PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN SUPPORT OF SOVIET LONG-DURATION MANNED SPACEFLIGHT

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 37
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 12, 2011
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: August 1, 1982
• Content Type: REPORT

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Intelligence
Psychological Research
in Support of Soviet Long-
Duration . Manned Spaceflight
SW 82-10070
August 1982
Copy 3 5 6
Directorate of -SeeFiA
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Directorate of Secret
Intelligence
Psychological Research
in Support of Soviet Long-
Duration Manned Spaceflight
Chief, Military Technology Branch, OSWR,
queries are welcome and should be directed to the
The author of this report isl (Office of
Scientific and Weapons Research. Comments and
Intelligence Council.
This report has been coordinated with the National
Secret
SW 82-10070
August 1982
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Psychological Research
in Support of Soviet Long-Duration
Manned Spaceflight
Secret
Summary The Soviets learned from the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) with the
United States that cosmonauts could do much more than they had been
called upon to do during previous spaceflights. The recent Soviet successes
with extended manned missions aboard Salyut-6 illustrate their finding.
The Soviet manned space program, like that of the United States, has both
military and civilian-scientific components. While the driving component is
the military, the program incorporates and benefits from advances in the
iiliiifi
cvan-scentc sector.
Early Soviet manned spaceflights were almost entirely automated and
demanded little of the cosmonauts. In recent years, the flights have been
longer, have carried several crewmembers, and have called upon the
d
cosmonauts too numerous critical tasks.
The Soviets have concomitantly developed a substantial program of
psychological research-"human factors engineering"-for manned space-
flight. This psychological research seeks to help Soviet cosmonauts improve
their performance. Its studies reach into several areas: cosmonaut selection,
testing, training, in-flight monitoring, and morale. Several research insti-
tut~s participate in the program. It is conducted as part of a substantial
biomedical research program and is coordinated through the Institute of
Biomedical Problems, USSR Ministry of Health, Moscow.
The Soviets have established specific psychological criteria as a part of
their selection standards for cosmonauts. However, these criteria and the
associated testing probably are not useful in the selection process. First, the
Soviets lack know-how in establishing and using psychological tests: most
of their tests originated in the United States and have not been modified
for the Soviet population; nor do the Soviets have the expertise to interpret
test results. Second, the tests do not have much predictive validity. Third,
the applicant pool is saturated with successful professionals (pilots, physi-
cians, scientists, and engineers), and psychological tests do not have the
precision that would furnish a basis for discriminating between such
individuals.
Information available as of] July 1982
has been used in the preparation of this report.
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Secret
SW 82-10070
August 1982
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Soviet biomedical specialists and psychologists are developing techniques to
enhance and assess the "operational status" of their cosmonauts during
spaceflight. Their research in this area is exploring three distinct
approaches:
? The development of techniques to detect psychological stress by the
evaluation of biomedical (electrophysiological) signals and/or voice
patterns.
? Exposure to "high stress" during flight training in aircraft; the use of bio-
feedback and autogenic training exercises during spaceflight.
? The development of mathematical models of cosmonaut perform
predict more accurately the probability of cosmonaut error.
The Soviets are conducting, largely during spaceflight, psychological
studies of the sensory, cognitive, and psychomotor alterations that may
occur during weightlessness. The studies include:
? Visual acuity and depth perception experiments that describe alterations
in eyesight that may occur during long-term weightlessness. A knowledge
of such alterations would be relevant to such tasks as visual reconnais-
sance and detection, aiming, and tracking of targets in space.
? Circadian (24-hour periodicity) studies that quantify daily fluctuations in
bodily systems that can affect a cosmonaut's adaptation to weightlessness
and influence optimal scheduling of tasks during a given 24-hour cycle.
? Cognitive experiments that measure the ability to perform mental
operations while subjected to weightlessness.
? Subjective questionnaires that ask the cosmonauts to evaluate their living
conditions in space. Such experiments can have a positive psychological
impact by providing useful information on the psychological environment
and ways in which to improve it.
? Time estimation experiments.
? Hand-eye coordination experiments
Soviet spacecraft design, to a much greater extent than US design,
emphasizes simplicity of man-machine interaction. The design process is
also continuing to refine the allocation of tasks (among crewmembers and
between man and machine) for long spaceflights. Areas that have received
attention in this allocation include: the influence of circadian rhythms;
work, rest, and sleep schedules; the necessity for a period of adaptation to
weightlessness; variety of tasks; and redundancy of crew duties.
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In the near future, with the expansion of crew sizes and the permanent
manning of larger space stations, crew compatibility will assume greater
importance. Soviet psychological research in this area has drawn on the
psychological study of individual (one-to-one) interactions in groups during
extended isolation such as in polar expeditions and submarine patrols. In
addition, the Soviets are searching out those important psychological
variables that affect group performance.
Finally, we believe that the Soviets will continue their biomedical research
program-including its psychological component-dedicated to the sup-
port of their manned space program. This research will; we believe,
contribute considerably to their cosmonauts' achieving high duty cycles
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Summary
Psychological Criteria for Selection of Cosmonauts
Psychological Testing
Assessment of the Soviet Psychological Testing Program 2
Vestibular Research and Training Program 3
Vestibular Testing
Vestibular Training
Continuing Vestibular Research
Psychological Preparation for Spaceflight
Psychological Training Program
Flight Training
Parachute Training
Survival Training
Psychological Support, Crew Compatibility, and Research Into
Group Dynamics
Techniques for Monitoring the Condition of Cosmonauts in Flight
Psychophysiological Recording
6
Voice Analysis
7
Biofeedback Research
7
Sensory, Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Psychological Alterations
9
During Spaceflight
Ergonomic Input Into Soviet Manned Spacecraft Design
9
Design for Man-Machine Interaction
9
Allocation and Scheduling of Crew Tasks
1 1
B. Psychological Tests Used by the Soviets and East Europeans for 19
Selecting Cosmonauts
Psychological Experiments During Soviet or
Interkosmos Spaceflights
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Recent Psychological Experiments During Soviet or
Interkosmos Spaceflights
Barany Chair 4
Main Instrument Panel in the Salyut-6 Space Station 11
Main Instrument Panel in the Soyuz Spacecraft 12
Center Console-Main Instrument Panel, Soyuz
Spacecraft
Left-Hand Command Signal Device (KSU) Monitoring 16 14
Subsystems-Main Instrument Panel, Soyuz Spacecraft
6. Main Instrument Panel in the Soyuz-T Spacecraft 15
7. Main Crew Compartment in the Salyut-6 Space Station 16
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Psychological Research
in Support of Soviet Long-Duration
Manned Spaceflight
Early Soviet manned spaceflights (which started in
1961) were almost entirely automated and demanded
little of the cosmonauts. In recent years, Soviet
manned spaceflights have been longer and longer,
have carried several crewmembers, and have called
upon the cosmonauts to do numerous critical tasks.
Psychological problems inherent in long spaceflights
have, accordingly, taken on increasing importance in
the Soviet manned space program. Research into the
psychological aspects of the selection, testing, train-
ing, in-flight monitoring, and morale of cosmonauts
has become extensive.
In scientific exchanges with NASA scientists the
Soviets have stated that, from the beginning, Soviet
biomedical standards for the selection of cosmonauts
have included psychological criteria (also applicable to
their Interkosmos-non-Soviet-cosmonauts). These
criteria include five specifics.
First, the examiners identify individuals who possess
"high mental efficiency." This objective is accom-
plished primarily by administering intelligence tests.
Second, they describe each applicant's personality.
The emphasis is on detecting "borderline" psycho-
pathological personality traits that might surface
under stress. In addition, they measure, primarily by
standard personality tests, an applicant's motivation
for spaceflight.
Third, they determine which individuals work effec-
tively in a group. To this end, they study actual
"group activity," assess crew compatibility, and look
at the "social background" of applicants.
Fourth, they measure psychomotor coordination, by
administering hand-eye coordination tests and tests
that measure "the ability to shift attention" from one
task to another.
spaceflight.
Fifth, they quantify the "central nervous system
(CNS) reserves under stress." ("CNS reserves" is a
Soviet term for "individual response stereotypy"
(IRS)-see appendix A.) They do so by measuring
various electrophysiological channels (for example, an
electrocardiogram-EKG) when the individual is un-
der physiological or psychological stress. These meas-
urements can be correlated with the real-time assess-
ment of the same individual on duty during actual
To apply these five criteria, the Soviets include a
psychological testing program in their biomedical
examination of cosmonaut candidates.
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Psychological Testing
Oleg G. Gazenko, director, Institute of Biomedical
Problems, USSR Ministry of Health, Moscow, has
described the biomedical examination for selection of 25X1
cosmonauts. The physical examination is done in
three stages. The first or primary examination-the
polyclinical stage-is conducted at various clinics and
reviews all major physiological systems. At this stage,
one of two recommendations is made: "suitable for 25X1
physical examination" or "not suitable for physical
examination." Those who pass take a second medical
examination at "specialized clinical facilities." Dur-
ing this part of the medical procedure, specialists
psychologically evaluate cosmonaut applicants. After
this second medical examination, they categorize the
applicants as "suitable," "unsuitable," or "temporar- 25X1
ily unsuitable" (where brief treatment-not more
than one month-should alleviate any discovered
deficiency). The third medical examination is given 25X1
during training at the Yuri A. Gagarin Cosmonaut
Training Center near Moscow.
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Through a review of the scientific literature and
presentations made at scientific conferences, we have
evidence that the Soviets coordinate the use of psycho-
logical tests with other East European psychologists.
These include scientists from the Psychology Insti-
tute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences; the Psycho-
diagnostika Institute, Czechoslovakian Ministry of
Education; the Czech Research Institute of Psychia-
try, Prague; and the Polish Military Institute of
Aviation Medicine, Warsaw. We do not know the
exact nature of the psychological criteria for the
Hungarian and Czechoslovak cosmonauts. However,
S. Baranski, Z. Gierowski, and K. Klukowski have
described the psychological input into the preliminary
selection of Polish cosmonaut candidates. Their de-
scription of the Polish psychological tests parallels
closely that of the Soviet tests. They measure "mental
efficiency," rate of intellectual work, sensory capabili-
ties, "emotional resistance to stress," "individual psy-
chophysiological reactivity to stress" (CNS reserves
under stress), personality traits, and motivation for
spaceflight. Both the Poles and the Soviets have listed
similar psychological criteria. These include a "low
manifest anxiety," high intelligence, good memory
and attention, and "resistance to mental fatigue."
Both also state a preference for "extraverted" (social-
ly outgoing) individuals.
The Soviets depend largely-to a surprising degree-
upon Western (primarily American) psychological
tests in this portion of the cosmonaut selection proc-
ess.
Assessment of the Soviet Psychological Testing
Program
The program evidently has several shortcomings=
First, Western experience in the difficulties of test
development suggests that the Soviet psychological
testing program, which has adopted Western (mostly
American) tests without modifying them for the Sovi-
et population, may be of limited utility. This problem
may exist more for personality tests than for intelli-
gence tests. The Soviets-and, to a lesser extent, the
Poles, Czechoslovaks, and Hungarians-lack experi-
ence in psychological testing. Since 1936 there has
been an official ban on the use of psychological tests
within the Soviet Union. This ban has only recently
been lifted for isolated applications (to include the
Soviet manned space program). But psychological
testing demands a high degree of expertise, especially
in interpreting test results. We believe that, because
of their lack of know-how in establishing and using
tests, the Soviets derive only limited and even dubious
benefit from their test results.
Second, there is the question of test "validity" and
test "reliability." These terms describe whether a
psychological test actually measures what it is sup-
posed to (validity) consistently (reliability). In particu-
lar, the test should possess both "construct" and
"predictive" validity. Construct validity refers to how
well the test actually measures the psychological
construct of interest (for example, intelligence, anxi-
ety, extraversion). Predictive validity, especially im-
portant within the present context, refers to the ability
of a test to predict performance accurately (so that
those applicants who score high should perform cos-
monaut activities well, while those who score poorly
should not). Soviet psychological tests do not have
much predictive validity. From a review of recent
Soviet scientific literature, we have preliminary evi-
dence that the Soviets are engaged in a research
program to establish the predictive validity of at least
one of their tests (the MMPI) but not of the psycho-
logical test battery as a whole.
In one important area-the optimal selection of
multimember crews-there is no Soviet data base for
correlating psychological test results with readier
compatibility or enhanced performance of crews. As-
suming, however, that such a data base is being built
up during the evolution of ever-longer Soviet manned
spaceflights, the practicality of psychological testing
for these cosmonauts could become substantial within
the next decade.
Third, the Soviet applicants are successful, high-
caliber individuals (military pilots, engineers, physi-
cians, and scientists). Psychological tests do not have
the precision that would furnish a basis for discrimi-
nating between such individuals. While individual
differences in applicant scores on these intelligence
and personality tests do exist, we believe that the tests
have little utility in the selection of cosmonauts.
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Vestibular Research and Training Program
The Soviets admit that between 30 and 40 percent of
their cosmonauts have had motion sickness during
spaceflight. This percentage range is similar to that in
the American experience. Scientific exchanges and
conferences indicate that Soviet scientists are continu-
ing research into the development of space motion
sickness in order to reduce or eliminate it. Because
space motion sickness has both physiological and
behavioral consequences, the Soviet research is inter-
disciplinary. Present theory, concentrating on the
interaction of various sensory systems, holds that
visual and vestibular systems send conflicting infor-
mation to the brain during weightlessness. Visually
the spacecraft presents "up" and "down" signals, but
vestibularly it does not. The brain is confused. Conse-
quently, the cosmonaut experiences the symptoms of
motion sickness.
Because their cosmonauts continue to experience mo-
tion sickness during spaceflight, the Soviets have
recently stated to their NASA counterparts during
scientific exchanges that they continue to emphasize
vestibular testing. These tests seek to determine the
susceptibility of cosmonaut candidates to vestibular
stress. In addition, individualized vestibular exercises
are given to the cosmonauts during training.
Vestibular Testing
Vestibular testing is done during the second medical
examination in the cosmonaut selection process. Ves-
tibular function is examined during the otolaryngolog-
ical investigation. Tolerance to vestibular stress is
then determined by 15-minute tests on parallel Khilov
swings, by exposure to Coriolis (cross-coupled) accel-
eration for 10 minutes, and by centrifuge testing:
acceleration of plus 5GZ for 30 seconds, and accelera-
tion of plus 8GX for 40 seconds (see appendix A).
The Soviets have told NASA scientists that cosmo-
naut candidates are categorized as exhibiting a
"sharply pronounced degree of sensitivity" (that is, as
susceptible-about 30 percent of the candidates), an
"average degree of heightened sensitivity" (that is, as
partially susceptible-about 50 percent), or a "slightly
increased sensitivity" (that is, as not susceptible-
about 20 percent). The 30 percent who are susceptible
fail the selection process. Those who are partially
susceptible are scheduled for an individualized vestib-
ular training program aimed at increasing vestibular
tolerance. Those who show little susceptibility to
motion sickness undergo a minimum of vestibular
training.
Vestibular Training
Oleg Gazenko told NASA scientists that vestibular
training for Soviet cosmonauts is individualized, being
based on the results of vestibular testing. Training is
both "active" and "passive." "Active" training con-
sists of rigorous physical conditioning through such
activities as swimming, jogging, and gymnastics. The
philosophy behind it is that excellent physical condi-
tion contributes to vestibular tolerance. The "passive"
training program involves habituation exercises in a 25X1
Barany chair (figure 1), Khilov swings, and vertical
oscillators. It continues exposure to vestibular stimu-
lation until some disorientation is felt. The Soviets
claim that these brief exposures increase a cosmo-
naut's ability to withstand vestibular stimulation.
(Stanislaw Baranski, Polish Institute of Aviation
Medicine, describes a similar procedure for vestibular
training of Polish cosmonaut candidates.) The Soviets
define improvement in tolerance to vestibular stress as
improved tolerance to Coriolis acceleration
Continuing Vestibular Research
A review of the scientific literature shows that vestib-
ular research continues within the Soviet manned
space biomedical research program, primarily because
space motion sickness remains difficult to prevent.
Several lines of research are continuing. They include:
? Centrifuge research (under Ye. B. Shul'zhenko of
the Institute of Biomedical Problems, Moscow).
This research is studying the possibility of produc-
ing artificial gravity by slow rotation of a short-arm
centrifuge within a space station (which would also
subject a cosmonaut to a Coriolis force).
? Weightlessness studies using long-term bed rest,
long-term head-down tilting, and water immersion.
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Figure 1
Barany Chair
? The use of certain drugs to relieve motion sickness. ? The use of biofeedback and autogenic training
So far such efforts have met with only limited procedures to help a cosmonaut handle any per-
success. Drugs have produced relief principally by ceived disorientation.
their tranquilizing effect. This result may be unsuit-
able, especially during a period when operator per-
formance is required. Psychological Preparation for Spaceflight
? Restriction of movement during the initial adapta- Soviet biomedical specialists and psychologists pro-
tion stage of spaceflight, since increased movement vide psychological training to prepare their cosmo-
will accentuate any experienced motion sickness. nauts to handle possible life-threatening stresses and
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unforeseen accidents. With long spaceflights becom-
ing increasingly frequent, we believe that such train-
ing will continue.
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isolation that they would experience in space. The
Soviets have said that this procedure has been discon-
tinued.
Psychological Training Program
Soviet psychological training exposes cosmonauts to
"real life" dangers to develop coning behavior. Soviet
scientists have continually stated that only exposure to
actual stress can adequately develop the psychological
motivation, physiological conditioning, and behavioral
strategies that, when combined through training, can
help the cosmonaut cope with danger. The Soviet
psychological training program has been modified
over time, primarily on the basis of experiences on
earlier spaceflights. The following procedures have
been used.
Flight Training. Flying is used because of the obvious
similarities between spaceflight and aircraft-flight
skills. In addition, flying can present crises that call
for pilot resourcefulness. Former cosmonaut Maj.
Gen. A. A. Leonov has stated that MIG-21 Fishbed
fighters, L-29 Maya jet trainers, helicopters, and
VTA (believed to be high-altitude) aircraft have been
Parachute Training. Though once a vital part of
cosmonaut training (for example, over 40 jumps per
year were required of each trainee, according to
Leonov), parachute jumping has been deemphasized.
However, Lt. Gen. Georgiy T. Beregovoy, chief of
training at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center,
Star City, and a number of psychologists from the
Institute of Psychology, Moscow, continue to specify
parachute jumping for cosmonaut stress research. In
such jumping, the cosmonaut is required to perform
various perceptual and cognitive tasks during free fall.
With continued practice, performance at these tasks
improves measurably as the cosmonaut becomes ha-
bituated to the perceived stress. Indications are that
parachute jumping for cosmonauts is now used pri-
marily to test psychophysiological monitoring tech-
niques that are being developed to assess psychologi-
cal stress and related performance.
Isolation. Isolation of cosmonauts prior to a space-
flight was a procedure used early in the Soviet
manned space program to prepare them for the
Survival Training. The Soviets continue to incorpo-
rate survival training exercises as a part of the
training of their own cosmonauts, but not for their
Interkosmos counterparts. The Soviets have stated
that this survival training was invaluable for the
survival of Soviet cosmonauts on two occasions: the
attempted Soyuz-18 flight of Vasiliy Lazarev and
Oleg Makarov in April 1975, when they landed on a
slope of snow-covered mountains; and the Soyuz-23
flight of Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdest-
vensky in October 1976, when they landed on a
partially frozen lake. In both instances, rescuers were
several hours in coming to their aid and were fearful
for the cosmonauts' lives. General Beregovoy stated
that on both occasions the cosmonauts had survived
primarily because of the skills that they had learned
during their psychological training.
The Soviets describe three scenarios for survival
training. All three involve transporting the cosmonaut
trainees into a physically hostile environment. One
consists of removal to an isolated arctic location where
temperatures may fall to -40 to -45 degrees Cel-
sius. Another scenario uses the desert. A third uses
mountains. In all of these scenarios, the cosmonauts
are expected to survive as long as possible-typically
a couple of days-with the supplies normally carried
in their Soyuz spacecraft.
Beregovoy states that one skill taught to their cosmo-
nauts is body temperature control through biofeed-
back. Another skill is reduced oxygen consumption,
taught by techniques very similar to transcendental
meditation. Beregovoy stated that reduced oxygen
consumption was the primary reason for the survival
of cosmonauts Zudov and Rozhdestvensky. Their
Soyuz spacecraft had only a four-hour air supply,
because the air vents of the craft stayed locked shut
for the 12 hours before rescuers arrived.
Psychological Support, Crew Compatibility,
and Research Into Group Dynamics
The Soviets, in discussions with NASA officials, have
stated that the biggest problem they envision for long
spaceflights will be psychological. A major factor in
ocvi
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this problem continues to be boredom and isolation.
Under the auspices of the "Psychological Support
Group" (located at the Flight Control Center) of the
Institute of Biomedical Problems, the Soviets have
initiated measures to cater to the psychological needs
of their cosmonauts in flight. The measures, which the
cosmonauts have praised, include:
? A varied diet (to include fresh fruit).
? Videotaped television programs.
? Recorded music.
? Reading materials (requested and "surprise"
selections).
? Communication with family members, Soviet celeb-
rities, and friends.
? Scheduled free time.
Visits from the Interkosmos crews, also, are said to be
very rewarding psychologically.
Of increasing concern is the need for better specifica-
tion of crew compatibility requirements. Soviet bio-
medical and behavioral scientists see crew compatibil-
ity as a major variable in the success of long
spaceflights. The Soviets are devoting substantial
research to it. One approach is to form crews on the
basis of individual psychological profiles and of as-
sumptions about interaction between certain personal-
ity types. The Soviets state that this approach has not
been entirely successful. Currently their approach is
to study compatibility during training and match
those cosmonauts who interact best with one another.
The Soviets are also conducting research on the
effects of group dynamics on the behavior of individ-
ual cosmonauts. This research is most applicable for
long space missions involving several crewmembers
(for example, a permanently manned Earth-orbital
space station). The psychological dynamics of a large
group in space is currently an area in which no actual
experience exists. Therefore, Soviet scientists have
studied the group dynamics of isolated multimember
crews in submarines, on board naval surface ships, on
polar expeditions, and in long-range bombers. Positive
correlations between the psychological environment of
spaceflight and these other group situations are well
known and should provide heuristic information con-
cerning group and individual, behavior in long space-
flights.
Techniques for Monitoring the Condition of
Cosmonauts in Flight
Manned spaceflight demands that cosmonauts main-
tain an acceptable level of in-flight performance. This
performance will tend to decline within hours or days,
especially as spaceflights become longer. The Soviets,
in response to this problem, have had an extensive
research program to develop techniques to remotely
monitor their cosmonauts, to detect physiological and
psychological stresses, to assess the impact of such
stresses upon performance, and to cope with stress.
Psychophysiological Recording
Beyond an "optimal" level of psychological stress
(some stress is desirable), performance will decrease as
stress increases. Ideally, the ground support personnel
would be able to detect this stress before any perform-
ance decrement went very far. They could then
intervene and maintain the cosmonaut's working effi-
ciency at, or restore it to, an acceptable level. While
the exact relationships have not yet been well speci-
fied anywhere in the scientific world, Soviet scientists
are aware that any psychological stress is accompa-
nied by simultaneous physiological changes. Accord-
ingly, they are developing techniques for monitoring
their cosmonauts physiologically, and for thus detect-
ing psychological stress, in real time. One such tech-
nique is the use of electrophysiological (Soviet term:
"psychophysiological") signals. Some major types of
signals are already being monitored by means of the
following records: electroencephalogram (EEG), gal-
vanic skin response (GSR), electromyogram (EMG),
electrocardiogram (EKG),' and rheographic analysis
(the study of the distribution of body fluids, which is
altered under weightlessness).
This technique has several advantages. One is that
electrophysiological signals, already collected for bio-
medical evaluation, can be used without any addition-
al equipment. Psychophysiological research only re-
quires access to these signals by different scientists
(that is, those primarily interested in the relationship
between psychological stress and physiological reac-
tivity). In addition, these electrophysiological signals
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are quite large, easy to detect and record with present
instrumentation, and amenable to computer analysis.
Recording for psychophysiological research does,
however, present several problems. Some techniques
may be invasive and unpleasant even for short periods.
Even for noninvasive psychophysiological monitoring,
recording for extended periods may be confining and
uncomfortable. There are, in addition, two major
theoretical problems that may be difficult to over-
come. The first is "individual response stereotypy."
This term denotes an individual's specific pattern of
physiological responses to different stressors. To be
fully valid, a psychophysiological assessment would
have to be based upon the completely developed
pattern of a cosmonaut's physiological responses so
that the appropriate physiological channels could be
monitored (these channels will differ for each cosmo-
naut). The second and probably more difficult prob-
lem is the lack of any well-established correlations
between psychological states and physiological re-
sponses. We believe that until those relationships are
well defined, the value of psychophysiological moni-
toring to predict cosmonaut performance will be
that have input into the Soviet manned spaceflight
During a Soviet/East German Interkosmos space-
flight, the cosmonauts conducted the Rech' (speech)
experiment. This was a psychological study of the
connection between a cosmonaut's speech and his
emotional (that is, psychological) condition. In this
experiment, scientists analyzed (with results unknown
to us) a single phrase said repeatedly by the crew
throughout the flight.
Voice analysis has advantages over psychophysiologi-
cal monitoring. It can be used without the knowledge
or consent of a cosmonaut, and can be used to study a
variety of voice characteristics. Deception by the
cosmonaut is almost impossible. In addition, voice
analysis need only use already-recorded voice tele-
communications. As with psychophysiological moni-
toring techniques, however, the correlation between
voice characteristics, stress, and future cosmonaut
performance is not well defined. As the Soviets con-
tinue their work in voice analysis, they should improve
such correlation.
25X1
25X1
uncertain.
Voice Analysis
Deviations in voice characteristics are also widely
credited with being an indication of speaker stress.
Consequently, a second Soviet psychological assess-
ment technique being explored is voice analysis. Voice
monitoring analyzes a speaker's voice characteristics
during both calm and stressful periods to determine
changes that occur during stress. The voice/speech
characteristics that the Soviets study include changes
in pauses (both length and number), vocabulary, voice
spectrogram analysis (volume and pitch), and the
introduction of stuttering. The Soviets have a long
history of research in the area of voice analysis. At a
USSR Academy of Sciences all-Union conference
entitled "Speech, Emotions, and Personality" held in
Leningrad in 1978, several researchers associated
with the Soviet manned space program presented
papers. In addition, the Institute of Psychology,
USSR Academy of Sciences, in holding a symposium
in 1979 on the psychological aspects of manned
spaceflight, included a presentation on voice analysis.
Biofeedback Research
Soviet and East European psychologists and physiolo-
gists have a long history of exploring the use of
biofeedback for the management of certain stresses.
Among these stresses are motion sickness, sleep dis-
turbances, and strains on crew compatibility due to
confinement.
The Soviets have been interested for several years in
the applicability for their cosmonauts of biofeedback
and of responses to it: autogenic training, habituation,
and relaxation techniques. Biofeedback and related
responses are an alternative to psychopharmacological
approaches (which often produce undesirable side
effects) for stress management.
Biofeedback develops the ability to consciously con-
trol one's physiological reactions. Biofeedback train-
ing involves connecting a person to electrophysiologi-
cal instrumentation that monitors some specific
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physiological channels, amplifies the signal from each,
and conveys it back to the person visually or aurally.
As the signal (for example, the heart rate) fluctuates,
so will the feedback. Simultaneously with this feed-
back signal, the person is taught mental and physical
exercises to achieve relaxation and thereby alter the
physiological reaction. The display will immediately
reflect the altered reaction. For instance, a person
can, with the aid of biofeedback, increase or decrease
his heart rate or raise or lower the temperature of
specific parts of the body through vasodilation or
vasoconstriction. The exact mechanism of this phe-
nomenon is unknown, but biofeedback procedures
have been well demonstrated (especially within clini-
cal settings) for many years.
The chief Soviet proponent for the applicability of this
research to astronautics has been Pavel V. Simonov,
chief of the Physiology of Emotions Laboratory,
Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysi-
ology, Moscow, in collaboration with several biomedi-
cal specialists from the Institute of Biomedical Prob-
lems, Moscow. These scientists have occasionally met
with NASA scientists who also are working on bio-
feedback research applicable to astronautics. They
have told NASA scientists that they and their cosmo-
nauts have used biofeedback successfully to combat
motion sickness and accompanying vestibular disturb-
ances-which remain major complications of space-
flight, especially during the initial adaptation period
(the first seven to 10 days). Dr. Aleksandr Romen,
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Department of Biophysics, Kazakh State University,
has engaged in a related research project, one on the
development of "psychical self-regulation" (PSR). Ac-
cording to Dr. Romen, PSR techniques were original-
ly developed to train cosmonauts in "self-regulatory
skills." In addition, Hungarian psychologists from the
Institute of Psychology, Hungarian Academy of
Sciences, have been exploring the possibility of using
biofeedback to counter the stressful effects of weight-
lessness and hypokinesia.
Biofeedback and related autogenic training for stress
management have potential advantages over other
techniques. Although electrophysiological instrumen-
tation is required during biofeedback training, it
would not be required after the procedure has been
learned (that is, during spaceflight). Biofeedback and
related responses can produce a sense of mastery for
the cosmonaut and reduce the feeling of helplessness
that is common during stress.
Sensory, Cognitive, Psychomotor, and
Psychological Alterations During Spaceflight
Spaceflight imposes a unique environment of micro-
gravitation, hypokinesia, and physical isolation for
increasingly long periods. The Soviets, under their
basic biomedical research program, have conducted a
series of experiments to detect and quantify any
alterations during spaceflight in sensory capabilities,
cognitive functioning, psychomotor skills, and psycho-
logical well-being (table 2 and appendix Q. In doing
so, they have worked with East European and Cuban
scientists brought in through the Interkosmos pro-
gram, coordinated by the Institute of Biomedical
Problems, Moscow.
Experience with shorter spaceflights suggests that
sensory alterations may occur in flight. For example,
Lyakhov and Ryumin noted an "intensification of
smell" upon their return to Earth after their 175-day
mission in 1980. Other cosmonauts have mentioned
an "intensification of taste and smell" during their
spaceflights. A. Yeliseyev, a cosmonaut on board
Soyuz-5, -8, and -10, commented on a fluctuation in
his visual acuity during spaceflight: acuity decreased
during the initial adaptation period but steadily im-
proved until it was normal after two months in space.
Lt. Gen. Georgiy T. Beregovoy has stated that his
perception of time was altered during spaceflight.
Ergonomic Input Into Soviet Manned Spacecraft
Design
Design for Man-Machine Interaction
The Soviets have a good understanding of human
factors principles (ergonomics), which assume great
importance in complex man-machine systems, such as
the Soyuz and Salyut spacecraft. The Institute of
Psychology, USSR Academy of Sciences, has a major
interest in human factors aerospace research and is a
known consultant institute for the Soviet manned
space program. It is to be expected that this expertise
actually enters into task analysis, spacecraft and
equipment design, controls and displays layout, and
work configuration. Given this Soviet expertise, and a
limited knowledge of actual Salyut and Soyuz control
panels, a preliminary hypothesis can be entertained
that their layout may give clues to Soviet philosophy
An example of control panel design is available from
an examination of the Salyut-6 space station at the
1979 Paris Air Show (figure 2). Some standard human
factors design features have been incorporated into
the panel. They should aid ease of operation and
reduce errors. They include "switch guards" to pre-
vent inadvertent switching, "boundary enclosures" for
groups of switches with similar function, and other
such features. Control panel arrangement is not opti-
mized, however, and much "dead space" exists be-
tween many control panels, at least in this Salyut-6
The main control panel in the Salyut-6 space station
is an exact replica of that in the Soyuz spacecraft, and
so facilitates transfer of crewmembers between the
two. It differs substantially, however, from the new
Soyuz-T main control panel. (We do not know wheth-
er the main control panel of the new Salyut-7 space
station will assume the new Soyuz-T configuration to
make the transfer of crew from Soyuz-T to Salyut-7
that much easier.) See figures 3 through 7. Compared
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Table 2
Recent Psychological Experiments
During Soviet or Interkosmos Spaceflights
Description
Cosmonauts Involved e
Sensory
Neptun
Visual acuity and depth perception
Soviets, Romanian, and Mongolian
Guler/Vorotnik
Development of motion sickness
Soviets and Romanian
Ancheta
Description of vestibular system symptomology
Soviets, Romanian and Cuban
Vospriyatiye
Measurement of several sensory functions (for exam-
Soviets, Cuban, and Mongolian
ple, touch and "resistance to geometric illusions")
Vremya
Time estimation
Soviets and Mongolian
Audio
Auditory thresholds
Soviets, East German, and Hungarian
Vkus
Electrical taste
Soviets and Pole
Vision
Functional state of the visual system
Soviets and Cuban
Cognitive
Operator
Psychophysiological measurement of cognitive func-
Soviets, Bulgarian, and Romanian
tioning
Rabotosposobnost'
Psychophysiological measurement of intellectual
Soviets, Hungarian, Cuban, and Mongolian
working ability
Reflex
Cognitive functioning
Soviets, Romanian, and Hungarian
Psychomotor
Antropometria
Motor function after body fluid redistribution
Soviets and Cuban
Coordination
Motor functioning under weightlessness
Soviets and Cuban
Psychological Well-
Being
Soviets, Hungarian, Pole, and Mongolian
Dosug
Evaluation of TV programs
Soviets and Pole
Relax
Relaxation through biofeedback
Soviets and Pole
This table was compiled from various open-source publications
(newspapers, magazines, and scientific journals.)
n Only one non-Soviet cosmonaut was aboard any given Interkosmos
flight. Some of the flights handled more than one experiment; some
of the experiments were performed on more than one flight,
including some all-Soviet flights.
with the American Apollo and space shuttle control ground controllers or will remain highly automated,
panels, the Soviet control panel seems uncomplicated. whichever is now the case.
Only minimal displays and control devices are evi-
dent. Such panel design most probably is based on an
analysis of those cosmonaut tasks that are unavoid-
ably necessary during orbit, spaceflight, and deorbit.
It supports our impression that many of the required
commands during maneuvers either will remain with
Soviet spacecraft design engineers have stated that
the new Salyut-7 space station will be reconfigured to
improve accessibility of various equipment and system
components and for ease of maintenance and repair.
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Figure 2
Main Instrument Panel in the Salyut-6 Space Station
Note the similarity between the
Salyut main instrument panel
and that of the Soyuz tfieure 3).
and compare with the changes
made in the Sovuz-T panel
( lipIll re h ).
Allocation and Scheduling of Crew Tasks
We believe that the tasks for Soviet cosmonauts are
planned to meet six needs:
? Scientific experimentation (materials processing un-
der weightlessness to obtain highly specialized sub-
stances of a purity and composition, or of a size,
unobtainable by Earth-based processing; biomedi-
cal, botanical, and life support system development).
? Reconnaissance (natural resources, military, and
astronomical).
? Equipment and space station maintenance/repair
requirements.
? Medical monitoring of crewmembers.
? Psychological factors-to include rest, relaxation
time, and recreation.
? Physiological requirements-eating, personal hy-
giene, sleep; physical exercises (primarily to control
the adverse physiological effects of prolonged
weightlessness).
The Soviets appear to have refined their allocation
and scheduling of tasks satisfactorily to meet these
needs. Drastic changes should not be expected for
their future manned spaceflights, but there may be
further "fine-tuning," especially to enhance the psy-
chological climate of long spaceflights.
The Soviets have shown that man, at least for the
present, is not the limiting factor for long manned
spaceflights. We believe that the Soviets will continue
their biomedical research program-including its psy-
chological component-dedicated to the support of
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Figure 3
Main Instrument Panel in the Soyuz Spacecraft
their manned space program. Soviet space officials
have stated that they foresee permanently manned
space stations. We believe that their cosmonauts will
stay in space for approximately three to four months
and be replaced individually in a staggered sequence.
During such a long stay in space, a cosmonaut can set
aside time for adaptation to weightlessness, devote the
greater part of his time to necessary tasks, and endure
the limiting effects of isolation, hypokinesia, sensory
deprivation, and boredom. Finally, we believe that the
Soviets' biomedical research will contribute consider-
ably to their cosmonauts' achieving high duty cycles
and high performance levels.
Secret 12
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Figure 4
Center Console-Main Instrument Panel, Soyuz Spacecraft
0
LANDWO NOSE
FLIGHT TIME
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PERISCOPE DISPLAY
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Figure 5
Left-Hand Command Signal Device (KSU) Monitoring 16 Subsystems-
Main Instrument Panel, Soyuz Spacecraft
Light-up
windows Buttons
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Crew's quarters
Instrumcnt compartment
Combined electron-beam
indicator
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Figure 6
Main Instrument Panel in the Sovuz-T Spacecraft
Note that a cathode ray tube computer display (A) has been added
and the world drive scope on which spacecraft position over the
f_arth can he determined (13) has been moved from the tell to the
right side ol'the panel. Boy-like analog sequencers formerly
positioned at (C), which drove mane spacecraft functions, have
been removed entirely from the Soyuz--l . Seeerd dials lane horn
removed Isom the panel and replaced by ncairls triple the number
of buttons or annunciator panels (1)) as in the older Sov ty desien.
Hie new Soyu,-T still provides the cosmonauts very little
information and piloting control compared to earlier t'S Gemini
and Apollo spacecraft. I he Suyu/-1 is still not (quipped with an
eight-hall attitude indicator, and the cress must determine attitude
by looking throi!,h their periscope 11-).
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Figure 7
Main Crew Compartment in the Salyut-6 Space Station
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Autogenic training
Cattell 16-PF
Coriolis acceleration
Electrocardiogram
(EKG)
Electroencephalogram
(EEG)
Electromyogram (EMG)
Galvanic skin response
(GSR)
Appendix A
Glossary
A self-regulatory technique in which subjects are taught a series of self-suggestion
exercises. Each exercise is designed to induce some specific bodily sensation that
ordinarily is the product of a specific physiological response. The subject is then
taught to gain control of such previously involuntary responses, thereby reversing
the ordinary cause-and-effect sequence.
A chair (named after the Swedish physician Robert Barany) in which the occupant
is revolved, with or without simultaneous tilting, to test his susceptibility to vertigo.
A technique by which a person can be taught to change and control internal body
processes formerly believed to be involuntary (for example, blood pressure and
brain waves); it involves giving the subject immediate feedback or knowledge of the
bodily changes as they occur.
A nonprojective psychological test that measures 16 personality characteristics to
create a personality profile.
Cross-coupled acceleration; occurs when a person is subjected to angular accelera-
tion in two planes simultaneously.
An electrophysiological signal that records the changes in electrical potential that
occur during the heartbeat.
An electrophysiological signal that measures brain waves.
An electrophysiological signal that records the change in electrical potential
associated with the activity of skeletal muscles.
An electrophysiological signal that measures the change in electrical resistance (or
conductance) for an electric current through the skin between two electrodes.
17 Secret
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Individual response
stereotypy
Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory
(MMPI)
Raven's Progressive
Matrices Test (RPMT)
Thematic Apperception
Test (TAT)
Taylor Manifest Anxiety
Scale (TMAS)
Weschler Adult
Intelligence Scale
(WAIS)
Acceleration along the x-axis. Acceleration can be either positive or negative.
Positive GX acceleration is "forward" with a resultant inertial force from the chest
to the back. Negative GX acceleration is "backward" with a resultant inertial
force from the back to the chest.
Acceleration along the z-axis. Acceleration can be either positive or negative.
Positive GZ acceleration is "headward" with a resultant inertial force from the
head to the feet. Negative GZ acceleration is "footward" with a resultant inertial
force from the feet to the head.
A pattern of electrophysiological responses that is characteristic of an individual
under a specific stress.
A four-support swing in which the occupant (seated) moves parallel to the ground
when swinging back and forth.
A nonprojective psychological test that measures for 10 specific psychopathologies.
A nonverbal intelligence test that requires the subject to manipulate various
patterns (matrices) according to a specified rule.
A projective technique in which the subject is asked to make up a story about each
of a series of pictures. The theme of each story is then analyzed for the existence of
sources of motivation.
A psychological test that measures the level of anxiety in a person.
An intelligence test that contains both verbal and performance (nonverbal)
subtests.
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Appendix B
Psychological Tests Used
by the Soviets and
East Europeans
for Selecting Cosmonauts
Table B-1
Summary of Tests
Raven's Progressive Matrices Test
Intelligence
Multiple choice
Soviets, Poles
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale
Intelligence
Multiple choice
Poles
Kraepelin Test
Intelligence
Arithmetic
Poles
"Bourdon" Test
Intelligence
Unknown
Poles
Thematic Apperception Test
Personality
Projective
Soviets
Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale
Personality
Nonprojective
Soviets
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Personality
Nonprojective
Soviets
Inventory
Cattell 16-Factor Personality
Personality
Inventory
Eysenck Personality Inventory
Personality
Nonprojective
Soviets
Poles
"Paired verbal" Test
Personality
Projective ('?)
,
Soviets
Visuomotor Coordinometer SMA-3
Psychomotor
Unknown -
Poles
Cross Support
Psychomotor
Unknown
Poles
Chronometer
Psychomotor
Unknown
Poles
Test using the "Apparatus of
Psychomotor
Unknown
Poles
Piorkowski"
Intelligence Tests
Raven's Progressive Matrices Test (RPMT) is a Brit-
ish nonverbal intelligence test used by both the Sovi-
ets and the Poles. It was first developed in 1938, but
has been revised and updated many times. It consists
of a number of multiple-choice tasks. Each task
consists of a geometric design or "matrix" and four
possible answers (that is, each answer is a different
matrix). The correct answer depends on the required
task (for example, complete a pattern or analogy,
systematically alter a pattern, or resolve a figure into
its parts). The test manual states that this test meas-
ures the capacity to form comparisons, analytical and
logical reasoning, and, when timed, "mental efficien-
cy.
The Poles use three additional intelligence tests from
Western countries: the Weschler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS), the Kraepelin test (mental arithmetic),
and the "Bourdon" test (unknown format).
One of the three tests, the WAIS, is American. It is a
highly regarded intelligence test, first developed by
David Weschler in 1955. It consists of two subtests
(verbal and performance), each containing several
sections. No details are available on the other two
tests.
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Table B-2
The Subtests of the Weschler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
General information
General comprehension
Arithmetic reasoning
Similarities
Digit span
Vocabulary
Digit symbol
Picture completion
Block design
Picture arrangement
Object assembly
Personality Tests
Again through NASA scientific exchanges with their
Soviet counterparts, we have identified six personality
tests that Soviet (and, in two cases, Polish) psycholo-
gists give their cosmonaut candidates. These are the
Thematic Apperception Test, the Taylor Manifest
Anxiety Scale, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory, the Cattell 16-Factor Personality Inven-
tory, the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and a
"paired verbal" test. Five are Western (four American
and one British).
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was devel-
oped by Henry Murray at Harvard University in the
1930s. It is a "projective" test (see appendix A)
consisting of eight to 10 pictures given to the subject
one at a time. The person tells a story about the main
characters in each picture. Theoretically, the person
"projects" himself into the story. A skilled psychome-
trician can then gain insight into the specific personal-
ity characteristics that have been "projected." Mur-
ray developed the TAT to measure the "achievement
motivation" of an individual, but it is commonly used
to measure other psychological aspects as well. The
Soviets may use the TAT to measure "motivation for
spaceflight"-one of their stated aims in psychologi-
cal testing-by this "achievement motivation" score.
Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) also is used
by the Soviets. It is an American psychological test
developed by Janet Taylor Spence in the 1950s to
measure anxiety. Spence, an American experimental
psychologist, was concerned primarily with the rela-
tionship between anxiety and learning ability. The
TMAS was developed to measure "anxiety" so that
this relationship could be quantified. While the
TMAS has been widely used to measure anxiety
(usually within a clinical setting), its utility in this
regard is not well established, even in the United
States.
The Soviets use the Minnesota Multiphasic Personal-
ity Inventory (MMPI), a 565-question true-false test.
It was developed at the University of Minnesota to
discover the presence of severe psychopathology (that
is, neuroses or psychoses). It consists of 14 "scales," of
which four (called the "validity" scales) measure the
accuracy of the test for the specific; individual being
tested and the other 10 (the "clinical" scales) identify
the type and magnitude of any psychopathology pres-
ent.
The Soviets and Poles also use the Cattell 16-Factors
Personality Inventory (16-PF).
The 16-PF was developed by Raymond Cattell at the
University of Illinois. It contains 187 multiple-choice
questions and measures 12 "source traits" and four
"2nd-order factors" (introversion versus extraversion,
high anxiety versus low anxiety, emotionality versus
poise, and subduedness versus independence).
The Soviets and Poles both administer the Eysenck
Personality Inventory (EPI), which is a 1963 British
modification of the Maudsley Personality Inventory
(MPI), a British personality test. This test contains 57
yes-no items that measure introversion ("I" scale)
versus extraversion ("E" scale), neuroticism (high
"N") versus stability (low "N"), and degree of psycho-
ticism (severe psychopathology). The three lettered
scales and their interpretations are given in the fol-
lowing table. The EPI (as well as the MMPI, TAT,
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Table B-3
The Validity Scales and Clinical Scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Validity scales
"Cannot say"
scale if high, may indicate evasiveness.
Correction scale
Clinical scales
Hypochondriasis
Depression
Measures the tendency to present oneself in an overly favorable or
highly virtuous light.
w u?~ u au,wci I. I mgn score suggests carelessness,
confusion, or claiming an inordinate amount of symptoms. Random
responding also will elevate the F score.
Measures defensiveness of a subtle nature.
High scorers are described as cynical, defeatist, preoccupied with self,
complaining, hostile, and presenting numerous physical problems.
High scorers are described as moody, shy, despondent, pessimistic, and
distressed. Frequently elevated in clinical patients.
~?s?~~~~~~~ a,c vucn !eumuous, Impulsive, hedonistic, and antisocial.
They often have difficulty in marital or family relationships and trouble
with the law or authority in general.
s ???6?? ~c~c iucu as sensitive, aesthetic, passive, or
feminine. Females scoring high on M are described as aggressive,
rebellious, and unrealistic.
Elevations on this scale are often associated with being suspicious, aloof,
shrewd, guarded, worry prone, and overly sensitive. High scorers may
externalize blame.
' 'y` ? a ncwa Y t High scorers are tense, anxious, ruminative, preoccupied, obsessional,
phobic, and rigid. They frequently are self-condemning and feel inferior
and inadequate.
n.uu~ awu, soy, unusual, or strange and have
peculiar thoughts or ideas. They may have poor reality contact and in se-
vere cases bizarre sensory experiences-delusions and hallucinations.
? ~?~ ~u?~~ --u!c, outgoing, Impulsive, overly energetic,
optimistic, and in some cases amoral, flighty, confused, and disoriented.
High scorers tend to be modest, shy, withdrawn, self-effacing, and
inhibited. Low scorers are outgoing, spontaneous, sociable, and
confident.
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Table B-4
The Source Traits and 2nd-Order Factors of the Cattell 16-PF Personality Inventory
Source traits
A
2nd-order factors
QI
"Sizothymia": reserved, detached, critical, aloof,
stiff
Low intelligence: dull
Lower ego strength: affected by feelings,
emotionally less stable, easily upset, changeable
Submissiveness: humble, mild, easily led, docile,
accommodating
"Desurgency": sober, taciturn, serious
Weaker superego strength: expedient, disregards
rules
"Threctia": shy, timid, threat-sensitive
"Harria": tough, self-reliant, realistic
"Ataxia": trusting, accepting conditions
"Praxernia": practical, "down to earth" concerns
Artlessness: forthright, unpretentious, genuine but
socially clumsy
Untroubled adequacy: self-assured, placid, secure,
complacent, serene
Conservatism of temperament: conservative,
respecting traditions
Group adherence: group-dependent, a "joiner" and
sound follower
Low self-sentiment integration: undisciplined self-
conflict, lax, follows own urges, careless of social
rules
Low "ergic tension": relaxed, tranquil, torpid,
unfrustrated
"Affectothymia": outgoing, warmhearted, easygoing,
participating
High intelligence: bright
Higher ego strength: emotionally stable, mature, faces
reality, calm
Dominance: assertive, aggressive, competitive,
stubborn
"Surgency": happy-go-lucky, enthusiastic
Stronger superego strength: conscientious, persistent,
moralistic, staid
"Parmia": venturesome, uninhibited, socially bold
"Premsia": tender, sensitive., clinging, overprotected
"Protension": suspicious. hard to fool
"Autia": imaginative, bohemian, absentminded
Shrewdness: astute, polished, socially aware
Guilt-proneness: apprehensive, self-reproaching, inse-
cure. worrying, troubled
Self-sufficiency: self-sufficient, resourceful, prefers
own decisions
High strength of self-sentiment: controlled, exacting
willpower, socially precise, compulsive, following self-
image
High "ergic tension": tense, frustrated, driven, over-
wrought
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Secret
The Psychological Scales of the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
Extraversion
E
High scorers are outgoing, impulsive, uninhibited, having many social
contacts, participating in group activities.
Introversion
I
High scorers are retiring, distant, well-ordered, avoid excitement
Neuroticism
N
.
High scorers are unstable and overreactive, emotionally overresponsive,
have vague somatic complaints; low scorers are better adjusted and
emotionally stable.
Note: The "E" scale and "I" scale are at opposite extremes of a
common dimension. Therefore, high scorers on the "E" scale will be
low scorers on the "I" scale, and vice versa. The "N" scale is
independent of this dimension.
Table B-6
Soviet and Polish Psychological Tests
Used for Selecting Cosmonauts, but Whose
Function Is Unknown
Scale of reactive and personal
anxiety (Spilberger method)
Questionnaire (Strelyau's method
"SAN")
Method of corrective tests
Frustration test of Rosenweig a
O-Sort test
Homeostatic procedure a
a May be tests for group compatibility.
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and the 16-PF) is used in the West primarily in
clinical settings to aid or confirm a psychological
diagnosis.
The Soviets also describe the use of a "paired verbal"
test. We do not know its exact nature, but it may
resemble "word association" testing.
Psychomotor Tests
Although we believe that the Soviets use psychomotor
(for example, hand-eye coordination) tests, they have
not given any specifics on them. However, Polish
scientists have. They have mentioned four, namely,
the "Visuomotor Coordinometer SMA-3" (probably a
hand-eye coordination test), "Cross Support," "Chro-
nometer" (probably a reaction-time test), and a test
using the "Apparatus of Piorkowski." The specifics of
each test are unknown to us.
Other Psychological Tests-Function Unknown
In addition to those psychological tests already enu-
merated, Soviet and Polish scientists administer some
tests whose function is unknown to us.
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Guler/Vorotnik
Appendix C
Psychological Experiments
During Soviet or
Interkosmos Spaceflights
Sensory Experiments
Concerned with the measurement of visual acuity and depth perception during
spaceflight. We do not know the details of this experiment. The cosmonauts who
have performed the Neptun experiment were Soviets, a Romanian, and a
Guler is described by Romanian scientists, and sounds very much like the Vorotnik
experiment described by the Soviets for the Joint Soviet/Romanian Interkosmos
spaceflight. Guler/Vorotnik studied the evolution of space motion sickness. This
sickness continues to be a major biomedical problem, especially during the initial
Ancheta (Questionnaire) Consisted of a description of vestibular system symptomology that occurs during
spaceflight. The cosmonauts who have performed the experiment were Soviets, a
Vospriyatiye (Perception) Vospriyatiye measured a variety of sensory functions such as tactile sensation,
visual acuity, and "resistance to geometric illusions" (we do not know what specific
illusions were presented). The Kontakt instrument, manufactured by Cuban
specialists, was used in this experiment. The cosmonauts who have participated in
the experiment were Soviets, a Cuban, and a Mongolian.
Vremya (Time) Concerned with accuracy in estimating time. In a description of the Vremya
experiment, the Mongolian cosmonaut, Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha, was said to
have estimated an interval of 10 seconds without error (another of his estimates
was 1 1 seconds). We have no idea why such a short interval was chosen for an esti-
mate; gross errors would be highly unlikely for it. The cosmonauts who performed
the experiment were Soviets and a Mongolian.
Audio To determine the sensitivity threshold of human hearing in spaceflight conditions.
The Ehl'ba instrument was used. The cosmonauts who have performed this
experiment were Soviets, an East German, and a Hungarian.
"?""J `_ uol. o-31 LIVID' 111 Wclg,luessness; conauctea Curing the point Soviet/
Polish spaceflight. The equipment used was a small electrode which was clipped
onto the cosmonaut's tongue and through which an electrical current was passed.
Vision Studied the functional state of the visual system during spaceflight. It was
conducted during the joint Soviet/Cuban flight.
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Cognitive Experiments
Operator Examined psychophysiological processes that reflect cognitive functioning (in this
case, while solving arithmetic problems). The experiment used the Sedrets device,
developed by Bulgarian specialists. The cosmonauts who have performed the
experiment were Soviets, a Bulgarian, and a Romanian.
Rabotosposobnost' Designed to measure any deviations in intellectual working ability during space-
(Working Ability) flight. Typically, it involved preflight, in-flight, and postflight testing. The
experiment used the Balaton device developed by "Medicor," a Hungarian
research institute, in collaboration with the Hungarian Military Flight-Medical
Examination and Research Institute at the request of the Soviet Institute of
Biomedical Problems, Moscow. The Balaton device can be connected to the Salyut
telecommunications system for transmittal of results back to Earth in real time.
During Rabotosposobnost' the cosmonaut was to choose one answer from four as
quickly as possible based on the detection of a "signal" displayed by the Balaton
device. The signal reportedly contained information about the correct answer
(information measured in "bits," the commonly used unit of information). The
cosmonaut's reaction time was measured by Balaton, and his "intellectual work
capacity" was displayed in "bits/second." In addition, the Balaton device meas-
ured his GSR (see appendix A) and pulse rate. It appears that. deviations in
intellectual functioning were compared with deviations in these physiological
responses for any possible correlations, a standard Soviet psychophysiological
research theme. Wrong answers also were counted. The cosmonauts who have
performed this experiment were Soviets, a Hungarian, a Cuban, and a Mongolian.
Hungarian.
Designed to measure cognitive functioning. It also used the Balaton device. The
cosmonauts who have performed the experiment were Soviets, a Romanian, and a
The cosmonauts who performed the experiment were Soviets and a Cuban.
Korteks instrument, which was developed jointly by Cuban and Soviet specialists.
Designed to study the "bioelectrical activity of the central nervous system." It was
said that Cortex involved "new methods for examining the level of alertness,
attentiveness, fatigue, and also signs of possible impairments of the function of
certain sensory systems" (in the form of brain electrical voltage shifts-known as
evoked potentials-that occur as a result of stimulation). This experiment used the
Psychomotor Experiments
Antropometria Weightlessness redistributes blood toward the upper half of the body. One result is
a change in the anthropometric measurements of the body. Another is a decrement
in psychomotor coordination. This experiment was designed to measure this
"psychomotor activity" during adaptation to weightlessness. The Koordinograph
apparatus, developed by Cuban scientists, was used. The cosmonauts who
performed the experiment were Soviets and a Cuban.
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Coordination This experiment (separate from the Antropometria experiment) was mentioned
during the joint Soviet/Cuban spaceflight. It studied the effects of weightlessness
on voluntary motor function. Preflight and in-flight results of a task were
compared in which a cosmonaut, by turning two cranks simultaneously, sought to
guide the point of a pen between the double outline of a geometric figure without
Experiments Concerned With Psychological Well-Being
Opros (Interrogation) Concerned primarily with the influence of spaceflight on psychological well-being.
The cosmonauts were required to answer nine questions, developed by Polish
specialists, on such factors as sleep, appetite, cognitive functioning, leisure
activities, and need for medication. Facial expressions also were studied. The
cosmonauts who have participated in this experiment were Soviets, a Hungarian, a
Dosug This experiment evaluated TV programs prepared as entertainment. The cosmo-
nauts who conducted the experiment were Soviets and a Pole.
Relax The GSR and pulse rate were monitored by the Balaton device. This time,
however, the cosmonauts tried to achieve relaxation. The cosmonauts who
performed the experiment were Soviets and a Pole.
Pruzkum Used a questionnaire, the Supros 8, developed by a Czechoslovak behavioral
scientist, Oldrich Miksik, of the Research Institute of Psychiatry, Prague. Its
application to spaceflight was coordinated with the psychological support group of
the Institute of Biomedical Problems, Moscow. Supros 8 asks for subjective
evaluations and measures eight psychological parameters: (1) "P" (psychological
well-being), (2) "E" (feeling of strength and energy), (3) "A" (desire for action), (4)
"0" (impulsive reactivity), (5) "N" (psychological unrest), (6) "U" (fears or
anxieties), (7) "D" (depression or psychological exhaustion), and (8) "S" (dejection
or grief). The questionnaire was applied to Soviet cosmonauts, to a Czechoslovak
cosmonaut, and possibly to a Mongolian cosmonaut, on four separate occasions:
three days before spaceflight, the third day of spaceflight, and one day and eight
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