A SURVEY ASSESSMENT OF INTERNATIONAL COMPOSITE MATERIALS WITH EMPHASIS ON THE USSR

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP84M00044R000200850001-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 46
• Document Creation Date: December 21, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 5, 2008
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: November 1, 1983
• Content Type: REPORT

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Director of ( D / Secret
Central
Intelligence
With Emphasis on the USSR
A Survey Assessment of
International Composite Materials
Scientific and Technical
Intelligence Committee
Secret
STIC 83-013
November 1983
Copy 405
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Director of Secret
Central
Intelligence
A Survey Assessment of
International Composite Materials
With Emphasis on the USSR
This report was approved by the Scientific and Technical
Intelligence Committee on 8 September 1983.
Secret
STIC 83-013
November 1983
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Note to Readers The Scientific and Technical Intelligence Committee is the DCI Committee whose
mission in part is to advise and assist the DCI with respect to production of
intelligence on foreign science and technology, to advise the National Foreign
Intelligence Board, and to coordinate activity, information processing, and anal-
yses in these areas. The Committee reports to the DCI through the DDCI and to
NFIB through the Board's Secretariat.
The current STIC Chairman, members, and associate members are:
(Chairman) Central Intelligence Agency
Mr. Ronald W. Ewing Department of the Air Force
Dr. John M. MacCallum, Jr. Office of Under Secretary of
Dr. William Reese
Dr. Bertram B. Smith
Dr. Howard E. Sorrows
Dr. Anthony J. Tether
Dr. Robert L. Bingham
Mr. Robert E. Upchurch
MAJ Thomas J. Dyble
Mr. H. Brant Jones
Mr. William T. Brown
Mr. Clarence E. Field
Mrs. Teresa C. Jones
Mr. Max Koontz
Dr. Laurence A. Mounter
Mrs. Carolyn K. Stettner
Defense for Research and Engineering
Central Intelligence Agency
Defense Intelligence Agency
National Security Agency
Department of the Navy
Department of the Army
Department of Commerce
Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency
Department of Energy
Department of State
Department of the Air Force
Department of Energy
Department of Commerce
Department of the Navy
Central Intelligence Agency
National Security Agency
Department of State
Department of the Navy
Department of the Army
Defense Intelligence Agency
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency
Central Intelligence Agency
(Executive Secretary)
MAJ Arthur D. Hurtado Department of the Army
(Assistant Executive Secretary)
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This document was prepared by the Structural Materials Working Group of the
Science and Technology Intelligence Committee (STIC). The assessment was
prepared in response to STIC tasking requesting both a composite materials
assessment and a collection guide on Soviet capabilities. The effort was expanded
beyond the STIC tasking to include worldwide capabilities because the Working
Group felt that such a document would be beneficial to a wider audience by
providing information not otherwise available under a single cover. Further, the
document will provide the framework for updating the comparative worldwide
composites effort; such a comparison was previously possible only by review of
several documents. Of necessity, discussions of some areas are brief and a degree
of unevenness in coverage exists; however, comparative assessments between
nations should be facilitated. For this study, US information is handled separately
from the rest of the Free World.
The Working Group wishes to acknowledge the support provided by ~ 25X1
the Institute for Defense Analysis; by Dr. John Halpin of the USAF 25X1
Aeronautical Systems Division; and by Messrs. William Schulz, David Roselius,
and Robert Rapson of the USAF Wright Aeronautical Laboratories in providing
information on composites technology in the Free World. The graphics for the
report were prepared by the USAF Foreign Technology Division.
Questions concerning the content of this report should be directed to the chairman
of the Working Group, Mr. Roy Frontani, or to the principal author, Mr. Ted
Muha, both from FTD, telephone [phone]. Members of the Working Group
were:
US Air Force Foreign Technology
Division
National Security Agency
Naval Intelligence Support Center
US Army Foreign Science and
Technology Center
Department of Energy
Central Intelligence Agency
Department of Energy
Central Intelligence Agency
US Army Foreign Science and
Technology Center
Defense Intelligence Agency
US Air Force Foreign Technology
Division
Department of Energy
Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense for Research and Engineering
Mr. Mel Andrasco
Mr. Joey Crider
Dr. John Holovka
Dr. Loren Jacobson
Mr. William Marley
Dr. Ronald Nelson
Mr. Jerome Persh
Secret
STIC 83-013
November 1983
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A Survey Assessment of
International Composite Materials
With Emphasis on the USSR F_
Key Judgments The United States can no longer consider itself to have a dominant lead in
composites technology; we are engaged in an aggressive worldwide compe-
tition to develop and apply these materials. The capability and goals
expressed by Western Europe, Israel, Japan, the USSR, and China suggest
that any lead achieved by a nation will be short lived
The Soviets are generally equal to the United States in composite materials
design capability. They lag the United States by two to three years in the
application of nonmetallic composites. Metallic composites applications are
not yet widespread, but the Soviets lead the United States by four to five
years in research on metallic composites
The principal Soviet deficiencies in composite materials capability are a
lack of automated equipment and a shortage of skilled technicians. Efforts
to overcome these deficiencies could prove successful by the early 1990s,
affecting weapon systems designs at that time.
The Soviet composites effort is principally directed toward aerospace
structures, although applications to ground weapons and ship hulls have
also been noted. Examples of Soviet claims include application to control
surfaces and other components of fighter aircraft (MIG-27 and another
new MIG), bombers (TU-22M), transports (IL-86, AN-72), helicopters
(KA-26), tanks (T-72), and minesweepers (460-metric-ton Sonya class).
Soviet weapon systems of the 1990s will show gradual performance
improvements as a result of composites applications; more dramatic
performance increases can be expected in weapon systems of the 2000s as
designer confidence grows and manufacturing deficiencies are overcome.
While Soviet projections for fighter aircraft composites applications in the
1990s reach as high as 50 percent of airframe weight, a more likely level of
application is 35 percent. Soviet production of composites parts in standard
"metal" shapes, to accommodate an unskilled work force, will limit the
benefits of composite application.
The traditional Soviet persistence in program commitment could allow
them to overtake US capability; for example, a reported Soviet program to
produce a large, all-composite wing for a large Antonov cargo aircraft
could, if successful, exceed the capability of current US programs directed
at relatively small-size applications. US studies of large-size composites
structures are scheduled to begin in late 1983.
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Table 1
Characteristics of Composite Materials
for Aerospace Usage
Substitute composites for metals Reduces weight 30 to 40 Increase range 50 percent or
percent increase payload or save
fuel
Optimize design for composites Improves aerodynamics and re- Increase range 85 percent
duces weight and decrease turn radius 40
percent
Improved fatigue resistance Longer part life and less dam- Lower life-cycle costs
age susceptibility
Dimensional stability Accurate pointing and optics Improved space-based
systems
Replace metals Conserves strategic materials Up to two for one
Reduced electrical conductivity Possible reduction in radar Improved survivability elec-
cross section tronic warfare
countermeasures
Moisture absorption Temperature limit may be
lower
Reduced electrical conductivity Possible loss of ground planes
for avionics
Expense of metal matrix
Fiber/matrix interaction
Directed-energy weapon interac-
tion
Significant cost increase
Instability at high temperature
Potential increased susceptibil-
ity not fully understood
Very few Soviet composite material claims have been confirmed
Other nations are actively taking advantage of US composites research and
development to rapidly improve the state of the art of their aerospace
industries, sometimes even before the United States applies this technol-
ogy. China has embarked on an aggressive composite materials program,
but remains 10 to 15 years behind the United States
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Contents
Soviet Experience and Activity 2
Organic Matrix Composites 8
USSR Organic Matrix Composites 8
US Organic Matrix Composites 9
Free World Organic Matrix Composites 9
USSR Metal Matrix Composites 10
US Metal Matrix Composites 13
Free World Metal Matrix Composites 13
Ceramic Matrix Composites 13
USSR Ceramic Matrix Composites 13
Free World Ceramic Matrix Composites 15
Carbon/Carbon 15
USSR Carbon/Carbon 15
US Carbon/Carbon 15
Free World Carbon/Carbon 16
Manufacturing Capability 16
USSR Manufacturing 16
US Manufacturing 18
Free World Manufacturing 19
US Applications 26
Free World Applications 28
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People's Republic of China
32
European Communist Countries
34
Hungary
34
Prospects for Advance
Prospects for USSR Advance
Prospects for Free World Advance
Prospects for Chinese Advance
Technology Transfer
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A Survey Assessment of
International Composite Materials
With Emphasis on the USSR
The term "composites" refers to a wide variety of
materials that share a common characteristic: two or
more identifiable substances consolidated to form a
heterogeneous, highly directional material (figure 1).
Fiberglass is a commonly used term for a family of
composite materials that are broadly applied to a wide
variety of commercial and military products. In this
study we have limited ourselves to those composites
that consist of a fiber reinforcement in a continuous
matrix, materials which are rapidly increasing in use
throughout the world. Examples of fiber materials are
glass, graphite, boron, aramid (Kevlar), and ceramics
(silicon carbide). Examples of matrix materials in-
clude organic polymers, metals, ceramics, and carbon.
The progressive development and application of com-
posites are based on active programs in every highly
industrialized nation
Composite materials differ from most other common
structural materials in that they are tailored to an
application and are generally not identifiable as a
material unit until the component has been complete-
ly fabricated. As a rule, most metal structures begin
as a monolithic mass that is then further processed
into the final configuration by various forming opera-
tions followed by machining. Composites are built up
from a combination of reinforcement material and
matrix to a shape that is generally in the final form.
Less machining is required for composites than is
performed on metal structures. The composite materi-
al becomes an identifiable material after the consoli-
dation step. However, the specific steps are different
for each type of materialF_~
The benefits of composites over metals derive from
the specific strength (strength divided by density) and
from the specific stiffness of these materials as well as
from the fact that a single composites part can often
be fabricated to replace several parts of a built-up
metal structure. The first two characteristics may be
used to reduce the weight of a structure by as much as
50 percent; for example, over 115 kilograms (kg) can
potentially be saved by fabricating the fourth stage of
the MX missile out of graphite/epoxy instead of
metals, resulting in the option to add one reentry
vehicle, to extend range by 5 percent, or to improve
reentry vehicle dispersion by 12 percent. The last
composite material characteristic may be used to
reduce the part count of a structure (the composites
B-1 horizontal stabilizer test article had 40 percent
fewer substructure parts and almost 60 percent fewer
mechanical fasteners than did the metal structure);
this savings can result in significant cost reduction (15
percent for the B-1 stabilizer) even though the materi-
als used are much more expensive than conventional
metals
The principal benefits obtained from composites ap-
plication are in primary structures: the aircraft wing,
fuselage, and empennage; ship hulls and superstruc-
ture; mobile bridges for water crossings; and so on.
For these applications, the materials problems are
difficult: materials must be thoroughly characterized
in order to allow the design team to precisely calculate
each element of structure; chemical stability over time
is imperative and requires long-term experimentation.
Dimensional stability is also essential as are the
resistance to heating and aerodynamic erosion. Ease
of fabrication is desirable to avoid excessive cost that
would limit application. Finally, the suppliers must be
able to guarantee delivery of materials of consistent
quality
Acceptance of composite materials by design teams is
as important as material quality and availability. The
use of composites is not simply a question of substitut-
ing the composite material for metal, but of complete-
ly redesigning each component to profit from the
directional (or multidirectional) characteristics of the
composite being used.
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Although composites materials applications can result
in desirable performance benefits in weapon systems,
they are not, for the most part, essential to the
production of future weapon systems. Alternative
material choices, improvements in conventional mate-
rials, and doctrinal philosophy can also accommodate
many performance improvement needs
Soviet research on composites started slowly in ac-
cordance with the typical conservative Soviet
approach to new technologies. Thus, while the first
US glass fiber production plant was built in 1928, the
first Soviet glass fiber plant was not built until 1941.
Likewise, Soviet research on carbon/carbon materials
began in 1963, but it was not significant until US
literature provided the impetus for an increase in the
Soviet effort in 1978. One area of composites that did
not follow the lead of Western researchers was metal
matrix composites (MMC); by 1970 several Soviet
MMC materials had been fully characterized and a
few apparently were in production. In 1975 the
Central Committee of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union declared that the highest technical
priority of the 10th Five-Year Plan (1976-80) was the
development of plastics and composites. The emphasis
on composites appears to have continued to the
present.
The decision to emphasize composites in the USSR
was based upon four factors. First, composites reduce
weapon systems weight, which results in improved
performance. Second, composites are inherently fa-
tigue resistant. Third, the use of composites can
conserve strategic metals. Fourth, the United States
was ahead in composites technology. Once the deci-
sion was made to emphasize composites, the Soviet
composites program significantly expanded; thou-
sands of scientists and engineers at more than 30
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facilities were assigned to the program; Western
literature, conferences, and equipment were further
exploited; and various components were flight-tested.
As a result of this increased emphasis, the technology
gap began to close
In discussing the current status of worldwide compos-
ites technology, the format was chosen to facilitate
the direct comparison of the current state of the art
with much of the emphasis on the USSR. The report
discusses each area of composites technology as a
separate activity in the USSR, the United States, and
the Free World. The topics discussed are fibers,
organic matrix composites, metal matrix composites,
ceramic matrix composites, carbon/carbon, manufac-
turing, and applications. Because of the limited data
available on China and Eastern Europe, those nations
are briefly discussed-]
Fibers
The reinforcement material in composite materials
may be fibers, whiskers, or particles, and the matrix
may be an organic, metal, or ceramic type of material.
Arrangement of the fibers to give directional strength
and stability (thus weight savings) is one of the many
qualities making composites attractive to the aero-
space industry. This section reflects the available data
on various fibers (glass, boron, graphite, carbon, ce-
ramic, and Kevlar) and current developmental re-
search and the production capabilities in the United
States, the USSR, and the Free World.F__-]
duced on an even larger scale.
USSR Fibers. Soviet boron fiber production was
reported in 1978 to be approximately equal to that of
the United States; however, the Soviets claim to have
already converted to producing boron fiber by deposit-
ing the boron on a graphite substrate rather than the
standard, more expensive tungsten substrate. If true,
this is a significant improvement over US capability.
The Soviets also have the ability to produce silicon
carbide, borsic alumina, zirconia, and boron nitride
fibers. We believe that their production is limited.
Steel fibers are also produced, but the production
rates are unknown. We believe that steel fibers are
probably produced on a relatively large scale. Other
fibers-for example, carbon and aramid-are pro-
In 1979 the Soviets began producing their version of
Kevlar-49 at a rate of 1,000 kg per month, and they
project overtaking current US production capacity of
approximately 20 million kg per year by 1985. The
Soviet fiber is said to be about 10 percent stiffer and
15 percent stronger than DuPont's fiber and to have a
smoother surface. A smoother surface reduces the
detrimental effects of moisture but provides poorer
fiber-matrix interaction resulting in less matrix
strength. In addition, the USSR has had large-scale
production of several lower-grade aramid fibers for
tires and garments for many years.
As mentioned previously, glass fibers have been pro-
duced in the USSR since 1941 and glass/epoxy had
found many uses in the Soviet economy by the late
1970s. Soviet glass fiber plants produce the most
commonly used glass fibers, as well as a hollow fiber
that could have radar-absorbing implications. With
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the advent of the SS-16 and SS-20, the Soviets began
filament winding large solid-propellant rocket motor
cases
The most significant Soviet fiber progress has
occurred with graphite fibers. Before 1975, Soviet
production of graphite fibers amounted to several
thousand kilograms per year for all grades. Currently
the Soviets claim to be producing 500,000 kg per year
of a polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based fiber that is com-
parable to two US fibers, Toray's T-300 and Hercu-
les's AS fibers. The Soviet capacity to produce this
fiber is claimed to be 10 times as much as their actual
production. In addition to their PAN-based fiber,
which has a strength of 2.85 GPa and a stiffness of
284 GPa, the Soviets claim to have laboratory produc-
tion of an aramid-based graphite fiber with a strength
of 3.1 GPa and a stiffness of 531 GPa; this is both
stronger than the strongest Western graphite and
stiffer than the stiffest Western graphite fiber. How-
ever, Soviet researchers indicate that high processing
costs and difficult handling have kept this fiber from
reaching production status.
Most of the Soviet effort in ceramic fiber research
and development appears to be in silicon carbide (SiC)
fibers or fiber coatings. SiC is attractive as a fiber for
use in composites because of its high tensile strength,
hardness, chemical resistance, low density, and high
resistance to loss of these properties at elevated
temperatures (the melting point of SiC is 2,690? Q.
SiC is susceptible to oxidation at elevated tempera-
tures, but the matrix in a composite would reduce this
tendencyF__1
Soviet researchers have indicated that the cost to
produce SiC fibers in the Soviet Union may be four to
six times that required to produce boron fibers. In
spite of this, SiC fibers are in semiproduction, proba-
bly at a plant in Kalinin. In the United States, SiC
fiber costs are decreasing but are still greater than
expected to continue to do so.
those for boron fibers. Only 10 to 15 percent of the
SiC whiskers produced in the USSR are suitable for
use in fabricating composites. Judged from the avail-
able literature, Soviet capabilities in the production
and use of ceramic fibers for advanced composites
seem to have changed little in the past three years.
However, work is proceeding at a steady pace and is
US Fibers. Advanced composite materials, especially
graphite fiber reinforced composites, are increasingly
being used in the United States for both military and
commercial structural applications. The majority of
the graphite fiber used is produced by pyrolysis/
graphitization of a polyacrylonitrile fiber precursor.
The technology and facilities to produce PAN precur-
sor reside almost exclusively in Japan and the United
Kingdom. Over the past several years, the United
States has become a leader in the production of
graphite fiber; however, this has been accomplished in
conjunction with the Japanese either through licens-
ing arrangements or joint ventures. The majority of
the PAN precursor used by the US graphite fiber
producers is of Japanese origin. More specifically, the
US Department of Defense (DOD) has requested that
a plan be developed to ensure that, by 1986, at least
two domestic sources are providing a minimum of
one-third of the precursor used in the manufacturing
of graphite fiber for military weapon systems.F___1
A projection of the US market for PAN-based graph-
ite fiber, generated by Hercules, Inc., is shown in
figure 2, and the current Free World production
capacity of PAN-based graphite fiber (also generated
by Hercules) is shown in table 2. Several observations
can be made from this data. First, in 1982 the United
States was the major producer of PAN-based graph-
ite fiber, having more than half of the Free World
capacity. Second, there may currently be a glut in the
market; that is, the availability of fiber far exceeds
the utilization. Third, the DOD requirements account
for 40 to 50 percent of the total US market. This
means that the graphite fiber business in the United
States is very competitive, and the DOD is the
dominant customer
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1500
KGSTHOUSANDS
1000
0
YEAR
DOD AS% OF TOTAL
DOD ANNUAL GROWTH %
Figure 2. US PAN-Based Graphite Fiber Marke{
AUTOMOTIVE
':X X
:XX
* INCLUDES BOEING 767 DEMAND IN ITALY.
41 43 47 50 51 37
37 37 27 30 10
The major military systems requirements for PAN-
based graphite fibers through 1988 is shown in table
3. These requirements include projected production
scrap rates (buy-to-fly material requirements) and
material estimates for spares and repairs. It should be
noted that requirements for classified systems are not
included. From this data, the projected military re-
quirement for PAN-based graphite fiber in 1986 is
approximately 450,000 kg. Assuming a 50-percent
conversion factor, this translates to a PAN precursor
requirement of 900,000 kg. Thus, in order to satisfy
the DOD requirement, two domestic sources capable
of producing a total of 320,000 kg per year of PAN
precursor by 1986 must be developed.
Various key US industries involved in composite
materials development and production provided infor-
mation on their corporate planning for domestic
sources of materials. These companies included the
three major graphite fiber producers (Union Carbide,
Hercules, and Celanese), epoxy formulators (Hexcel,
Hercules, Narmco, and Fiberite), and one textile
grade acrylonitrile fiber producer (DuPont). To sum-
marize the status of domestic PAN precursor, the
following points can be made. There is currently one
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domestic source, Union Carbide, with a capacity of
900,000 kg per year. This capacity exceeds the re-
quirement for one-third of projected 1986 DOD utili-
zation. A possible second source, Celanese, with a
capacity of 680,00 kg per year, may develop by the
end of 1984; however, this source is not guaranteed.
Increased US capacity will hinge on the DOD position
for requiring domestic materials
Free World Fibers. France produces all the series of
glass fibers including E, D, A, C, and S or R fibers.
S or R glass fibers are the most expensive but possess
the most desirable mechanical properties. Among the
principal producers are: Saint-Gobain of France and
Sielenka of Holland. In a related area, spun silica
threads can reach a purity level above 99.9 percent
and have remarkable ablation characteristics. They
are made in France by Quartz et Silice.
The acrylic fibers used in obtaining carbon fibers are
known by a number of trademarks. Crylor is used for
Rhone-Poulenc-Textiles (France), Courtelle for Cour-
taulds (Great Britain), Dralon for Bayer (Germany),
and Orlon for DuPont (United States). These products
are all made from polyacrylonitrile
In France, the Serofim company produces carbon
fibers and high-modulus graphite fiber with the trade-
mark "Rigilor" (from Crylor fibers). The fabrication
is undertaken by a division of Carbone Lorraine.
French production went from 4.9 metric tons per year
in 1971 to 17.8 metric tons per year in 1982. The
Rigilor fibers are called type AX for carbon fibers
and type AG for graphite fibers and can take the form
of continuous threads, bundles, cut threads, and even
fabrics. This production is expected to cease in 1984
when Societe European Fibre Carbon (SEFC) begins
producing 178 metric tons per year, and Societe Fibre
Carbon (Soficar) begins producing 267 metric tons per
year
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Pioneer work at the Royal Aircraft Establishment
(RAE) in the United Kingdon in 1963 and simulta-
neous developments by Toray Industries in Japan led
to the development processes for producing high-
strength, high-modulus graphite fibers from PAN.
The RAE process was patented and, in 1967, manu-
facturing licenses were issued to three British compa-
nies to produce the material. Courtaulds Ltd. was one
of the three and is now the sole supplier of PAN and
PAN-based graphite fibers in the United Kingdom. In
Japan, Toray Industries and also Toho-Beslon, both
large textile companies, produce PAN and PAN-
based fibers
In England, the Courtaulds company offers two types
of fibers, called A or XA for carbon fibers and HT or
HM for graphite fibers (trademark "Grafil"), which
are fabricated from "Courtelle" fibers. Two produc-
tion characteristics are peculiar to this company:
pultrusion Grafil, which is a unidirectional shaped
piece obtained by continuous molding of plastic rein-
forced with carbon fibers containing up to 65 percent
by volume of Grafil in epoxy resin and is available in
cross-sectional shapes and with variable dimensions;
and fabrics of noncarbonized threads called "Grafil
0" in the oxidation stage, which are assembled in
several layers to be preimpregnated and carbonized
during a single treatment. This procedure was used to
make the carbon/carbon brakes of the Concorde SST.
In 1982 the production by Courtaulds increased to
200 metric tons, and the target for late 1983 is 350
metric tons. Production capacity of RK Carbon Fi-
bers, Ltd., in 1982 was 200 metric tons.F_~
The Japanese chemical industry provides the basis for
the strong interest in carbon fiber production in
Japan. Several of the large chemical companies are
actively producing carbon fibers or are developing the
technology so that they can enter the market at the
appropriate time. The currently popular precursor for
carbon fibers, PAN, is produced in Japan by Toray
Industries, Inc., Toho-Beslon, Sumitomo Chemical
Co., Asahi Chemical Co., and Mitsubishi Rayon Co.
These companies are competing with Courtaulds
(United Kingdom).
Toray Industries, Inc., is considered the world leader
in production of PAN-based carbon fibers which are
supplied to customers throughout the world. One of
the largest customers is the Union Carbide Corp.
(United States), which acts as a distributor to the
United States. The Toray production rate in 1981 was
17.8 metric tons per month and was being expanded
to 26.8 metric tons per month. The Toray technology
for PAN-based carbon fibers has been licensed to
Union Carbide, and a plant is being built to produce
carbon fiber at the rate of 26.8 metric tons per month
using Toray PAN precursor. The other supplier in
Japan of PAN-based carbon fibers is Toho-Beslon, 25X1
which produces acrylic fiber at the rate of about 3,570
metric tons per month but only about 17.8 metric tons
per month of carbon fiber made from PAN. By the
end of 1982, this production rate was increased to 32
metric tons per month, which makes Toho-Beslon the
largest producer in Japan.
Toray is also one of the world's leading producers of
carbon fibers, with production of 1,260 metric tons for
1982; its brand is the T 300 fiber, which is used a
great deal in aviation. Other well-regarded manufac-
turers of carbon fibers are Toho-Beslon (1,020 metric
tons per year) and Asahi-Nippon (180 metric tons per
year), both of Japan. Mitsubishi Rayon of Japan is
using a British precursor to produce 120 metric tons
per year.
Asahi Chemical Co. is another major supplier of
polyacrylonitrile. Asahi claims to be one of the world's
largest producers and the largest acrylic fiber produc-
er in Japan. The company has 10 research centers in
Japan and has built a new plant in Ireland for
spinning acrylic fiber. Asahi has been studying carbon
fiber technology for several years, and they believe
that they have developed special precursors that can
be carbonized rapidly in both filament form and tow
form to produce better mechanical properties.F--]
Additional composite fibers are Kevlar-29 and -49.
From the scant literature available, it appears West-
ern Europe imports Kevlar from the United States
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(principal supplier, DuPont). However, both the Neth-
erlands and Japan are believed to be nearing produc-
tion of fibers equivalent to Kevlar-49. In another area,
boron fibers have good compression and torsional
properties but are difficult to machine. They are
supplied mainly by AVCO of the United States,
SNPE of France, and Bergoff of Germany
Organic Matrix Composites
Polymeric materials have been of great interest for
many years throughout the world as composite matrix
materials. The most generally used matrix materials
are polymers and epoxies, phenolics, novolacs, and
esters. For use at temperatures above 150?C, materi-
als of most interest are polyimides, bismaleimides,
and other higher-temperature polymers. In many
cases, polymer systems offer more desirable process-
ing characteristics than the competing metallic mate-
rials.
USSR Organic Matrix Composites. The Soviets re-
port many epoxy matrix systems for conventional
fiberglass composites applications. These applications
are for temperatures not exceeding 200? to 250?C for
extended periods of time. This technology has provid-
ed the Soviets with the basis for the development of
advanced, organic-matrix composites. For many ap-
plications, especially for military and aerospace sys-
tems, matrices must be able to operate in the 400?- to
600?C-temperature range for a minimum of 100
hours. The USSR has embarked on several research
programs for the development of heat-resistant poly-
mers via improvement of existing polymers and the
synthesis of hetero-organic and novel carbochain poly-
mers. These materials maintain their desirable char-
acteristics at temperatures exceeding 250? C. Table 4
lists the maximum heat-resistance capability of sever-
al classes of Soviet polymers.
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With the above polymers available for use in compos-
ites, the Soviets can produce many materials compa-
rable to those found in the West. Although the
reinforcement of all of these polymers has been
discussed in open literature, the most common Soviet
composites are combinations of glass, aramid, boron,
or graphite fibers and epoxy or phenolic resin matri-
ces. As in the United States, graphite/epoxy is the
most common of the advanced composites in use
US Organic Matrix Composites. Organic matrix
composite systems found early use in rocket motor
cases and have been utilized on almost all new aircraft
weapon systems developed since the late 1960s. The
primary matrix systems utilized to date have been the
high-performance epoxies. These systems have been
effectively utilized with boron, carbon/graphite, glass,
and Kevlar fibers in both primary and secondary air
vehicle structures. The basic chemistry, control of
cure, and processing of these systems have developed
to the point where these materials are accepted for
production use.
Most organic matrices used to date are limited to
applications where the temperature does not exceed
150?C for long periods of time. In effect, this tem-
perature limits the application of organic materials to
vehicles flying at speeds of Mach 2.2 or less. To
overcome this shortfall and extend the usefulness of
composites to the next generation of advanced tactical
aircraft, the DOD and industry have focused on a new
family of resin systems, the bismaleimides. Current
approaches are to modify the bismaleimide systems to
process in the same manner as current high perform-
ance epoxies while achieving an increase in useful
temperature capability to about 175?C. All major
airframe contractors are pursuing this matrix system
for the Advanced Tactical Fighter baseline structure.
Considerable interest has also been generated over the
past two years in the area of thermoplastics to provide
composite systems with vastly improved impact resist-
ance and toughness. Primary emphasis is on polyeth-
eretherketone (PEEK), a crystalline material, which,
in addition to offering an order of magnitude increase
in toughness over high-performance epoxies, provides
solvent resistance to standard aircraft fluids. This
property was lacking in earlier thermoplastic systems
but not in standard epoxies. PEEK has a useful
temperature capability of about 155?C. Based on
continued success, PEEK or similar thermoplastic
systems could be available for routine structural
application as early as the 1985-87 time frameF-1 25X1
Higher-temperature matrix systems research and de-
velopment is primarily concerned with two polyimide
materials developed by NASA, the HR-600P acety-
lene terminated material and polybenzimidiazole
(PBI). These systems are usable at temperatures from
around 260?C for the NASA systems to 370?C for
PBI. Development work on these systems has centered
on engine and tactical missile usage. They have not
achieved routine application because of material cost
and processing difficulties. The HR-600P, a new
version of acetylene terminated imide, offers some
promise of easing the process/ fabrication difficulties
through a unique approach that allows initial use
under epoxy conditions. Although interest in the area
of high-temperature organic systems is being main-
tained, the progress, as measured by application, is
slow
25X1
25X1
Free World Organic Matrix Composites. Develop-
ment of organic matrix composites in the Free World
has been characterized by much interchange between
the United States and other nations. Ciba-Geigy of
Switzerland and Rhone-Poulenc of France supply
many of the basic chemicals that form the matrices.
France has developed several high-temperature poly-
mers that are competitive with polyimides as matrix
materials. In addition, US companies and their sub-
sidiaries provide large quantities of prepregs to most
Free World nations. Because of the interchange with
the United States, Free World organic matrix com- 25X1
posites capabilities can be considered as paralleling
that of the US organic matrix compositesF-1
Metal Matrix Composites
Metal matrix composites are materials that consist of
a metallic matrix that is reinforced by a stronger or
stiffer material in the form of wires, fibers, filaments,
whiskers, or particulates. This section will treat only
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those composites for which the reinforcement is con-
tinuous filaments or fibers. With the advent in the
early 1960s of newly developed fibers intended for use
in organic matrix composites, it was a natural conse-
quence that the use of these fibers to reinforce
metallic alloys would be attempted. Early efforts dealt
with the more difficult problems associated with the
processes by which fibers could be introduced into a
metal matrix and with the evaluation of potential
improvements in high-temperature strength that were
expected for MMCs. As a result of a US DOD
initiative, renewed interest in the potential of MMCs
now exists, offsetting some early results that were not
very encouraging and opening new possibilities for
application to a wider variety of weapon systems.
USSR Metal Matrix Composites. The Soviet MMC
effort includes fibrous composites, eutectics, and dis-
persion strengthened materials. Although the effort
covers such relatively low-cost material systems as
steel/aluminum and boron/aluminum, the major
thrust appears to be to provide materials with the
capability for extended usage at elevated temperature.
the Soviet MMC effort appears to be about two-thirds
of their composites research, although the epoxy
matrix composites have reached a higher state of
development; approximately 13,000 kg of boron fiber
goes into the MMC effort yearly (95 percent of USSR
boron fiber output in 1978)
Four reasons have been given by the Soviets for their
interest in MMC. First, composites are inherently
fatigue resistant so that critical structures will last
longer when composites are used instead of conven-
tional metals. Second, the improved specific proper-
ties of composites over metals result in conservation of
strategic materials. Third, the reinforcing fibers can
provide better high-temperature characteristics for
the matrix metal by supporting the matrix as it
softens. Fourth, many standard metals fabrication
techniques are directly applicable to MMC. The
lower cost and greater strategic material conservation
obtainable from fiber-reinforced plastics might be
offset by not having to develop new fabrication tech-
niques or labor skills for MMC. This is particularly
attractive to the Soviets because of shortages of
skilled labor in the Soviet work force.
The Soviet MMC program shows strong basic re-
search and exploratory development. A significant
advanced development effort is evident and limited
production is probable. Two technical areas that have
not received much coverage until the late 1970s in
Soviet literature are foreign object damage (FOD) and
nondestructive testing/quality control (NDT/QC).
These two areas must be addressed by the Soviets
before large-scale production of composites structures
can occur; the recent appearance of a number of
articles on FOD and on NDT may indicate that the
Soviets are approaching production status on MMC
structures and are now publishing results of previous
research that was connected to possible applications.
A further indication of Soviet interest in the produc-
tion of MMC aircraft structures comes from Soviet
technical literature and may be traced to the 1975
Paris Air Show, where the Soviets displayed a boron/
aluminum panel to which extruded boron/aluminum
stiffeners had been spot-welded. Since 1980, several
researchers who have been identified with the An-
tonov Design Bureau have written extensively on the
welding of boron/aluminum composites
The Soviets MMC program has placed a heavy
emphasis on fibrous composites with smaller efforts
on dispersion strengthened composites and on eutec-
tics. As in the case of nonmetallic matrix composites,
the MMC effort seems to be aimed at increasing the
temperature capability of aerospace structures. Figure
3 compares the US fibrous MMC research program
to those fibrous MMC systems that have been identi-
fied in the Soviet research program. Several of the
Soviet systems, including boron/aluminum and steel/
aluminum, are currently in production. The Soviets
have committed large resources to MMC continuous-
ly since the mid-1960s and have investigated at least
45 systems not studied in the United States; many of
the efforts appear to be minor
25X1
2 Al
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FIBERS
MATRICES
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TITANIUM
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COPPER
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SILUMIN
(11%Si-89% AI)
0
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NICHROME
0
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0
0
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ALUMINUM-TITANIUM
0
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STEEL
0
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CHROMIUM
0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
TUNGSTEN
^
^
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ZIRCONIUM
0
BERYLLIUM
0
COBALT
0
0
0
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0
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0
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SILVER
0
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BORON
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LITHIUM
0
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0 USSR ONLY
^ US ONLY
BOTH
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US Metal Matrix Composites. Research on MMC in
the United States was initiated during the late 1960s
because these materials were viewed as being ideal for
high-temperature, high-speed applications. However,
as US interest in hypersonic aircraft waned, research
in MMC rapidly tapered off. For almost a decade, US
MMC efforts were restricted to a very small technical
community working with a minimal budget.
In 1978, continued proddings from the US MMC
community combined with indications of a large
MMC effort within the USSR, caused the initiation
of an accelerated US demonstration program in these
materials. While not as extensive as the apparent
Soviet program, the US effort has made significant
progress in the last five years. While US understand-
ing of the fundamental aspects of the materials may
not be as detailed as that of the Soviets, the United
States could actually attain large-scale production in
military systems first. Significantly, the new US
program has included potential MMC applications in
many fields-for example, spacecraft, armor, and
torpedo boats-that do not involve high-temperature
capabilities.__~
Figure 3 measures the breadth of the two programs
but does not reflect relative quality or timing of
research. In general, the Soviet research is aimed
more toward a scientific understanding of the materi-
als, while the US research takes an empirical engi-
neering approach. Currently, the US effort also in-
cludes an intensive effort in whisker and particulate
reinforcements as well as the fibrous MMC effort.
research
Free World Metal Matrix Composites. MMC re-
search in Europe and Japan was relatively slow in
starting. However, with the obvious interest in these
materials being shown by both the United States and
the USSR, the rest of the world soon began similar
Because information on US MMC research has been
closely controlled since 1979, much of the Free World
effort is duplicating earlier US work. Fibrous MMC
research appears to be primarily concerned with
boron/aluminum and with silicon carbide/aluminum,
although the British have also studied copper matrix
composites. Applications of fibrous MMC are proba-
bly several years in the future. Whisker and particu-
late reinforcements have also received attention; Ja-
pan displayed particulate MMC applications to
automotive engines at the Fourth International Con-
ference on Composites Materials in Tokyo in October
1982. A comparison of the US and Japanese MMC
programs is provided in figure 4.
Ceramic Matrix Composites
Ceramic materials possess properties that make them
attractive for a broad range of applications, especially 25X1
at higher temperatures. Ceramic matrix composites
offer the potential for improved performance by re-
ducing the tendency toward catastrophic failure found
in monolithic ceramic materials. Such composites,
especially when reinforced with continuous lengths of
ceramic fiber, exhibit dramatically improved fracture
toughness and failure resistance. These materials also
maintain their strength to very high operating tem-
peratures, exhibit low densities, and low thermal
expansion coefficients. They are inherently oxidation
resistant without dependence on strategic elements or
coatings and possess potentially exploitable electrical
properties.
USSR Ceramic Matrix Composites. As in the United
States, Soviet ceramic matrix composites appear to be 25X1
several years from production. Currently, the primary
technical difficulty is in the processing of the ceram-
ics. Although research is being done on the use of
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FIBERS
.2
LU
LU
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cc
ca
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MATRICES
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ALUMINUM
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^
0
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0
0
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TITANIUM
0
0
^
0
0
^
0
^
^
NICKEL
0
^
0
^
0
^
^
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COPPER
0
0
^
^
0
^
0
MAGNESIUM
0
0
^
0
0
^
^
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NICHROME
0
0
0
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STEEL
0
^
0
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CHROMIUM
0
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various reinforcements in silicon nitride; in carbides of
silicon, aluminum, zirconium, niobium, and hafnium;
and in oxides of silicon, aluminum, and zirconium, the
processing of the matrices within the USSR has thus
far yielded materials with unacceptably high levels of
impurities.
US Ceramic Matrix Composites. Recent research
results for matrix composites have been very encour-
aging. Silicon carbide fibers (obtained from Japan)
have been incorporated into glass and glass/ceramic
matrices with significant improvements in strength
and toughness. An exploratory development effort is
now under way to develop a domestic source for
silicon carbide and silicon nitride fiber. Once the
capability of making satisfactory fiber is established,
additional effort will be directed toward composite
development. The United States appears to be from
two to three years behind Japan. Potential uses of
ceramic materials in applications are outlined in table
6 in the US Applications section
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Free World Ceramic Matrix Composites. Free World
ceramic matrix composites information is limited. It
has been reported that Japanese efforts to develop
ceramic matrix composites have made good progress,
but details on specific fiber and matrix materials are
sparse. Silicon carbide fibers made from a silicon
polymer precursor represent a significant advance-
ment in ceramic reinforcements, and at the present
time the only commercial source of such fibers is
Japan. In addition to the MMC application in auto-
motive engines mentioned above, the Japanese (and
also Volkswagen of Germany) are applying ceramic
composites to the pistons of these engines.
Carbon/Carbon
The term carbon/carbon is a term that is applied to
all types of composites in which a carbonaceous
matrix is reinforced with a carbonaceous fiber. Varia-
tions in fiber structure and matrix formation and heat
treatment can result in a wide range of properties,
depending upon the degree of graphitization that is
inherent or induced in the materials through process-
ing variations. A desired balance of properties can be
achieved by judicious selection of a processing method
to suit the specific application. There is no single
carbon carbon composite that serves all applications.
The processing variations and their relative merits
could be discussed at great length, but the state of the
art is changing so rapidly that old methods are being
replaced by new modifications frequently. The reason
for this dynamic situation is that the number of
variables which can influence the final product are so
numerous that the materials are continually being
upgraded as more information is gathered about their
behavior.
USSR Carbon/Carbon. The USSR has embarked on
a program to develop carbon/carbon composites.
While the Soviets can 25X1
produce two-dimensional carbon/carbon in quantity,
they are still having some difficulty with three-
dimensional material; Soviet researchers have repeat-
edly questioned US experts about the necessity to
develop carbon/carbon materials with fibers in more
than three directions and about the manufacturing 25X1
technology necessary to fabricate these materials.
25X1 25X1
The Soviets are investigating carbon/carbon rocket
nozzle throats
US Carbon/Carbon. US carbon/carbon technology
was initially advanced through Air Force funding.
Many variations of process technology were examined
in the course of that program. Fiber size and distribu-
tion received much attention because of the need for
improved ablation performance, properties, and fabri-
cability. Rayon-base fibers (T-50) were eventually 25X1
replaced with PAN-based (T-300) and pitch-base
(VSB-32) fibers
by US companies
In the early 1970s during the development of various
carbon/carbon preforms, the need for automation in
the weaving process became apparent. This led to the
development of several proprietary weaving machines
25X1
25X1
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For special-purpose applications such as improved
erosion resistance and radiation hardening, additions
of other elements or compounds to the fiber, or to the
matrix, or to both are being investigated. Organome-
tallic compounds capable of being converted into
refractory carbides and solution impregnation of ha-
lides result in heavy metal carbides that enhance the
erosion resistance and provide some decrease in nu-
clear vulnerability. This type of program might ex-
plain the Soviet research in carbide reinforcement of
carbon. The addition of silicon in the process also can
result in the formation of silicon carbide, which
increases the oxidation resistance of carbon/carbon
materials
The nose cap and the leading edges of the space
shuttle wings and vertical stabilizer are examples of
carbon/carbon composites application that suggest a
significant US lead in this technology. No similar uses
of such materials are evident elsewhere in the world.
Improved composites and coatings are being devel-
oped in order to test the feasibility of using carbon/
carbon composites for gas turbine engine components.
If successful, it is anticipated that significant per-
formance improvements will be realized in cruise
missile propulsion systemsF_~
Free World Carbon/Carbon. In the mid-1970s much
of the US carbon/carbon technology was purchased
by the French; the major French companies involved
were Societe Europeene de Propulsion (SEP), Aero-
spatiale, and Brochier et Fils. The strong French
weaving background has enabled them to rapidly
acquire the technology to build their own machines,
which are remarkably simple in operation and have
the capability to weave contoured preforms for rocket
nozzles up to 1.5 meters in diameter. While the
French carbon/carbon weaving capability may be the
best in the world, they still rely on the United States
for most analysis and testing. French carbon/ carbon
applications include aircraft brakes, rocket nozzles,
reentry vehicle nosetips, and prosthetics. In recent
years the Japanese have shown an interest in acquir-
ing carbon/carbon technology from both France and
the United States, but no applications have yet been
indicated
Manufacturing Capability
Industry has developed using manual placement of
fibers in the desired directions for the fabrication of
composites components. Automation of some opera-
tions (plycutting and tape laying) has been adopted in
some segments of US industry, but the industry is
generally still dependent on the availability of trained
labor. The basic equipment used in fabricating com-
posites has widespread use in various fields, including
textiles and medicine, but the technical know-how of
using the equipment for composites is less widely
understood.)
A special step in the manufacturing process is the
inspection or nondestructive testing of composite com-
ponents to assure a quality product. Similar to metals,
several promising methods have evolved to inspect the
final product. Among them are: ultrasonic, X-radiog-
raphy, thermography, and acoustic emission
USSR Manufacturing. In composites, as in many
other technologies, the USSR appears to be weakest
in manufacturing. While the research institutes ap-
pear capable of developing the necessary techniques,
the transition to large-scale production is often diffi-
cult. Western literature has been closely followed in
the USSR to determine the best methods of fabrica-
tion of composites components. Thus, what little is
known about composites manufacturing in the USSR
closely resembles US practices in most cases
Early Soviet literature on nondestructive testing prin-
cipally discussed acoustic methods, with an emphasis
on acoustic emission. The Soviet claims, made in the
mid-1970s, still exceed the US capability to locate
flaws in small structures. Very recent Soviet state-
ments indicate a shift in NDT emphasis to X-ray
techniques. Fiber production in the USSR is moni-
tored using X-ray shadow microscopy; this technique
appears to be overly conservative and may account for
a high scrap rate on fibers reported in earlier years by
Soviet technologists. Techniques used for the NDT of
laminates and shapes include visual thermography,
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ultrasonic scans, and filmless X-ray through transmis-
sion. The last technique is reportedly preferred and
has a claimed capability of accurately detecting a 2
percent change in density at a scanning rate of 1 to 2
meters every 15 seconds. Multiple 100 to 200-keV
X-ray sources are used to triangulate flaw location
and depth. Research on filmless X-ray techniques in
the United States has thus far been unsuccessful in
detecting density changes of less than 6 to 8 percent.
In 1978, the Soviets purchased 40 autoclaves from a
West German firm; the vendor described these auto-
claves, which were 5 meters in diameter by 15 meters
long, as being ideal for curing aircraft wing struc-
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For the fabrication of MMC, the Soviets use at least
five different techniques. Four of these techniques-
hot rolling, vacuum pressing, liquid metal infiltration,
and plasma deposition-are also used by other indus-
trial nations. The last technique, explosive fabrication,
has received much more emphasis in the USSR than
in the United States. Explosive fabrication is attrac-
tive because it minimizes the amount of heat that
normally would degrade the fiber-matrix interface
during processing. Volgograd Polytechnic Institute,
the Institute of Hydrodynamics in Novosibirsk, and
the Electric Welding Institute imeni Ye. 0. Paton in
Kiev appear to be the three leading facilities engaged
in this research, which has been going on for at least
10 years. The Soviets report that they are able to
make complex shapes of large, semifinished compo-
nents by this technique. Production of sheets, plates,
shells, pipes, and rods has been specified in open
literatureF___1
While nothing has yet appeared in Soviet literature
about the automation of composites fabrication, the
Soviets appear to have an adequate capability to
fabricate and inspect rather sophisticated composites
structures. Even in the United States, the F-16 for-
ward fuselage and the B-1 horizontal stabilizer were
produced without automation. Thus, Soviet compos-
ites manufacturing technology is probably adequate
to support the relatively widespread application of
composites to various types of prototype systems.
However, the Soviets could not efficiently support
large production runs with their current work force
and shortage of automated equipment.
US Manufacturing. Composite structures production
capability in the United States is widely varied,
involving low-performance materials, such as fiber-
glass composites, and various high-performance com-
posites, including organic matrix, metal matrix, and
carbon/carbon materials. While fiberglass composites
are widely applied to military systems, such materials
do not usually involve advance procedures for produc-
tion. Metal matrix and carbon/carbon composites are
high technology, specialty materials that are currently
produced in small quantities with very specialized
processes involved
At this time there is an ample fiber supply capacity.
Graphite fibers are produced by several companies
that have sufficient capacity for current production
needs. The scale-up of fiber production is straight
forward and requires approximately 24 months' lead-
time. Kevlar fibers are produced in very large quanti-
ties and are widely applied in aircraft, body armor,
ship armor, sporting goods, tires, and other consumer
products. DuPont has recently expanded Kevlar pro-
duction to 20 million kilograms per year, and no
shortages are foreseen. Boron fibers are a specialty
product and are now produced solely by the Avco
Corp. Boron production is very low, and the price is
very high. Boron is used in metal matrix composites;
some of the older organic matrix applications, such as
the F-14 and F-15 empennage; and in some special
structural areas where unique properties are required.
The boron supply has been reliable, but the recent loss
of the second source, CTI, was a direct result of a
decreasing market, and the production of boron ma
eventually be jeopardized by economic conditions.
found
No problems have been experienced in the supply of
organic matrix materials and none are anticipated
because the base material for most of these resins is
petroleum. Specialized high-performance matrix ma-
terials are expensive, but suppliers can generally be
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The qualified producers of aerospace composite struc-
tures are predominately the major prime contractors,
although some subcontractors are now producing
composite structures. There are numerous other com-
panies that produce composite structures for low-
volume applications such as spacecraft. There are also
a number of small companies that manufacture spe-
cialized parts and are capable of producing limited
military hardware. These small producers must be
accounted for in the industrial based
Composite production is routinely done on a one-shift-
per-day basis. As a result, considerable excess produc-
tion capacity exists without construction of significant
new facilities. There are some capital equipment
considerations which can pace a production scale-up,
such as availability and scheduling of tape laying
machines, tooling, and autoclaves; however, none of
these are major factors at the current low rate of
production.
Automation of the production of composite structures
is in the first-generation stage. Major automation
demonstrations have been accomplished by Grum-
man, Northrop, General Dynamics, Vought, and Mc-
Donnell. There is great promise in automation as a
means to reduce the cost and to overcome much of the
variability in composite details. The United States
holds an apparent technological edge over the rest of
the world in automating the production of these
structures; however, the transfer of automation tech-
nology out of the country through commercial sales of
tape laying machines and numerically controlled cut-
ting machines could erode this technology lead.F_
Free World Manufacturing. Free World composites
manufacturing capabilities have increased greatly by
international agreements. The US Boeing Company
has trained hundreds of Italian production personnel
to produce composites structures for the Boeing 737,
757, and 767 aircraft. Similar, but less extensive,
training programs are occurring with Belgium and
Spain in support of F-16 production, with Canada and
Australia in support of F- 18 production, with Japan in
support of F-15 production, and with the United
Kingdom in support of AV-8B production.
France is probably the world leader in the manufac-
ture of carbon/carbon materials. Brochier et Fils has
collected all phases of the process into a single facility,
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unlike the US approach of having a specific facility
perform a specific phase of the processF-7
While Japan may be the world leader in robotics, they
have developed no automated composites facility like
those developed by Northrop and Grumman in the
United States. However, Japanese robotics expertise
will undoubtedly be applied to composites manufac-
turing in the future.)
Applications
USSR Applications. Soviet composites applications
are seldom identified in unclassified literature. Pub-
lished conference papers, even for internal sympo-
siums not attended by Westerners, are usually very
basic and highly theoretical.
The Soviet use of fiberglass has not been extensive but
has paralleled US efforts in most cases. One applica-
tion has been for ship structures. Naval applications
include the hull structures of at least four classes of
ships: the 90-metric-ton Yevgenya-class MSI, the
290-metric-ton Zhenya-class MSC, the Andrysha-
class MSS, and the 460-metric-ton Sonya-class MSC.
The Soviets have imitated the United States in much
of their reported aircraft applications. They have
investigated hybrid laminates composed of graphite/
epoxy and fiberglass/epoxy and have reportedly ap-
plied this combination to the floor beams of the
YAK-40 and IL-62. Other reported hybrid uses are
for engine components including fan housings, fan
blades, and compressor blades
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(beta) is an indicator of RV performance and is a
function of the RV configuration and mass. Histori-
cally, Soviet RVs have had lower betas than those of
the United States. The trend in both the United
States and the USSR is toward RVs with higher
betas.F_~
The Soviets are also using composites in ground
weapons. Starting with the T-64 in 1965 and the T-72
in 1974, the Soviets introduced tanks with laminated
armor in the upper glacis of the hull. While the exact
arrangement and types of materials used in the T-64
are unknown, the upper glacis of the T-72 contains a
glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) component (figure 9)
that comprises a portion of the total armor system.
he Soviets are also using Kevlar-type
composite as body armor, as shown in figure 10.F__
and more recently for the MI-26.
The first use in the Soviet Union of composite materi-
als for helicopter applications was made by the
Kamov design bureau. In 1968, the KA-26 Hoodlum
was deployed with GRP rotor blades. Since 1968,
most new helicopters have had composite blades, and
product improvement programs for older aircraft have
included projects to replace metal blade designs with
composites. Helicopters believed to have GRP rotor
blades (or blade prototypes) include the KA- 15,
KA-25, MI-6, MI-8, MI-24, KA-26, and the new
MI-26 Halo, a heavy-lift helicopter. Since the late
1960s, tail rotor blades of GRP have been regularly
produced for the MI-6, MI-8, and MI-24 helicopters,
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More advances composites for helicopters have also
been considered by the Soviets. Development pro-
grams have included the use of higher performance
fibers such as boron and graphite, especially in hybrid
composite designs with less costly glass fibers. In 1977
the Soviets reported the investigation of graphite and
glass hybrid composites for the longitudinal forward
and rear webs of the rotor blades on the KA-25, which
entered service in the 1960s. Full-scale dynamic tests
indicated longer service life based on 21-million-cycle
fatigue tests. Graphite-epoxy tail sections also have
been evaluated, but test results and specific applica-
tions are unavailable.
While very few Soviet composite applications have
been confirmed, none of the reports cited above are
inconsistent with the level of technical expertise that
is evident in Soviet literature and in Western contacts
with Soviet researchers. The breadth of reported
applications would appear to indicate a Soviet capa-
bility to field composites components on various mili-
tary and nonmilitary systems. F_~
US Applications. Almost from its inception, the US
composites research program had flight tests and
production applications as its goals. In the late 1960s,
the Air Force established an Advanced Composites
Advanced Development Program Office (ADPO) to
direct the design, fabrication, and testing of composite
aircraft components. Early efforts of the ADPO in-
cluded a boron/epoxy F-15 wing, flight tests of 40
boron/epoxy F-4 rudders, a graphite/epoxy F-111
horizontal stabilizer, graphite/epoxy forward fuse-
lages for the F-5 and F-16, and various pieces of
secondary structure. The current US state of the art
was essentially established by the ADPO in the mid-
1970s with the design and construction of the horizon-
tal and vertical stabilizers for the B-1. Since then, the
ADPO has addressed missile and spacecraft applica-
tions.
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N tiq ~
1. q/S Sq/ST MK 21
oM~yq,. l&A~_TgR~- q~q eA,
76 77 78
FISCAL YEAR
Figure 11. Strate is Missile Carbon/Carbon Nosetip and Rocket
Nozzle Tests
The United States has lagged the Soviet Union as well
as the West European countries in adopting fiber
reinforced composites for helicopter applications. Pro-
duction of US composite components began in 1978
with parts for the Sikorsky CH-53E and Boeing-
Vertol CH-46E aircraft. French and West German
parts were produced in the early 1970s. The United
States, however, will undoubtedly jump ahead by
applying composites to primary structures. US pro-
grams to develop Kevlar/epoxy ribs, stiffeners, and
skins for helicopter tail sections have been very suc-
cessful. Prototype structures are now being planned
for flight testing.
US composites components in production include
F-14 horizontal stabilizers and overwing fairings,
F-15 stabilizers and speed brakes, F-16 stabilizers,
F-18 wing skins and some secondary structure. In
addition, 25 percent of the AV-8B and some space
shuttle and Trident missile components are composite
materials.
The first civil aircraft to use advanced composites
extensively in its primary structure, the Lear Fan,
represents a fundamental departure from convention-
al design practice. Graphite/epoxy and Kevlar/epoxy
account for over 70 percent of the aircraft's structural
weight, with the remainder taken up by hardware,
fittings, windows, and the landing gear. Because of
certification disputes involving Lear Avia and the
Federal Aviation Administration, the Lear Fan is
being produced in Ireland.
The US applications of carbon/carbon and MMC are
summarized in figures 11 and 12, respectively.
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LEGEND
. COMPOSITES RESEARCH (START)
0 ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT
-f- PRODUCTION
1980
YEARS
In the area of ceramic matrix composites, the United
States has foreseen a fundamental strength for the
future. Table 6 depicts many of the potential applica-
tions and their relative time frame of existence. The
time frame ran es from near term (0-2 years) to far
term (20 years)~
Free World Applications. France has progressed rap-
idly since the early 1970s in applying composite
theory to actual use. The two leading aircraft manu-
facturers, Dassault and Aerospatiale, with the aid of
their government have embarked on a goal to produce
an all-composite aircraft. The original 1979 goal was
three to five years for secondary structures, five to
eight years for primary structures, and 10 years for a
complete airfoil to replace an existing wing already in
service. The exact status of this program is not known.
As early as 1972, the French decided to launch a
study of a boron composite horizontal stabilizer for
the Mirage F-1. This stabilizer apparently became too
expensive and presented unnecessary machining prob-
lems, and the program was abandoned. In 1974,
commercial carbon fibers were successfully planned
for use as control surfaces of the Mirage III, debuting
in 1975.n
The Mirage 2000 and Super Mirage 4000 programs
have both been quite significant in composites devel-
opment. The Mirage 2000 has 17 primary and sec-
ondary components made of either boron or carbon
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composites. They include the landing-gear doors, gear creating an all-composite plane, as noted earlier, and
hatches, gear hold covers, radio bay doors, flaps, the have achieved results toward that goal with primary
stabilizer box, and control surfaces. The Mirage 4000 and secondary structures on the Mirage 2000 and
uses a canard with a carbon fiber surface and honey- integral stiffening on the Mirage 4000
comb filling. It also has composite flaps (identical to
the Mirage 2000) and vertical stabilizer. The vertical The West Germans have conducted similar studies
stabilizer was the first French element made of involving composites on the Tornado. Messerschmidt-
monolithic panels. The stabilizer has two self-stiffen- Boelkow-Blohm has fabricated a composite forward
ing surfaces (integrally stiffened) lying on a substruc- fuselage (figure 13), horizontal stabilizers, and wings.
ture composed of longerons and raised aluminum TGerman goal is an all-composite fighter aircraft.
bands. Connections are made by screws and Jo-bolts.
French manufacturers, notably Dassault and Aero-
spatiale, are committed to the massive use of carbon
composites on aircraft. They have clear thoughts on
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The helicopter rotor blade is an application where the
French have made great strides in adapting compos-
ites to traditionally metal components. Aerospatiale,
with more than 20 years experience in composite
rotor blade production, makes virtually all its new and
replacement blades with composite material. The
SA-341 Gazelle, SA-330 Puma, SA-360 Dauphin,
AS-350 Ecureuil/Astar, and AS-355 Ecureuil-2/
Twinstar all have composite blades. As for rotor hubs,
the Starflex hub has been produced from a glass-
reinforced elastomer for the Dauphin and the
Ecureuils; the Triflex hub will also be composed of
graphite/elastomer composite
In the area of small, private aircraft, Finland's
PIK-23 (figure 14) is reported to be an all-composite
aircraft using primarily graphite/epoxy
Carbon/carbon composites, because of their high-
temperature adaptability, are quite suitable for use as
components of brakes. Two French firms, Messier and
Sepcarb, are both involved in providing carbon/
carbon disks for the Mirage 2000. Dunlop supplies
carbon/carbon brakes for the Concorde, and Sepcarb
is currently testing carbon/carbon rotor brakes on the
Super Frelon.
Advanced composite materials, which have already
been used by Airbus Industrie to obtain a 400-kg
overall weight savings on the A-310 medium-range
passenger aircraft, are now being considered by the
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European manufacturing consortium for trimming an
additional 2,000 kg from the planned short-range
A-320 aircraft. This will be accomplished by using
primarily carbon and aramid (Kevlar) fibers
The consortium's overall planning will be divided
among its members; France's Societe Nationale des
Industries Aerospatiales (SNIAS), West Germany's
Messerschmidt Boelkow Blohm, Spain's CASA, Brit-
ish Aerospace, and Holland's Fokker. The last two
companies are believed to be the most experienced in
the use of composites, mainly as the result of copro-
duction agreements between Fokker and General
Dynamics for the F-16 aircraft and the development
by British Aerospace of its AV-8B short takeoff and
landing aircraft. Progress beyond the planning stage
of the A-320 and into the development program will
depend heavily on government support, since no single
aircraft manufacturer will be able to fund the high
cost.
Of the weight savings obtained from composites on
the A-310, 100 kg were obtained from the use of
aramid fibers, 150 kg from carbon fibers, and 145 kg
from hybrid composites including aramid/glass and
carbon/aramid. By 1990, Airbus Industrie estimates
that utilization of advanced composites for increasing-
ly higher loaded, or primary structures, could reach
20 percent or more of the structural weight of air-
craft
The main market for carbon fibers over the next two
years will be in Italy, where Aeritalia is building
structures for the Boeing 767. Much of this market is
likely to shift to France because of the rapid develop-
ment of French applications for civil and military
aircraft.
In Japan, Mitsubishi Aircraft, Kawasaki, and Fuji
Aircraft have all been involved in aircraft production
and repairs programs. Mitsubishi has fabricated, from
Toray 8H satin woven fabric prepreg, a nose landing
gear of apparent high quality for the Japanese T-2
trainer aircraft. The canard, also built by Mitsubishi,
of the controlled configuration version of the T-2
(CCVT-2) employs graphite/epoxy composites. The
cooperative development of the C-1 cargo aircraft
horizontal stabilizer (with the National Aerospace
Laboratory) represents a giant step forward in prima-
ry composite structures for Japan. This will provide
them with considerable design and manufacturing
experience with complex parts and co-curing of large
sections. Carbon/aluminum metal matrix composites
were studied at Mitsubishi but were discontinued
because of problems with the carbon/aluminum inter-
face. They are, however, enthusiastic about SiC fibers
in both aluminum and epoxy matrices.
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Kawasaki's history of composite technology dates
back to 1970 when they began producing carbon/
epoxy cylinders for nuclear reactor fuel centrifuges.
One of their most advanced composite aircraft compo-
nents is the spoiler for the C-1 cargo aircraft. The C-1
spoiler involved a substantial engineering and manu-
facturing effort with verification testing and opera-
tional experience. This development was sponsored by
the Japan Defense Agency. The component consists of
an aluminum honeycomb core with upper and lower
skin as well as the spar and end fittings of carbon/
Some of Kawasaki's recent work on carbon/epoxy has
included development of the main structure for the
MTX, a jet trainer similar to the US Navy VTX.
They have also investigated polyimide resins for the
high-temperature areas of short takeoff and landing
aircraft. Kawasaki has two autoclaves each about 4.3
meters in diameter and 12.2 meters long and capable
of handy trays of bonded or composite compo-
nents
Composite materials are currently in production at
Fuji Aircraft. Fuji has a contract to manufacture the
upper and lower rudder and tab sections for the
Bowing 747. These have a glass-Nomex core. Their
experience with graphite composites began with the
Boeing 767 program. Hybrid composites of Kevlar
and graphite are fabricated for the 767 landing gear
doors with the outer skin consisting of one ply of
Kevlar/epoxy. All materials are supplied by the US
Hexcel Corporation to Boeing specifications. Fuji has
installed an autoclave (5 meters by 9 meters) capable
of temperatures to 175?C and pressures of 690 MPa.
This unit was designed and built by Fuji and is housed
in a new environmentally controlled building that is
dedicated to the Boeing 767 production. There are
also two other smaller autoclaves at Fuji in areas not
environmentally controlled.
Status of Other Communist Countries
People's Republic of China
Deficiencies in the production of conventional materi-
als have not prevented the Chinese from initiating
work in advanced materials such as composites. Re-
search work in composites is being done at the
Institute of Chemistry and at the Institute of Me-
chanics, both in Beijing. Applied work is carried out
at the Beijing Research Institute of Materials, the
Northwest Chemical Propulsion Corporation, and the
Beijing Institute of Aeronautical Materials. Universi-
ty research is also under way. The Chinese effort in
composite materials is 10 to 15 years behind that of
the United States with respect to both production and
fabrication. The Cultural Revolution of 1966-69 re-
sulted in the loss of a generation of technologists, but
the Chinese research manpower pool is still impressive
in both quantity and quality. Western literature is
followed very closely in an attempt to avoid research
problems that others have already encountered and
solved. Possibly the greatest obstacle to Chinese tech-
nical advancement is the lack of funds with which to
purchase materials, equipment, facilities, and technol-
-Ogy
Composites research has been progressing in China
for over 10 years. According to Chinese literature,
testing of moisture effects on graphite/epoxy began in
1973, and some aircraft secondary structures have
been in flight test since at least 1977
about 15 to 20 cm deep and about 20 to 30 plies thick.
At a facility near Beijing, a graphite/epoxy vertical
stabilizer is being designed for a second fighter
aircraft. The rear spar is a graphite/epoxy C-channel
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While the
Chinese properties appear lower than those of the
United States, the difference in fiber volumes should
be noted. If the properties are adjusted for fiber
volume, the Chinese material is only slightly inferior
to that of the United States, and fiber volume is
relatively easy to increase in organic matrix compos-
ites)
The Chinese have reported the development of an
aramid fiber which they have designated Fiber B. The
designation suggests that it was based upon DuPont
data for its Kevlar test product. It is suggested that
difficulty in commercial production may be encoun-
tered because of the difficulty of obtaining raw
materials of the required purity. The properties of
Fiber B are intermediate between Kevlar 29 and 49.
Accordingly, it lacks the stiffness desired for high-
strength composites parts for aircraft, missiles, and
ships. China can be expected to continue development
of a stronger fiber
carbide fibers.
As early as 1978, the Chinese were making silicon
pressure. It was inferred from the composition, mold-
resin and cured with glass reinforcement under low
dehyde resin. A phenolic novolac was converted to a
The Institute of Chemistry has developed a heat 25X1
be used for making nose cones of large rockets
ing requirements, and properties that the system could
The Chinese have shown an intense interest in apply-
ing composites to aerospace systems, but limited
production capabilities are impeding them. At least
one large filament winding machine has been import-
ed from West Germany; two others, one from the
United States, have been ordered. These units will
have a capability to wind structures up to 5 meters in
diameter by 18 meters long with a 200-mm wall
thickness; the machines are capable of handling glass,
aramid, or graphite fibers
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that of the USSR.
Soviet T-72, will incorporate a glass/phenolic lami-
nate in the upper glacis armor. It is assumed that
Polish glass fiber production is used to supplement
It appears that considerable emphasis is being placed
on the use of glass-reinforced plastics. As early as
1963 the Chinese were experimenting with composite
applications to hulls for torpedo boats approximately
15.3 meters long, tubular objects 300 mm in diameter
by 6.1 meters long, radar dishes 6.1 meters in diame-
ter, military helmets, and armor for tanks and gun
European Communist Countries
Technical literature about non-Soviet ECC compos-
ites research indicates a close connection to that of the
USSR. In most cases the satellite countries provide
basic research and materials to the USSRJ
East Germany. East German composites research
appears to be aimed at supplementing Soviet research
in MMC and in NDT. The Soviet and East German
literature contains references to work occurring at the
A. A. Baykov Institute of Metallurgy in Moscow on
graphite/copper composites. In addition, a program
involving East Germans, Poles, Hungarians, and Sovi-
ets involves investigating exoelectron emissions and
their application to NDT of composites and other
Poland. The Polish composites program is possibly the
most advanced of the satellite country efforts. Basic
research is under way in the areas of exoelectron
emission NDT techniques, as noted above, and on
coatings to protect the fiber from interacting with the
matrix in MMC. In addition the Poles have developed
glass/epoxy rotor blades for the MI-2 and W-3
helicopters. The Polish-built Jaguar tank, like the
Hungary. The Hungarian composites effort may also
be directed at supplementing Soviet efforts-in this
case, for special filaments. The Hungarians are pro-
ducing nickel wires and alumina fibers on an un-
known scale. In addition they are also investigating
exoelectron emission NDT techniques.
nations.
Czechoslovakia. The Czech composites effort appears
to be primarily devoted to glass fibers. Production of
glass fibers is sufficient to provide a major export item
that is sold worldwide and that must obviously supple-
ment the composites efforts of the other Warsaw Pact
Romania. Whatever composites research occurs in
Romania is probably conducted at the Bucharest
Chemical Research Institute (ICECHIM) and subor-
dinate or associated institutes. ICECHIM has depart-
ments that study resins and synthetic fibers.
carrying a load of 1,200 tonnes
Bulgarian press announced that the Central Institute
of the Chemical Industry and associated institutes
have designed and built a fiberglass bridge over the
Nishava River; the bridge is reported to be capable of
Prospects for USSR Advance
The Soviets are projecting a significant expansion in
production capabilities for the various components
necessary for composites fabrication. These increases
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are projected on the basis of improvements in mecha-
nization, in control instrumentation, and in labor
efficiency. These manufacturing improvements proba-
bly will be implemented because the high priority
given to composites by the XXV Congress of the
CPSU in 1975 continues today. In 1981 a high
priority was given to robotics that should provide
benefits to composites f brication as well as to other
areas of Soviet industry
The Soviet manufacturing development of composites
has suffered in the past from a lack of consumer
applications; this should change to some extent with
the advent of composites fishing rods, track and field
equipment, and automotive parts. The increased pro-
duction experience created by these consumer uses
should provide the Soviets with the opportunity to
expand the usage of composites to new military fields.
Thus, research in the stability of thin, stiffened,
composites cylindrical shells could result in a
graphite/epoxy missile structure similar to concepts
being studied in the United States
Likewise, Soviet research into the
sion characteristics of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics
and of carbon/carbon composites suggests advanced
reentry vehicle design requirements of the kind cur-
rently in the US
The Soviet composites research program will continue
to be recognized by Soviet military R&D planners
within the Ministry of Defense as a militarily impor-
tant technology area necessary for increasing the
performance of numerous combat systems. All types
of composites will be investigated as possible solutions
to solving existing materials problems, such as fatigue
and stiffness. The area of composites technology that
will experience the greatest progress is that of manu-
facturing technology. This progress will be achieved
by the training of a skilled work force and by the
increased use of automated equipment.
Prospects for Free World Advance
In the European composites arena, the technology
base has been moving steadily forward. Much of the
US basic understanding of composites had its begin-
nings in Europe, and the mutual transference of new
insights still exists. Among certain US composites
experts there is a belief that, because of their techni-
cal capabilities, an aggressive European advance, such
as the all-composite aircraft noted above, could leap-
frog the United States in composites production with-
in three years.
A consortium of European countries are considering
designs (predominantly sweptwing, canard configura-
tions) of a fighter aircraft comparable in sophistica-
tion to the F-16XL. Preliminary designs have the
potential of 60 to 80 percent empty structural weight 25X1
of graphite/epoxy composites (figure 15). Within the
agreement, England would build the wing, Italy the
empenna a and France or Germany the forward
~
fuselage,
The Israeli company, IAI, is working in conjunction
with Grumman Aerospace Corporation to design a
new air-superiority fighter called the Lavi. The
aircraft is expected to be as much as 60 percent
graphite/epoxy
Prospects for Chinese Advance
Chinese composites researchers have been character-
ized as very well-informed on composites research
occurring around the world; their primary disadvan-
tage appears to be a lack of equipment with which to
conduct their research. Efforts have been made to
alleviate this deficiency by purchasing Free World
equipment, but a lack of hard currency has limited
the effectiveness of these efforts. Because of these
economic considerations, the Chinese have indicated a
willingness to take shortcuts in an effort to get
composites into production as quickly as possible.
Thus, Chinese progress in the next 10 years will
probably occur through the acquisition of equipment
for the manufacturing of organic matrix composites.
MMC and ceramic matrix research will probably
have a relatively low priority in China for the next 3
to 5 years
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Carbon fiber composite (CFC)
CFC skin/metal substructure
Glass fiber composite
Alloy
Steel
Western industrialized countries are the acknowl-
edged leaders in composites development and ap-
plication. Because many of the applications offer
considerable potential for improving the performance
and reliability of military systems, the USSR and
China have attempted to close this gap through
technology transfer. Technology acquisition may be
covert or through open trade channels involving the
knowledge of conceptual design and technical know-
how, purchase of manufacturing and fabrication
equipment, and the acquisition of key end products.
The USSR, in particular, sees technology transfer as
a means to reduce costs of unfruitful R&D, to reduce
development programs by using proven technology, to
focus on performance specifications of known adver-
sary military systems, and to upgrade the perform-
ance of indigenous military systems. The primary
challenge to the recipient countries will be their
ability to assimilate composites technology without
the benefit of the R&D experience comparable to that
developed in the West
The Soviets are avid followers of Western literature;
they feel that monitoring foreign research is an
efficient means of complementing their own reserch
programs. At the Third All-Union Conference on
Composite Materials in 1972, S. Ye. Salibekov dis-
cussed the fact that a review of US literature con-
cerning fiber/matrix interactions in metal matrix
composites had led to a Soviet program on applying
nickel coatings on graphite fibers for graphite/
aluminum composites. Likewise, at the Fourth All-
Union Conference in 1978, Salibekov discussed his
adaptation of the US Aerospace Corporation process
for the spontaneous impregnation of graphite fibers
with aluminum
The area of carbon/carbon technology transfer has
received a large amount of attention since 1979. The
Soviets are investigating carbon/carbon throat inserts
for rocket nozzles, but they do not yet have the
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capability to produce large billets (200 to 250 kg) like
those produced in the United States and in France for
rocket nozzles and for shape-stable nose tips. As in the
Soviet approach to other technologies, the USSR has
attempted to purchase carbon/carbon technology and
equipment. Western literature and conferences have
been exploited; Western experts,
have been the guests of the USSR; and necessary
equipment and technology, like 137.9 MPa (20,000
psi) hot isostatic presses, have been purchased from
Sweden, France, and the United States by the USSR
and its Warsaw Pact allies expressly for carbon
can be expected to strive for self-sufficiency in
carbon/carbon composites by conducting their own
research and by continuing to exploit Western tech-
nology and equipment.
In trying to assess the Soviet progress in advanced
composites, a transaction that took place in the
summer of 1978 is very revealing. A West German
firm that manufactures autoclaves for the production
of composites structures sold 40 autoclaves to the
USSR. The autoclaves, which were 5 meters in
diameter and 15 meters in length, were ideal for
producine aircraft win structures
i appearect e
Soviets were aggressively developing their composite
material production capability. These autoclaves, as
well as the presses cited above, are well within the
fabrication capability of the USSR, but acquisition
might have been delayed up to several years if Soviet
plants had been used to produce this equipment
Soviet R&D on aramids is aided by the military need
for high performance composite materials. The object
of much of the Soviet effort has been to develop an
aramid fiber which shares the high strength charac-
teristics of DuPont's Kevlar. Evidence now is avail-
able that the Soviets have developed an aramid fiber
that is being used in the manufacture of body armor.
In addition they have been testing aramid-wound
solid rocket motor cases for strategic missiles. There
are indications that much of the Soviet aramid fiber
technology is based on US technology. F_~
Technical Comparisons
25X1
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LJ/~ I
USSR Versus US Comparison
The Soviets appear to be spending more R&D funds
on metal matrix composites (MMC) than the United
States, but the results obtained do not appear to be
proportionately greater. Both the USSR and the
United States are working on MMC for the same
reason-increased performance of military systems.
Both recognize cost as the major implementation
problem and fiber/matrix interaction as the major
technical problem. The Soviets appear to have devel-
oped a pultrusion capability that exceeds that of the
25X1
2bAl
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United States, and they have a greater capability to
produce thin metallic foils necessary for the produc-
tion of MMC. The Soviets appear to have performed
more work than the United States on ultrahigh
temperature MMC, which would have applications in
aircraft engines. The Soviet analytical capabilities for
determining temperature and pressure diffusion bond-
ing parameters exceeds those of the United States.
However, in practice the Soviet's graphite/aluminum
and graphite/magnesium data do not have the proper-
ty translation efficiency that the US materials do. The
Soviets do not appear to be developing materials,
processes, and design methodologies for specific appli-
cations as in the United States (although such infor-
mation is likely to be restricted). The United States is
developing alumina/lead and titanium/lead for sub-
marine batteries, graphite/aluminum for Army trans-
portable bridges, Al, O, fiber/magnesium composites
for helicopter transmission cases, graphite/magne-
sium for dimensionally stable space structures,
borsic/titanium for engine fan blades, and silicon
carbide reinforced, superplastically formed, diffusion
bonded titanium for airframes. Further, the United
States is producing boron/aluminum struts for the
space shuttle. Overall, the Soviets have accomplished
much and are doing a greater amount of work than
the United States, but much of this work is
fundamental.
The Soviet advanced composites program appears to
be well coordinated. While the Soviets apparently lag
the United States in the automation of composites
fabrication, their manufacturing technology-while
not very efficient-is adequate to support the relative-
ly widespread application of composites to prototype
systems. Thus, while continuing to lag slightly behind
the United States, the Soviets appear to have attained
a state of near parity in composites technology.
Although US investment in automated fabrication of
composites could widen this gap, technical parity is
considered to exist for composites in general and
reflects several technical leads by both countries. The
US still leads in such areas as carbon/carbon technol-
ogy, automated fabrication, and fiber production pro-
cess controls, while the USSR leads in such areas as
MMC technology, fiber production capacity, and
high-temperature organic matrix research. In con-
firmed production applications, the United States still
enjoys a sizable lead.
The Soviets are probably the first in the world to
incorporate an organic matrix composite in a tank
armor system. This is significant, since they are
usually depicted as being ultraconservative in the use
of new materials and technologies.)
Free World Versus US Comparison
Comparison of US state-of-the-art composite technol-
ogy and several Free World countries are presented in
this section. The information gathered for this com-
parison was obtained from more than 80 industry and
government organizations in the United States, Ja-
pan, and Europe.
Figure 16 relates the ranking of each country in each
of the major areas of composite activity (materials and
technology). The figure was prepared from extensive
research by the Institute for Defense Analysis (IDA)
for the Department of Defense in 1981. The size of
the squares indicates the relative standing in each
area. In some cases, little or no information was
available and is indicated by a blank. Obviously, such
an assessment is subjective, but we believe that this
assessment represents the overall relative capability
reasonably well.
Figure 16-A shows that the United States has the
major capability for rayon precursor and pitch precur-
sor for carbon fibers, while Japan leads the world in
PAN precursor. A similar relationship exists between
the carbon fibers produced from these precursors.
However, the US capability in PAN carbon fiber
production and technology is now second only to that
of Japan. The United States is the major custodian of
aramid technology, but a growing capability appar-
ently exists in the USSR
Activity in other fibers is considerably less than in
carbon fibers. Boron fiber technology is primarily
centered in the United States. The B&C coating
process used in the United States was licensed from
France, although French boron fiber production is
virtually nil. Silicon carbide deposition process fiber
technology results in fibers approximately 0.13-
0.20 mm in diameter and is essentially contained in
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the United States. The substrateless micron-size sili-
con carbide fibers derived from polycarbosilane are
almost solely Japanese, although some research work
is in progress in the United States. The smaller
diameter Japanese fibers have many advantages in
metal infiltration and uniformity of matrix. Alumina
fibers of two types are being developed-the high-
purity FP fiber, which is a US product entirely,
and the less pure alumina, which is a Japanese
development.
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