic computers built by the Israeli firm
Elbit. The Merkava fire-control system is often re-
ferred to as the Elbit system. The computer receives
ranges from the laser rangefinder and several other
ballistic inputs from other sensors. The computer then
calculates the superelevation and traverse-offset an-
gles, including a moving-target lead angle in the
traverse offset. The angle signals are applied to a
ballistic drive that displaces the reticle in the gunner's
sight. The reticle is probably linked by a servomecha-
nism to the gun drive machinery, so that it shifts back
to center as the gun approaches the correct azimuth
and elevation.
The superelevation signal is also sent to the hydraulic
elevation part of the gun drive. This signal may be
used to raise the gun automatically to firing elevation.
The laser rangefinder, cant, and traverse-rate sensors
automatically send signals to the computer. The
traverse-rate sensor measures the turret traverse rate
as the gunner follows a moving target. The computer
also automatically receives feedback signals measur-
ing the actual superelevation and offset angles of the
reticle to ensure that these angles match the calculat-
ed angles. Ammunition choice can be entered into the
computer by any of the turret crew from their control
panels. The gunner can enter throwoff angles for each
type of ammunition to compensate for the gun jump-
ing up and to one side as it fires. He also can enter
windspeed, charge temperature, gun-barrel droop,
and air pressure. The range is displayed to the gunner
for use in any manual aiming or range verification. A
gun-wear estimate, based on the number of rounds
that have been fired from the gun, is stored in the
computer.
Elbit has built a model of the Merkava computer-and-
sensor subsystem with automatic sensors for all of the
computer inputs. The company has claimed in adver-
tisements that the automatic sensor model is being
Early Merkava tanks may have had a different
computer that was similar to the cam-operated com-
puters in early US M60s. In 1979 a US attache report
on the early production models of Merkava described
the computer as a ballistic computer taken directly
from M60 supplies. M60 computers were designated
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M l 3s by the United States.
The gunner's computer-control panel has a provision
for aligning the sight and gun boresights. The align-
ment procedure may involve introducing an electronic
bias in the computer to compensate for small sight
misalignments, instead of a precise mechanical align-
ment.
For night firing, all Merkava I tanks have a
1-kilowatt EOS xenon searchlight, probably a passive
night sight to replace the commander's panoramic
periscope, and possibly an optional gunner's night
sight. The searchlight is permanently mounted at the
turret rear in a spaced-armor recess. A reflector
controlled by the commander opens over the search-
light and directs the searchlight beam; the searchlight
itself is under armor. Early production Merkavas had
no gunner's night sight, much to the dissatisfaction of
the Israeli tankers. The Israelis probably require a
gunner's night sight, but none have been identified.
The Israelis also are interested in thermal-imaging
sights for Merkavas.
The Merkava gun drive is probably a stabilized
electrohydraulic drive designed by the US firm Cadil-
lac Gage and made in Israel under license. Earlier
Merkavas had nonstabilized gun drives by Cadillac
Gage, called the S. H. L. in Israeli publications, but
have probably been fitted with an add-on stabilization
option.
The Merkava shown at the first official unveiling of
the tank at the Independence Day show in Jerusalem
in 1978 had a cylindrical fitting on the top center of
the turret. The cylinder was not seen on other Merka-
vas. The cylinder is unidentified but superficially
resembles the Leopard II commander's sight head.
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The Japanese Self-Defense Forces have Type 61
(prototype STA) and Type 74 (prototype STB) tanks
built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. A new proto-
type, the STC, is being developed and probably will be
called the Type 88.
The design of the Type 61 was influenced by that of
the US M47 and M48 tanks. Type 61 production
began in 1962 and is complete, with production lines
now converted for the newer Type 74 tanks. About
560 Type 61 tanks were built, and none have been
exported.
Production of the Type 74 tank began in 1975. At
least 225 have been built, and we believe about 500
will be built. The propulsion system of the Type 74
includes an unusual variable hydropneumatic suspen-
sion that the driver or commander can use to raise,
lower, or tilt the entire tank. The tank can be tilted
forward, backward, or sideways. The Type 74s have
not been exported.
Japanese inventiveness was evidenced in the Type 74
prototypes. The first Type 74 prototypes (STB-1 and
STB-2) had autoloaders for their 105-mm guns. The
autoloader project was abandoned by the time of the
third STB prototype because of its complexity and
high cost. The early STB prototypes had the top
machinegun mounted on the rear of the turret; the
gun was to be fired by remote control, but the scheme
was dropped for production models because of its
complexity.
Development of the STC prototype tank began in
1976, and we expect the first prototype to be finished
in 1983. Series production is expected to start in the
late 1980s. The Japanese have developed most of the
technology for the STC. It will probably have
120-mm guns and multilayer steel/ceramic armor.
STC fire-control details have not been specified be-
cause of the early stage of tank development.
Type 61
The Type 61 main gun is produced by Japan Steel
Works. Its design and mounting in the turret are
based on the 90-mm M41 gun and M87 gun mount
used in US M48 tanks. The gun has a T-shaped
Table 4
Japanese Tank Weapons and
Fire-Control Systems
90-mm Type 61P rifled 105-mm L7A3 rifled
gun gun
Gunnery Observation periscope
devices
Commander's Rotating cupola
devices
Cupola-mounted
coincidence
rangefinder
IR light source Some retrofitted xenon
white/IR searchlights
Gun drive Nonstabilized electro-
hydraulic system
Other weapons .30-caliber M1919A4
coaxial machinegun
.50-caliber M2-HB
AA machinegun
J2 periscopic sight with
active-IR night channel
Analog-electronic com-
puter linked to J2 and J3
sights
J3 periscopic sight with
ruby laser rangefinder
and active-IR night
channel
Xenon white/IR
searchlights
Stabilized all-electric
system
7.62-mm Type 74
coaxial machinegun
12.7-mm M2-HB AA
machinegun
muzzle brake and a bore evacuator behind the brake,
but no thermal sleeve. The main gun fires APC and
HE rounds.
The main gun is aimed with a 6-power coaxial
telescope. The commander cannot aim the gun but
must give target ranges to the gunner. The only other
vision device for the gunner is a 4-power periscope
over his position.
The commander sits under a rotating, domed cupola,
similar to cupolas on early US M48s. The aft section
of the cupola is the hatch. A Browning 12.7-mm
M2-HB machinegun is on the forward part of the
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cupola, and a 7-power sighting periscope is forward of
the machinegun mount. The cupola contains a 12-
power coincidence rangefinder. It provides lower ac-
curacy than would a rangefinder extending across the
entire turret, but the commander can range in any
direction without traversing the turret.
Type 61 tanks have no night-vision devices. Some
have searchlights mounted left of the main gun.F
The gun drives are electrohydraulic traverse and
elevation mechanisms, which do not stabilize the gun.
The commander can override the gunner's control of
the turret drives.
Type 74
The Type 74 tank has the British-designed 105-mm
L7A3 main gun modified with a vertically sliding
breechblock. A concentric recoil mechanism was de-
signed and adopted by the Japanese to reduce the
volume requirements for the turret. The gun fires up
to 9 rounds per minute.
The 7.62-mm coaxial weapon is designated the Type
74 Vehicle-Mounted machinegun. It is made by the
Nihon Tokushya Kinzoka (Japan Special Metal)
Company. The coaxial machinegun is left of the main
gun and can be fired by the commander, gunner, or
loader. It is cooled by a forced-air system that can
also be used to cool the interior of the turret. A
Browning 12.7-mm M2-HB antiaircraft machinegun
is mounted between and forward of the cupola and
loader's hatch
Both the commander and gunner can aim and fire the
main gun. Normally, the commander operates a laser
rangefinder that automatically sends the target range
to a ballistic computer on the right turret wall. The
computer generates superelevation and traverse-offset
signals, corrected for cant, which through servomotors
offset aiming reticles in the sights. The gunner, or the
commander if necessary, uses a joystick to control the
gun drive. The aiming reticles shift back to center as
the gun approaches the correct position. The gun is
ready to fire when the reticles are centered.
The commander's sight, built by Nikon and designat-
ed the J3, contains the laser rangefinder. The J3 sight
is mounted in a rotating periscopic mount; the Type
74 cupola is fixed. The sight has two fields: a unity-
power field of 80 degrees for observation and an 8-
power, 8-degree field for target engagement.
The laser rangefinder in the J3 sight contains a ruby
laser and can range between 200 and 3,000 meters.
The range accuracy is 10 meters. Either the com-
mander or gunner can activate the laser. The comput-
er panel has a range gate switch that must be set
before laser rangefinding. The range gate rejects
range readings from laser returns off objects closer
than the target. The range gate can be set to reject
readings of less than 300, 500, 1,000, 1,500, or 2,000
meters. The rangefinder circuitry consists of a hybrid
integrated-circuit mix of analog signal processors and
digital logic circuits. The laser rangefinder is built by
Nippon Kogaku (Nippon Electric).
The ballistic computer is an electronic analog comput-
er built by Mitsubishi Electric. The commander man-
ually enters ammunition selection, a gun-wear esti-
mate probably based on the number of rounds fired,
range estimates, and ammunition charge temperature.
The computer calculates the superelevation and azi-
muth offset signals sent to the sights to aim the gun.
The angles are static outputs; the traverse-offset angle
is not a lead angle for moving targets but is corrected
for cant angles. The computer automatically corrects
for parallax between the gun and J3 sight as a
function of range. We do not know the size or type of
computer memory.
The superelevation and traverse-offset angles are cor-
rected for cant by the computer. We do not know if
the commander enters cant angles after reading a
cant sensor or a cant sensor automatically sends
signals to the computer. The variable suspension of
the Type 74 tank can be used to reduce the cant angle
by tilting the tank in the uphill direction.
The gunner's primary sight, designated the J2 peri-
scopic sight, is made by Fuji-Photo Optical, which
calls it the KK-1S sight. The J2 has two selectable
fields: a unity-power, 28-degree observation field and
an 8-power, 8-degree aiming field. The gunner's
secondary sight is a J I coaxial telescope mounted
right of the main gun.
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All of the sights-J1, J2, and J3-have aiming
reticles mechanically linked to the main gun in eleva-
tion. The aiming reticles in the J2 and J3 are offset by
servomotors driven by the computer output. The J 1
coaxial telescope is not driven by the computer and is
used only for manual aiming.
The Type 74 sights all have selectable night-viewing
channels, which contain IR-to-visible image convert-
ers. The converters require an active-IR light source
to illuminate the target. A xenon white/IR search-
light, mounted left of the main gun, provides illumina-
tion and can be filtered to provide near-IR illumina-
tion.
The servodriven sights and laser rangefinder can be
aligned from the computer panel. The computer does
this by sending a correction signal to the reticle
servomotors, which shift the reticles to line up with
the line of sight of the laser rangefinder
The Type 74 gun drive machinery is electrically-
driven, and the gun and turret are stabilized. Their
sights are not self-stabilized but follow the gun. The
commander can override the gunner's traverse con-
trol.
The gun drive operates in three selectable modes:
manual, stabilized, and power. The manual mode
drives the gun by amplifying signals from the joy-
sticks directly to the drive motors. The stabilized
mode connects traverse-angle, elevation-angle, and
angle-rate feedback circuits to the amplifiers. The
amplifiers compare these with joystick commands to
detect traverse and elevation errors and error rates.
The amplifiers then send correction signals to the
motors. We have little detailed information on the
power mode. It possibly provides "fully automatic"
gun aiming, meaning little or no manual intervention
at the joysticks after initial positioning of the reticles
near the target. Judging from a US block diagram of
the Type 74 gun drive compiled from attache reports
and brochures, the computer may send its supereleva-
tion and traverse-offset signals to the aiming-reticle
servos and to the power amplifiers in the gun drive.
The computer signals may be compared with feed-
back signals from the gun drive to generate correction
signals to the motors. The motors may then drive the
gun in a way that shifts the reticles back to center
The gun drive technology is conventional, direct cur-
rent (DC) control machinery. Much of the feedback
signal-processing circuitry is in a box containing 34
electromechanical relays and 13 types of electronic
analog circuits. The relays and circuitry form a logic
network to connect the appropriate circuits as one of
the three modes is selected. The network also provides
safety interlocks. The final power amplifiers before
the drive motors are liquid-cooled, dual-channel ser-
voamplifiers. Traverse and traverse-rate feedback sig-
nals are generated by a traverse gyrotachometer,
differential synchrotransformer, and resolver. Eleva-
tion and elevation-rate signals are generated by an
elevation gyrotachometer and two differential
synchrotransformers. The gain of the elevation
synchrotransformers is apparently controlled by a
transformer that receives computer-generated angles
in the power mode.
The gun drive can lower the gun to -6.5 degrees and
raise it to 9.5 degrees. If the variable suspension is
used to tilt the tank forward or backward, the gun can
be elevated from -12.5 degrees to 15 degrees.
Type 88
The Type 88 tank program is in a prototype stage.
Characteristics of the tank will not be standardized
until 1988. The main gun will be a 120-mm smooth-
bore gun, possibly of Japanese design. The first
prototype gun was finished in 1979. The gun will fire
Japanese ammunition-APFSDS rounds developed
by Daikin Industries and HEAT-FS rounds developed
by Komatsu Machinery. The coaxial and top weapons
will probably be the same as those on the Type 74s.
Western speculation based on Japanese technological
capabilities and tank fire-control trends in the United
States and Europe lead to high expectations for the
Type 88 fire-control system: self-stabilized sights with
passive night channels, thermal-imaging channels,
and Nd:YAG or carbon dioxide laser rangefinders;
LLLTV sensors with video processing; integrated
electronic computer and control circuitry; distributed
automatically.
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microprocessors in each sensor; and an all-digital fire-
control system. Lessons learned during development
of the STB prototypes may enable the Japanese to
provide an autoloader and remote-controlled
machineguns for the Type 88. Device designations,
characteristics, system architecture, and performance,
however, are presently undefined.
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Olifant
South Africa is producing its own tank, the Olifant
(Elephant). Externally, the Olifant is a copy of the
British Centurion Mark 5 and 7 tanks.
We do not know any technical details about the
Olifant weapons and fire-control systems. We assume
that the main guns are South African copies of the
British 105-mm L7 guns.
The Israeli firm Elbit claims in its advertisements
that a version of its tank fire-control system developed
for Merkava has been exported but does not disclose
to which country.
the
Olifant fire-control system may be imported from
Israel.
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ROKIT Project
South Korea has begun a program called the Republic
of Korea Indigenous Tank (ROKIT) project. We do
not know the exact status of the project. The US firm
General Dynamics has been working on a ROKIT
design and has built two prototypes.
25 Secret
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Since World War II, the Soviets have built T-54,
T-55, T-62, T-64, T-72, and T-80 tanks and their
production variants. The T-54s, T-55s, and T-62s
have similar fire-control systems. They are in service
in the Warsaw Pact nations and have been exported to
many other countries. The newer T-64s, T-72s, and
T-80s use a variety of more advanced and integrated
fire-control systems.
T-54, T-55, and T-62
T-54s entered service in 1947. China, Czechoslovakia,
Poland, and the Soviet Union produced T-54s once
they were standardized. Three more standard models
recognized by NATO-the T-54A, T-54B, and
T-54C-appeared between 1955 and 1960. Produc-
tion of T-54s ended in the mid-1960s, except in
China, which is still building a copy of the T-54B
called the Type 59.
The bore evacuators, night-vision devices, and AA
machineguns are no longer reliable recognition fea-
tures. The Soviets have retrofitted new guns with bore
evacuators and night-vision devices to older T-54s.
Optional AA machinegun mounts are available for
commander's cupolas.
T-62s were first seen in 1961. T-62s have 115-mm
guns with bore evacuators halfway down their barrels.
T-62s have the same night-vision devices as those on
T-54s and T-55s. Loader's hatches on early T-62s fit
into a rounded turret; the turret on the one new
model, T-62A, is raised and flattened around the
loader's hatch. The flat area allows mounting of a
DShK 12.7-mm AA machinegun.
25X1
25X1
The Soviets were the only confirmed producers of the
T-62 until 1978, when North Korea probably began 25X1
producing T-62s. We estimate that several hundred
T-55s were first produced in 1958. The Soviets,
Czechoslovaks, and Poles built T-55s from the 1960s
to the late 1970s. One new NATO-recognized model,
the T-55A, was first seen in the May Day Parade in
1963. Romania has modified many of its T-55s,
calling the modified tanks the TR-77 (NATO desig-
nator M 1978) and TR-800 tanks.
T-54s and T-55s almost look alike. The T-54, how-
ever, has a turret-ventilation dome. Other major
external differences among the original T-54 and
T-55 production models are the placements of gun-
bore evacuators, night-vision devices, and turret cupo-
las. The standard T-54 had no bore evacuator.
Successive T-54 models (T-54A, T-54B, T-54C) and
T-55s have bore evacuators behind the gun muzzles.
T-54s and T-54As were originally supplied without
night-vision devices. T-54Bs, T-54Cs, and T-55s came
with night-vision devices. T-54s through the T-54B
have commander's and loader's cupolas. T-54Cs and
T-55s only have commander's cupolas.
Earlier T-54s had DShK 12.7-mm AA machineguns
mounted on the loader's cupolas. Because it does not
have a loader's cupola, the T-54C usually has no AA
machinegun.
T-62s are deployed in the North Korean Army.
Original-Production T-54, T-55, and T-62 Weapons 25X1
and Fire-Control Systems. T-54, T-55, and T-62 fire-
control systems work similarly in principle. The com-
manders acquire and designate targets and estimate
ranges, with or without binocular sights in their
cupolas. Gunners aim through coaxial telescopes,
raise the guns with their gun-drive control handles,
and fire.
T-54s and T-55s have 100-mm rifled main guns with
designators in the D-10T series. The designator as-
signed is correlated to the type of gun drive as follows:
? Early T-54s had manually cranked gear trains and
were equipped with the D-10T gun.
? The T-54A had an electrohydraulically powered
elevation drive with elevation-stabilizing circuits
and manually cranked traverse gears and was
equipped with the D-10TG gun.
? The T-54B and its successors have two-plane, stabi-
lized gun drives with powered machinery and stabi-
lizing circuits for both traverse and elevation. The
gun is designated D-10T2S.
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Table 5
Soviet Original-Production T-54, T-55, and T-62
Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
Main gun 100-mm 100-mm 100-mm
D-10T D-10TG D-IOT2S
rifled gun rifled gun rifled gun
100-mm
D-10T2S
rifled gun
100-mm
D-1OT2S
rifled gun
100-mm
D-10T2S
rifled gun
115-mm
U5-TS
smoothbore gun
115-mm
U5-TS
smoothbore gun
Gunnery TSh2-22 TSh2A-22 TSh2B-22
devices coaxial coaxial coaxial
telescope telescope telescope
No night- TPNI-22-11
vision or
devices TPN1-41-11
active-IR
night
sights
L-2G
tungsten
white/IR
searchlight
TSh2B-22A
or
TSh2B-22B
coaxial
telescope
TPN1-22-11
or
TPN1-41-11
active-IR
night
sights
L-2G
tungsten
white/IR
searchlight
TSh2B-22A
or
TSh2B-22B
coaxial
telescope
TPN1-22-11
or
TPN1-41-11
active-IR
night
sights
L-2G
tungsten
white/IR
searchlight
TSh2B-22A
or
TSh2B-22B
coaxial
telescope
TPN1-22-11
or
TPN1-41-11
active-IR
night
sights
L-2G
tungsten
white/IR
searchlight
TSh2B-41U
coaxial
telescope
TPN1-41-11
active-IR
night
sight
L-2G
tungsten
white/IR
searchlight
TSh2B-41U
coaxial
telescope
TPNI-41-11
active-IR
night
sight
L-2G
tungsten
white/IR
searchlight
Commander's TPK-1 periscope TKN-1 day/
devices night
periscope
with
active-IR
night
channel
OU-3GK
white/IR
spotlight
mounted on
cupola
TKN-I day/
night
periscope
with
active-IR
night
channel
OU-3GK
white/IR
spotlight
mounted on
cupola
TKN-1 day/
night
periscope
with
active-IR
night
channel
OU-3GK
white/IR
spotlight
mounted on
cupola
TKN-1 day/
night
periscope
with
active-IR
night
channel
OU-3GK
white/IR
spotlight
mounted on
cupola
TKN-3 day/
night
periscope
with
active-IR
night
channel
OU-3GK
white/IR
spotlight
mounted on
cupola
TKN-3 day/
night
periscope
with
active-IR
night
channel
OU-3GK
white/IR
spotlight
mounted on
cupola
Gun Nonsta- Stabi- STP-2 fully
STP-2 fully
STP-2 fully
STP-2 fully
Fully stabilized
Fully stabilized
drives bilized lized stabilized
stabilized
stabilized
stabilized
electrohydraulic electrohydraulic
manual power electrohy-
gears eleva- draulic
tion, system
nonsta-
bilized
manual
traverse
electrohy-
draulic
system
electrohy-
draulic
system
electrohy-
draulic
system
system
system
Other 7.62-mm 7.62-mm 7.62-mm
weapons SGMT SGMT SGMT
7.62-mm
SGMT
7.62-mm
SGMT
7.62-mm
PKT coaxial
7.62-mm
PKT coaxial
7.62-mm
PKT coaxial
coaxial and coaxial and coaxial and
coaxial and
coaxial and
machinegun
machinegun
machinegun
bow
machine-
guns
No AA
machine-
gun
bow bow
machine- machineguns
guns
12.7-mm Optional
DShK AA 12.7-mm
machine- DShK
gun
bow
machineguns
Optional
12.7-mm
DShK
bow
machineguns
Optional
12.7-mm
DShK
Optional
12.7-mm
DShK
No AA
machinegun
12.7-mm DShK
AA machinegun
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T-54 and T-55 commander's cupolas rotate. Binocular
sights are mounted on the cupolas, whose sides are
lined with glass blocks to aid vision. T-55A cupolas
were the first Soviet cupolas designed to counterro-
tate. This capability has been provided on all Soviet
tanks since the T-55A. On early T-54 and T-54A
tanks, commanders had a daytime-only optical sight
designated the TPK-1. On the T-54B and successive
T-54s and T-55s, the TPK-1 was replaced by a day-
and-night sight, designated the TKN-1, and a white/
IR cupola spotlight designated the OU-3GK. The
OU-3GK uses a tungsten light bulb that emits a
mixture of visible and near-infrared light. The night
channel of the TKN-1 contains a high-voltage, image-
converter tube to convert near-IR light rays to visible
images in the eyepiece. For night sighting, the targets
must be illuminated by near-IR light, which is provid-
ed by filtering the visible light out of the visible-
infrared light emitted from the OU-3GK spotlight.?
T-62 commanders acquire targets with sights desig-
nated the TKN-3. The TKN-3 is a day-and-night
binocular sight that works similarly to the TKN-1.
The T-62 has an OU-3GK white/IR spotlight on the
cupola to provide near-IR light for the night channel.
The most significant differences between the TKN-1
and TKN-3 sights are their relative sensitivity and
power-supply housings. The TKN-3 is more sensitive
than the TKN-1. The high-voltage power supply for
the TKN-3 is contained within the sight housings, but
the TKN-l's is housed separately.
The cupola sights on T-54s and T-62s contain stadia-
metric scales to aid the commander in range estima-
tion.
T-54, T-55, and T-62 coaxial telescopes contain aim-
ing scales marked for different types of ammunition.
The designators selected for the telescopes depend, in
part, on the aiming reticles they contain.
Gunners on the night-capable T-54s, T-55s, and
T-62s aim with a TPN1-series night sight and a large
L-2-series white/IR searchlight mounted on the front
of the turrets. The night sight and searchlight work
like the commander's sight and spotlight, except that
the searchlight uses a brighter tungsten bulb. The
gunner's night sight is a monocular periscope. The
sight mirror and searchlight are linked to the main
gun in elevation, so that the searchlight and night
sight always look in the direction the gun is pointing.
The night sight has aiming scales, but they are not as
finely graduated as the scales for day sighting. The
Soviet night-vision devices are designed for use within
1 kilometer (km) of a target.
T-54, T-55, and T-62 Fire-Control Modcations.
Since 1978 we have seen some Polish and Soviet 25X1
T-54s, T-55s, and T-62s with boxes mounted over
their main guns. The boxes may contain laser range-
finders or laser training devices because they are
aimed in the same direction as the guns and have an
optical aperture on the front
Tank guns and some fire-control devices have to be
replaced periodically. Countries with close ties to the
Warsaw Pact probably receive replacement parts that
are the same as those originally supplied with their
tanks. Fire-control systems probably would not be
modified unless new types of ammunition were issued.
For example, T-55s used in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war 25X1
did not have HEAT scales on their coaxial telescope
reticles because the Soviets did not issue HEAT
rounds with the tanks. For accurate aiming of HEAT
rounds, the coaxial telescopes would require new
reticles
Some countries with T-54s, T-55s, and T-62s are
turning to Western and Third World gun and fire- 25X1
control suppliers because they do not want to depend
on the Warsaw Pact nations. Some of the Western
devices provide capabilities, such as laser rangefind-
ing and passive night vision, that the Soviets have not 25X1
freely offered to export customers. 25X1
We expect more Western offerings of laser range-
finders and passive night sights for exported T-54s,
T-55s, and T-62s. The armor openings on these tanks 25X1
are not big enough for conventional coincidence or
stereoscopic rangefinders without armor modifica-
tions. Nevertheless, many available laser rangefinders
and passive night sights can be made to fit inside the
existing openings for the coaxial telescopes, gunner's
night sights, or commander's sights
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Many Yugoslavian T-54s and T-55s have command-
er's sights designated the TLMD-2. The sights are
made by the Yugoslavian firm Iskra and contain
neodymium:YAG laser rangefinders made by the
Norwegian firm L. M. Ericsson.
Egyptian T-54s, T-55s, and T-62s have been fitted
with white/IR searchlights made by the German firm
AEG-Telefunken. Egyptian T-62s also have been
fitted with the Yugoslavian Iskra commander's sights.
India and Israel have mounted 105-mm guns that are
compatible with NATO ammunition in some of their
T-54s and T-55s. The Indians use the British L7 gun
and the Israelis use copies of the US M68 gun. We do
not know the extent of the changes to the fire-control
systems. If the tanks retain their Soviet fire-control
systems, they would at least require adjustments to
the gun drive and new aiming reticles to accommo-
date the new guns and ammunition.
The Israeli-modified T-54s and T-55s are often called
TI-67 tanks and are the most extensively modified
T-54s and T-55s. Israel captured hundreds of the
tanks in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and the 1973
Middle East war. The Israelis also captured large
numbers of T-62s in the 1973 war. They have not
changed the 115-mm guns even though it is difficult
to obtain 115-mm ammunition.
Israel captured more T-54s, T-55s, and T-62s in the
fighting in Lebanon in 1982 but has not refurbished
or modified them yet.
The Israelis may refit their T-54, T-55, and T-62
tanks with a computer-driven aiming sights
Brae may
T-64, T-72, T-80, and Newer Soviet Tanks
The Soviet tanks deployed after the T-62 are divided
by the Intelligence Community into three groups
based on visible features not related to fire-control,
such as their characteristic roadwheels, engine decks,
and arrangement of turret equipment. The three
groups are the T-64 group, T-72 group, and a new
group identified in the East German Letzlinger Heide
training area in April 1983. We do not know the exact
identity of the T-80. All of these tanks have auto-
loaders, and all but the early T-64s have 125-mm
smoothbore guns.
We can describe the fire-control systems of these
tanks without exactly identifying each model. The
fire-control systems can be independently divided,
depending on the point of interest, into those with or
without coincidence rangefinders (see figure 3), or
those with or without ATGM-guidance subsystems.
The descriptions in this section are structured along
the rangefinder characteristics. We have a much
better understanding of the operation of the fire-
control systems based on coincidence rangefinders- 25X1
the T-64A and T-72-than those without
The T-64 group consists of the early T-64 tank and
later T-64A and T-64B tanks. The early T-64s en-
tered production between 1968 and 1970, had
115-mm guns, and were discontinued at an early
production stage. The Soviets then adopted the
125-mm smoothbore guns. T-64As have coincidence
rangefinders and T-64Bs do not. The T-64B gun can
fire both conventional rounds and ATGMs. All T-64s
are deployed only in Soviet Forces.
The T-72 group consists of the standard T-72 and
several T-72 variants. Standard T-72s have the same
coincidence rangefinders as the T-64As, whereas ob-
served T-72 variants do not have coincidence range-
decide, however, that funds for refitting the old Soviet
tanks would be better spent on the development of a
new tank.
Proposals to refit Israeli T-54s and T-55s with the US 72s are deployed in Soviet Forces and other Warsaw
Cadillac Gage stabilized gun-drives used on M60A1 Pact armies and have been exported to Algeria, India,
---
tanks have not materialized.F
] Iraq, Libya, North Yemen, and Syria.
J
I
J
25X1
25X1
25X1
25X1
L0A"1
25X1
25X1
;II
25X1
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1
I
Figure 3. Fire-control differ-
ences in Soviet T-72 series
a T-72
variant shown in the Moscow parade in 1982 as the
T-80. This identification does not resolve our all-
source data on the T-80. The tanks had thicker frontal
armor than T-72s and did not have coincidence
rangefinders. here
are three versions
T-80B.
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25X1
25X1
2 ici
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Table 6
Soviet T-64A and T-72 Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
scopes under the gun cradles.
Gunnery devices TPD2-49 elevation-stabilized day sight with coin- TPD2-49 elevation-stabilized day sight with coin-
cidence rangefinder and mechanical-analog cidence rangefinder and mechanical-analog ballistic
ballistic computer computer
TPN1-49-23 gunner's active-IR night sight TPN1-49-23 gunner's active-IR night sight
L-2AG tungsten white/IR searchlight or newer L-2AG tungsten white/IR searchlight or newer
xenon white/IR searchlight xenon white/IR searchlight
125-mm D-81 smoothbore with 40 rounds includ- 125-mm D-81 smoothbore with 39 rounds including
ing 28 in autoloader 22 in autoloader
12.7-mm machinegun fired from inside closed
cupola
7.62-mm PKT, aimed by TPD2-49 sight
Soviet Coincidence-Rangnding Tanks: T-64A and
T-72. T-64A and T-72 weapons and fire-control
systems are nearly identical (see figure 4). T-64As and
T-72s have the same 125-mm smoothbore gun, desig-
nated the D-81, and fire the same 125-mm ammuni-
tion. The coincidence-rangefinding bases can be seen
extending across the front of the turrets and have left
and right optics. The daytime gunsights used to aim
the guns are automated periscopes containing the
coincidence rangefinders, mechanical analog ballistic
computers, and elevation-reference gyroscopes to di-
rectly stabilize the sight elevation. The computers are
camshafts, with a cam for each ammunition type,
rotated by gears engaged to the rangefinder drive.
When the ammunition is selected, the appropriate
cam is engaged with the reticle. The cams shift the
reticles off the target in the gunsight as the range-
finder operates, showing the gunner where to aim.
12.7-mm NSV machinegun with K10-T sight on
ZU-72 cupola mount; fired from open cupola
7.62-mm PKT, aimed by TPD2-49 sight
The T-64A and T-72 gun drives use feedback circuits
to drive the gun elevation to follow the elevation-
reference gyroscopes inside the gunsights and to drive
the turret azimuth to follow azimuth-reference gyro-
Equipment in the T-64A and T-72 commander's
positions not seen in previous Soviet tanks is mostly
semiautomatic-backup controls for use when the auto-
loaders have partial failures. The T-64A cupola is a
new Soviet design that allows the commander to fire
the AA gun from within the closed cupola
T-64A and T-72 night-vision devices are in the same
series of active-IR night sights and searchlights used
in T-54s, T-55s, and T-62s. The T-64A and T-72
commander's sights are the same ones used in the
T-62.
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believe the T-64A and T-72 gun drives are identical.
The autoloader components are different, with some
hydraulic components in the T-64A and all-electro-
mechanical components in the T-72. The T-64A and
T-72 guns may have different production designators
because of the slightly different external breech fit-
tings needed to interface with the different auto-
loaders.
T-64A and T-72 fire-control systems indicate only
gun elevation adjustments to compensate for target
ranges and ammunition selection. The tanks cannot
automatically adjust their aim for atmospheric condi-
tions, cant, or moving targets. The reason for this is
the simple design of the fire-control computers, which
can shift the reticles only in elevation and have cams
machined for standard ammunition and atmospheric
conditions. Further aim adjustments would require
azimuth-shifting reticles and machinery to compen-
sate for nonstandard ammunition and atmospheric
T-72s and probably T-64As can fire on the move with
the aid of their stabilized gun drives, coincidence-
firing circuits, and optionally engaged devices called
Delta-D devices by the Soviets. The stabilizer circuits
keep the guns on inertial azimuth and elevation
angles. The inertial angles are set by reference gyro-
scopes. The gunners steer the guns by precessing the
gyroscopes, and the stabilizers drive the guns toward
the gyroscope angles. The Delta-D device can auto-
matically update target range inputs as the tank
moves closer to or further from the target. The device
turns the ballistic camshaft, after initial rangefinding,
at a rate proportional to the range rate caused by tank
motion. The Delta-D device does not update ranges
that change because of target motion and cannot
track targets
Soviet Tanks Without Coincidence Rangnders.
T-64B. T-64Bs do not have the coincidence-range-
finding bases found on T-64As. The single T-64B
gunsight optic is on the left side and is much larger
than the corresponding left rangefinding optic on the
T-64A. A box-shaped housing of unknown function is
on the right side of the T-64B, where the right
rangefinding optic is found on the T-64A (see figure
5). Missile-guidance links could be part of this plat-
form. The T-64B uses a different rangefinder from
that on the T-64A, but we have not confirmed the 25X1
type. A laser rangefinder is the most likely choice,
based on the widespread use of laser rangefinders on
other tanks.
We believe that the T-64B ATGM guidance system is
probably a semiautomatic command-to-line-of-sight 25X1
(SACLOS) system using a radiofrequency command
link from the tank to the missile.) 25X1
The externally observable T-64B night-vision devices 25X1
look like the same infrared searchlights and night-
sight housings used on the T-64A. The T-64B
probably has the same night capability for firing
conventional tank ammunition as the T-64A. We do
not know whether the T-64B is equipped for night
launching of ATGMs. New sights for passive night
viewing or night ATGM launches may be under the
T-64B's enlarged left optic, right-side turret housing,
or gunner's active-IR night-sight housing.
while the tank is moving.
T-72 Variants and T-80. Bulgarian and Hungarian
T-72s photographed by NATO attaches in 1981 and
1982 had the normal T-72 coincidence-rangefinding
bases, but their right optics were blocked by opaque
covers. The left optical window of one of the Hungar-
ian tanks was also reported to be enlarged and divided
in half. The modified Bulgarian and Hungarian T-72s
were never given unique designators
T-72 variants without coincidence rangefinding bases
and right rangefinding optics have been observed
since 1980. These include the variant identified as a
T-80. Their left optics are the main gunsights, which
are larger than the left optics of the standard T-72s.
In addition, the left optics often appear in NATO
attache photographs to be vertically divided in half.
The fire-control systems of the modified Bulgarian
and Hungarian T-72s and T-72 variants may be
similar or identical because the same externally ob-
servable fire-control changes are on all of these
25X1
25X1
25X1
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tanks-the standard coincidence-rangefinding base is
not used, leaving their single left optics for rangefind-
ing and gunnery. We do not know what fire-control
devices are inside the tanks.
The rangefinders for the T-72 variants must fit under
the left optics of the tanks. Laser rangefinders are
likely candidates, especially considering special intel-
ligence and emigre reports on T-72 variants with laser
rangefinders.
The nature of the ballistic computing devices on the
T-72 variants depends on the interface of the new
rangefinders and the tank fire-control devices. The
new rangefinders may only indicate range measure-
ments to the gunners, who would manually enter the
ranges into ballistic computers. Alternatively, the new
rangefinders may automatically feed range signals
directly into the computers. In either case, the com-
puters could be anything from mechanical analog
devices, as in the T-64A and T-72, to all-electronic
digital circuits, as in modern Western tanks.
There are some indications of changes to the gun
drives or the links between the guns and sights of the
T-72 variants. We assume that these tanks can fire
conventional ammunition on the move.
The night-vision devices on the T-72 variants are the
same types of active-infrared sights and searchlights
found on T-64As and T-72s. The enlarged left optics
or the gunner's night-sight housing of the T-72 vari-
ants may house new passive gunnery sights
25X1
2bAl
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Sweden builds the only fielded turretless main battle
tank, the Stridsvagn-103B (Strv-103B), commonly
called the S-tank. The Swedish firm Bofors built 300
Strv-103s from 1966 to 1971 for the Swedish Army.
Although Strv-103s have been tested by other coun-
tries, none have been exported.
All Strv-103s are the B version. Strv-103As were
early production models and did not have the amphib-
ious capabilities of the Strv-103Bs. The Strv-103As
were later modified to Strv-103Bs.
The other tanks in the Swedish Army are the
Strv-101 and Strv-102. These tanks are Centurion
tanks imported from the UK.
Strv-103B
The gun is fixed in the Strv-103B tank hull because
the tank has no turret. The gun is loaded by an
autoloader. The Strv-103B crew consists of the com-
mander, gunner-driver, and a radio operator. The
commander or gunner-driver can aim the gun with
reticles in his periscopic sights
The main gun is a 105-mm, Swedish-modified,
L7-series rifled gun designated the L74. Because the
gun barrel is rigidly mounted and supported over
much of its length, it is made longer-62 calibers-
than other L7 gun barrels. The longer barrel provides
a higher muzzle velocity than that of L7 guns. The
L74 breechblock is split into halves; one opens upward
and one downward. The split breech saves space in the
low-profile hull.
The gunner-driver aims with an OPS-1 binocular
periscope made by the Swedish firm Jungner. The
aiming reticle is in the right eyepiece. The magnifica-
tion and field of view can be adjusted for driving or
gunnery. The field of view is 100 degrees at unity
power for driving. The sight magnification can be
stepped to 6, 10, or 18 power for gunnery.
Table 7
Strv-103B Weapons and
Fire-Control Systems
Main gun 105-mm L74 with 50 rounds in automatic
loader
Gunnery devices OPS-1 periscope for gunner-driver
Modified OPS-1 periscope in azimuth-
stabilized cupola for commander
Gun drive Nonstabilized electrohydraulic vehicle
suspension
Other weapons Two 7.62-mm Ksp58 coaxial machineguns
One 7.62-mm Ksp58 AA machinegun
Eight grenade launchers
Two top-mounted Lyran launchers firing
illumination rounds
The commander sits in a cupola mounted directly on
the hull. The cupola can traverse 104 degrees to either
side and is traverse-stabilized. The sight is an OPS-1
with two modifications: its line of sight is elevation-
stabilized from -11 to 16 degrees and the left eyepiece
has index marks to enable the commander to align the
cupola with the hull.
The OPS-1L, a variant of the OPS-1 sight, has been
designed for use with a laser rangefinder, but it has
yet to be fitted to Strv-103B tanks.
The variable suspension can elevate the gun from -10
to 20 degrees. The gun is aimed in azimuth by turning
the tank. The suspension can be varied while the Strv-
103B is moving, but the tank cannot fire on the move
because the suspension is not designed to provide
sufficient elevation stabilization.
The autoloader holds all 50 main gun rounds in 10
racks of five rounds each. Charge cases are automati-
cally ejected outside the tank upon firing. If the
autoloader malfunctions, the radio operator can hand-
crank the loading mechanisms.
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The Swiss Army has British-made Centurion and
Swiss-made Pz61 and Pz68 tanks. Switzerland is
evaluating the German Leopard II and US M-1
tanks, with a decision to procure one of the two types
expected in 1983.
The Swiss Centurions are the Marks 5 and 7, desig-
nated the Pz55 and Pz57 in the Swiss Army. About a
third of the 320 Swiss Centurions are Mark 5's
received from the UK, another third are surplus Mark
5's received from South Africa after 1960, and the
last third are Mark 7's from the UK. These tanks are
described in the UK Centurion section.
The Swiss Army received 150 Pz6ls from December
1965 to the end of 1966. Pz68s have been delivered in
four batches (Marks 1 through 4), each with slight
modifications. The Swiss Army received 170 Pz68
Mark l's from 1971 to 1974, 50 Mark 2's in 1977,
110 Mark 3's from 1978 to 1979, and 60 Mark 4's
from October 1981 through 1982
Pz61 and Pz68
The Pz61 and Pz68 fire-control systems consist of
coincidence rangefinders, gunner's periscopes, coaxial
telescopes, and electrohydraulic gun drives. The
Table 8
Pz61 and Pz68 Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
rangefinders have 155-cm bases and 8-power fields.
The gunner's periscopes have aiming reticles with
range marks. The guns are elevated until the appro-
priate range marks are on-target and then fired. The
gun drive of the Pz61 is not stabilized and that of the
Pz68 is stabilized in traverse and elevation
Most of the Pz61 and Pz68 tank components are
Swiss-made. The tanks are assembled at the Eidgen-
ossische Konstructionwerkstatte (Federal Construc-
tion Works) in Thun. The tanks have 105-mm L7A 1
main guns designed by the UK but made in Switzer-
land and called the Pz Kanon 61 guns. The Pz6l has a
20-mm coaxial cannon, the Masch Kanon Pz61, made
by the Swiss firm Oerlikon. The optical instruments
are made by the Swiss firm Wild Heerbrugg. The gun
drives, however, are made by the French firm
SAMM.
The only known fire-control modification among the
Pz68 batches is the provision of a thermal sleeve on
the guns of Marks 2 through 4. The Mark 3 and 4
turrets are larger than the Mark 1 and 2 turrets, but
we do not know if any fire-control changes were
made
Modified 8-power periscope for gunner
Coincidence rangefinder for commander Coincidence rangefinder for commander
Coaxial weapon
Other weapons
CH25 nonstabilized electrohydraulic drive Probably CH25-series stabilized electrohydraulic
drive
7.5-mm MG51 AA machinegun
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British-designed tanks in service or under develop-
ment in the early 1980s are the Comet, Centurion,
Chieftain, and Challenger tanks designed for the
British Army and the Vickers Mark 1, Mark 3, and
Valiant tanks built privately by Vickers Limited. All
of the tanks have been exported except the Challeng-
er, Chieftain 900, and Valiant, which are still in the
prototype test stages. A version of the Chieftain called
the Khalid is being built for Jordan. India built a
licensed copy of the Vickers Mark 1 known as the
Vijayanta.
Leyland Motors built 1,200 Comets from September
1944 to May 1945. The British Army withdrew its
last Comets from service in 1960. The Comet is in use
in Burma, Finland, Ireland, and South Africa, but
probably only for training.
The Centurion tank was the British main battle tank
of the post-World War II era until it was replaced by
the Chieftain in the late 1960s. Thousands of Centuri-
ons in several variants were exported. Many have
been upgraded and are in service in many countries.
Centurions were used in the Korean, Indo-Pakistan,
and Vietnamese wars and in all of the major wars in
the Middle East since World War II, including the
Israeli invasion of Lebanon in June 1982.
A total of 4,423 Centurions of all types were built by
the Royal Ordnance Factories, Vickers, and Leyland
Motors between 1945 and'1962. At least 2,500 were
built for export. Many Centurions in the British Army
were exported as they were replaced by Chieftains.
The Chieftain will be Britain's main battle tank until
the Challenger enters series production in the mid-
1980s. About 900 Chieftains were built for the UK
from 1965 to the early 1970s. The tanks are deployed
in nine British Army of the Rhine regiments and two
domestic regiments.
The computerized Integrated Fire-Control System
(IFCS) designed by Marconi Space and Defence
Systems is being installed, either as original equip-
ment or a retrofit, in Khalids and all British Army
Chieftains.
Challenger, the newest tank design for the British
Army, will begin entering service about 1985. It is
regarded as a new-generation tank equivalent to the
German Leopard II and US MI tanks. Challenger
will have nonhomogeneous armor and a version of the
IFCS.
Vickers Limited privately developed a tank in the late
1950s, hoping to sell it to lesser developed countries to
offset the company's declining Centurion production.
The tank, called the Vickers Mark 1, was adopted by
the Indian Army in 1961. Production of the Mark 1,
renamed the Vijayanta by India, began in 1965 at a
Vickers-built plant in Avadi, India. About 1,200
Vijayantas had been produced by 1981. An unclassi-
fied arms market survey has stated that India is
developing a successor to the Vijayanta, but we do not
know the status of the program. In late 1980 India
ordered Marconi Radar's Simplified Fire-Control
System-600 (SFCS-600) for retrofitting into the
Vijayanta.
1970 and 1972.
The Vickers Mark 2 was to carry two Swingfire
ATGM launchers on the sides of the turret, but it was
never produced.
The Vickers Mark 3, which features a more advanced
fire-control system than the Mark 1 and Vijayanta,
was first ordered by Kenya in 1977. Vickers complet-
ed the first of 76 Mark 3's for Kenya in 1980. Vickers
offers several options for the Mark 3, including the
SFCS-600, 12.7-mm machineguns, passive night
sights, and counterrotating cupolas. The cupolas on
the Kenyan tanks are hand cranked and are not
counterrotating. Nigeria ordered 47 Mark 3's with
the SFCS-600 and passive Condor sights in August
1981.
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Table 9
Centurion Mark 5 and Mark 13 Weapons
and Fire-Control Systems
Centurion
Mark 5
Centurion
Mark 13
Gunnery devices No. 1 Mark 1 or Mark 2 coaxial telescope No. 18 Mark 1 or Mark 2 or No. 30 Mark I day
periscope
Optional 1121/03 active-IR night telescope Optional A-1198-A active-IR night periscope
Active-IR Source Optional white/IR searchlight
Gun drive GCE No. I Mark 4/1,
stabilized, all electric
7.62-mm L8A1 coaxial machinegun
Vickers developed a nonhomogeneous-armor proto-
type tank in the late 1970s. Testing of the new
prototype tank, the Valiant, began in 1980. The final
design has not been determined; the Valiant is being
tested with the SFCS-600 fire-control system. F_
The following sections outline the development of the
tanks from a weapon and fire-control viewpoint. The
simpler fire-control systems are described in the ap-
propriate tank development sections. However, the
IFCS and SFCS-600 systems are discussed separately
because both systems are being adapted for refitting
to several late-model British tanks.
Comet
The main gun of the Comet is the 76.2-mm Ordnance
Quick-Firing Mark 2. The gun is often listed as
77 mm to distinguish it from the 76.2-mm 17-pounder
gun used on other British tanks of the late 1940s and
early 1950s. The British used to designate their guns
by ammunition weights; 17-pounders are 76.2-mm
guns and 20-pounders are 83.4-mm guns. The
76.2-mm gun was designed to fire World War II
armor-piercing, capped (APC) and HE rounds. We
know of no Comet gun retrofits.
Optional white/IR searchlight
Modified GCE No. 1,
stabilized, all electric
7.62-mm L8A1 coaxial machinegun
The other Comet weapons are 7.92-mm Besa
machineguns mounted coaxially with the main gun
and in the bow of the hull. The Comet was designed
for a crew of five with a bow machinegunner next to
the driver and the commander, gunner, and loader in
the turret. Twelve smoke-grenade launchers are
mounted on the turret.
Comet fire-control equipment is simple. The gunner
has a coaxial telescope to point the main gun. The
commander visually acquires targets and estimates
ranges. The gun drive consists of an electric turret-
traverse drive produced by the firm Lucas and man-
ual gun-elevating gears. The turret and gun are not
Centurion
The Centurion production variants-Marks 1 through
13-are the result of numerous engine changes, armor
improvements, gun replacements, and fire-control
changes by the British. Export customers, notably the
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Israelis, Jordanians, South Africans, Swedes, and
Swiss, have continued to modify their Centurions.
Changes have included modification of the cupola,
gun mount, and gun drive and the addition of night-
vision devices and ranging machineguns (RGMs). One
military publication has claimed that the Israeli Cen-
turions have undergone 2,000 modificationsF_~
Most Centurions still in service probably have fire-
control systems typified by those of the Centurion
Mark 5 or Mark 13. The gunners aim with coaxial
telescopes containing aiming marks or with RMGs.
All Centurion gun drives are stabilized.
We are not confident that we have accurate informa-
tion on the modifications to all of the Centurions in
use worldwide. Many Centurions were exported and
then reexported as client states bought more modern
tanks.
The remainder of the Centurion section outlines the
differences between the planned production models
and those we know have been exported.
The Centurion went into production in 1945. One
hundred Mark l's and 250 Mark 2's were built from
1945 to 1948. The Mark l's and 2's had 76.2-mm
main guns and 7.92-mm Besa machineguns; Mark l's
also had a 20-mm Polsten cannon. The main guns
were stabilized by electric gun drives. Some of the
Mark 2's were exported to Canada and Denmark. All
of the 76.2-mm guns on the Mark 2's, including those
on the exports, were replaced by 83.4-mm guns in
1950-51, resulting in the Mark 3 design.
The Mark 3 had the largest production run of the
Centurion program, with 2,833 built from 1947 to
1956. Mark 3's were exported to Egypt and South
Africa, and they reached Israel through Germany in
1959.
Most of the Mark 3's were upgraded to Mark 5's.
(The Mark 4 was never produced.) The Mark 5 was
the most widely exported Centurion model. Of the
over 3,000 Mark 5's resulting from the Mark 3
upgrade and production of 221 new Mark 5's in 1955-
58, about 2,500 were exported to Australia, Canada,
Denmark, India, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya,
the Netherlands, South Africa, Sweden, and Switzer-
land. South Africa received its Centurion Mark 5's
from the United Kingdom, India, Iraq, and Jordan.
Switzerland received 100 surplus Mark 5's from
South Africa about 1960. Swiss Mark 5's are desig-
nated the Pz55 tanks; Swedish Mark 5's, the Strv-101
tanks. Mark 5's were used by the British Army in the
1956 Suez Canal War.
Many exported Centurions are probably in the basic
Mark 5 configuration. The Mark 5 weapons are an
83.4-mm main gun and either M1919, L8, or L37
7.62-mm coaxial and top-mounted machineguns. The
gunner aims the main and coaxial guns with a No. I
Mark 1 or Mark 2 coaxial telescope. The telescope
has a 6-power field with a ballistic reticle. The gun
drive, commercially known as the EC517, is an all-
electric GCE No. 1 Mark 4 mechanism that provides
turret and gun stabilization.
The Mark 5 was followed by the Mark 7. It consisted
of a Mark 5 turret on a new Leyland hull that
provided more fuel and ammunition stowage within
the armor than previous Centurion hulls. The 455
Mark 7's built from 1953 to 1960 were exported to
Australia, India, Israel, Kuwait, the Netherlands,
South Africa, Sweden, and Switzerland. The 100
Swiss Mark 7's are designated the Pz57 tanks; the
Swedish Mark 7's, the Strv-102 tanks
The Mark 8 is a Mark 7 with a modified turret. The
turret features a new counterrotating cupola for the
commander, a new gun mount, and a new elevation
mechanism in the gun drive. The new gun mount
consists of resiliently mounted trunnions. It is de-
signed to prevent shearing the gun off the trunnions if
the barrel strikes an obstacle. A total of 108 Mark 8's
were produced from 1955 to 1960, and several were
exported to Israel.
By the mid-1950s, most Mark 5's, 7's, and 8's had
83.4-mm guns. A major upgrading of the armor and
guns on many of the Centurions began in the mid-
1950s. A 105-mm gun was developed for the Centuri-
on. It was the forerunner of the L7-series 105-mm
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guns on many Western tanks today. Basically, the
Marks 5, 7, and 8 with improved armor are designat-
ed the Marks 5/1, 7/1, and 8/1 and the versions with
105-mm guns are the Marks 5/2, 7/2, and 8/2.
Australia, Canada, Denmark, and the Netherlands
installed 105-mm guns on their Centurions. The
Marks 5, 7, and 8 with both improved armor and the
105-mm gun are designated Marks 6, 9, and 10 by the
The Mark 10 was the last original-production Centu-
rion. The gun drive was designed to turn on the
stabilizer circuits automatically at vehicle speeds over
6.5 km per hour. From 1959 to 1962, 155 Mark 10's
were produced, ending Centurion productio
Subsequent Centurion modifications were smaller
scale additions, consisting of active IR night sights
and searchlights and 12.7-mm RMGs for the 105-mm
main guns. Older infrared sights were the US
1121/03 gunner's sights, 1210/03 commander's
sights, and A-1198-A general night periscopes. Most
of the Centurions with IR sights had external stowage
baskets on their bustles so the sights could be stored
inside the turrets. The addition of IR sights to the
Marks 6, 9, and 10 resulted in the Marks 6/1, 9/1,
and 10/1; the addition of RMGs resulted in the
Marks 6/2, 9/2, and 10/2. The addition of IR sights
and RMGs to the Marks 6, 9, and 10 resulted in the
Marks 11, 12, and 13. The Mark 13 was introduced in
1964, and it is the highest numbered Centurion
variant.
On the Mark 13, the commander's and gunner's
periscope mirrors are mechanically linked, and both
of their periscopes have the aiming scales for the main
and coaxial guns. The RMG is used for rangefinding.
Some Mark 13's have white/IR searchlights mounted
left of the main guns and optional active-IR night
sights. The Mark 13 has all-electric gun drives with
stabilizing circuits. The commander can override the
turret-traverse power but not the gunner's control of
elevation. The gun drive has two powered modes of
operation-a stabilized-azimuth, stabilized-elevation
mode and a semiautomatic mode that onl provide
nonstabilized powered traverse.
Modifications to Exported Centurions. Beginning in
1970, Israel upgraded its 400 Mark 5, 7, and 8
Centurions. Most or all of the Israeli Centurions were
equipped with 105-mm L7 or M68 guns. Night-vision
sights and xenon searchlights were added. Some of
the Israeli Centurions have Number 5210 Nd:YAG
laser rangefinders made by the firm El-Op. Some
Israeli Centurions also have two top-mounted
7.62-mm machineguns.
Jordanian Centurions are being retrofitted with the
Belgian-made SABCA fire-control devices and US
Cadillac Gage stabilization mechanisms. The
SABCA devices are similar to those in Australian,
Belgian, and Canadian Leopard I tanks.
South Africa probably has Centurion Marks 3, 5, and
7. South Africa may be retrofitting its Centurions. It
is
probably developing 105-mm guns for its Centurions.
South Africa also has begun producing its own version
of the Centurion, the Olifant (see the South African
entry).
Both Sweden and Switzerland have considered retro-
fitting their Centurions (Swedish Strv-101 and -102
and Swiss Pz55 and 57) with a Vickers retrofit
package. The retrofit would include a 105-mm gun (if
the tank does not have one), an RMG for the 105-mm
gun or an optional Marconi-L. M. Ericcson Nd:YAG
laser rangefinder, a new commander's cupola with a
1- or 15-power sight and counterrotating option,
passive night sights, and the EC750 stabilized gun
drive. The EC750, designed by Marconi Radar Sys-
tems in Leicester, United Kingdom, is a modularized,
easily installed system intended for fitting by the
Chieftain, Khalid, and Challenger
The Chieftain Marks 1 through 12 are characterized
by various retrofittings of the initial production ver-
sions of the tank. The first Chieftains, the Mark l's,
were training models issued to the British Army from
1965 to 1967. The Mark 2's entered service in 1967
and the Mark 3's in 1969. The Marks 3/G, 3/2, and
3/S were Mark 3's with ventilation modifications for
the turrets and engines. These early Chieftains used
coaxial RMGs
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The Mark 3/3 was a Mark 3 with an extended-range
RMG and the first fitting of a laser rangefinder,
which would later replace the RMG, in a Chieftain.
The Mark 3/3 had a laser rangefinder fitted in 1970.
Beginning in 1971, some Mark 3/3 tanks were export-
Further development of the Mark 3/3, including fire-
control changes, resulted in the Mark 5. (The Mark 4
was never produced.) About 770 of the British Chief-
tains were Mark 3's and 5's in the mid-1970s. Britain
exported about 700 Mark 5's to Iran, with delivery
ending in 1978, and 160 Mark 5's to Kuwait with
delivery ending in 1979. Iraq has captured some
Iranian Chieftains, probably Mark 5's, during the
Iran-Iraq war that started in September 1980. Iraq
may have sent many of the captured Chieftains to
Jordan.
Further engine and RMG modifications of the Marks
2, 3, and 3/3 resulted in the Marks 6, 7, and 8,
respectively
In 1974 Iran ordered the Shir I and Shir II Chieftain
variants, but it canceled the order in 1979 before any
deliveries. The Shir I was a Chieftain Mark 5 with a
modified engine and fire-control system; the IFCS
was added to the Shir I, which was offered to Jordan
under the name Khalid. Jordan has received the first
of an order of at least 278 Khalids. The Shir II was a
nonhomogeneous-armor design that became the basis
of Britain's newest tank, the Challenger.
In the last half of the 1970s, Marconi Space and
Defence Systems Ltd. developed the IFCS for use in
Chieftain tanks. The United Kingdom intends to
retrofit all of the Chieftains it has in service with the
IFCS. After the retrofits, the Marks 6, 7, 8, and 5 will
become the Marks 9, 10, 11, and 12, respectively.
None of the exported Chieftains except the Jordanian
Khalid have the IFCS.
Chieftain and Khalid. All current Chieftain fire-
control systems are probably similar or identical to
the IFCS fitted in the Mark 12 or the systems of the
Marks 3, 3/3, or 5.
The 120-mm LI I-series Chieftain guns fire APDS
and HESH ammunition. The charges are stowed in
water bins in many Chieftains as a fire prevention
measure. Smoke rounds, which are ballistically
matched to the HESH rounds, are available. The
United Kingdom requires the 120-mm guns to fire 10
rounds per minute for the first minute and 6 rounds
per minute for the next four minutes.
The main fire-control difference between the Marks 3
and 3/3 is the rangefinding equipment. The Mark 3
uses a 12.7-mm coaxial RMG. The RMG rounds
were initially ballistically matched to the HESH main
rounds over the first 1,800 meters; in the 1970s,
rounds matched over the first 2,500 meters were
issued. No ranging has been practiced for APDS
rounds fired at ranges of less than 1,000 meters. The
commander fires the RMG and can fire the main gun.
In 1970 the gunner's sight on the Mark 3/3 was fitted
with a Barr and Stroud LF2 laser rangefinder. The
LF2 could measure ranges out to 5,000 meters with
an accuracy of 10 meters. A new gunner's mount was
developed for the LF2-equipped sight. Because the
RMG trajectories showed the crew how to correct for
cant angles and the laser rangefinder did not, a cant
sensor and corrector were installed in the LF2-
equipped sight.
Chieftain Marks 3 and 3/3 tanks have LIA1 night
sights for the commander's and gunner's periscopes.
The night sights have IR-to-visible converters that
require active-IR sources. Chieftains have a 2-kilo-
watt (kW) xenon white/IR searchlight permanently
mounted in an armored housing on the left side of the
turret. The searchlight mirror, which directs the
elevation of the light beam, is mechanically linked to
the main gun.
The Chieftain Marks 3 and 3/3 gun drive is a
stabilized, all-electric drive that uses metadyne con-
trollers.
As originally fitted, the Mark 5 fire-control system
has a few minor modifications compared with the
Mark 3/3. The gunner's telescope contains a reticle
for the extended-range RMG rounds. (The Chieftains
retained the RMG, even with the laser rangefinders.)
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Table 10
Chieftain and Khalid Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
Chieftain Mark 3
Chieftain
Mark 3/3
Chieftain
Mark 5
Chieftain
Mark 12
Khalid
120-mm L1IA2
or L1 1A3
120-mm LI1A2
or Ll lA3
120-mm L1IA3
or Ll lA5
120-mm L1IA5
120-mm LIIA5
No. 38 Mark 1
day periscope
LF2 laser
rangefinder
Barr & Stroud
tank laser sight
unit containing
Nd:YAG laser
Barr & Stroud
tank laser sight
unit containing
Nd:YAG laser
Barr & Stroud
tank laser sight
unit containing
Nd:YAG laser
.50-caliber
L21 RMG
.50-caliber
L21A1 extended-
range RMG
.50-caliber
L21A1 extended-
range RMG
No RMG
No RMG
L1A1 active-IR
periscope
LIAI active-IR
periscope
L3A1 active-IR
periscope
L4A1 active-IR
periscope
No active-IR
sights
Xenon search-
light
Xenon search-
light
Xenon search-
light
Xenon search-
light
No. 26 Mark I
coaxial telescope
No. 26 Mark 1
coaxial telescope
No. 26 Mark 1
coaxial telescope
No. 26 Mark 1
coaxial telescope
No. 26 Mark I
coaxial telescope
Commander's sights
No. 15 cupola
No. 15 cupola
No. 15 cupola
No. 15 cupola
No. 15 cupola
No. 37 Mark 3
or 4 day
periscope
No. 37 Mark 3
or 4 day
periscope
No. 37 Mark 3
or 4 day
periscope
No. 37 Mark 3
or 4 day
periscope
Pilkington Condor
passive day/night
sight
L1A1 active-IR
night periscope
L1A1 active-IR
night periscope
LIA1 active-IR
night periscope
LIA1 active-IR
night periscope
Gun drive
Stabilized
all electric
Stabilized
all electric
GCE No. 7 Mark
4 stabilized all
electric
GCE No. 10 or
1 l stabilized all
electric
GCE No. 10 or
11 stabilized all
electric
7.62-mm L8A1
coaxial
machinegun
7.62-mm L8A1
coaxial
machinegun
7.62-mm L8A1
coaxial
machinegun
7.62-mm L8A2
coaxial
machinegun
7.62-mm L8A2
coaxial
machinegun
7.62-mm L37A1
AA machinegun
7.62-mm L37A1
AA machinegun
7.62-mm L37A1
AA machinegun
7.62-mm L37A2
AA machinegun
7.62-mm L37A2
AA machinegun
The commander's sights are the same except that an
extended-range RMG reticle was installed in the
collimator.
Chieftain, Khalid, and Challenger Tanks With
IFCS. The IFCS is basically a Chieftain Mark 5 fire-
The Chieftain and Khalid IFCS computer is a Marco-
ni 12-12P electronic digital computer. The Challenger
IFCS may use a Ferranti F100-L computer; the
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United Ki
ngdom had not
made its final decision as of
mid-1983.
25X1
control system with automatic sensors and a digital The gunner's sight is a British Barr and Stroud tank
computer added to generate ballistic solutions. It laser sight (TLS) containing a Nd:YAG laser range-
consists of the computer, gunner's and commander's finder. The sensors developed for the IFCS measure
sights and controls, sensors, and gun drive.
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cant angle, sight elevation, air pressure, air tempera-
ture, ammunition temperature, windspeed, gun and
turret positions, and traverse and elevation rates. The
gun drive is a stabilized, all-electric drive using
gyroscopes and amplidynes to keep the gun steady
while the tank is halted or moving.
The different versions of the IFCS work alike, but
contain different sets of automatic sensors. The com-
puter processes the sensor inputs to generate the
aiming angles for the gun. The angle signals are sent
from the computer to the gunner's sight.
An IFCS engagement begins when the commander
acquires a target, issues firing orders, and traverses
the turret toward the target. The loader loads the gun
with the ammunition specified by the commander as
the turret traverses. The gunner acquires sight of the
target in the TLS and presses the appropriate ammu-
nition selection button on his gun-control handleF_
The IFCS computer positions two reference marks in
the gunner's TLS: a muzzle-boresight mark and an
aiming mark. The muzzle-boresight mark shows
where the gun is pointing and is constantly displayed.
The muzzle-boresight mark can be checked periodi-
cally for alignment with the gun from within the tank
with the aid of a muzzle-reference system supplied
with the IFCS sensors. The aiming mark is an ellipse
projected into the TLS field of view after rangefind-
ing and is used to aim the gun.
After the gunner has the target in sight and the
ammunition has been selected, he places the muzzle-
boresight mark on the target (by operating the gun
drive) and fires the laser rangefinder. Laser-firing
initiates the computation sequence. The computer
accepts inputs from the laser rangefinder, other auto-
matic sensors, and the commander. The computer
begins computing and projects the aiming mark into
the gunner's sight. The size of the aiming mark is
automatically adjusted for the range reading so that
the ellipse just fits around a tank-size target image.
aiming mark off the target by a vertical angle equal
and opposite to the superelevation angle and a hori-
zontal angle equal and opposite to the azimuth-offset
angle. If the gunner keeps the Autolay switch de-
pressed, the gun shifts up by the superelevation angle
and over by the azimuth-offset angle. The aiming
mark shifts back onto the target, and the muzzle-
boresight mark shifts off the target. When the aiming
mark is back on target, the gunner can fire the gun.
The gunner can aim the gun without keeping the
Autolay switch depressed by using the thumb joystick
on his control handle to move the gun and turret.F_
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If a target is moving, the gunner must track it for one
to five seconds after the laser is fired. The gunner
tracks the target by moving the gun and turret to keep
the muzzle-boresight mark on the target image. Sen-
sors in the gun drive feed azimuth and elevation rates 25X1
into the computer. These rates are used to compute
lead angles that are added to the aiming angles. After
the initial tracking period, the gunner presses the
Autolay switch and the aiming sequence progresses to
firing.
The commander in an IFCS-equipped tank can also
aim and fire the gun. The computer-generated marks
are projected into his sight (a modified Chieftain No.
37 periscope). The commander's control handle is the
same as that of the gunner, except the commander
can override the gunner.
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Vickers Tanks With SFCS-600
The SFCS-600 is a computer-controlled fire-control
system designed in the late 1970s by Marconi Radar
Systems Limited. We are less sure of the exact
configuration of an SFCS-600 than that of present
IFCSs because it is more modular, is a more recent
development, and few have been built. Generally, the
SFCS-600 has fewer automatic sensors than the
IFCS, and the SFCS-600 sequence usually requires a
small final aiming correction by the gunner. However,
the electronic technology in the SFCS-600 is as 25X1
sophisticated as that of the IFCS. 25X1
At this point, the gunner presses an "Autolay" switch
on his control handle and begins the aiming sequence.
When the computer has computed the aiming angles,
it indicates the angle to the gunner by shifting the
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The SFCS-600 is primarily intended as an export
system for retrofitting into Centurion, Chieftain, and
Vickers tanks. The only confirmed SFCS-600 orders
are the Indian order for the Vijayanta tanks and a
Nigerian order for Vickers Mark 3 tanks.
The SFCS-600 consists of a computer, a laser-range-
finding gunner's sight, and a few sensors. It does not
include a gun drive because it is intended for retrofit-
ting into tanks with powered gun drives. The installa-
tion of an SFCS-600 into a tank would involve fitting
of traverse- and elevation-rate sensors and rate con-
trollers into its gun drive.
The SFCS-600 computer is a Marconi EC-600 digital
electronic computer. The computer contains a US
Intel 8085 microprocessor with several read-only
memories (ROMs). The ROMs are used to store
ammunition characteristics; ROMs that are matched
to the ammunition used by the tank being fitted would
be supplied with each SFCS-600. The SFCS-600
configuration can be adapted to accept at least three
gunner's sights with Nd:glass or Nd:YAG laser
rangefinders: the British Barr and Stroud TLS used in
Chieftains, the British Avimo Company's LV2 sight,
and the Norwegian Ericsson Company's tank laser-
rangefinding sight. The SFCS-600 computer can be
adapted to accept inputs from automatic sensors such
as those used in the IFCS. However, the SFCS-600
was designed to accept manual inputs of some of the
ballistic factors measured automatically in the IFCS,
bypassing the requirement for costly sensors. The
SFCS-600 usually includes a cant sensor.
Target engagement with the SFCS-600 is similar to
that of the IFCS. Two marks are projected into the
gunner's sight-a permanent cross showing the true
muzzle-boresight position and an aiming spot project-
ed after computation of the aiming angles. The
gunner uses the gun-drive controls in the tank to steer
the gun and turret until the cross is on target. If the
target is moving, the gunner tracks it by keeping the
cross on target. When the gunner judges that the
turret-traverse motions are sufficiently smooth, he
depresses an initiation button. This begins feeding
azimuth and elevation rates into the computer from
the gun drive in preparation for ballistic computation.
After a few seconds, the gunner releases the initiation
button.
Upon release of the initiation button, the SFCS-600
begins automatic aiming. The laser rangefinder fires
and ranges, and other inputs enter the computer. The
computer calculates the aiming angles, and the aim-
ing spot appears in the gunner's sight. The spot
immediately appears offset by angles equal and oppo-
site the aiming angles. The computer then automati-
cally sends control signals to the gun drive, and the
gun drive traverses the turret and elevates the gun by
amounts approximately equal to the aiming angles.
This causes the aiming spot to approach the target,
flickering in intensity as it moves. When it is on or
near the target, the intensity of the spot is steady. The
gunner makes the final aiming correction by moving
the gun until the spot is on target and then fires
The commander may or may not be able to use the
SFCS-600, depending on how the system has been
fitted. Many commander's sights can be adapted to be
used with the SFCS-600. For example, the British
Pilkington Condor sight, a passive day/night sight
using image intensifiers, can be adapted for use with
the SFCS-600. India may procure these sights, and
the Valiant prototype is being tested with the
SFCS-600 and the Condor sights
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Except for the new M 1 tank, US tanks-M60s,
M48s, M47s, and M4s-are in worldwide service
today. The MI entered series production for the US
Army in 1981 and is being evaluated for possible
procurement by Switzerland. The M60 family of
tanks are the most numerous in the US Army, and
large numbers of M48s also are in service. Older
M47s and M4s are no longer used by the US Army
but still are used by several other countries.
The most extensive fire-control changes in post-
World War II US tanks occurred during the evolution
of the M48 and M60 series of tanks. Many new
devices for rangefinding, computing, aiming, and
night vision were developed for the middle and later
models of each series, and the devices were retrofitted
on earlier models. M48s and M60s in the US Army
have been upgraded to become M48A5s and
M60A3s. There are two M60A3 versions-one with
and one without a thermal-imaging sight. Technologi-
cally, the MI fire-control system is equivalent to that
of the thermal-imaging version of the M60A3, al-
though the fire-control hardware in the MI and
M60A3 are different.
M48s and M60s have been exported for the last 25
years. Many of the older M48s in foreign armies have
been upgraded to M48A5 standards, and several
countries are buying retrofit kits to upgrade their
older model M60s to M60A3 standards.
Most M4s and M47s were exported in the 1950s.
Most major fire-control modifications on the M4s and
M47s were done for foreign armies by US and foreign
contractors.
M4 Sherman Tank Models
The M4 Sherman tank was originally used in World
War II. The major differences among the many M4
models were the gun sizes, ammunition stowage,
armor construction, engine types, and suspensions.
Fire-control changes were the result of gun changes.
The M4 fire-control system consisted of a periscope
linked to the gun elevation and a coaxial telescope.
The periscope and telescope had fixed reticles for
aiming the gun; the reticles had to be changed when a
different gun was fitted. Changing to a larger gun
also required modification of the gun mount, gun
drive, and sometimes the entire turret.
The production model tanks-the original M4, M4A1
through M4A4, and M4A6 were built with either
short-barreled, 75-mm M3 guns or longer barreled,
76.2-mm M 1 A 1 or M 1 A2 guns. The M4A5s were
built by Canada with 57-mm guns.
The British refitted their M4s with 83.4-mm
17-pounder guns in World War II and called the
tanks the "Fireflies." M4 Fireflies are still in service
in Argentina and Yugoslavia
Israel received many M4s from France in the mid-
1950s. Some of the Israeli M4s with 76.2-mm guns
were designated Mls by Israel. Both Israeli and
Egyptian M4s were refitted with French 75-mm high-
velocity guns, designated the CN-75-50s, by two
competing French companies in the mid-to-late
1950s. Schneider-Creusot did the work for Israel;
Batignolles-Chatillon, for Egypt. The Israelis called
their M4s with French 75-mm guns the M50s. M50s
are still in service with the Christian Militia in
Lebanon.
Israel later fitted M4s with 105-mm guns, designating
the newly fitted tanks as M5 Is and the guns
D1504-L/44s. The D1504 guns were Israeli-made,
shorter barreled (44 caliber) versions of the French
CN-105-F1 (56 caliber) guns now used on the
AMX-30 tanks.
Since 1973 many of the aging Israeli M4s have been
converted into artillery pieces; observation vehicles; or
noncombatant utility, recovery, and ambulance vehi-
cles. Israeli M4s were not used in advance Israeli
units in the invasion of Lebanon in 1982.
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Table 11
M47 Weapons and Fire-Control
Systems
Main gun
Gunnery devices
Commander's sight
Gun drive
90-mm M36 rifled gun
M20 periscope
M12 stereoscopic rangefinder
M20 periscope
Nonstabilized, manually operated,
hydraulically assisted system
7.62-mm M1919 coaxial and bow
machineguns
M47
The M47 was the first US tank with a nonstadia-
metric rangefinder and ballistic computer and the last
tank produced in the world for a crew of five. Original
M47s have 90-mm M36 rifled guns.
The M12 sight in the M47 consists of a stereoscopic
rangefinder combined into a primary aiming sight for
the gunner. The M47 ballistic computer consists of
ballistic cams in the M 12 sight. The gunner manually
adjusts the cams by selecting the correct cam and
dialing in the measured target range. The cams
transmit the correct superelevation angles to the sight
reticles. M12 sights are being produced in Italy.
For observation, the M47 commander and gunner
have M20 periscopes, and the other crew members
each have an M 13 periscope.
Exported M47 Tanks. The United States began ex-
porting M47s in 1954, and they are still in wide
service. The fire-control systems on some M47s were
modified during the 1970s.
France, Iran, Israel, and Italy have fitted 105-mm
guns on some of their M47s. The 105-mm M47s are
sometimes called M47 RKMs by Israel and M47Ms
by Iran. The 105-mm guns are the CN-105-F1 in
France, M68 in Israel, and L7 in Italy
Iranian M47s are being upgraded with 105-mm guns
of unknown origin at an Iranian plant that was built
by the US firm Bowen-McLaughlin-York (BMY) in
1970-72. NATO attaches have reported that the M47
is also being fitted with a new fire-control system said
to be equivalent to that of the M60A1. The Iranian
plant is also providing new 90-mm guns for Pakistani
Spain has rebuilt 385 M47s with new fire-control
systems. These M47s are sometimes called either
M47S or M47E tanks. NATO attaches have reported
that the new fire-control system is equivalent to that
of the M60A1.
M48
Production of the first M48s was completed in 1952.
The early M48 fire-control technology was similar to
that of the M47, but the M48 commander had the
stereoscopic rangefinder. The commander called out
the range, and the gunner responded by indexing the
range on a ballistic drive linked to the gunner's
periscope. Setting the ballistic drive shifted a reticle in
the periscope eyepiece. The gun was elevation linked
to the periscope; raising the gun caused the target
image to shift back to the reticle, at which time the
gun was ready to fire. Another difference between the
M48 and M47 was the fitting of a Cadillac Gage
nonstabilized, electrohydraulic gun drive in the M48.
An override switch in the electrical circuits to the
hydraulic pumps enabled the commander to quickly
override the gunner's control of the traverse.
The M48s before the M48A1 had the first ballistic
computer on a US tank. The ballistic computer
consisted of a separate cam-operated mechanism
linked by shafts to the rangefinder and ballistic drive.
The gunner switched the appropriate cams to select
the correct mechanical algorithm for the loaded am-
munition. The range automatically entered the com-
puter by rotation of the rangefinder shaft, and the
computer-output gun elevation was then automatical-
ly transmitted to the periscope reticle by rotation of
the ballistic drive shaft.
Incremental fire-control changes continued in the first
M48A2 and M48A2C models. For example, the
M48A2C had a temperature-compensated ballistic
drive and a quicker traverse override for the com-
mander. Later M48 models incorporated more signifi-
cant changes.
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Table 12
M48 Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
Main gun 90-mm M41 90-mm M41 90-mm M41
rifled gun rifled gun rifled gun
Gunnery devices M20 periscope M20 periscope M20 periscope
M5 ballistic M5 ballistic M5 ballistic
drive drive drive
M97C coaxial M97C coaxial M97C coaxial
telescope telescope telescope
M 13 analog M 13 analog M 13 analog
mechanical mechanical mechanical
computer computer computer
No night-vision No night-vision AN/VSS-1
aids aids xenon white/
IR searchlight
Commander's devices No cupola M1 manually Ml cupola
traversed
cupola
M 13 stereo- M 13 stereo- M 13 stereo-
scopic scopic scopic
rangefinder rangefinder rangefinder
Other weapons .30 caliber .30 caliber 7.62-mm M73
M 1919A4 M 1919A4 coaxial
coaxial coaxial machinegun
machinegun machinegun
M2-HB AA M2-HB AA M2-HB AA
machinegun machinegun machinegun
90-mm M41 90-mm M4l 105-mm M68
rifled gun rifled gun rifled gun
M20 periscope M32 periscope M32 periscope
with active-IR with active-lR
night channel night channel
M 10 ballistic M I OA6 ballis- M I OA6 ballis-
drive tic drive tic drive
M97C coaxial M 105 coaxial M 105 coaxial
telescope telescope telescope
M13 AIC MI3BIC ana- MI3BIC or
computer log mechanical MI3A4 analog
computer mechanical
computer
AN/VSS-1 AN/VSS-1 AN/VSS-1
xenon white/ xenon white/ xenon white/
IR searchlight IR searchlight IR searchlight
M 1 cupola M 1 cupola Low-profile
cupola
M 17 coinci- M17 coinci- M 17 coinci-
dence range- dence range- dence range-
finder finder finder
7.62-mm M73 7.62-mm M73 7.62-mm M219
coaxial coaxial coaxial
machinegun machinegun machinegun
M2-HB AA M2-HB AA 7.62-mm
machinegun machinegun M60D AA
machinegun
The M 13-series stereoscopic rangefinders were re-
placed by M17-series coincidence rangefinders in the
M48A2C. The coincidence rangefinders became the
standard rangefinder and were retrofitted into older
M48s. The ballistic drives were changed on the
M48A2C to accommodate the coincidence range-
finders.
The M48A2 and M48A2C tanks had a night-firing
capability provided by 2.2-kW AN/VSS-1 xenon
searchlights. These searchlights and their successors,
the l-kW AN/VSS-3 searchlights, are the US
Army's standard white light or near-IR sources.for
tanks.
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Table 13
M60 Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
M60
M60A1
Passive
M60A1
AOS
105-mm M68
rifled gun
105-mm M68
rifled gun
105-mm M68
rifled gun
M32 periscope
with active-IR
channel
M32E1 peri-
scope with
passive night
channel
M32E1 peri-
scope with pas-
sive night
channel
M13A2
computer
M10A1 ballis-
tic drive
M105D coaxial
telescope
AN/VSS-1
searchlight
M13A2
computer
M10A5 ballis-
tic drive
M105D coaxial
telescope
AN/VSS-1
searchlight
M13A2
computer
M10A5 ballis-
tic drive
M105D coaxial
telescope
AN/VSS-1
searchlight
Commander's devices
M19 cupola
M17AI
coincidence
rangefinder
M36 periscope
with active-IR
night channel
M19 cupola
M17A1
coincidence
rangefinder
M36E1 peri-
scope with pas-
sive night
channel
M19 cupola
M17C
coincidence
rangefinder
M36E1 peri-
scope with pas-
sive night
channel
Nonstabilized
electrohy-
draulic system
Nonstabilized
electrohydrau-
lic system
Stabilized elec-
trohydraulic
system
7.62-mm M73
coaxial
machinegun
7.62-mm M73,
M219, or M240
coaxial
machineguns
7.62-mm M73,
M219, or M240
coaxial
machineguns
12.7-mm M85
AA machine-
gun (all M60s)
M60A2 M60A3 M60A3
Thermal
152-mm M162 105-mm M68 105-mm M68
tube firing Shil- rifled gun rifled gun
lelagh missiles
M50 periscope M35E1 peri- M35E1 peri-
with passive scope with scope with
night channel passive night AN/VSG-2
channel, thermal-
AN/VSG-2 imaging
thermal- channel
imaging sight
on thermal
version
M19 electronic M21 electronic M21 electronic
computer solid-state solid-state
computer computer
M10A3 ballis- M10A3 ballis-
tic drive tic drive
M126 coaxial M105D coaxial M105D coaxial
telescope telescope telescope
AN/VSS-1 AN/VSS-3 AN/VSS-3
searchlight searchlight searchlight
Stabilized M19 cupola M19 cupola
cupola
AN/VVS-1 AN/VVG-2 AN/VVG-2
ruby laser ruby laser ruby laser
rangefinder rangefinder rangefinder
M36E1 peri- M36E1 peri-
M51 periscope scope with pas- scope with pas-
with passive live night sive night
night channel channel channel
Stabilized elec- Stabilized elec- Stabilized elec-
trohydraulic trohydraulic trohydraulic
system linking system system
gun and cupola
7.62-mm M219 7.62-mm M240 7.62-mm M240
coaxial coaxial coaxial
machineguns machineguns machineguns
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Table 14
M1 Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
rangefinder. The M60A3 and MI fire-control systems
use different devices but work similarly and use the
same technology.
Main gun 105-mm M68 until mid-1980s
120-mm Rheinmetall smoothbore XM256
after 1984
Gunnery devices Gunner's primary sight (GPS) contains
Nd:YAG laser-rangefinder and AN/VSG
thermal-imaging channel, interfaced with
electronic digital computer
Gunner's auxiliary sight (Kollmorgen 939
coaxial telescope)
Commander's sights Commander's weapon station sight with
commander's GPS extension
AA gun sight
Gun drive Stabilized electrohydraulic drive elevation
slaved to GPS mirror
Other weapons 7.62-mm M240 coaxial machinegun
7.62-mm M240 loader's machinegun
12.7-mm M2-HB commander's AA gun
M239 smoke grenade launchers
Exported M48 Tanks. Most of the M48s in foreign
armies are M48A3s or M48A5s. Many are at least
being upgraded with 105-mm guns. Conversion kits
are readily available from the United States to fully
upgrade older M48s to M48A5 standards. West
German M48A2GA2s and Israeli M48A3s are equiv-
alent to US M48A5s.
Israeli M48A3s were used in the 1973 war. These
tanks, now upgraded with externally applied armor
blocks, were used in the invasion of Lebanon in June
1982.
M60 and M1
The fire-control developments that began with the
M48 continued through the M60 tanks, culminating
in the M60A3 and M1 fire-control systems. Early
M60s had 105-mm guns aimed with the aid of analog
electromechanical computers and nonstabilized gun
drives; commanders read target ranges with coinci-
dence rangefinders. The M60A3 has an analog
electronic computer, stabilized gun drive, and laser
M60 tanks were introduced in 1960 as product-
improved M48A2s. Some early M60s were sent to
Iran and Israel.
The M60A1 was introduced in 1962. It was at first an
M60 with an M140 gun mount. Beginning in 1966 the
M13 series of electromechanical computers were re-
placed by M16-series electronic computers. The next
major improvement was the fitting of gun-stabilizing
feedback circuits in the M60A1 gun drive, starting in
1972. The tanks were then known as M60A1-AOS
(add-on stabilizer) tanks. These were the first opera-
tional US tanks with the capability to fire on the
move. The next fire-control improvement was the
development of an image intensifier by 1977 to
provide the gunner's and commander's sights with
passive night channels. Tanks with the passive night 25X1
channels were called the M60A 1-PASSIVE.
The first M60A3s were M60AIs retrofitted with ruby
laser rangefinders (AN/VVG-2s) for the command-
ers; M21 solid-state, electronic, analog computers;
heavier duty gun drive motors; new coaxial machine-
guns (M240, manufactured by Fabrique Nacional as
the MAG-58); and new smoke grenade launchers
(M239).
Numerous M60 tanks are in service in foreign armies,
particularly in the Middle East. Most of the clients in
the Middle East are buying conversion kits from the
United States to fully upgrade their M60s to
M60A3s.
Since late 1978, the passive night-vision channels in
the US M60A3 gunner's sights have been replaced by
AN/VSG-2 thermal-imaging systems made by the
Hughes Aircraft Company. These are the latest M60
versions and are known as the M60A3-TTS (tank
thermal sight).
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The M60A2 was a missile-firing version of the M60.
M60A2s had 152-mm tubes that fired munitions and
also launched Shillelagh ATGMs. M60A2s entered
service in 1974; 526 were deployed in the US Army
but are now being withdrawn. Sights, computers, and
stabilizers on M60A2s are different from those on the
later M60Als and M60A3s. The M60A2 had several
stabilized platforms. The gunner's periscope and com-
mander's cupola were self-stabilized. The full turret
was azimuth stabilized. All guns on the tank, includ-
ing the AA machinegun, were linked to the same
elevation stabilization reference. The M60A2 could
not fire its missiles on the move because of missile-
guidance problems.
The main difference between the fire-control systems
of the M 1 and M60A3-TTS is the way they are
packaged. Both tanks use laser rangefinders; the
rangefinders are a ruby laser operated by the
commander in the M60A3 and an Nd:YAG laser
operated by the gunner in the MI. Both tanks have
thermal-imaging channels in the gunner's sight; the
thermal channels are an add-on feature in the
M60A3, but an integral part of the M1. Both tanks
use electronic computers: the M60A3's is analog and
the M 1's is digital. The M60A3 computer automati-
cally receives target range, ammunition type, wind-
speed, and air temperature in its ballistic solution,
whereas the MI computer also automatically has a
traverse-rate input to compute lead angles. Finally,
the M60A3 gunner's sight follows the gun in eleva-
tion, but the gunner's sight for the M 1 is self-
stabilized and the gun follows the sight.
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West Germany designed the Leopard and TAM series
of tanks and has begun the Kampfpanzer III project
to design and build a new tank for the 1990s. Four
versions of the Leopard I are in service with the West
German Army. Other Leopard I variants are in
service in other NATO armies. The Leopard II,
considered to be as advanced as the US M 1 Abrams
tank, is entering service in the Dutch and West
German Armies. Argentina is producing the TAM
(Tanque Argentina Mediano or Argentine medium
tank) for the Argentine Army under a license from
the West German firm Thyssen-Henschel. Italy is
producing the OF-40 tank, whose design was heavily
influenced by that of the Leopard I, for export.
Leopard I
From 1965 to 1977, West Germany produced 2,437
Leopard I tanks in six lots for its army. Although
production for domestic use ended in 1977, production
for export lasted until 1980. Germany produced 1,070
more tanks for foreign clients. In 1981 Germany
resumed Leopard I production for export to Greece
and Turkey. The Krauss-Maffei Company in Munich
has built all of the Leopards except 75 built by Krupp
and 720 built under license by Italy.
The first 1,845 Leopard I's built for West Germany
(lots 1 through 4) are now designated Leopard
IA 1 A 1 s because of two improvement programs in the
mid-1970s. The first improvement included retrofit-
ting stabilizing equipment to the gun drives and
thermal sleeves to the gun barrels. The improved
tanks were called Leopard IA Is. The second improve-
ment was the addition of spaced-armor plates to the
Leopard IA1 turrets, resulting in the designation
Leopard IA 1 Al. The originally manufactured turrets
are made of cast steel. In the fifth German Army lot,
232 tanks were fitted with stronger cast-steel turrets
(Leopard IA2s), and 110 tanks were fitted with all-
welded, spaced-armor turrets (Leopard IA3s). The
fire-control systems of the Leopard I, IA1, IA1A1,
IA2, and IA3 tanks are similar.
The sixth and last German Army lot consisted of 250
Leopard IA4s, with welded turrets and different fire-
control systems.
All Leopard I tanks have 105-mm British-designed
L7 rifled main guns made by the West German firm
Rheinmetall under license. The Leopard I tanks of the
German Army usually carry two Rheinmetall
7.62-mm MG3 machineguns. One machinegun is
mounted coaxially left of the main gun. It is con-
trolled by the fire-control system and can be fired
electrically by the gunner or mechanically by the
loader. The other machinegun is for antiaircraft fire
and is mounted at the loader's or commander's hatch.
Four 77-mm grenade launchers made by Wegmann
are on each side at the rear of the turret.
Leopards I, IA1, IA1A1, IA2, and IA3. The com-
mander uses a Steinheil-Lear-Siegler TRP-2A pan-
oramic periscope for target acquisition. The TRP-2A
optics are monocular with zoom magnification from
4 to 20 power. The periscope mounting can traverse
360 degrees independently of the turret. If the com-
mander sights a target, he can override the gunner's
control of the turret-traverse drive and swing the gun
toward the target. A flexshaft counterrotates the
commander's periscope by an amount equal to the
turret traverse angle in the override mode, enabling
the periscope to remain on the target azimuth while
the turret traverses.
The commander can override the gunner's fire control
and use the TRP-2A to aim the gun after the
periscope is locked in the 12 o'clock position on the
turret. The viewing mirror of the periscope can be
linked to the gun in elevation through an electric
drive. The periscopic view can follow the gun to its
maximum elevation.
The gun is usually aimed with a coincidence/stereo-
scopic rangefinder linked to the gun in elevation
through ballistic cams. The rangefinder is a 16-power
Zeiss TEM-2A with a 1.72-meter rangefinding base.
The rangefinder can measure from 400 to 15,000
meters. It contains an analog ballistic computer con-
sisting of two cams-one for an APDS round and the
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Table 15
Leopard I Weapons and Fire-Control Systems
Leopard IA1
Leopard IA1AI
Gunnery devices TEM-2A day sight with
coincidence/stereoscopic
rangefinder
TEM-2A day sight with TEM-2A day sight with EMES-12A1 day sight with
coincidence/stereoscopic coincidence/stereoscopic stereoscopic rangefinder
rangefinder rangefinder
FLER-H, -HG, or -M ana-
log electronic computer
B171-IV IR sight or
retrofitted PZB-200
LLLTV
B171-IV IR sight or B171-IV IR sight or PZB-200 LLLTV
retrofitted PZB-200 retrofitted PZB-200
LLLTV LLLTV
Commander's sights TRP-2A panoramic day TRP-2A panoramic day TRP-2A panoramic day PERI-R-12 panoramic peri-
periscope periscope periscope scope with passive night
channel
IR source XSW-30-U xenon white/ XSW-30-U xenon white/ XSW-30-U xenon white/ Optional XSW-30-U
IR searchlight required IR searchlight required IR searchlight required
Gun drive Retrofitted, stabilized Stabilized electrohydraulic Stabilized electrohydraulic Stabilized electrohydraulic
electrohydraulic
Other weapons 7.62-mm MG3 coaxial and 7.62-mm MG3 coaxial and 7.62-mm MG3 coaxial and 7.62-mm MG3 coaxial and
AA machineguns AA machineguns AA machineguns AA machineguns
other for a HEAT round. The cams can be used only stabilizing circuits, and the earlier tanks were retrofit-
for ranges between 400 and 3,800 meters. The cams ted to give them the same stabilization capability. The
displace a reticle in the rangefinder. The gunner turret follows a traverse-reference gyroscope, and the
elevates the gun until the reticles are back on target gun follows an elevation-reference gyroscope. The
and then fires. TEM-2A rangefinder, TZF-1 A telescope, and TRP-
Alternatively, the gunner can use a Zeiss TZF-1 A,
8-power, articulated telescope mounted on the right
side of the gun. The telescope has a reticle indexed
with aiming marks for the APDS and HEAT rounds.
The TZF-1 A is on all Leopard I tanks.
The gun drive, built by Feinmechanische Werke, is an
electrohydraulic mechanism with gyroscopically con-
trolled stabilizing circuits for traverse and elevation.
The Leopard I tanks built before 1971 had electrohy-
draulic traverse and elevation motors but no stabiliz-
ing provisions. Those built after 1971 were fitted with
2A periscope all follow the gun elevation because they
are slave linked to the gun
The Leopard I traverse motor can rotate the turret
360 degrees in 16 seconds, giving an average maxi-
mum traverse rate of 22.5 degrees per second. The
traverse rate decreases to about 15 degrees per second
when the stabilizer is operating. The minimum trav-
erse rate is 0.03 degree per second. The stabilized
elevation drive can elevate the gun at a maximum rate
of 5.4 degrees per second
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For night firing, the commander can replace the
TRP-2A periscope with an Eltro B171-series passive
image intensifier. An XSW-30-U white/IR search-
light by AEG-Telefunken can be mounted externally
over the gun to illuminate targets for the gunner. The
searchlight is elevated with the gun. The searchlight
contains a xenon tube that emits visible white light
and near-infrared light. It can be fitted with a filter to
block the visible light, leaving an invisible near-
infrared beam. The commander can acquire and
designate targets at night with the near-infrared
beam, but the gunner needs the visible light from the
searchlight to see through the rangefinding sight.
When not in use, the searchlight is carried in a
stowage box on the rear of the turret.
AEG-Telefunken offers a passive low-light-level tele-
vision (LLLTV) monitor, designated the PZB-200,
which is mounted on some German Army Leopard I
tanks. The monitor consists of a TV camera, mounted
over the gun in place of the searchlight, and TV
screens for the gunner and commander.
Leopard IA4. The Leopard IA4 fire-control system
differs significantly from those of earlier Leopards.
The commander's periscope and gunner's rangefind-
ing sight are different, and an electronic ballistic
computer is used to displace the aiming reticles.
The commander's periscope is a Zeiss PERI-R-12
panoramic periscope with a combined day and night
capability. The night channel contains a passive im-
age intensifier. The periscope mounting traverses 360
degrees independently of the turret, and the mirror
can be elevated 60 degrees.
The rangefinder is a Zeiss EMES-12A1 stereoscopic
rangefinder with a 1.72-meter rangefinding base and
two magnifications-8 and 16 power. The EMES-
12A1can ranee on objects from 400 to 15,000 meters
away.
The computer is an AEG-Telefunken FLER-series
hybrid electronic computer. It calculates supereleva-
tion angles for targets between 400 and 3,000 meters
in range. The only ballistic inputs to the computer are
a range reading from the EMES-12A1 sight and the
ammunition selection
The Leopard IA4 has the same stabilized gun drive as
the earlier Leopards. The sights are slave linked to
follow the gun in the same manner as the earlier
Leopard sights
The Leopard IA4 follows the same night combat
procedure as the earlier Leopards in the German
Army. The only difference in night capability is that
the night channel is built into the Leopard IA4
commander's sight and does not have to be inter-
changed with a separate day sight. The gunner needs
a searchlight for night firing. Leopard IA4s also can
use the PZB-200 LLLTV system.
Future Fire-Control Retrofit of German-Army
Leopard Is. West Germany is planning a fire-control
retrofit for its Leopard I tanks beginning about 1986.
The requirements call for systems using laser range-
finders and digital-electronic ballistic computers. The
contractors who will most likely compete for the new
system are AEG-Telefunken and Zeiss.
Exported Leopard Is With SABCA Fire Control.
Australia, Belgium, and Canada have Leopard I tanks
fitted with gunnery sights and ballistic computers
made by the Belgian firm SABCA. The Australian
and Canadian tanks were produced with the SABCA
devices, whereas the Belgian tanks were retrofitted
with them. The SABCA devices are a laser range-
finder (using a ruby laser on older models and an
Nd:YAG laser on newer ones), other automatic sen-
sors, and an electronic computer. The SABCA devices
are all analog. The SABCA systems were originally
produced under license from the US Hughes Aircraft
Company and marketed as the Cobelda systems. The
left rangefinding optic is not used on SABCA-
equipped Leopards because the laser rangefinder re-
quires only one optic and is mounted under the right
optic. The computer accepts inputs from the laser
rangefinder and other automatic sensors. Data from
the automatic sensors include air temperature, air
pressure, ammunition-charge temperature, gun wear,
crosswind, vehicle cant, and turret traverse rate. The
computer calculates both superelevation and traverse-
offset angles to aim the gun. The traverse offset
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includes a lead angle estimate for moving targets
based on the traverse-rate reading. The computer
drives a system of mirrors in the gunsight to shift the
target image off center by an amount equal but
opposite to the superelevation vertically and the azi-
muth offset horizontally. The gunner traverses the
turret and elevates the gun until the target image is
centered and then fires.
Belgium received 334 unmodified Leopard I tanks
from 1968 to 1971. Initially, these tanks differed from
those of the German Army in that they were equipped
with Belgian Fabrique Nacional machineguns instead
of Rheinmetall machineguns. The Belgian tanks were
retrofitted with the same Feinmechanische Werke
stabilizing circuits in the gun drives as the German
Leopard I's and with the SABCA fire-control devices.
Australia received 90 Leopard IA3s with the SABCA
devices between 1976 and 1978. The Australian Leop-
ards are designated the ASIs.
Canada received 114 Leopard IA3s with the SABCA
devices and PZB-200 LLLTV systems in 1978 and
1979 to replace its Centurion tanks. Canada designat-
ed its Leopards the Cl tanks. These Leopards were
the first to be produced with the PZB-200 LLLTV for
night firing. They have a white-light searchlight
mounted in the unused left rangefinding optic. In
1981 a report from a US attache indicated Canadian
interest in fitting muzzle-reference systems and im-
proved thermal sleeves to the C1 guns to improve
their accuracy and adding thermal-imaging sights.
We do not know if Canada will procure any of these
items.
Other Exported Leopard Is. Italy received 200 Leop-
ard I tanks in 1971 and 1972. An Italian consortium
headed by the firm OTO-Melara produced 720 Leop-
ard I's under license from 1974 to 1981-82. These
tanks were built or retrofitted to the German Leopard
IA l A l specifications.
The Netherlands received 468 Leopard I's, produced
from October 1969 to March 1972. The Dutch Leop-
ard I armament and fire-control systems were initially
the same as the original-model Leopard I's for the
West German Army, except that they have Dutch-
made smoke-grenade launchers. The tanks were retro-
fitted with gun-drive stabilizers similar to those of the
German Leopard I's. The Rheinmetall MG-3
machineguns were replaced by Fabrique Nacional
7.62-mm machineguns in the coaxial mounts and
Browning 12.7-mm M2-HB machineguns on top of
the turret.
Norway received 78 Leopard I's produced from Janu-
ary to July of 1971. The Norwegian Leopard fire-
control systems are the original Leopard I systems,
without gun-drive stabilizers.
Army Leopard IA3s.
Denmark received 120 Leopard IA3 tanks from 1976
to 1978, designating them the DK. These tanks have
the same fire-control systems as the West German
Greece has ordered 106 Leopard IA4s, scheduled for
delivery in 1983-84. Turkey also has ordered between
77 and 183 Leopard IA3s, to be built with a Zeiss
system reported as the AFZ system, for delivery in
the same time frame.
Leopard II
The Leopard II tank (see figure 6) is considered a
new-generation tank equivalent to the UK Challenger
and US M-1 tanks. The Leopard II is protected by
advanced armor. Production and delivery of Leopard
II tanks to the West German Army began in 1979.
Planned production for the German Army probably
will continue until 1986 and total 1,800 tanks. The
Netherlands has ordered 445 Leopard IIs for delivery
from 1982 to 1986. Krauss-Maffei will build 990
German and 278 Dutch Leopard Ils, and Krupp will
build 810 German and 167 Dutch Leopard IIs.
The main gun of the Leopard II has a smoothbore
tube 44 calibers (5.3 meters) long, vertically sliding
wedge breechblock, bore evacuator, and thermal
sleeve; it does not have a muzzle brake. The gun is
fired electrically or with a manual electric-impulse
generator and can fire up to nine rounds per minute.
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Figure 6
West German Leopard II
1. Crosswind sensor for fire-control system
2. 77-mm grenade launchers
3. 7.62-mm MG3-A1 machinegun
4. 7.62-mm MG3-Al coaxial machinegun
5. 120-mm smoothbore main gun
6. Bore evacuator
7. FERO-Z-18 coaxial telescope
8. EMES-15 gunsight, laser rangefinder, and thermal-imaging channel
9. PERI-R-17 day/night panoramic periscope
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Table 16
Leopard II Weapons and
Fire-Control Systems
West German Dutch
Leopard II Leopard II
Main gun 120-mm 120-mm
Rheinmetall Rheinmetall
smoothbore smoothbore
Gunnery devices EMES-15 primary EMES-15 sight
sight with Nd:YAG
laser rangefinder
feeding FLT-2 Probably FLT-2
hybrid computer computer
FERO-Z-18 coaxial FERO-Z-18
telescope
PZB-200 LLLTV in Different night
lieu of thermal- vision
imaging channel inside
The Leopard II fire-control system is integrated and
controlled by a computer designated the FLT-2 built
by Krupp-Atlas Elektronik. The tank commander can
select one of at least 12 modes of operation. Depend-
ing on the mode, the gun can be aimed with the
commander's sight (PERI-R-17), gunner's sight
(EMES- 15), or the coaxial telescope (FERO-Z- 18). In
the more automated modes, the computer stabilizes
the PERI-R-17 and EMES-15 sightlines in elevation,
and the gun elevation is stabilized by following the
sightlines.
The PERI-R-17, built by Zeiss, is the commander's
primary sight. It can traverse 360 degrees independ-
ently of the turret, and its line-of-sight elevation
exceeds the elevation limits of the gun. The sight
contains a passive, image-intensifying, night-vision
channel.
EMES-15 The EMES-15, built by Krupp-Atlas Elektronik, con-
WNA-H22 stabilized
electrohydraulic
Other weapons 7.62-mm MG3-A1 7.62-mm MAG-58
coaxial and AA coaxial and AA
machineguns machineguns
16 Wegmann 77-mm Dutch-made grenade
smoke grenade launchers
launchers
The rounds for the main gun are projectiles fixed to
combustible charge cases with noncombustible steel
bases. Either the DM- 13 APFSDS-T kinetic energy
projectile or the DM-12 multipurpose shaped-charge
projectile can be used.
The Leopard II fire-control system was initially re-
quired to consist of devices developed from earlier
Leopard I devices to provide commonality in the
Leopard I and II systems. Early Leopard II proto-
types had Leopard-I-type fire-control systems. How-
ever, as a result of the decision to use advanced armor
on the Leopard II, the design of the turret, and
subsequently the fire-control system, was significantly
changed.
tains an Nd:YAG laser rangefinder. The EMES- 15 is
designed to contain a thermal-imaging channel, ab-
breviated WBG in German, that operates passively in
the 8- to 14-micron spectrum. The WBG sensors are
being built under license from Texas Instruments, but
as of October 1981 none had been installed because of
unspecified production problems.
Most Leopard II tanks have a Telefunken PZB-200
LLLTV system to provide passive night aiming for
the gunner. The LLLTV system will be used until the
problems with the WBG sensors are solved.
In manual operating modes, the gunner can aim the
gun using the FERO-Z-18 coaxial telescope on the
gun. The telescope is built by Leitz.
The computer automatically accepts inputs from the
laser rangefinder, the gun-elevation and turret-
traverse gyroscopes, a crosswind sensor, and a tank-
speed tachometer. When the PERI-R-17 sight or the
turret are traversing to follow a moving target, their
traverse rates are automatically fed into the comput-
er. The ammunition type, air pressure, air tempera-
ture, ammunition-charge temperature, and gun-wear
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estimate are manually entered. The range is displayed
to the gunner for verification. The computer continu-
ously calculates superelevation and traverse-offset an-
gles for gunnery and correction angles to stabilize the
turret, gun, and sights. A coincidence circuit in the
computer permits firing only when the gun is within a
specified deviation from the correct firing elevation.
The superelevation and traverse-offset signals are
electronically corrected for turret cant angle after
leaving the computer, but before being applied to the
gun drive.
The computer has hybrid circuitry consisting of dis-
crete, small- and medium-scale integrated compo-
nents. We do not know the memory type or size.
Table 17
TAM and TH-301 Weapons and
Fire-Control Systems
Argentine TAM TH-301
Prototypes
Main gun 105-mm L7A3 105-mm Rheinme-
tall Rh-105-30
Gunnery devices TZF coaxial telescope Probably TZF coaxi-
al telescope
Reported laser
rangefinder in
EMES-12 sight
Gun drive Stabilized electrohy- Stabilized
draulic electrohydraulic
The Leopard II gun drive is a WNA-H22 stabilized,
electrohydraulic system developed jointly by
AEG-Telefunken, Feinmechanische Werke, and Hon-
eywell-Europe. The system has enough power to
traverse the 16-ton turret at 40 degrees per second
and to elevate the gun at 10 degrees per second. The
drive can elevate the gun to 20 degrees and lower it to
Unconfirmed coinci-
dence rangefinder
oramic periscope
with passive night
channel
Other weapons 7.62-mm coaxial and Not finalized
AA machineguns
Eight Wegmann gre- Probably Wegmann
nade launchers grenade launchers
- 9 degrees.
Kampfpanzer III
West Germany has undertaken the Kampfpanzer III
project to design a tank for the 1990s. The govern-
ment is considering three new designs: a turreted
design by Krauss Maffei and Krupp, based on the
Leopard II; a turretless, one-gun design by Krupp,
Thyssen-Henschel, and Gesellschaft fur System Tech-
nik; and a turretless, two-gun design by Krupp. The
fire-control system for the new tank will depend on
the tank design selected for development and the
technology available.
Argentine/German TAM Tanks
The TAM (Tank-Argentina-Medium) is a tank de-
signed by the West German firm Thyssen-Henschel
in the mid-1970s for Argentine production. Thyssen-
Henschel delivered three prototypes to Argentina by
1977. The prototypes are commonly called the TAM
1, 2, and 3. Argentine production began by 1980, and
possibly as early as 1978. Argentina intends to build
at least 200 TAM tanks to replace its US M4
Sherman tanks. It also plans to build TAMs for
export, and arms trade representatives are vigorously
seeking orders from a number of countries.
US attaches report that TAM production has been
unsteady and has encountered many problems. The
problems were once reported to be so severe that
Argentina might consider buying the UK Vickers
Mark 3 instead.
By 1979 Thyssen-Henschel had built a fourth proto-
type of the TAM with a 105-mm gun and designed a
120-mm version. The fourth prototype, originally
called the TAM 4 in the press, has been redesignated
the TH-301. Thyssen-Henschel is offering it for ex-
port and has possibly received an order from Malay-
sia.
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Most of the TAM components, including the main
gun but not the fire-control devices, are made in
Argentina. The main gun is described as the British
L7A3 in various weapons trade publications but may
be a Rheinmetall copy of the L7 design, the Rh-105-
30. The TAM guns are built and integrated into the
fire-control system at the turret production plant in
Rio Tercero. The TAMs have 7.62-mm coaxial ma-
chineguns designed by the Belgian firm Fabrique
Nacional and built under license in Argentina. These
machineguns also are mounted on top of some TAM
turrets for AA defense.
The first TAM production models used fire-control
devices imported from Germany. Several of the fire-
control devices for the TAM are those used on the
German Army's Leopard IA 1 A 1, IA2, and IA3
tanks. These include the commander's sights (Stein-
heil TRP-2A), coaxial telescopes (Zeiss TZF-series),
and stabilized gun drives.
We are not sure of the rangefinding or ballistic
computing methods in the most recently produced
TAM tanks. The Argentine press reported that the
TAM has a coincidence rangefinder operated by the
commander. However, the TRP-2A commander's
sight is not a coincidence rangefinder. A US attache
reported in 1979 that the TAM has a laser range-
finder operated by the gunner, a stadiametric-range-
finding reticle for the commander, and that the
Argentines wanted a comparable laser rangefinder for
the commander. The reported inconsistencies could be
a result of Argentine indecision in the final model
designs or the production problems mentioned by
several US attaches.
We are not sure of the night-firing capability of the
TAM. If its fire-control system is a close copy of the
Leopard I through IA3 systems, then the TAM night-
vision equipment probably consists of a passive night
sight that is interchangeable with the commander's
sight and a white-light searchlight to aid the gunner.
The attache report in 1979 stated that night-vision
devices would be added to TAMs later in production
but did not specify the devices. In 1980 a US attache
reported that the Italian firm Aeritalia had agreed to
license one of its passive image intensifiers for Argen-
tine manufacture as part of the TAM project. An
attache report in 1983, however, stated that the Dutch
firm Odelft granted a license for Argentine produc-
tion of night-vision devices for the TAM.
AEG-Telefunken will probably offer its PZB-200
LLLTV system for the TAM. A smaller LLLTV
system exhibited by the Argentine Armed Forces
Institute of Science and Technology Research also
may be adapted for TAM installation.
TH-301. The TH-301 has a fire-control system simi-
lar or identical to that of the Leopard IA4 and the
same commander's sight (PERI-R-12), electronic bal-
listic computer (FLER-HG), and stabilized gun drive.
The TH-301 gunner's sight is a telescope that con-
tains a laser rangefinder. A Telefunken PZB-200
LLLTV system can be mounted on the TH-301 for
night firing
Italian OF-30 and OF-40 Tanks
The Italian firms OTO-Melara and Fiat offer the
40-ton OF-40 and OF-40 Mark 2 tanks for export,
drawing on experience and designs gained during
OTO-Melara's licensed production of the German
Leopard I in the 1970s. At least 20 OF-40s were
delivered to Dubayy beginning in 1981. In April 1982,
OTO-Melara was attempting to sell OF-40s to Ma-
laysia. The OF-40 Mark 2 program is still in a testing
stage.
The OF-40 fire-control system, except the gun drives,
is designed and built by the Italian firm Oficine
Galileo. Advertisements given to the Malaysians by
the Italians imply that the existing OF-40 tanks
probably have the version of the system designated
the OG-14LR. Oficine Galileo offers a more elabo-
rate version of the system designated the OG-14LS.
25X1
25X1
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Table 18
OF-40 Weapons and OG-14LR
Fire-Control System
also aim with a coaxial telescope made by the Italian
firm Aeritalia that contains aiming scales for the
OF-40 ammunition.
Main gun 105-mm OTO-Melara rifled gun
Gunnery devices C 125 periscopic sight with Nd:YAG laser
rangefinder and passive night appendage
Coaxial telescope
Unspecified fire-control computer
Commander's sight SFIM VS-580 panoramic periscope
Other weapons 7.62-mm coaxial machinegun
OF-40 With OG-14LR Fire-Control System. The
main gun of the OF-40 fires standard NATO rounds
designed for the British L7 gun. The Italian gun is
similar to the L7, but it has a vertically sliding
breechblock. Brochures on the OF-40 given to Malay-
sia state that the tanks are provided with brackets for
7.62-mm coaxial and AA machineguns. A buyer can
install 7.62-mm machineguns common to NATO
tanks such as the German Rheinmetall MG3s or
Belgian Fabrique Nacional MAG-58s.
The OF-40 commander's sight is the VS-580 made by
the French firm SFIM. The VS-580 is an 8-power
monocular periscope that can be traversed independ-
ently of the turret. The OF-40 does not have a
rotating cupola. The periscope contains aiming scales
for the OF-40 rounds and a stadiametric-rangefinding
scale and can be linked to the gun. The commander
can override the gunner's control of the fire-control
system, and aim the gun with the periscope. SFIM
offers the periscope with a passive night channel that
has a second-generation image intensifier. The peri-
scope is also available with a gyroscope to stabilize the
sight mirror for target acquisition while on the move,
but the gun is not stabilized.
The OF-40 gunner aims with a C125 binocular
periscopic sight. The sight contains a laser range-
finder made by the Italian firm Selenia (probably the
VAQ-33 Nd:YAG laser rangefinder) that can meas-
ure ranges from 400 to 6,000 meters. The gunner can
A variety of weapons trade publications list the OF-40
as having a ballistic computer. Available descriptions
of the OG-14 fire-control system are imprecise about
the technology and operation of the computer. The
OG-14LR system probably uses an electronic analog
computer. The computer accepts inputs from at least
the laser rangefinder, a gun-elevation sensor, and the
ammunition selector and calculates superelevation
angles. OTO-Melara brochures specify that superele-
vation angles are automatically transferred with a
ballistic drive system. We presume that the angles are
transmitted from the computer by mechanical linkage
or electrical signal to the C125 sight and possibly the
commander's periscope. The angle signals deflect a
reticle or the target image. The gunner elevates the
gun until the reticle and target image are together
and then fires.
The OG-14LRS is described in weapons trade publi-
cations as a stabilized OG-14LR system.
OF-40 Mark 2. The first OF-40 Mark 2 prototype
was tested in August 1982. An arms trade magazine
described the tank as an OF-40 with the OG-14LR 25X1
fire-control system and a stabilized gun drive built by
AEG-Telefunken. Published photographs of the tank
show an LLLTV mounted on the mantle. Presumably
it is identical to one that has been advertised by
Oficine Galileo, but we have no details on the integra-
tion of the LLLTV into the fire-control system.
optical thermal-imaging sight for the OG-14LS~
"u-i'LJ r{re-I.ontrus System. juugtng from
Oficine Galileo advertisements, the OG-14LS is the
OG-14LR system with an elevation-stabilized gun-
ner's sight, a digital computer, and several sensors for
additional computer inputs. The new inputs are
charge temperature, air temperature, air pressure,
wind speed, humidity, gun wear, tank ground speed,
and turret traverse rate. Oficine Galileo also offers an
25X1
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Appendix A
Glossary
AA
Abrams
ACRA
Active IR
AEG-Telefunken
Aeritalia
Amplidyne
AMX-30
AMX-32
AP
A PC
APDS
APFSDS
APFSDS-T
ATGM
Atlas Elektronik
Autoloader
Avimo
Azimuth
Ballistic inputs
Antiaircraft.
M 1 tank, newest US tank.
French ATGM of early 1970s.
Night-vision technology using near-infrared lights and sights.
West'German firm making fire-control components.
Italian firm offering night-vision sights for Argentine TAM.
DC motor-generator set connected to serve as power amplifier.
Current French-designed tank.
French-designed tank being offered for export.
US acronym for add-on stabilizer in M60 tanks.
Armor-piercing ammunition.
Armor-piercing capped ammunition.
Armor-piercing, discarding-sabot ammunition.
Armor-piercing, fin-stabilized, discarding-sabot ammunition.
APFSDS ammunition with tracer.
Antitank guided missile.
Subsidiary of West German firm Krupp, makes fire-control components.
Automatic loader for main tank gun.
UK firm making optical tank sights and laser rangefinders.
Direction in plane of horizon, usually measured from due north.
Quantities that influence ballistic trajectories (for example, range, windspeed, and
air density).
Chinese tank production plant.
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 Barr and Stroud
Bernardini
BMY
Bofors
Boresight
Browning
Cadillac Gage
Caliber
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UK firm making optical tank sights and laser rangefinders.
Brazilian firm making armored vehicles.
Bowen-McLaughlin-York; US artillery firm that built tank-rebuilding plant in
Iran.
Swedish firm making armored vehicles.
Line-of-sight through barrel of gun.
US firm making .50-caliber (12.7-mm) machineguns.
US firm making stabilized gun drives.
1. Internal diameter of gun barrel in inches or millimeters.
2. Length of gun barrel expressed as multiple of its caliber.
Sideways tilt of a tank.
West German firm making optical tank sights and fire-control systems.
Armored vehicle built by Brazilian firm Engesa.
UK tanks built in the 1950s and 1960s.
Latest UK tank design, intended for production in mid-1980s.
UK's current main battle tank.
Compagnie Industrielle des Lasers; French firm making laser rangefinders.
Aimed along same axis as main gun.
Belgian firm making armament.
Cant
Carl Stiftung Zeiss
Cascavel
Centurion
Challenger
Chieftain
CILAS
Coaxial
Cockerill
Coincidence rangefinder
Collimator
Comet
COSTAC
COTAC
Optical rangefinder based on slightly different viewing angles to an object seen
from two different viewpoints.
Optical device that provides uniform illumination within a sight.
UK tank built in 1940s.
Conduite de Tir Stabilisee Automatique pour Char; stabilized COTAC system.
Conduite de Tir Automatique pour Char; series of fire-control components made
by GIAT.
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Daikin
Dalian
Delta-D
Elbit
Electrohydraulic
Electromechanical
Electro-optic
Elevation
El-Op
Eltro
Engesa
EOS
Ericsson
F
Fabrique Nacional
Ferranti
Fiat
Cupola rotation opposite turret traverse; designed to keep cupola sight pointed at a
target.
Japanese firm making APFSDS ammunition.
Chinese military academy.
Soviet tank device that compensates for changes in range.
Discarding-sabot ammunition.
Degtyareva Shpagina Krupnokalibernyy; Soviet designator for 12.7-mm
machinegun.
Israeli firm making fire-control devices for Merkava tanks.
Gun drive with hydraulic power components controlled by electric circuitry.
Consisting of mixture of electric, electronic, and mechanical components.
1. Using quantum-effect interactions between optical and solid-state electronic
devices.
2. Containing optical and electronic components.
Angle measured upward from local horizon.
Israeli firm making electro-optical devices.
West German firm making night-vision equipment for tanks.
Brazilian firm making armored vehicles.
Israeli designator for xenon searchlights on Merkava tanks.
L. M. Ericsson; Norwegian firm making laser rangefinders.
Fragmentation ammunition.
Belgian firm making machineguns used on many tanks.
UK firm making fire-control components.
Italian automotive firm making the OF-40 tank with OTO-Melara.
Fin-stabilized ammunition.
Feinmechanische Werke Mainz; West German firm making gun drives.
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US designator for gunner's auxiliary sight, coaxial telescope in M 1 tank.
UK designator for gun control equipment.
Groupement Industriel des Armaments Terrestres; French firm making armored
vehicles and their components.
GPS
Gun wear
Gyrotachometer
HE
HEAT
HEI
HESH
Homogeneous armor
Honeywell
Hughes Aircraft
Hydropneumatic
IFCS
IR
Israeli Ordnance
Joanell
Joystick
Jungner
Khalid
Kobra
Kollmorgen
US designation for gunner's primary sight in M1 tank.
Gun fatigue and erosion tending to reduce muzzle velocity.
Gyroscopic device used to measure angle rate.
High-explosive ammunition.
High-explosive antitank ammunition.
High-explosive incendiary ammunition.
High-explosive squash-head ammunition.
Solid steel armor.
US-based firm making gun drives in West Germany.
US firm making armament, electronics, optical tank sights, and laser rangefinders.
Mixture of hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms.
Integrated Fire-Control System made by Marconi Space and Defence Systems
Limited.
Infrared; light radiation from 0.7 to tens of microns in wavelength.
Israeli firm assembling Merkava tanks.
US firm making night-vision devices.
Small stick that can be swiveled by hand in all directions to control tank
machinery.
Swedish firm making optical tank sights.
Version of Chieftain tank built by ROF for Jordan.
Possibly the name of Soviet T-64B's missile.
US firm making optical tank sights.
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Komatsu
Krauss-Maffei
Krupp
Laser rangefinder
Leitz
Leopard
Leyland
LLLTV
LSI
Lucas
Lyran
Marconi Space and
Defence
Japanese firm making HEAT-FS ammunition.
German firm making armored vehicles.
West German firm making armored vehicles and armament.
Rangefinder based on time interval for laser pulse to reach a target and return.
Ernst Leitz Wetzlar; West German firm making optical tank sights.
Current West German tank line.
UK automotive firm making armored vehicles.
Low-light-level television.
Large-scale integration (electronics).
UK firm making gun drives.
Swedish firm making illuminating rounds.
1. Latest US tank.
2. Israeli-modified M4.
US Sherman tank, World War II-vintage tank.
US tank built in 1940s and 1950s.
US tank built in 1950s and 1960s; modified in 1970s.
Israeli-modified M4.
Israeli-modified M4.
US tank built in 1960s and 1970s, currently deployed.
M551 Sheridan, US armored reconnaissance vehicle.
Mak Maschinenbau, subsidiary of West German firm Krupp; makes armored
vehicles.
UK firm making the SFCS-600 fire-control system.
UK firm making the IFCS fire-control system.
Israeli-designed and -produced tank.
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Metadyne
Meteor
Mitsubishi
MSI
Muzzle reference system
Nd:glass
Nd:YAG
Near IR
Nihon Tokushya Kinzoka
Nikon
Nippon Kogaku
Nonhomogeneous armor
NORINCO
NSV
Oerlikon
OF-40
Oficine Galileo
Oldelft
Olifant
Optic-electronic
OTO-Melara
Passive
Pilkington
Electromechanical machine used for precise position control.
Soviet designator for stabilized gun drive in T-62 tank.
Japanese firm making machinery.
Medium-scale integration (electronics).
Measures deviation of muzzle boresight from indicated gun boresight.
Neodymium:glass, popular laser crystal.
Neodymium:Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet, popular laser crystal.
Near infrared; infrared light with wavelengths of about 0.7 to 1.5 microns, near
the visible wavelengths of 0.4 to 0.7 microns.
Japan Special Metal Co.; makes machineguns.
Japanese firm making optical tank sights.
Nippon Electric; Japanese firm making laser rangefinders.
Armor that is not solid steel; could be ceramic, plastic, steel plate, or layered
combinations of these in various spatial arrangements.
Northern Industrial Corporation; principal Chinese contact with Western firms.
Soviet 12.7-mm machinegun designator.
Swiss firm making armament.
Italian-built tank being exported.
Italian firm making fire-control components.
Dutch firm making night-vision sights.
South African version of Centurion tank.
See electro-optic.
Italian firm making armored vehicles and armament.
Sight that does not require any manmade light source.
UK firm making night-vision devices.
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PKT
Polsten
Pz55
Pz57
Pz61
Pz68
RAPACE
Rate gyroscope
Resolver
Rheinmetall
RISE
RMG
ROKIT
ROM
Ruby laser
SABCA
Product Improvement Program; US term for programed changes in an armored
vehicle design during production.
Pulemet Kalashnikov Tankovyy; Soviet 7.62-mm machinegun designator.
Automatic cannon installed in early UK Centurion tanks.
UK-made Centurion tank in Swiss Army.
UK-made Centurion tank in Swiss Army.
Swiss-made tank built in 1960s.
Swiss-made tank built in 1970s.
French battle-surveillance radar; mounted on some AMX-30 tanks.
Gyrotachometer.
Electromechanical device that generates a signal indicating the mechanical angle;
used for precise measurement of gun position.
Pattern projected into gunsight eyepiece to aid rangefinding and aiming.
Installation of new equipment into a deployed armored vehicle that was not
originally supplied with the vehicle.
West German firm making armament.
US acronym for reliability improved selected equipment on improved M60.
Ranging machinegun.
Royal Ordnance Factories; official UK arsenal making armored vehicles and
armament.
Republic of Korea indigenous tank.
Read-only memory; electronic memory device.
Laser based on chromium-doped aluminum oxide crystal (ruby).
Societe Anonyme Belge de Constructions Aeronautiques; Belgian firm making
fire-control systems.
Split sheath that surrounds armor-piercing rounds, designed to carry round down
gun bore upon firing and separate from round at muzzle.
Semiautomatic command to line-of-sight; ATGM guidance technique.
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SAMM Societe d'Applications des Machines Motrices; French firm making gun drives.
Satory Annual French arms show.
Selenia Italian firm making laser rangefinders.
Servoamplifier Signal amplifier in gun-drive control circuit.
Servomotor Gun-drive motor that moves the turret or gun.
SFCS Simplified fire-control system made by Marconi Radar.
SFIM Societe de Fabrication d'Instruments de Mesure; French firm making optical and
night-vision sights.
SGMT Stankovy Goryunov Modernizovannyy Tankovyy; Soviet 7.62-mm machinegun
designator.
S.H.L. Possible Israeli designator for Merkava gun drive.
Sheridan M551 Sheridan, US armored reconnaissance vehicle.
Sherman M4 Sherman, World War II US tank.
SLS Possible Israeli designator for Merkava gunsight.
Sopelem Societe d'Optique Precision Electronique et Mecanique; French firm making
optical sights and night-vision equipment.
SSI Small-scale integration (electronics).
Stabilize To hold turret on a steady inertial azimuth and gun on a steady inertial elevation
while the tank is moving.
Stabilizer Stabilized gun drive or a set of circuits that enable the gun drive to stabilize.
Stadiametric rangefinder Rangefinder based on angular size of an object at varying distances
Steinheil Lear Siegler West German firm making optical tank sights.
Stereoscopic rangefinder Rangefinder based on slightly different images of an object seen from two
viewpoints.
Strv-101 Stridsvagn-101, UK-made Centurion in Swedish Army.
Strv- 102 Stridsvagn-102, UK-made Centurion in Swedish Army.
Strv- 103 Stridsvagn-103, Swedish-designed turretless tank.
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Superelevation
Swingfire
Synchrotransformer
T-54
T-55
T-62
T-64
T-72
T-80
TAM
TH-301
Thermal imager
Thermal sleeve
Thomson-CSF
Throwoff
Thyssen-Henschel
Traverse
Traverse offset
TRU
Tsiklon
TTS
Type 59
Difference between elevation to target and desired gun elevation to fire on target.
UK ATGM
Electric motor circuit used as transformer.
Soviet tank built from 1940s to 1960s.
Soviet tank built from 1950s through 1970s.
Soviet tank built from 1960s to 1970s.
Soviet tank built since late 1960s.
Soviet tank built since early 1970s.
Newest deployed Soviet tank, built since early 1980s.
Tank-Argentina-Medium; German-designed, Argentine-produced tank.
Private-venture tank designed by Thyssen-Henschel.
Passive imaging'sight sensitive to IR radiation in 8- to 14-micron range.
Insulation around gun barrel to minimize warping caused by uneven heat
distribution.
French firm making electronic and night-vision devices.
Predictable tendency of muzzle to jump to one side upon firing.
German firm making armored vehicles.
Tank laser sight; optical tank sight with built-in laser rangefinder; made by Barr
and Stroud.
Difference between azimuth to target and desired turret azimuth to fire on target.
US designator for thermal receiving unit; thermal imager built into US M 1
gunsight.
Soviet designator for stabilized gun drive in T-54 and T-55.
Tank thermal sight; thermal imager in US M60A3 gunsight.
Chinese copy of T-54 tank.
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 Type 61
Type 69
Type 74
Type 88
Valiant
Vasconcellos
Vickers
Vickers Mark 1
Vickers Mark 2
Vickers Mark 3
Vijayanta
Visible light
Watervliet
WBG
Wegmann
Wild Heerbrugg
X-30
Zahnrad Fabrik
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Japanese tank built in 1960s.
Improved Chinese tank, currently being produced.
Japanese tank built in 1970s.
Newest Japanese tank design, scheduled for production in late 1980s.
Latest Vickers private-venture tank.
Brazilian firm making optical tank sights.
UK firm making armored vehicles.
Vickers private-venture tank of 1960s.
Vickers private-venture tank of 1970s.
Vickers private-venture tank of late 1970s-early 1980s.
UK-designed Vickers Mark I tank built in India.
Light with wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 microns.
US arsenal making large-caliber guns.
West German designator for thermal imager in Leopard II.
German firm making grenade launchers.
Swiss firm making optical tank sights.
Press name for Brazilian 30-ton tank.
Zahnradfabrik Friedrickshafen; West German automotive firm chosen for South
Korean ROKIT transmission.
Carl Stiftung Zeiss; West German firm making optical tank sights and fire-control
systems.
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Appendix B
Tutorial on Tank
Fire-Control Technology
Technical Considerations
Tank fire-control systems consist of devices to find
and designate targets for engagement (acquisition and
designation) and to aim and fire the tank guns
(gunnery). Acquisition and designation devices estab-
lish a line of sight from a tank to a target. Gunnery
devices determine and implement the direction the
gun must aim to fire a round on a path to the target
(see figure B-1).
The direction of aim is defined by a set of angles from
a reference. The line of sight from the tank to the
target is normally the reference. The angles between
the line of sight and aiming direction must be measur-
able in terms of turret traverse and gun elevation. The
most common angles used are the traverse-offset
angle in the plane of turret traverse and the superele-
vation angle in the plane of gun elevation. Angles
external to the tank, such as the geographic azimuth
and elevation angles from its gun to a target, are not
used in tank gunnery because, during a battle, tanks
do not have the time or equipment to fix their
positions and direction-references accurately enough
for gunnery.
The simplest tank fire-control system is a telescope
strapped to a gun and hand-cranked traverse and
elevation gears (see figure B-2). The commander
visually acquires and orally designates targets; the
gunner steers the gun until the target is centered in
the telescope and then fires. Many deployed tanks
have such fire-control systems. More recently de-
signed systems are more complex, integrated, and
technologically advanced to provide higher accuracy
and firing rates under more demanding battle condi-
tions. No matter how advanced, fire-control devices
can be classified in terms of the traditional acquisition
and designation role of the commander and the
gunnery role. The only complication is that some
sights can be used in both roles.
Fire-Control Functions and Devices
Requirements for operation under different battle
conditions determine the technical characteristics and
complexity of fire-control devices. Fire-control sys-
tems must meet different requirements for four basic
tank-to-target geometries:
? A stationary tank firing at a stationary target.
? A moving tank firing at a stationary target.
? A stationary tank firing at a moving target.
? A moving tank firing at a moving target.
Many modern tanks can perform well if only the tank
or the target is moving, but firing at a moving target
from a moving tank is more technically demanding.
In addition to meeting these basic requirements, fire-
control systems may be required to provide the capa-
bility to fire at very long range, at night, in periods of
obscured visibility, or rapidly at many targets. Other
requiremepts such as ruggedness, maintenance, logis-
tics, adaptability, and cost constraints compound the
technical design problems. A well-designed, battle-
worthy fire-control system should continue to provide
some performance even after some parts of it have
failed or been destroyed.
The sequence from acquisition to firing can be divided
into seven steps:
? Acquisition. Finding a target.
? Designation. Transferring target line of sight from
acquisition sights to gunner.
? Ballistic data entry. Entering into the ballistic
computer the necessary information to compute
aiming angles.
? Ballistic computing. Calculating aiming angles
based on ballistic inputs.
? Ballistic driving. Indicating the aiming angles to the
gunner.
? Gun driving. Driving the gun to the aiming angles.
? Firing.
25X1
25X1
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Figure B-1
Tank Fire-Control Coordinates
Fire-control components serve one or more of these
functions. Components include a variety of sights,
searchlights, cupolas, ballistic-input sensors, comput-
ers, ballistic drives, and gun drives.
Tank sights fit into telescopic and periscopic mounts.
In the simplest fire-control systems, the telescopes
strapped to the guns are called coaxial telescopes.
Coaxial telescopes bypass computation and ballistic
driving because they contain precomputed aiming
marks (see figure B-3). The aiming marks form a
vertical scale marked with ranges. The gunner usually
elevates the gun until the mark that most closely
corresponds to the estimated range is on target.
RMGs combine ballistic data entry, computing, and
driving. The RMGs are linked to the main guns and
fire bullets that are ballistically matched to the main
ammunition up to a certain range. The RMG bullets
follow the path to a target that the main rounds would
follow if fired at the same elevation. As the gunner
fires the RMG, he continues to elevate both the RMG
and main gun. When the RMG bullets begin striking
the target, he fires the main gun
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Figure B-2
Simple Tank Fire-Control System
1. Turret traverse axis
2. Commander's sight
3. Cupola traverse axis
4. Commander's cupola
5. Traverse handwheel
6. Toothed turret base
7. Elevation handwheel and gear mechanisms
8. Gun elevation axis
9. Trunnion
10. Coaxial telescope
11. Main gun
12. Coaxial machinegun
- - - Commander's line-of-sight to target
Gunner's line-of-sight to target
Traverse movements
Elevation movements
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Figure B-3
Aiming Scales in Coaxial Telescope Reticle'
sljd I ' ,i
Ift' rcIl->
a The example is a TSh 2B-4IU telescope used in the Soviet T-62.
The range line shown would be used to fire a HEAT round. to
about 3,150 meters range, a high-explosive HE18 round to about
3,825 meters range, a high-explosive HE 11 round to about 3,175
meters range, or coaxial machinegun rounds to about 1,740
meters range.
Periscopes are often used for gunnery instead of
coaxial telescopes. The periscopes are linked to the
gun with mirror, lever, and servomotor mechanisms
(see figure B-4). Many sights contain image converters
or image intensifiers for night vision. Image convert-
ers require near-IR light, which is provided by filtered
searchlights. Image intensifiers only require faint
natural light from stars. LLLTV systems and thermal
imagers can be used during both day and night.
Thermal imagers also can detect targets at night and
through dust, smoke, haze, rain, and some types of
camouflage.
have an all-round view.
Cupolas are small domes on top of the turret intended
to give commanders a higher, all-round view to aid
acquisition. Commander's sights are mounted in the
cupolas. Gunners sit lower inside the turret and do not
separately.
Target range and ammunition type are the most
important ballistic inputs. There are stadiametric,
coincidence, stereoscopic, correlation, and laser range-
finders. A stadiametric rangefinder is a scale, marked
inside a sight, consisting of vertically separated pairs
of lines (see figure B-5). Each pair corresponds to a
range, and its separation indicates the visual size of a
tank-size vehicle at that range. The user finds the
closest fit of an enemy tank between the lines and
reads the range estimate on the scale. Coincidence,
stereoscopic, and correlation rangefinders require that
a target be viewed from opposite ends of an optical
base (see figure B-6). They use the slightly different
views of the target to find ranges. The magnitude of
the angles depends on range. Coincidence and stereo-
scopic rangefinders with wide baselines are more
accurate than those with narrow baselines. Coinci-
dence and stereoscopic rangefinders on tanks often
have a 2-meter base extending across the turret.
Correlation rangefinders are designed to use shorter
bases-about a third of a meter. Laser rangefinders
require no base and work by measuring the time
interval for a laser light pulse to travel to a target and
return. Many rangefinders are integral parts of com-
mander's or gunner's sights and are not mounted
Tanks fire several types of ammunition: nonexploding
AP, HE, HEAT, HESH rounds with high-velocity
FS, DS, and fragmentation modifiers. Each type has
different flight characteristics that must be compen-
sated for in the fire-control process.
Other ballistic inputs can influence accuracy (see
figures B-7 and B-8). These include target motion
(usually sensed by a turret traverse-rate sensor), turret
and gun position, tank speed, wind velocity, air pres-
sure, air temperature, ammunition charge tempera-
ture, variations in characteristics within a batch of
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Figure B-4
Tank Gunnery Periscope
Line-of-sight
J ---------------------
1. Movable mirror
2. Periscope
3. Turret armor
4. Fixed mirror
5. Fixed pulley
6. Mechanical linkage
7. Gun
ammunition, gun-barrel droop or warp, alignment and
parallax errors between sights and guns, and the
amount of turret tilt (cant). Sensors that monitor these
inputs are being aggressively marketed with new fire-
control systems, but their value is questioned by many
fire-control scientists.
Tank ballistic computers are specialized mechanical,
analog electronic, or digital electronic computers. E
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Figure B-5
Stadiametric Rangefinding Scale
Lower left number indicates an assumed target height of
2.7 meters.
Target shown is an M60A I, measuring about 2.7 meters to the
top of' the turret, at 1,800 meters range.
Gun drives are the heavy machinery that traverses the
turrets and elevates the guns. The simplest gun drives
are manual gear trains. Since the 1950s gun drives
have been electrically powered (all electric) or hydrau-
lically powered with electric controls (electrohy-
draulic).
Gun-drive machinery often includes stabilizing cir-
cuits to aid firing on the move. Stabilizers hold the
gun on a steady inertial azimuth and elevation as the
tank moves; they do not keep the gun directed at a
target. The stabilizing circuits use gyroscopes to
provide azimuth and elevation references and feed-
back circuits to keep driving the gun toward the
desired angles. Stabilizing circuits can be very sophis-
ticated and are often controlled by onboard ballistic
computers.
Ballistic drives are the links between computers, gun
drives, and gunner's sights and are used to indicate
aiming angles to the gunner. Typically, ballistic drives
are mechanical links, servomotors, or electronic cir-
cuits that deflect a crosshair-type mark (reticle) in the
gunner's view. The gunner traverses and elevates the
gun drive to bring the reticles back to center.
Tank sights can be gyroscopically stabilized independ-
ently of the gun drive. Nonstabilized gunnery sights
follow the gun. A stabilized sight maintains a steady
view as the tank moves, allowing observation, target
acquisition, or aiming on the move. The gun drive
must be stabilized, however, for firing on the move.
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Figure B-6
Example of Coincidence Rangefindera
Some modern tanks, such as the West German Leop-
ard II and US M1, have both stabilized sights and
guns. In this case, the sights are independently stabi-
lized. The feedback circuits drive the guns to follow
the sights
Firing at a moving target from a moving tank requires
stabilized gun drives and sights that are controlled by
a ballistic computer.
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Figure B-7
Influences on Trajectories of Tank-Fired Projectiles
Error caused
by crosswind
Error caused by rangefinding error
and deviations of ammunition,
charge, or atmospheric characteristics
from normal.
Target position
upon firing
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Figure B-8
Error Caused by Cant
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Figure B-8
Error Caused by Cant
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