GEOGRAPHIC BRIEF ON THAILAND-MALAYSIA BORDER AREA

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP84-00825R000100630001-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 34
• Document Creation Date: November 17, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 27, 2000
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: April 1, 1969
• Content Type: IR

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CONFIDENTIAL
DIRECTORATE OF
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence Report
Geographic Brief on
Thailand-Malaysia Border Area
CONFIDENTIAL
CIA/BGI GR 69-3
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WARNING
This document contains information affecting the national
defense of the United States, within the meaning of Title
18, sections 793 and 794, of the US Code, as amended.
Its transmission or revelation of its contents to or re-
ceipt by an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
GROUP 1
Excluded from automatic
downgrading and decIo, ification
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CONFIDENTIAL
FOREWORD
The Thailand-Malaysia border area, long plagued by economic instability,
continues to be a center of potentially dangerous insurgency on the Malay Penin-
sula. Attempts to strengthen the unstable economy have to date been unsuccessful,
and joint counterinsurgency efforts have been rather ineffective.
This report is intended for use as a brief orientation aid by persons concerned
with events or programs in the area. A similar report is available on the north
Thailand-Northwest Laos border area (CIA/BGI GR 69-1, Geographic Brief on
North Thailand-Northwest Laos Border Area, December 1968).
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Page
Background ..........................................................
1
Terrain and Drainage .................................................
2
Climate .............................................................
5
Vegetation ...........................................................
6
Settlement Patterns ...................................................
6
Ethnic Groups .......................................................
7
Malay .............................................................
7
Thai ...............................................................
10
Chinese ...........................................................
11
Indians ............................................................
13
Aboriginal People ...................................................
13
Economy ............................................................ 15
Agriculture ........................................................ 15
Fishing ............................................................ 18
Mining ............................................................ 20
Transportation ....................................................... 22
Waterways ........................................................ 22
Railroads .......................................................... 23
Roads ............................................................. 23
Airways ........................................................... 23
Page
Figure 1.
Densely forested terrain west of Bannang Sata, Thailand ......
3
Figure 2.
Foothills west of Hat Yai, Thailand ........................
3
Figure 3.
East coast plain northwest of Narathiwat, Thailand ..........
4
Figure 4.
Coconut palm trees on the east coast at Narathiwat, Thailand ..
4
Figure 5.
Typical town market ......................................
8
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Page
Figure 6. Thai Malays at a well in front of the town mosque at
Narathiwat, Thailand .................................... 9
Figure 7. Buddhist wat at Hat Yai, Thailand .......................... 10
Figure 8. Housing along Penang waterfront, Malaysia .................. 11
Figure 9. Chinese temple near Hat Yai, Thailand ...................... 12
Figure 10. Indian Sikh herdsman ..................................... 14
Figure 11. Aboriginal people ......................................... 15
Figure 12. Rubber plantation near Songkhla, Thailand .................. 16
Figure 13. Rubber tapping ........................................... 16
Figure 14. Rubber sheets at factory near Hat Yai, Thailand .............. 16
Figure 15. Palm oil estate in Perak, Malaysia .......................... 18
Figure 16. Malay fishermen near Kelantan, Malaysia ................... 19
Figure 17. Tin mining in Malaysia .................................... 21
Figure 18. Tin dredge near Ipoh, Malaysia ............................ 22
Figure 19. East coast rail line, 5 miles northwest of Sungai Kolok, Thailand . 24
Figure 20. Route 11, 7 miles east of Khlong Ngae, Thailand ............ 24
Following Page
Map 1. Thailand-Malaysia Border Area (75403) ....................... 24
Map 2. Climatic Regimes (75719) .................................... do
Map 3. Settlement Patterns (75406) .................................. do
Map 4. Population Composition (75404) .............................. do
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CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Directorate of Intelligence
March 1969
Geographic Brief on
Thailand-Malaysia Border Area
(See Maps 1 through 4)
1. The territory encompassed by this report includes all or portions of the five
southern changwats of Thailand (Narathiwat, Pattani, Satun, Songkhla, and
Yala) and the five northernmost states of West Malaysia (Kedah, Kelantan,
Penang, Perak, and Perlis). Occupying some 20,000 square miles, the "border
area" is approximately the size of the state of West Virginia. Rugged, except
along the coasts, it is generally hot and humid, densely forested, and largely
underdeveloped. While it is populated predominantly by Malays, the Thais
form a majority in northern Songkhla, and in southern Perak, the Chinese are
dominant.
2. The Thailand-Malaysia border extends irregularly from the Gulf of Siam
on the east to the Strait of Malacca on the west, for the most part traversing
steep sided and densely forested mountains; only on the coasts does it cut across
narrow, low-lying plains and mangrove swamps. Continuing into the Strait of
Malacca, it separates the islands of Ko Tarutao (Thailand) and Pulau Langkawi
(Malaysia). The present border is the result of historical agreements negotiated
between the Thais and the British, following the 19th century expansion of the
latter into Malaya. By the terms of the final treaty, signed in 1909, control of the
four border area sultanates (Kedah, Terengganu, Perlis, and Kelantan) was
awarded to the British. Although Thailand temporarily regained control of these
sultanates during World War II, with the end of hostilities they reverted to
British administration. In 1957 they became states of the independent Federation
of Malaya, and subsequently, in 1963, they were incorporated into Malaysia.
3. Insurgency in the border area is a result of the armed revolt mounted by
the Communist Party of Malaya (MCP) in 1948 against the British administra-
tion. The subsequent emergency, which officially lasted until July 1960, was a
disaster for the MCP, the decisive blow coming in 1957 when Malaya gained her
independence and most of the support for the MCP, the "party of liberation,"
disappeared. The paramilitary arm of the MCP, the Communist Terrorist Organi-
zation (CTO), fled across the border into Thailand, which it now uses as a safe-
haven and as a base for the training of guerrilla forces.
Note: This report was produced by CIA. It was prepared by the Office of Basic and Geo-
graphic Intelligence and coordinated with the office of Economic Research and the Office
of Current Intelligence.
CONFIDENTIAL 1
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25X6
5. The Malaysians, on the other hand, have been continuously carrying on an
active counter-terrorist program. In their attempts to control movement in the
border zone they have cleared out almost all residents in a strip of territory
that is at least a mile wide, and in some places wider, along the entire boundary.
The few people who remain endure a virtual curfew between the hours of 6
p.m. and 6 a.m. daily. Following a border ambush in June 1968, which resulted
in heavy casualties for a Malaysian patrol, Malaysia pressed anew, but with
little success, for greater Thai security efforts.
6. The threat of subversion is aggravated by a precarious economy that is
chiefly dependent on rubber, tin, palm oil, and fishing. A program of further
economic diversification and expansion is clearly desirable, but this would require
much planning, cooperation, and time. Meanwhile, large segments of the popu-
lation remain restless and dissatisfied.
(See Map 1)
7. The terrain of the border area is predominantly mountainous, with four
distinct interior ranges forming the "backbone" of the peninsula. Peaks near the
border average about 3,000 feet, and the highest elevations are recorded in the
southern portion of Kelantan. The most important range on the Malaysian side
of the border swings slightly to the west of the center of the peninsula; in its
western foothills are found the rich tin deposits of Perak. Paralleling the moun-
tains are large numbers of rough limestone pinnacles that are honeycombed
with caves (see Figure 1). In general, the rugged, heavily forested mountains
of the border area are well suited for guerrilla-type operations and bases.
8. The coastal plains are generally flat, but in the transitional areas approach-
ing the mountains they are undulating (see Figure 2). The western coastal plain
in Thailand is narrow, swampy, and underdeveloped; the coastline is very
irregular, and there are numerous estuaries and embayments. Islands and islets,
characterized by rocky shores and forested, hilly interiors, are scattered off the
coast at distances of up to 50 nautical miles. In Malaysia the western coastal plain
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FIGURE 1. Densely forested terrain west of Bannang Sata, Thailand. Karst
pinnacles dominate the landscape with granitic mountains visible in the back-
ground. Such terrain provides excellent base areas for insurgent guerrillas.
FIGURE 2. Foothills west of Hat Yai, Thailand. Scattered plots of slash-and-
burn cultivation are evident in foreground. The rail line links Hat Yai and Yala.
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FIGURE 3. East coast plain northwest of Narathiwat, Thailand. Rice
paddies are a common sight on the east coast.
FIGURE 4. Coconut palm trees on the east coast at
Narathiwat, Thailand. The sandy soil adjacent to the
water is a favorable environment for the trees, which
are used locally for food, oil, and fiber.
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widens to about 40 miles; the coast is practically an unbroken succession of
mangrove swamps and mudflats. Clustered offshore are many hilly islands similar
to those north of the boundary.
9. The east coast (see Figures 3 and 4) contrasts distinctly with the west
coast. In Thailand it is smooth and regular, with few bays and many long beaches.
The coastal plain is between 3 and 22 miles wide, and river plains and basins
extend far inland. A large inland sea, Thale Luang, important for commercial
fishing, lies north of Songkhla. A few hilly islets with rocky coasts lie as far as
35 nautical miles offshore. In Malaysia the east coast consists of long sandy
beaches, and sandbanks and bars have formed across the mouths of most of the
rivers. Inland from the sandy shore are swamps and lagoons that limit settlement
and economic development. The coastal plain near the border area is 40 miles
wide, but it narrows to about 5 miles where the mountains are close to the sea
in the south. Offshore are a few hilly islands and islets with rocky or reef-fringed
shores.
10. Streams throughout the border area commonly flow in deep V-shaped
valleys through the mountains and in broad and unrestricted valleys on the
plains; those on the west coast tend to be shorter than those on the east, and
many of them end in tidal estuaries. On the east coast, in contrast, the streams
are sinuous and slow moving, not unlike those of Louisiana, and commonly they
terminate in coastal lagoons.
11. A number of programs are underway in both countries to control and
exploit streams in the border area. In Malaysia the Muda River is being harnessed
near the Thai border to provide irrigation water for a second crop of rice and
to control floods. In Thailand a hydroelectric power and flood control dam has
been proposed on the Pattani River at Yala. If and when completed, it may
possibly supply electric power to Malaysia.
CLIMATE
(See Map 2)
12. The border area is hot and humid throughout the year. Daily temperatures
in the lowlands range between 70?F and 90?F; the uplands are somewhat cooler,
ranging between 55?F and 80?F. Annual temperature ranges are not significant.
13. Seasonal variations in rainfall are caused by the shifting of the monsoons.
From November to mid-March the moisture-laden northeast monsoons bring
increased precipitation and cloudiness to the east coast and the eastern mountain
slopes, while the western slopes and the west coast are relatively less wet. The
monsoon is strongest in December, the wettest month, when between 14 and
30 inches of rain fall on the east coast. The force of this monsoon is slowly
dissipated after December, and by March the rainfall decreases to less than 10
inches over most of the peninsula.
14. Between mid-March and mid-May the border area is characterized by
variable winds, as the northeastern flow of air shifts to the southwest. Because
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the airstreams over the peninsula fluctuate erratically at this time, many interior
locations experience increased precipitation.
15. The southwest monsoon dominates circulation over the peninsula from
mid-May through September, but as the full impact of the monsoon from the
Indian Ocean is first released on Sumatra, much of the west coast of the border
area initially experiences an actual decrease in rainfall. By August, precipitation
increases to over 10 inches a month at most west coast locations, and it remains
at this high level through October. During this season the leeward east coast
is relatively less rainy.
16. The autumn transition from the southwest to the northeast monsoon
occurs in October. Winds at this time are variable, but monthly precipitation
is still in excess of 10 inches over most of the peninsula.
17. Under the favorable influence of a hot climate, a great variety of lush,
tropical vegetation grows in the border area. Tropical rain forest prevails on
the hills, mountains, and on extensive parts of the coastal plain, varying in under-
growth, height, and seasonal leaf-bearing patterns in consequence of the local
ecology. Wherever the annual rainfall is sufficient and evenly distributed, there
is no appreciable undergrowth, but in areas where trees lose their leaves during
the driest months of the year, a maze of thorny bamboo, lianas, ferns, and
creepers makes movement off established routes difficult. Jungles of tangled
vegetation are also associated with secondary forests-those that have sprung
up on abandoned land that was formerly cleared. Above 4,000 feet the trees
are not as tall, and the undergrowth is less dense. Clearly, the extent and density
of the forests contribute to the suitability of the border area for guerrilla
operations and complicate counterinsurgency activities.
18. On the coastal plains there are numerous small areas of cleared land,
patches of forest, and many swamps. Mangrove and nipa palm swamps are
common, especially on the west coast where the wave action is not severe.
Here movement is restricted by a dense tangle of roots in the brackish muck.
Inland from the mangrove and nipa palm swamps are freshwater swamps, many
of which have been drained and cleared for cultivation.
(See Map 3)
19. Most of the border area's 3,625,000 people are concentrated along the
coasts, on the west in Malaysia and on the east in Thailand. The mountainous
interior is sparsely populated. Basically, there are three settlement types-the
strip village, the cluster village, and the dispersed village.
20. The strip village is the most common of the settlement patterns in the
border area. Such villages typically stretch along one or both sides of a river,
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canal, or roadway. Strip villages may be several miles in length, and in densely
settled areas, adjoining villages may coalesce to form a continuous line in which
there is no apparent demarcation between settlements.
21. In close association with the strip villages are cluster villages, which are
usually set back several hundred yards for a main thoroughfare-a river,
navigable canal, railroad line, branch road, or main highway. Villages of this
type are ordinarily situated in and around a grove of fruit trees or coconut palms.
Cluster and strip villages are commonly found both on the coastal plain and
in the mountainous interior.
22. The third and least common type of settlement pattern is the dispersed
village, found inland from the coastal plains in the foothills adjacent to river
valleys. Dispersed villages are commonly situated between rice paddies lying in
the valley bottoms and the belukar (cutover jungle) and rubber trees on the
upper slopes.
(See Map 4)
23. The border area is peopled by various ethnic groups, but the majority
are Malay (see Figure 5). The others-Thai, * Chinese, Indian, Negrito, and
Senoi-exert their influence on the multiracial society in varying degrees. To a
great extent religion differentiates the groups (Malay-Muslim, Thai-Buddhist,
and Indian-Hindu), but fine distinctions are difficult to make because a con-
siderable amount of assimilation into either the Thai or Malay society has occurred.
In an attempt to hasten assimilation of the various groups within their respective
borders the Thai and Malaysian Governments for statistical purposes group their
citizens in terms of nationality rather than by ethnic group. However, using the
statistics on religion in the Thai census, it is possible to determine the ethnic
composition of a changwat. Thus, as most Thai in Thailand are Buddhists, the
approximate number of Thai in a changwat is indicated by the number of
Buddhists. Although the Malaysian census purports to group the population by
"race," the figures are not totally accurate because members of any ethnic group
who regard themselves as assimilated into the Malay culture are referred to in
the census of Malays.
Malay
24. About 700,000 Malays are in the five southernmost changwats of Thailand
and about 1,478,000 Malays are in the five northernmost states of Malaysia. Until
conquered by the Thai in 1832, the southern provinces of Thailand comprised
the Kingdom of Pattani, one of the largest and most important of the Malay
Kingdoms, and even now many Thai Malays are psychologically oriented toward
*In most publications "Thai" is generally used to denote citizens of Thailand, whereas "Tai"
refers to all ethnic Tai. To avoid ambiguity, however, "Thai" is used in this report to refer to
all Tai in the peninsular area.
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FIGURE 5. Typical town market. All ethnic types mingle in the towns,
especially in the markets. Note the variety of fruit, including the
spiney durians in the foreground. They are highly prized as delica-
cies by the local population, but they are notorious for their
sulfurous odor.
Malaysia. The cohesion of Thai Malays and Malays in Malaysia is natural
because of common religion, culture, and language. The Malays are rural, al-
though they tend to live in villages (kampongs), which are the most important
unit of society after the family. Most Malays in the border area are rubber
planters, farmers, and fishermen. They are distinguished from non-Malays by their
Islamic religion (see Figure 6).
25. The Muslim (Malay) population in Thailand believes that it is not com-
pletely accepted by the Bangkok Government on an equal basis with the Thai
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FIGURE 6. Thai Malays at a well in front of the town mosque at Narathiwat,
Thailand. Islam among the Malays is tinged with vestiges of animism and
Hinduism.
Buddhists. While generally passive, there are some Muslims who would like to
see the five southern provinces under Malaysian control. Being represented chiefly
by a handful of elderly. conservative Muslims in Pattani, however, they appear
to be only a minor problem in the border area.
26. The Malaysian Government professes not to be interested in annexing
the five southernmost provinces of Thailand, and within the Kuala Lumpur
Government there is some concern about contact between Thai Malays in
Narathiwat and the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PMIP) in Malaysia. The
PMIP is, strongest in the state of Kelantan, and this facilitates their overtures to
Muslims in neighboring Narathiwat.
27. Several other Malay groups threaten border area security on the Thai side.
Among the Thai Malays there are a few bandits who operate in Pattani and
several districts of surrounding provinces. Their interest is money, not politics,
but the Thai Government fears a possible coordination of bandit activity with
the efforts of the ethnic Chinese Communist Terrorists (CT's).
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28, Numerically the Thai are a minority in the border zone. In the five
southernmost provinces of Thailand they number about 563,000; some 40,000
more of them are also concentrated in the four northernmost states of Malaysia.
In Thailand only a small proportion of the residents, of the border area are Thai,
and most of these are found in the towns. A disproportionate number of Thai
are associated with the military, police, and civil administration. This is not due
to the direct exclusion of Malays from positions, but to employment standards
that require fluency in the Thai language. In Malaysia the Thai are peaceable
Buddhists who reside in villages, apart from the Malays.
29. Relations between the Buddhists and the Muslims in southern Thailand
are not entirely harmonious because of Muslim (ethnic Malay) resentment 25X6
25X6 against official domination by the Thai Buddhist minority (see Figure 7). -
FIGURE 7. Buddhist wat at Hat Yai, Thailand. The Thai Buddhists
are a minority group in the border area, but the fact that the
Central Government in Bangkok is closely linked with Buddhism
gives them a more prominent role in society than the more nu-
merous Malays.
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30. The Thai Government is working to improve its relations with the Muslims.
It has undertaken a program of rural development and is now in the process
of including in it health and sanitation workers as well as specialists in educa-
tion and agriculture. A program to encourage the Muslim religious schools
(parallel systems of Thai public and Muslim religious schools exist) to teach
the Thai language has had some success. Four teacher-training institutes have
recently been started in southern Thailand, as well as a General Educational
Development Center at Yala. In addition to the Government-sponsored College
for Muslims in Bangkok, the Southern Technical Institute is located in Songkhla,
and the University of the South is to be opened soon in Pattani.
31. According to official figures, ethnic Chinese represent some 3 percent
of the population in the Thailand portion of the border area and some 28 per-
cent in the Malaysian portion. These figures probably do not reflect the many
ethnic Chinese who have been assimilated. In both countries there is a "Chi-
nese Problem" in that the Chinese operate and control a considerable portion of
the banking, insurance, export, import, wholesale, and larger retail establish-
ments. They are the chief shopkeepers and middlemen, and generally they
dominate the service industries wherever they are settled. They also supply the
bulk of the industrial labor force, As a consequence, the Chinese have tradi-
tionally been regarded as exploitative and have been the target of resentment
by the predominantly rural, non-Chinese society (see Figures 8 and 9).
FIGURE 8. Housing along Penang waterfront, Malaysia. The boats in the foreground
are built by Chinese for use as lighters.
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FIGURE 9. Chinese temple near Hat Yai, Thailand. Such temples
do not include specific congregations, and the most frequent
and important religious rites of the Chinese are carried out
at home.
32. Generally, in Southeast Asia the Overseas Chinese have strongly resisted
assimilation, but in Thailand they have often preferred assimilation in order to
remove obstacles to their economic advancement. The Thai Government has
imposed restrictive regulations on alien Chinese (those who have not become Thai
citizens) such as excluding them from certain jobs or forbidding them to grow
rice. The small number of rural Chinese in Thailand are, in general, less assimi-
lated than their urban counterparts.
33. In Malaysia, a sizable part of the Chinese population maintains a senti-
mental attachment to China, although some genuinely regard Malaysia as their
home. All Chinese seem to share the view that although they are responsible
for making the Federation of Malaysia. possible, the Government operates for
the benefit of the Malays.
34. The Governments of Thailand and Malaysia are sensitive to the extent
of the allegiance of the Chinese population to Mainland China and the support
of the Chinese of the CTO. CT's number between 800-1,000 actives and are
believed to be organized into three regiments and several thousand cadres. They
are mostly ethnic Chinese, but in recent years Thais and Malays have also been
subject to recruiting. Although the CT's may be conducting operations in Malaysia,
their strategy is to maintain a safe haven in Thailand around Sadao andBetong
until it is possible to return to Malaysia. CT's refer to themselves as guests of the
Thai Government, and they seek to maintain proper relations with local officials.
While there have been armed clashes between the CT's and the Thais, the
former usually apologize to the local authorities when Thai officials have been
killed. Largely as a result of Thai reluctance to move against the CTO, that
12 CONFIDENTIAL
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organization retains control over the local Chinese population, particularly the
youth. The Thai Government is now concerned about a possible alliance be-
tween the CTO and the Thai Communists.
35. While Indians constitute _ about 10 percent of the population in Malaysia,
reeve ., _
36. Indian society in the border area is both rural and urban in character.
Most Indians, originating in southern India (Tamils, Telegus, Chetis, and
Malayalis), work on the larger rubber, coconut, and palm oil estates as tappers,
weeders, and harvesters. Some southern Indians, however, have become con-
struction workers, clerks, and businessmen in urban areas. Very few have
obtained prominent social or intellectual position by becoming doctors, lawyers,
and teachers.
37. Northern Indians generally form a numerically small and relatively un-
important group, except for a small number of professionals. Originating pri-
marily in the Punjab, they are not as exclusively associated with the estate
economy as are those from southern India, although many of them, especially
the Sikhs, serve as estate watchmen and policemen (see Figure 10).
38. The Indians have retained part of their Hindu culture, particularly old
religious forms. On each estate there is at least one temple dedicated to a god
derived from the Hindu pantheon, and in the towns there are usually Hindu
temples. The temples are maintained by Brahman priests who act as inter-
mediaries between the people and the god. Nevertheless a certain amount of cul-
tural assimilation has occurred, and a few Indians have become Muslims.
Aboriginal People
39. Although between 40,000 and 80,000 aboriginal people inhabit the penin-
sula (about 500 in Thailand), it is not known how many are in the border area
(see Figure 11). There are, however, two groups: the Negritoes (Semang) and
the Senoi (Sakai). The Negritoes inhabit both Thailand and Malaysia, but the
Senoi are found only in Malaysia.
40. Most of the Negritoes are hunters and gatherers, practicing no agriculture,
except where they have interbred with agricultural tribes and have adopted
their habits.. Each small community of Negritoes migrates within its tribal ter-
ritory, living in crude lean-to structures. The Senoi, on the other hand, practice
a shifting form of agriculture, known locally as ladang. Senoi families live
together in longhouses near their fields where they raise dryland rice, millet,
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FIGURE 10. Indian Sikh herdsman. Over one-
third of the immigrants to Malaysia were from
the lower castes in India, but the differences
which formerly existed between the various
castes have largely disappeared in Malay life.
tobacco, manioc, sweet potatoes, and bananas. They also do some hunting and
gathering. As a consequence the subsistence and cultural levels of the Senoi
are higher and more elaborate than those of the Negrito. Both groups are
animistic and their religion involves numerous spirits and taboos, a large com-
plex body of myths and legends, and a belief in innumerable deities.
41. Traditionally the aboriginal people have disliked and feared the Malays,
and during the emergency they assisted the Communist guerrillas as food
gatherers, scouts, and guides. The Malaysian Government began a program of
resettlement and acculturation around 1956, and eventually it won the support
of most of the indigenous people who were under Communist domination. As
a result of this operation, which brought the aborigines into contact with many
aspects of the Malay and European cultures, assimilation has been somewhat
hastened.
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FIGURE 11. Aboriginal people. Some acculturation into Malay society has taken place,
but the aboriginal peoples still represent a distinctly different social group. Their
intimate knowledge of the terrain in the rugged interior mountains can make their
assistance vital to outsiders conducting operations in the area.
Agriculture
42. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the border area where rice
is the most important food crop, but a great variety of fruits and vegetables is
also raised, along with sugarcane and, on the coasts, coconuts. Rubber is the
most important cash crop, and oil palms, coconuts, spices, and fruit are also pro-
duced commercially. In the early 1960's, rubber accounted for 25 percent of
the total value of agricultural exports in Thailand, almost all of which was pro-
duced on the peninsula, and in 1966, rubber accounted for 31 percent of the
total export earnings of Malaysia.
43. Rubber is produced all along both coasts and, in particular, around Hat
Yai (see Figures 12, 13, and 14). In Thailand, holdings are usually only a few
acres in size, and the smallest units are occupied by Muslims; there are a few
large holdings, however, and these are generally worked by the Thai-Chinese.
Europeans own most of the large estates in Malaysia, where the British are now
subdividing and selling their estates in a withdrawal program that may be com-
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FIGURE 12. Rubber plantation near Songkhla, Thai-
land. Five to 7 years' growth are required before
tapping can be commenced.
FIGURE 13. Rubber tapping. Tappers
collect the latex from the trees in the
morning between 3 a.m. and 6 a.m.,
if possible, when it flows most freely.
FIGURE 14. Rubber sheets at factory near
Hat Yai, Thailand. In preparing rubber for
export the latex is first coagulated by the
addition of a small quantity of formic or
acetic acid. The rubber may be treated in
various ways, but it is finally rolled and
smoked or dried into sheets for export.
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pleted by 1975. Here the Malays own more than half of the smallest tracts
(1-25 acres), and most of the medium-size tracts (25-100 acres) are in the
hands of the Chinese.
44. The economy of the whole peninsula has been affected in recent years
by the decline in price of natural rubber. This decline-from US$0.35 per pound
in 1960 to US$0.15 per pound in 1968-reflects the improvement in and
acceptability of synthetic rubber on the world's markets. In consequence thereof,
all producers of natural rubber in the area have suffered, the small landowners
of Thailand relatively more than the owners of large estates in Malaysia, where
the export earnings of the country have been seriously cut. The worsening fortunes
of the rubber industry have caused a number of economic problems for the area
and its underemployed labor force, which is an ideal target for Communist prop-
aganda; it is an unfortunate coincidence, therefore, that CTO activity is con-
centrated in that part of the border area that is suffering most because of the
depressed price of rubber.
45. Malaysia and Thailand are now seeking to cope with the pricing problem
by replanting higher yielding trees and by improving the quality of the rubber
produced. It is also hoped that new or improved techniques of processing the
latex obtained from older trees will enhance the competitive position of the
natural rubber producers. While these programs are essentially necessary to the
rubber industry, it is improbable that they can, by themselves, correct all of the
area's economic ills.
46. Both Thailand and Malaysia now plan to substitute other crops for rubber.
One of the most common alternatives being considered is the oil palm, already
being raised in increasing quantity (see Figure 15). In the past 3 years, how-
ever, the price of palm oil has declined, and increased production has only
partially compensated for the lower price. One advantage of the oil palm is that
it bears harvestable fruit from the fourth to the 30th year, a period of yield
that begins earlier and lasts longer than that of rubber. Plantations must be
large and well organized, however, because a heavy capital investment and a
large labor force are essential. Hence, small landowners are virtually excluded
from such operations, unless the Government assumes responsibility for provid-
ing processing facilities (as Malaysia has done in Sabah).
47. The coconut palm offers another possibility for agricultural diversifica-
tion. While replantation has already been carried out to a degree, there is a
major drawback-the coconut palm matures more slowly than the rubber tree.
Cultivation of upland crops, such as corn and sorghum, or fruit, such as pine-
apples and bananas, may also be expanded, but these efforts would be dependent
on the improvement of transportation in the area and the development of export
markets.
48. The main food crop on the peninsula is wetland rice, grown on the coastal
plains of both countries (see Figure 9). Nevertheless, the entire peninsula is a
rice deficit area, despite efforts to increase production. In Malaysia, various pilot
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FIGURE 15. Palm oil estate in Perak, Malaysia. Oil palms are most efficiently
raised on large estates, but the Malaysian Government has initiated a program
to teach small landholders the techniques of oil palm cultivation in order to
reduce their excessive dependence on rubber production.
projects, including the introduction of new varieties of rice, have been tried
with some success. Of the large quantity of rice that is brought into the peninsula
from the Central Lowlands of Thailand, much is smuggled into Malaysia, and
Thai Government attempts to prevent this smuggling appear to be largely in-
effective. Much publicity is given to the "ant army" of small boys who smuggle
small bags of rice across the border, but more significant are the bulk shipments
that are regularly smuggled into Malaysia by wealthy and powerful individuals
with government connections. Within Thailand, Bangkok is trying to control the
distribution of rice, but the local Chinese population continues to supply it to
the insurgents.
Fishing
49. Part-time fishing, one of the traditional bases of the area's subsistence
economy, provides the Thais, Malays, Chinese, and Indians with their main
source of animal protein and their second-ranking staple food (see Figure 16).
Taken from both fresh and salt waters, the catch is distributed, sold, and con-
sumed in fresh, dried, and salted forms.
50. Maritime fishing is largely dependent on the extensive exploitation of
shallow (seldom in excess of 200 feet) waters of limited potential. Such waters
along the west coast are more productive than those that are on the cast coast,
where fishing efforts are handicapped from December to February by the north-
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FIGURE 16. Malay fishermen near Kelantan, Malaysia. The men do the actual fishing;
the women distribute and market the catch. Malay fishing boats are highly decorated,
and bows and sterns are graceful.
east monsoon. As a consequence of small and declining catches, the east coast
consumer has been increasingly supplied in recent years with kembong, or
mackerel, caught on the west coast.
51. Fresh water fishing is not as important as maritime fishing. In Thailand such
activity is more or less restricted to the northern limits of the border area around
CONFIDENTIAL 19
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Thale Luang. In Malaysia, on the other hand, fresh water fishing is somewhat
more widespread and it contributes considerably to the diet of people living in
the interior.
52. Maritime fishing methods vary considerably. Fixed traps along with differ-
ent types of nets and lines are used inshore, while offshore, lines and drift nets
are employed. As the fishing gear is generally hand operated, catches are never
large. The industry is undergoing a transition, however, and in recent years
motorized vessels have been widely introduced. Nevertheless, the range of fishing
operations has not been extended as much as might be expected, probably be-
cause the fishermen, especially the Malays, are reluctant to remain at sea for
more than a day at a time. Thai fishermen, perhaps in an effort to increase their
catch, have been fishing recently in Malaysia's territorial waters. The Thai Gov-
ernment has warned them of the risks involved, but with little success, and
Malaysia has now started seizing Thai fishing boats.
53. Fishing has always been an uncertain occupation, with fluctuations in
catch from day to day, season to season, and year to year. Because of a marked
downward trend in the availability of kembong in waters accessible to village
fishermen, particularly in the east, and because of a decrease in the net income,
fishermen are developing an interest in agriculture. In this respect their attention
is directed more toward the production of rubber and oil palms than to the
coconut palm. This is explained by the fact that most of the land suitable for com-
mercial coconut production is already occupied, while vast tracts suitable for
rubber and oil palm production are available in the sparsely populated interior.
Mining
54. Minerals in the border area may offer the best basis for economic diversifica-
tion. Mining of tin and, to a lesser extent, iron ore already contributes importantly
to the economy. Furthermore, it is possible that petroleum production may be-
come significant in the future if offshore prospecting is successful.
55. Tin is currently the major mineral exported. Produced in Chinese- or
European-owned mines located in the central portion of the Thailand sector
of the border area and on the slopes of the westernmost mountain range in
Malaysia, the ore is usually obtained by dredging or gravel pumping (see Figures
17 and 18). Smelters are located at Butterworth and Penang, Malaysia, and at
Phuket in Thailand.
56. Tin producers, although plagued by price fluctuations, have in periods of
declining prices been able to maintain their income at a more or less constant
level by increasing production. However, as member countries of the International
Tin Council have imposed export quotas on each other, increasing tin production
in Malaysia is restricted. Some profits are realized through the sale of by-
products that were formerly considered waste. The most important of these
"wastes" are ilmenite (iron titanate), in demand in the paint industry, and
monazite, used in metal alloys, color television tubes, and electronic systems.
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FIGURE 17. Tin mining in Malaysia. This woman is
using a method of hand panning called "dulang" wash-
ing. In the background is some gravel-pumping equip-
ment, usually operated by the Chinese.
One Malaysian producer, in fact, now mines monazite and produces tin as a
byproduct.
57. Iron ore is mined in the Malaysian portion of the border area where the
mines are not as profitable or as extensive as those located farther south. The
bulk of the output of these mines is exported to Japan; most of it is taken to the
east coast where it is loaded on large vessels anchored offshore, and the re-
mainder is shipped from Butterworth.
58. Malaysia has granted an international mining firm prospecting rights to
offshore tin deposits up to 12 miles at sea opposite the coasts of the states of
Penang, Perak, and Selangor, and oil prospecting rights along the entire eastern
Continental Shelf were granted to Esso Exploration Malaysia and Continental
Oil of Malaysia. Thailand, also concerned about offshore deposits, has granted
international petroleum companies prospecting concessions in the Gulf of Siam.
CONFIDENTIAL 21
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FIGURE 18. Tin dredge near lpoh, Malaysia. Much of the tin on the peninsula is
mined by large, mechanically operated bucket dredges, usually powered by elec-
tricity; most such dredges are foreign owned. Dredging is the only practical method
of working tin sands in swampy or wet ground, and it allows working of low-grade
deposits at the lowest possible cost.
TRANSPORTATION
(See Map 1)
59. The transportation grid in the border area connects the important sectors of
the coasts of both countries-the east coast in Thailand with the west coast in
Malaysia. Major transport arteries also pass through the mountainous interior
following valleys that parallel the north-south grain of the land.
Waterways
60. Inland waterways are important to transportation, especially during the
wet season when roads and trails may become impassable. Many streams are
navigable only by native craft, however, because they are quite shallow and,
on the east coast, choked with sandbars downstream. On the west coast, steep
stream gradients confine boats to those parts of streams that are within the narrow
coastal plain.
61. More significant is maritime coastal transport. Both Thai and Malaysian
ports on the east coast funnel goods into Bangkok and Singapore, while west
coast trade from Thailand and Malaysia goes to and from Penang, Port Swetten-
ham, and Singapore. The Thais are currently considering the need for a deep-
water port in Phuket.
22 CONFIDENTIAL
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62. Controversy still surrounds the proposed Kra Isthmus Canal across Thai-
land-an idea which has been periodically advanced since World War H. Two
schemes have been advanced: one proposes to build the canal across the narrow-
est part of the Kra Isthmus, about 10? north of the Equator, starting at the town
of Ranong (the original plan) and the other advocates cutting across the pe-
ninsula northwest of the city of Songkhla. Much of the objection to building the
canal comes from Singapore, whose prominence as the main port of Southeast
Asia would be threatened. Thailand, too, has its anxieties over the canal, since it
would tend to isolate the Thai Muslims from Bangkok and tie them more closely
to Malaysia.
63. The railroads and roads of the peninsula generally complement one an-
other, providing a reasonably good overland transportation net. Railroads are
meter gage (3 feet 3% inches) in both countries and cross the border in two
places-along the eastern coastal plain between Pasir Mas, Malaysia, and Sungei
Kolok, Thailand (see Figure 19) and on the west coast through a wide valley
between Padang Besar, Malaysia, and Khlong Ngae, Thailand. The two lines
join at Gemas, Malaysia, and continue southward as a single line to Singapore;
similarly, north of the border they merge into a single line at Hat Yai, Thailand,
and continue northward to Bangkok and points beyond.
64. In Malaysia the highway system is excellent, except along the under-
developed east coast. The roads here are generally all weather and hard surfaced.
In Thailand the road system is not as good, but efforts to convert main routes
into all-weather roads continue (see Figure 20). Several roads and trails cross
the border. In the west a road between Changlun, Malaysia, and Khlong Ngae,
Thailand, passes through the same wide valley that accommodates the railroad;
near the mountainous center of the peninsula a route traverses the border between
Bailing, Malaysia, and Betong, Thailand; on the east coast several trails inter-
sect the border, but there are no major highways. Elsewhere, footpaths and trails
wind through the dense vegetation along the border.
Airways
65. Air transport, international and domestic, is available. Thai Airlines main-
tains regular connections between the border area and Bangkok, and it also pro-
vides an international connection between Songkhla, Thailand, and Penang, Ma-
laysia. Currently, an airport to accommodate large jets is being constructed at Hat
Yai; it will also be used for international traffic to Penang. Malaysia-Singapore
Airlines provides international service as well as domestic connections between
Kuala Lumpur and other major Malaysian airports and to the smaller towns in
important tin and rubber production areas. Charter service to remote locations
is also available.
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FIGURE 19. East coast rail line, 5 miles northwest of Sungai Kolok, Thailand. In
the foothills a dispersed settlement pattern like that apparent in the photo is com-
mon. Rice is grown in the valley bottoms, and houses are located between the
paddies and the tree cultivation on the lower slopes.
FIGURE 20. Route 11, 7 miles east of Khlong Ngae, Thailand. This main route
was constructed as part of the national Six-Year Economic Development Plan
(1961-66).
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Map 1
LA
TA
YI
STRAIT OF
MALACCA
L 3 THALE'
ATTHA
PINAN
(P
7A
PULPINA
2
Ol 102
NOTE: Thai provinces (changwats) have the
same names as their capitals.
THAILAND-MALAYSIA
BORDER AREA
I-t- Railroad
Road
- - - - Trail
International boundary
Province (changwat) or
state boundary
Songkhla Province (changwat) or
state capital
Bertan
GULF
SIA
et4
Beet
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o A
LA TA
YI
KO
TALIBONG
TRANG (50)
Precip Temp
Bo
tI HAIL`',AND
KO TARUTAO s
Stun x Sadao
PlD GROUP
Kangar
P U L A U
t .: c2
LANGKAWI.,,
STRAIT OF
MALACCA
0ALOR SETAR
PINANG (50)
Precip Temp
Lo
f- _ Ieo
SONGKHLA (13)
Precip Temp
00
YALA
Map 2
THAILAND-MALAYSIA BORDER AREA
CLIMATIC REGIMES
TRANG (50)-
Precip Temp
30-
2O 93.9
Meteorlogical station
(elevation in feet)
Mean daily maximum
temperature (Fahrenheit)
Mean daily minimum
temperature (Fahrenheit)
20 115.0
,o
o
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 }0
proved : 2000 C 1 ~ 1~ SR0004 00, 1,, 1 IS
THAILAND-Dispersed Villages in Foothills
THAILAND-Strip and Cluster Villages in Mountains
0 I,2 1
Kilometer
SOURCES:
THAILAND PICTOMAP (Series L8040); 1:25,000;
US Army Map Service; Edition 1, Sheets 5021 IV NW,
5122 11 SW, 5220 IV SE; 1967
MALAYA-THAILAND (Series L707), 1:63,360;
US Army Map Service; Edition 2-GSGS, Sheets 2 E/8,
1962; 2E19, 1959
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THAILAND-MALAYSIA ' BORDER AREA
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
Terrain and land use influence the settlement pattern to a great extent.
On map A the swampy west coast of Malaysia is almost devoid of settle-
ment except for the higher ground on either side of the main road; and on
map B in Thailand, near the Malaysia border, the mountainous terrain and
dense vegetation confine settlement to strip and cluster villages in the valleys
along the highway. In the river valley of Thailand, shown on map C, settle-
ments are dispersed between two agricultural and topographic zones while the
hilltops are unused.
MALAYSIA-Strip and Cluster Villages on Coastal Plain
OP
a4: i LACCA NRI
^ Building
Road
---- Trail
Jungle
Rubber
Rice
Scale 1:25,000
0 1/2 Mile
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Map 4
LA TA
YI
vK0
TALIBONG
THALE
4P ATTHA U G
Q,... LUANG
1711
Aq
T M C 1
70,000
SATUN
tun
STRAIT OF
MALACCA
I BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION IS
99 NOT NECESSARILY AUTHORITATIVE
N4
0ALOR
SETAR
MCI
702,000'
KEDAH)
10 1