KERALA

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP84-00825R000100400001-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 11
• Document Creation Date: December 19, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 15, 2005
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: August 14, 1959
• Content Type: IM

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GEOGRAPHIC
INTELLIGENCE
MEMORANDUM
CIA/RR-GM-59-I
14 August 1959
KERALA
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
WARNING
This material contains information affecting the National Defense of the United States within
the meaning of the espionage laws, Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the transmission or
revelation of which in any manner to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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The Indian Government's recent action of ousting the Communist-dominated
Kerala state government and replacing it with Presidential Rule has focused
attention on this Indian state. An understanding of the dynamics of the phys-
ical and cultural elements that comprise the Kerala environment offers an
insight into the current situation.
Kerala is one of the new linguistic states based on the State Reorganization
Act, which became effective on 1 November 1956. According to data of the 1951
census, the major language is Malayalam, which is spoken by 12,666,000 people.
Tamil ranks second, with 593,000, followed by Konkani, Kanarese, Telegu, and
Marathi, with a total of somewhat less than 180,000. The new state includes
the former integrated state of Travancore-Cochin (except for five Tamil-speaking
taluks, district subdivisions, which were transferred to Madras) and the old
Malabar District, formerly part of Madras State (excluding the islands of
Laccadive and Minicoy, and the Kasaragodtaluk of South Kanara). Administratively,
Kerala is divided into nine districts -- Trivandrum, Quilon, Alleppey, Kottayam,
Ernakulam, Trichur, Palghat, Kozhikode, and Canannore. Alleppey, which was
established by the recent Communist-dominated Kerala Government on 17 August 1957,
has the largest concentration of Communists and is the site of the famous
Punnambra-Valayar CPR uprising of 1945, which gave a major fillip to the
Communist movement in Travancore-Cochin. Alleppey town, the district headquarters,
is commonly known as the "Moscow of Kerala."
Kerala, with an area of about 15,000 square miles, or about twice that of
the state of Massachusetts, is the smallest of the Indian States. Located in
the extreme southwestern part of peninsular India, it extends from about 35
miles north of Cape Comorin, the southern tip of India, northward for about
360 miles. Its long littoral on the Arabian Sea has historically left it open
to maritime invasions; conversely, its mountainous eastern borders have tended
to isolate it to some degree from the remainder of India.
Physically, Kerala may be divided into three longitudinal zones: an allu-
vial coastland, a belt of low lateritic plateaus and foothills, and highlands
(the Western Ghats). On the alluvial lowland is an extensive series of lagoons
and backwaters, both saline and fresh. With some artificial cuts, they provide
excellent protected waterways from Trivandrum northward to the mouth of the
Ponnani River, a distance of 150 miles. The plateau and hills zone to the east
has elevations of 200 to 600 feet and is generally grass and scrub covered. In
this zone the best agricultural soil for rice growing is in the valleys formed
by the rivers that flow from the Ghats to the sea. The rugged forest-covered
Ghats rise precipitously to the east and reach elevations of over 7,000 feet.
With their heavily dissected, steep slopes, the Ghats are formidable barriers
between the Kerala lowlands and the great plateau area of central peninsular
India and throughout history have impeded commercial and cultural contacts
between the two areas.
The characteristically monsoonal climate of Kerala has a great influence
upon a people who depend chiefly upon agriculture for their livelihood. The
annual cycle is largely dominated by two periods of rainfall -- southwest
monsoon from June to August and the northeast monsoon from October to December.
Two-thirds of the annual precipitation occurs during the southwest monsoon.
During June, July, and August, rain falls on about 25 days a month but rains
become less frequent in September. As the southwest monsoon retreats and the
northeast. monsoon becomes established in October and November the intensity of
the rainfall increases. During this season, rainfall is heavier in the hills
than on the coastal plain.
Two essential features of the distribution of the rainfall are its increase
from the south to the north and from the coast inland. Average rainfall is about
67 inches at Trivandrum, 115 inches at Cochin, and about 200 inches on the
western slopes of the Ghats. Since the area receives rain during both monsoons,
failure of rains and consequent famines are unknown. Occasionally, however,
flooding causes considerable damage to crops.
In this environment live some 15 million people. The population density
averages about 1,000 per square mile, making Kerala the most densely populated
of the 14 Indian states (see Map 4). Locally, as in the lowland of Trivandrum
District, the density is over 2,900 people per square mile. By contrast the
average density is 49 per square mile in the United States, and 600 in Japan.
The rate of population increase for the decade 1941-51 for the old Travancore-
Cochin was 24 percent; and, for the former Malabar District, 21 percent. For
the same decade the all-India average was 13.4 percent. This high and rapidly
increasing population density is directly related to the economic depression
and political instability of Kerala.
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 KERALA Approved For Release 2005/12/14: CIA-RDP84-00825R000100400001-1
MAJOR RELIGIONS
by District-1951 Census
Christian
C
Circle sizes are proportional to District
populations
District population, in millions
District boundary, 1951
Percent of vote polled by Communists
15-25; 25-35a 35-450
Number of Communist members
elected
District boundary, 1957
0 25 50 100 Miles
0 25 50 100 Kilometers
State boundary, 1959
District boundary, 1959
O State capital
o District capital
Railroad
0 25 50 100 150 Miles
0 25 50 100 150 Kilometers
COMMUNIST VOTING STRENGTH
by District-1957 Elections
M
3e.9 Percent of vote polled
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ARABIAN
POPULATION
State boundary, 1959
District boundary, 1959
Taluk boundary, 1951
25 50 100 %1les
i I
0 25 50 100 Kilometers
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300 750 1500 2500
Rural
Non-agricultural
Agricultural Urban
NOTE: Population data are based on the 1951 census.
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The distribution of population is closely related to the terrain zones. In
the area of the former state of Travancore-Cochin, for example, the lowland, with
about 18 percent of the area, contains 44 percent of the population and has an
average density of 2,448 people per square mile; the hilly transition zone, with
37 percent of the area, has half the population and a population density of
1,381 per square mile; and the Western Ghats, covering 45 percent of the area,
have only 6 percent of the population and a population density of only 11+7 per
square mile.* Throughout Kerala, the wide discrepancies between population and
size among the various districts are directly related to the type of terrain
(see Table 1).
a. 1-9,5b official estimates.
Kerala's total area is generally given officially as 9,412,000 acres. Of
these, about 5,387,000 are suitable for cultivation, and 1+,1+77,000 are under
cultivation (989,000 acres are double cropped), leaving some 910,000 acres or
about 10.9 percent as fallow and cultivable waste land. Since much of this is
marginal agricultural land, possibilities for extension of farming are limited.
The agricultural situation in Kerala is complicated by the size of the
landholdings, which are generally very small, and by the system of land tenure,
which is still inequitable, particularly in the old Malabar District. Even
under favorable conditions, the land reform laws that were passed in June 1959
cannot remedy the situation immediately, and the laws will probably be modified
by successive governments. The land available per capita of total population is
less than three-quarters of an acre. Actually, probably 50 percent of the
agricultural holdings in the state are less than 1 acre in size, and the average
is about 3 acres. In the old Travancore-Cochin area, 82 percent of the holdings
are smaller than 1 acre; 15 percent are between 1 and 5 acres; and only 3 percent
are larger than 5 acres. As of December 1958 the size of holdings in Kerala was
estimated as follows:
Size Number of Holders Total Acreage
5 acres or less 2,347,476 2,621,1+72
5 to 15 acres 231+)830 2,092,958
More than 15 acres 86,000 3,400,000
Total 2,668,306 8,114,430
About 42 percent of the land is held by 3 percent of the landowners in holdings
of more than 15 acres. Since land redistribution has been extensive in the
Travancore-Cochin area during the last few years, the larger holdings are chiefly
in the Malabar area.
About 55 percent of the total population of Kerala depend upon agriculture
for their livelihood, a figure lower than that for any other Indian state except
Bengal. Because of the density of the population the pressure on land, however,
is heavy; and the per capita income from agriculture is low. The proportion of
farmers to the total population is lowest in the coastal zone and highest in the
hilly transition zone. Population distribution and employment are reflected in
Map 4.
* Comparable data are not available for the area of the former district of
Malabar, but percentage and density figures should be similar in view of
Malabar's close physical and cultural similarity to the rest of Kerala.
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Area, Population, and Population Density of Kerala
by District a/
Area
Density
District
(Square Miles)
Population
per Square Mile)
Trivandrum
846.3
1,508,000
1
782
Quilon
A
1,981.9
1,686,000
,
851
lleppey
K
t
705.3
1,720, 000
2,1+39
o
tayam
1,998.6
1,507,000
751E
Ernakulam
1,558.5
1,738,000
1,115
Trichur
1,147.8
1,5148,000
1 31+9
X
Cannanore
2,226.5
1,517,000
681
Kozhikode
2,555.0
2,279,000
892
Palghat
1,971.7
1,727,000
876
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Most farmers are engaged in the cultivation of rice, coconut, and other
money crops. Since almost all of these crops require only seasonal care, the
farmers are actively engaged in land cultivation about 8 months of the year.
Roughly a fifth of the farmers have subsidiary sources of income; the remaining
four-fifths are either underemployed or unemployed for nearly 4 months a year.
Although a family garden may produce many different crops, certain ones are
characteristic of each terrain zone. In the lowland, rice and coconut predominate.
In the hilly transition zone tapioca, coconut, pepper, lemon grass, cashew nuts,
ginger, and rubber are typical in the hills and rice in the river valleys. On
the slopes of the forested Ghats, the cultivated area (about 12 percent of the
total) is largely in plantation crops -- tea, rubber, and cardamom.
Rice and coconut together account for 56 percent of the total cropped area
and contribute 50 percent of the total value of agricultural production. Although
plantation crops occupy only 6.8 percent of the cropped land and contribute 7.9
percent of the total value of agricultural production, Kerala produces about 90
percent of the rubber of India, 92 percent of the pepper, 70 percent of the cashew
nuts, 09 percent of the ginger, and 60 percent of the cardamom; it also includes
95 percent of India's tapioca acreage.
Although almost 70 percent of the total cropped area of the state is in
food crops, Kerala is faced with a chronic food shortage, producing only about
50 percent of its food-grain requirements. Rice is the chief item in the diet,
supplemented by manioc, but the rice yield averages only 1,300 pounds per acre
as compared to Japan's 3,680 pounds. Since half of the families (averaging
5.5 people) have annual incomes of about 600 rupees (U.S. $120.00), much of the
population has almost no purchasing power and must live on a substandard diet.
Kerala's per capita consumption of milk is two ounces daily compared to the
all-India average of 5.5 ounces. Vegetable products from the home garden and
the easily caught fish compensate to a very limited extent for the low cash
incomes.
The fact that 45 percent of the population is nonagricultural is not
evidence of a large urban population or a high level of industrialization.
Only 17 percent of the total state population is classified as urban. During
the decade 1941-51, an urban population increase of 66 percent was unprecedented.
Nevertheless only 3 population centers in the state -- Trivandrum (population,
186,931) Kozhikode (158,724) and Alleppey (116,278) -- met the 1951 census
criteria for a city, population over 100,000 within municipal limits.
Only a small section of the population is engaged in organized industry.
Fishing, the coir industry, and various other small industries such as the
textile, paper, glass, and fertilizer, give part or full time employment to
many among the population. As in rural areas, urban unemployment and underem-
ployment are critical. According to a survey in the former state of Travancore-
Cochin, the unemployed numbered 1.4 million and the underemployed 2 million,
half of whom were women. Of the unemployed 74 thousand were educated people.
Communal (religious community) consciousness rather than political conscious-
ness or class consciousness has long been the dominant social force in Kerala.
Loyalty to one's own community is primary and cuts across all others. The major
communities are the Hindu, Christian, and Muslim (see Map 2). According to the
1951 census, Hindus numbered 8.6 million, or 61 percent of the population;
Christians, 3.1 million, or 22 percent; Muslims, 2.3 million, or 16 percent and
other religions accounted for the other 1 percent of the population. The
distribution of these religions, by district as of 1951, is shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Distribution of Major Religions in Kerala, a/
Number of Adherents by District
as of 1951
District
Hindu
Christian
Muslim
Total
Trivandrum
1,432,789
551,951
169,283
2,154,192
Quilon
1,972,622
795,665
258,254
3,026,822
Kottayam
811,868
888,540
83,336
1,783,771
Trichur
1,370,573
731,874
210,354
2,315,640
Malabar
3,009,823
153,956
1,593,406
4,758,342
o. Religious groups other than Hindu, Christian, and Muslim comprise less than 1 percent of the total.
These small groups are not reflected in the breok-down figures but are included in the figures in the totals.
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All three of these religions are of ancient origin in India. In Kerala,
Christianity dates from the first century A.D. and Islam from a few years
after the death of the Prophet Mohammed.
Although Hindus predominate, they do not comprise a homogeneous community.
Castes divide them sharply. According to the Travancore census of 1951, there
were nearly 77 main castes and 423 accessory castes. The castes were rigidly
exclusive and permitted no common social life. Untouchability and unapproach-
ability were worked out systematically to keep the segregation of castes as
complete as possible. Now, however, all external practices of caste segregation
are prohibited by law throughout India. Even so, the residual elements of
complexes, superiority or inferiority, remain particularly strong in Kerala.
Within this divisive social structure, Communism found fertile ground for the
spread of its ideology, with its theoretically tasteless and classless society.
Nevertheless, a degree of unity among religious communities, probably temporary
in nature, was achieved through their common campaign against the recent
Communist-dominated government.
Education in Kerala is above the Indian standard. Nearly 41 percent of the
population is literate, as compared to the all-India average of 15 to 20 percent.
In the old Travancore-Cochin area the percentage is well over 50 percent. Kerala
has more than 10,000 educational institutions, including 8,000 primary schools --
one primary school for every 1.25 square miles of inhabited area and for every
300 children in the 6- to 11-year age group. Elementary instruction is almost
universal in Kerala. Four-fifths of the educational institutions are privately
run but aided by the State; the remainder are entirely State operated. Most of
the private schools are conducted by the Hindu, Christian, and Muslim communities.
To a large extent the recent anti-Communist demonstrations were sparked by the
opposition of these religious groups to the Kerala Education Bill, which was
passed in final form in December, 1958, and would have given the Communist-
dominated government greater control over the private schools.
The recent Communist-dominated government came into office on the basis of
the general elections of 1957. The Communist received about 2 million of the
5.8 million votes cast out of total electorate of 7.5 million, or about 35
percent of the votes polled. The opposition parties together secured 3.8 million
votes -- the Congress Party, 2.2 million; others 1.6 million. In the 127-member
assembly the party position was as follows: Communist, 60; Congress, 43; Praja
Socialist Party, 9; Muslim League, 8; and Independents, 6. The assembly also
included one nominated member. The Communists did not receive a majority of the
popular vote, and they could not have formed a Ministry without the support of
some of the Independents, five of whom were elected with the support of the
Communist Party. At the time of the election, the Party had 25,000 active
members.
The distribution of the votes cast for the Communist Party, the percentage
of Communist vote to the total vote, and the number of Communist assembly members
for each Kerala district (as of 1957) are shown in Table 3 and on Map 3.
Table 3
Distribution of Communist Votes in the 1957 General Elections
in Kerala
District
Votes
Percent of
Total Vote Polled
Number of
Members
Trivandrum
237,054
43.4
8
Quilon
609,237
37.7
19
Kottayam
229,276
29.8
3
Trichur
356,552
36.3
10
Palghat
258,993
39.0
10
Kozhikode
140,503
18.1
3
Cannanore
258,003
38.9
7
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Whether elections are held in 6 months or whether Presidential Rule continues
for an extended period (legally it may remain in effect for 6-month periods for
three years), Kerala's basic problems of too large a population for the present
stage of economic development, unemployment and underemployment, insufficient
food, and communalism will persist. The food deficit could be relieved to some
extent by further land redistribution, the extension of irrigation, improvement
in the methods of rice culture* and intensification of the, fishing industry on
the rich banks off the coast of Kerala. If it can be effected, industrialization
will be a major aid. The state has a high hydroelectric potential, 5 percent of
India's total; and other factors favor some degree of industrialization. Among
these factors are raw materials (rubber, timber, coconut byproducts, pottery,
clays, and large reserves of ilmenites, monazite, and sillimanite in its beach
sands) and fair transportation facilities. Capital must be found, however, if
large-scale industrial development is to be achieved.
That Namboodiripad, former Chief Minister of Kerala, favored direct aid
from the Bloc countries is evident from his statements of January 1959, just
before his trip to Moscow. As an official of a state government he was not
authorized to formulate aid agreements with a foreign power. His only resort
was through indirect pressure on the Indian Government. The effect of such
pressure is evidenced by the unprecedented orders from the Soviet Union for
coir after the establishment of a state-subsidized coir factory in Kerala.
Whatever the future government of the state may be, Kerala will need outside
financing if new development is to be undertaken and the state to achieve
economic solvency and political stability.
* A publication of the recent Communist-dominated government indicates that
the Japanese method, which is distinguished by heavy use of fertilizers, is
now practiced on 500,000 of 19,600,000 acres of rice cultivation in Kerala.
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