DISSIDENT ACTIVITY JANUARY 1966 THROUGH JANUARY 1973

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP83B00823R000800050002-3
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 58
• Document Creation Date: December 14, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 26, 2000
• Sequence Number: 2
• Content Type: PAPER

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"DISSIDENT ACTIVITY
January 1966 through January 1973"
OGC HAS REVIEWED'
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While the scope of this paper intends to give an overview of
some problems faced by U. S. Government officials relative to riots
and student disorders, and attendant violent activity such as bomb-
ings and killings from January-1966 to the end of the Vietnam war,
proper perspective would be lost without some reference to similar
activities earlier in the 1960's. Omens of violence had appeared
much earlier. In 1963 and 1964 there were serious disorders in
Birmingham, Savannah, Cambridge, Md., Chicago and Philaldephia.
In the spring of 1965 in Selma, Alabama, there were weeks of tur-
moil and -violence resulting in the death of a white clergyman and a
white housewife. In mid-August 1965, the Watts section of Los
Angeles erupted into a holocaust of death, injury and property damage.
Almost 4, 000 persons were arrested. Thirty-four were killed and
hundreds injured. Approximately $35 million in damage was inflicted.
Concurrent with the racial distress in the mid-1960's came
the formulation of numerous groups, particularly the anti-war and
new left groups which began going to the streets to display their griev-
ances. Sometimes the various groups, anti-war, racial, and new left
joined in street activity and philosophical purposes, causing authorities
great difficulty in determining what to expect.
The subsequent events of 1966 made it appear that domestic
turmoil had become part of the American scene. Chicago exploded in
mid-July, and before the police and 4,200 National Guardsmen man-
aged to restore order, scores of civilians and police had been injured.
There were 533 arrests, including 155 juveniles. Three deaths ensued,
one a thirteer.-year -old boy and another a fourteen-year-old 'pregnant
girl. In all, forty-three disorders and riots were reported in the
country during 1966. 1965 and 1966 were but harbingers, 1967 was a
disaster to the Nation.
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1966
On 12 January, President Johnson, in his state of the union
message, pledged that the U. S. would stay in Vietnam until aggres-
sion was stopped.
The resumption of U. S. bombing; raids against the North on
31 January after a 37-day pause brought; a series of demonstrations
across the country. The largest were in New York and Washington.
On 2 February, following an overnight vigil in front of the UN, some
1, 000 demonstrators marched to Times Square where 32 were arrested
after they sat down in the street. 1, 500 members of Women's Strike
for Peace picketed the White House on 9 February.
At least 19 persons were killed and more than 50 injured in
outbreaks of violence in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, on 9-13
February. Much of the disorder accompanied a strike called by trade
unions to protest the shooting of student demonstrators (3 were killed).
Five Negroes were wounded in Birmingham on 21 February when a
white motorist fired 8 pistol shots into a crowd of 150 Negroes.
Almost 350 Spanish students staged a sit-in on 9 March in
Barcelona. Riot police, on 11 March, arrested the demonstrators.
Violent demonstrations erupted in Barcelona on 11 May when the
Education Ministry ordered the university closed. The demonstra-
tions spread to downtown streets where 1,000. students shouted slogans
and threw stones at police. Crown Princess Beatrix, 28, heir pre-
sumptive to the Dutch throne, was married in Amsterdam on 10 March.
The wedding procession was guarded by 8, 000 soldiers and police; but
about 1, 000 youths shouted insults, and several smoke bombs were
thrown along the route.
The scene of 1965's most serious racial rioting, the predom-
inately Negro Watts district of Los Angeles, was shaken by a new dis-
turbance on 15 March. Casualties were 2 dead and about 20 injured:
49 persons were arrested and 19 buildings were damaged. The rioting
was brought under control in about 4 hours, with 200 policemen patrol-
ling the area (the normal force was 24) and roadblocks set up at major
streets.
Parades and rallies protesting U. S. policies in Vietnam were
held in several U. S. and foreign cities on 25-27 March, most of them
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organized by the National Coordinating Committee to End the War in
Vietnam and designated as International Days of Protest. A 26 March
parade down New York's 5th Avenue followed by a rally in Central Park
was the weekend's largest demonstration; police estimated that 20, 000-
25, 000 persons marched in the parade.
On 31 March, 380 Cordele, Georgia Negroes marched on the
county courthouse in a protest against allegedly inferior conditions in
Negro schools. A group of 50-75 high school boys attacked 7 anti-war
demonstrators on 31 March on the steps of the South Boston District
Court House.
The Berkeley, California, headquarters of the anti-war Viet-
nam Day Committee was blown up early on 9 April. Five persons
suffered slight injuries, and 5 buildings in the vicinity were damaged;
all windows in the headquarters were blown out and the back of the
building was ripped apart. Students at Madrid's Economic & Political
Sciences Faculty voted on 29 April to stage a 24-hoar general strike on
2 May in protest against the closing of Barcelona University. Later on
29 April, Madrid University students demonstrated in support of the
Barcelona students and clashed with police. University of Navarre
students fought with police in Pamplona on 29 April. On 30 April, as
two Suffolk County, N. Y. , policemen attempted to arrest a Negro motor-
ist for speeding, a group of young men and women stormed out of a house
screaming, "We're going to get those cops. " The mob seized one of the
officer's guns, shooting him in the legs three times.
Another police-student clash was touched off at Madrid University
on 2 May as students attempted to march on the chancellor's office. About
1, 500 students were involved in the day's demonstrations, and 50 were
arrested. Several, including 7 American students, were clubbed by
police. About 2, 000 Madrid University students were attacked by police
on 5 May as they again marched on the chancellor's office. The Watts
area of Los Angeles was tense again following a fatal shooting on 7 May.
Selective Service tests were administered to college students
and graduating high school seniors on 14 May, 21 May and 3 June. Prior
to the examinations, student protests against draft procedures broke out
at several universities. A group of 350 University of Chicago students
seized the school's administration building and began a sit-in on 12 May.
At Roosevelt University in Chicago, anti-draft protests on 19-25 May
resulted in the arrest of 39 students. University of Wisconsin students
staged a sit-in at the school administration building in Madison on 16-20
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May; those participating ranged from 25 to 700 students. An anti-
draft rally on the campus on 18 May was attended by about 10, 000
students. Other demonstrations were held at City College of New
York, Brooklyn (N.Y.) College, Hunter College (N.Y.), Cornell
University (Ithaca, N. Y. ), Oberlin (Ohio) College and Stanford (Calif. )
University.
A demonstration in support of Congressional candidates pledged
to work for peace in Vietnam brought 8, 000-11, 000 demonstrators to
Washington on 15 May. The participants picketed the White House for
2 hours and then attended a rally at the Washington Manument.
U. S. planes carried out record air attacks on North Vietnam
on 30 and 31 May. The number of attacking planes was described as
the largest since the U. S. raids on North Vietnam had begun on 7
February 1965.
The summer of 1966 was, as were the 2 previous summers, a
season of rioting and public disorder in many of the racial ghettos of
the nations's cities. Most of the disorders stemmed from incidents
in which police were alleged to have acted with brutality. All brought
savage clashes with police in which entire neighborhoods were battered.
The rioting and increased militancy among Negro groups was cited by
many observers as a prime contributor to the growth of "white back-
lash" in several states. Congressional and Administration sources
expressed fear of the political impact of the mounting Negro militancy
and the white response to it.
James H. Meredith, the 32-year-old Negro who had integrated
the University of Mississippi in 1962, was shot from ambush on 6 June.
Elsewhere on 6 June, student riots began in Colon and spread to Panama
City. Three days of rioting were touched off on 12 June in a northwest
Chicago Puerto Rican neighborhood. A ]labor dispute erupted on 13-15
June into widespread rioting in Amsterdam in which 28 policemen and.
81 civilians were wounded by gunfire or otherwise injured. On 26 June,
a civil rights rally attended by 15, 000 in front of the Mississippi state
capital in Jackson climaxed the "Meredith march" which had been marked
by sporadic violence and plagued by disagreement among civil rights
groups. The bombing of oil installations on the outskirts of Hanoi and
Haiphong beginning on 29 June set off a series. of protests. 700 demon-
strators marched outside the U. S. Mission to the UN in N. Y. City.
Similar demonstrations, some of them in connection with Independence
Day observances, were staged by anti-war groups in the U. S. and
abroad on 4 July.
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Omaha's Near North Side, a Negro area, was rocked by 3 nights
of rioting, rock-throwing and looting on 3-5 July. 122 persons were
arrested by the time order was restored on 5 July. 500 National Guards-
men were called into Omaha. The Mississippi town of Grenada, one of
the points on the Meredith marchers' route was the scene of demonstra-
tions throughout the summer.
Three nights of serious rioting swept Chicago's West Side Negro
district on 12-15 July. Order was restored with the aid of 4, 000 National
Guardsmen on 15 July, but 2 Negroes were killed, scores of police and
civilians were wounded or injured and 372 persons were arrested. Loses
from property damage and looting, primarily suffered by white-owned
stores, were reported to be extensive.
The Brooklyn neighborhood known as East New York was the
scene of New York City's worst racial violence during the year. Con-
flict among Negroes, whites, and Puerto Ricans erupted in fighting on
15 July and renewed clashes occurred on 17-18 and 2I-22 July.
The Cleveland Negro neighborhood of Hough was the scene of the
year's most severe racial rioting of 18-23 July. Four persons were killed
and 50 were injured in the disorders, which were marked by shooting,
firebombing and looting. Property damage, much of it stemming from
the setting of nearly 250 fires, was widespread. Ohio Governor James A.
Rhodes, on 19 July, issued a proclamation declaring that "a state of tumult,
riot and other emergency" existed in Cleveland and activating 1, 600
National Guardsmen for riot duty; an additional400 Guardsmen were
called up on 20 July. National Guard force was reduced in strength on
26 July and was completely disbanded on 31 July.
President Johnson commented on the spreading racial unrest in
a news conference on 20 July. The President cautioned on 20 July that
"while there's a Negro minority of 10% in this country, there is a major-
ity of 90% that are not Negroes. " Although most of the majority "have
come around to the viewpoint of wanting to see equality and justice given
their fellow citizens, " he said, "they want to see it done under the law
and.... without violence. " Asked whether he thought "professional agita-
tors" were behind the riots, President Johnson said he "would not want
to say that the protests and the demonstrations are inspired by foreign
foes, " although "people who do not approve of our system" might be a
contributing factor. Addressing an Indianapolis Athletic Club luncheon
of 450 business executives and labor officials on 23 July, the President
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warned that "riots in the streets do not bring about lasting reforms"
but rather "make reform more difficult by turning away the very people
who can and must support reform. " "We refuse to condone riots and
disorders, " he added, "not only to protect the society at large," -but
also "to serve the real interests of those for whose cause we struggle. "
A Negro district in East Baltimore was invaded on 28 July by
white teenage gangs. Puerto Ricans clashed with police in Perth Amboy,
N. J. for 4 nights on 30 July-2 August. On 3 August, Atlanta, Georgia,
and Minneapolis, Minnesota, experienced racial violence.
The 21st anniversary on 6 August of the dropping of a U. S. atomic
bomb on Hiroshima was the occasion for anti-Vietnam protests staged
across the country. The demonstrations were coordinated by the National
Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam. 5, 000 persons
marched in N. Y. City's Times Square in a protest sponsored by the 5th
Avenue Peace Parade Committee. Other large demonstrations were
held in Philadelphia, San Francisco, Washington, Cleveland, Denver,
Minneapolis, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Boston and Atlanta.
Scattered racial violence broke out in Michigan in August as
police clashed with Negroes and whites in Lansing, Detroit, Muskegon,
Ypsilanti, and Benton Harbor. 11 persons were injured and 31 arrested
in disorders that swept a section of Lansing's southwest side the nights-
of 7 August and 8 August. Both Negroes and whites, mainly teenagers,
were involved in the incidents. Police clashed with about 1, 500 persons,
mostly Negroes, the night of 12 August in a downtown section of Muskegon.
Racial violence rocked Benton Harbor on 28-31 August. Violence erupted
in Grenada, Mississippi, the evening of 9 August when about 300 Negroes
marched to protest the 8 August use of tear gas.
In Argentina, violent student demonstrations broke out against
the regime on 12-31 August. Though centered largely in Buenos Aires,
disturbances also were reported in Rosario and Cordoba, where students
clashed with police.
At least 50 persons were arrested for disorderly conduct at hear-
ings held in Washington on 16-19 August by the House Un-American
Activities Committee. The committee was investigating Americans who
aided the Viet Cong in Vietnam. The purpose of the inquiry was to pro-
vide data for legislation to outlaw such aid. The hearings were marked
by outbursts against the committee and against U. S. participation in the
Vietnamese war.
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Robert Bolivar DePugh, who had founded the Minutemen in 1959,
was arrested on 20 August and was convicted with 2 followers by a federal
jury in Kansas City, Missouri on 13 November of violating the Federal
Firearms Act.
Rioting and looting by Negroes in Dayton, Ohio on 1-2 September
was touched off by a fatal shooting. Nearly 1, 000 National Guardsmen
were mobilized to restore order. About 30 persons were injured in the
outbreak. More than 100 people were arrested. Two nights of Negro
rioting swept Atlanta, Georgia, on 6-7 and 10-11 September. Sporadic
violence continued on 11 and 12? September. More than 35 persons were
injured in the incidents, and about 138 persons were arrested. Stokely
Carmichael, chairman of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee,
was quoted as telling a crowd of Negroes; "We're going to be back at 4
o'clock and tear this place up. " Afterwards, about 1, 000 Negroes, chant-
ing "black power" and "police brutality, " began throwing rocks, sticks
and bottles at policemen, newsmen and white bystanders. SNCC member
Willie Ricks shouted, "We're going to put every cracker in Atlanta on
his knees.... Mayor Allen is the killer. " The audience answered with
shouts of "black power. "
Protests against the Chicago housing accord, including an
American--Nazi march joined by 150 white teenagers, were held in south-
west Chicago on 10 September under heavy police escort. A confronta-
tion of armed whites and Negroes in front of Bogalusa Junior High School
was broken up by police on 12 September without anybody getting hurt.
The groups pulled guns on each other but were persuaded to disperse.
Violence erupted in Grenada, Mississippi, on 12-13 September. The
Rev. Melvin DeWitt Bullock, a Negro, was found beaten to death on
12 September in his house in New Rochelle, N. Y. Bullock, ex-president
of the New Rochelle NAACP chapter, had been active in recent drives to
end de facto segregation in New Rochelle public schools. Demonstrators
fought with the police in The Hague on 20 September and threw a smoke
bomb at a state carriage carrying Queen Julianna. Julianna was un-
harmed. 81 of the rioters were arrested. Demonstrations were staged
in St. Louis on 25-28 September . The demonstrations ended in rioting
on 28 September. 14 persons were injured.
Five hundred Negroes, whites and Puerto Ricans participated on
17 September in a Poor People's March on Washington to protest "the
current lack of concern for effective antipoverty legislation. " Racial
violence swept Negro sections of San Francisco on 27-28 September.
3,600 National Guardsmen were called in, and a curfew was imposed.
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Altogether 349 persons were arrested and at least 80 persons were
reported injured. Guardsmen rode fire trucks to defend them from
mob attacks.
Sporadic outbreaks of racial violence in Oakland, California,
on 18-20 October coincided with a 3-day boycott of the city's schools.
More than 50 persons were arrested, and. 13 were reported injured.
On 30 October, 19 members of the pararrxilitiary Minutemen were
arrested in N. Y. City and other parts of N. Y. State. Police said the
crackdown had prevented planned attacks on 3 allegedly leftist camps.
On 3 November, the Guatemalan Government declared a state of siege
to cope with violence by extremists of both the right and the left.
More than 3, 000 of the 27, 000 students at the University of
California's Berkeley campus boycotted classes on 1-6 December in
protest against both the administration's use of city and county police
to break up an anti-war sit-in and university rules against nonstudent
participation on the Campus. On 14 December, Venezuelan troops
occupied the Central University in Caracas and seized an arsenal that
included hand grenades and machine guns. A second degree murder
acquittal on 8 December by an all-white ;jury in Lee County, Alabama,
resulted in 700 students rioting in Tuskegee on learning of the verdict.
1967
The intensified fighting in Vietnam brought a more vociferous
tone and more militant character in the protests mounted in 1967 by
the anti-war movement in the U. S. Massive anti-war marches were
staged in New York, San Francisco and other cities. The student anti-
war movement swung away from peaceful picketing and rallied to more
violent efforts to disrupt the operations of military induction centers.
The existing divisions among Negro rights leaders became more evident
during 1967 as the leadership of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee praised urban rioters and issued calls for revolution while
the more traditional civil rights leadership continued to abjure violence
and to call for non-violent action. Among the extreme militants, sepa-
ratist and anti-white sentiment seemed to be on the rise.
During his 10 January State of the Union message, President
Johnson pledged the U. S. would support peace initiatives by the UN or
others and would "continue to take every possible initiative ourselves
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to constantly probe for peace, " "Until such efforts succeed, or until
the infiltration (in South Vietnam) ceases, or until the conflict subsides,
I think the course of wisdom for this country is that we just must firmly
pursue our present course. We will stand firm in Vietnam.
Rep. Adam Clayton Powell, the once-powerful representative of
New York City's Harlem Negro district, was ousted as chairman of the
House Education and Labor Committee on 9 January and then was barred
on 10 January from taking his House seat pending an investigation of his
qualifications. It was the first time in 46 years that a House member
had been refused his seat for reasons other than a contested election, the
first time since 1925 that a House chairman had been deposed, and the
first time in 160 years that one had been ousted for a reason other than
party disloyalty. On 1 March, the House of Representatives voted to
exclude Powell from the 90th Congress and declared his Harlem seat
vacant. By almost a 7-1 margin, Powell was reelected on 11 April..
On 27 January, university students in Madrid, Barcelona and
other cities launched a series of violent demonstrations. The demon-
strations, which brought the closing of 10 universities by 6 February,
persisted throughout the spring. On 28 January, six Yugoslav diplomatic
missions in the United States and Canada were damaged by a coordinated
series of explosions.
About 2, 000 members of the New York-based National Committee
of Clergy & Laymen Concerned About Vietnam marched in front of the
White House in Washington on 21 January, demanding a halt to the bomb-
ing of North Vietnam and a de-escalation of the ground war in South Viet-
nam to pave the way for peace talks. In early February, the leaders of.
15 student organizations of diverse political affiliation signed a resolution
in Washington calling for the end of the draft.
On 28 February, Mississippi NAACP field director Charles Evers
said that since his brother Medgar had been murdered in 1963, 41 Negroes
had been killed in Mississippi.
On 8 March, a bill declaring Congress' intention of supporting
U. S. armed forces in Vietnam, of supporting efforts to end the war
honorably and of preventing its expansion was passed by both houses and
was signed by the President on 16 March.
More than 5, 000 Spanish workers and students rioted and fought.
with police in Bilbao on 4 April. In Paris on 7 April, Vice President
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Humphrey (on a two-week tour of Western Europe to explain U. S.
foreign policy to Western leaders) encountered virulent demonstration:
eggs and paint were thrown, a U. S. flag was burned, 160 arrests were
reported and 46 policemen were injured. Humphrey concluded his trip
in Brussels on 8 April, and nine persons were reportedly arrested in
demonstrations against his visit.
Negroes rioted in Nashville, Tennessee on 8-10 April. More
than 80 persons were reported arrested and 17 injured. SNCC Chair-
man, Stokely Carmichael, earlier that afternoon had attended a sympo-
sium at predominantly white Vanderbilt University. Several clashes,
were intensified in Louisville, Kentucky, on 11-24 April after the city's
Board of Aldermen rejected an open-housing ordinance. Several hundred
persons were arrested and at least 6 persons were injured. Riot police
intervened repeatedly to deal with white counter-demonstrators.
UN Undersecretary Ralph Bunche on 12 April took issue with the
Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King's suggestions that the U. S. civil rights
and peace movements merge. Bunche said: King "should positively give
up one role or another. The 2 efforts have little in common. " King
"should realize" that his opposition to the American role in Vietnam "is
bound to alienate many friends and supporters of the civil rights move-
ment and greatly weaken it. " At a news conference in Los Angeles later
on 12 April, King denied that he advocated a merger of the civil rights
and peace drives. "But we equally believe that no one can pretend that
the existence of the wards not profoundly affecting the destiny of civil
rights progress, " King asserted. King challenged the NAACP to assume
a "forthright stand on the rightness or wrongness" of the war in Vietnam.
On 15 April massive parades were held in New York and San
Francisco in protest against U. S. policy in.Vietnam. The demonstra-
tions were sponsored by the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the
War in Vietnam. In New York, demonstrators from all parts of the
U. S. marched from Central Park to UN headquarters where they heard
speeches by the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Floyd McKissick,
Stokely Carmichael and Dr. Benjamin Spock. According to police es-
timates, 100, 000-125, 000 persons had marched in the parade. King
estimated that 300, 000-400, 000 had participated. The presence of Negro
leaders King, McKissick and Carmichael at the head of the New York
.anti-war demonstration was the outgrowth of efforts to link the civil rights
and peace movements. King had indicated that such a link was forming in
a news conference held in N. Y. City on 4 April. Expressing firm opposi-
tion to the Vietnam war, King described the U. S. government as the
'?greatest purveyor of violence in the world" and urged Negro. and white
youths to declare themselves conscientious objectors to military service.
Without mentioning King by name, a resolution approved in New York
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on 10 April by the directors of the NAACP rejected as "a serious
tactical mistake" the suggestion that the civil rights and peace move-
ments in the U. S. merge. San Francisco police estimated that there
were 20, 000 people in the line of march and 50, 000 at Kezar stadium.
Commenting on the demonstrations, State Secretary Rusk said on 16
April on the NBC-TV program "Meet the Press" that the "Communist
apparatus" was behind the peace movement "all over the world and in
our own country. "
The formation of Negotiations Now, a group urging an end to the
war in Vietnam, was announced' in New York on 24 April by Martin Luther
King and others. The launching of another nationwide peace drive, Viet-
nam Summer, had been aided by King with an address at Christ Church
Parish House in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 23 April.
Unrest among Spanish workers broke into the open on May Day,
when workers' organizations held rallies despite government prohibitions.
May Day demonstrations were staged in at least 13 cities, including
Madrid, Seville, Valencia, Bilbao and Barcelona. In several cities,
crowds of up to 5, 000 persons defied police, threw stones and overturned
cars.
A so-called "International Tribunal on War Crimes"--created by
opponents of U. S. policy in Vietnam- -opened sessions in Stockholm on
2 May to hear charges that the American armed forces committed atro-
cities in the Vietnam conflict.
On 8 May, heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali (Cassius
Clay) was indicted by a federal grand jury in Houston, Texas, after re-
fusing to be inducted into the U. S. armed forces.
On 10 and 11 May, Negroes rioted on the campus of the all-Negro
Jackson State College in Jackson, Mississippi. The National Guard was
called in and martial law was imposed. One Negro was killed and 2 others
were wounded before the rioting ended. Calm was restored with the
arrival of 1, 200- 1, 400 National Guardsmen. Stokely Carmichael was
replaced on 12 May by H. Rap Brown as chairman of the militant Student
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. At a news conference in Atlanta,
Georgia, on 12 May, Brown said there would be no change in SNCC's
black power policy. He said: "We shall seek to build a strong nation-
wide black anti-draft program and movement to include high school students,
along with college students and other black men of draft age. "
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(A parade in support of U. S. troops in Vietnam was
held in New York on 13 May. The N. Y. Times estimated
that there were about 70, 000 participants.. The parade was
organized to counter anti-war demonstrations.)
One policeman was killed and 2 policemen and a student were
wounded in Houston on 16-17 May when police and students exchanged
rifle fire at Texas Southern University, a predominantly Negro school.
488 students were arrested. U. S. jets bombed the center of Hanoi on
19 May for the first time. The target of the air strike was a 32, 000-
kilowatt power plant, the largest in North Vietnam.
The summer of 1967 was marked by the worst racial disturb-
ances in the history of the United States. Nearly 100 persons--most of
them Negroes--were killed during the disorders. Many thousands were
injured or arrested. Estimates of property damage ran to over a half
.billion dollars. The Senate Permanent Investigations Subcommittee on
1 November made public these statistics on riots since 1965:
1965
1966
.1967
Number of riots ......... ,,.
5
21
75
Persons killed ..............
36
11
83
Persons injured .............
1,206
520
1,897
Number arrested ............
10, 245
2,298
16, 38.9
Number convicted ...........
2, 074
1,203
2, 157
Estimated cost (in millions).
$40. 1
$10.2
$664.5
Although severe racial rioting had occurred in U. S. cities in pre-
vious summers, 'it never had been as widespread or as intense as it became
in 1967. In the two cities hardest hit, Newark (26 dead) and Detroit (43
dead), conditions of near-insurrection developed in ghetto areas, and police
and National Guardsmen responded with volleys of automatic weapons fire.
Despite demands. from some quarters for harsh treatment of the rioters,
President Johnson insisted that the nation must face up to the root causes
of the frustrations that had led to the disorders; he appointed a commission
to examine the immediate and underlying causes of the unrest and to recom-
mend action to deal with it.
The riots of the summer of 1967 were further distinguished from
those of previous years by the divided response they drew from Negro
leaders. While moderate leaders such as Roy Wilkins of the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People and Dr. Martin Luther
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King, Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference continued to
call for peace and to rebuke rioters, others, from the more militant wing
of the increasingly split civil rights movement, praised the rioters and
defended their actions as necessary and a justifiable response to white
America. Two of these more militant leaders, Stokely Carmichael, the
former Chairman of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee, and
H. Rap Brown, the Chairman of SNCC, called for "guerrilla warfare" in
urban ghettos.
Boston's Roxbury district was torn by major disorders on 2-5
June. During the riots 60-75 persons were injured and 75-100 were
arrested. On 11 June, violence broke out in Negro sections of Tampa.
Violence erupted in the predominantly Negro West Side of Dayton on 12
June. The violence began when Negroes attacked a white man after a
speech by H. Rap Brown. Rioting, looting and fires swept through Negro
sections of Cincinnati on 12-15 June, and more than 300 persons were
arrested before order was restored. Property damage was estimated at
over $1 million. On 13 June, Governor James A. Rhodes sent in about
800 National Guardsmen armed with rifles and gas masks. SNCC Chair-
man H. Rap Brown arrived in Cincinnati on 15 June. At a news confer-
ence he demanded the removal of the National Guard, "Cincinnati will be
in flames so long as the honkie cops are here. " But the rioting ebbed and
the National Guard was removed from Cincinnati on 18 June.
Leaders of 9 civil rights organizations announced on 14 June that
they planned to work together during the summer and to make Cleveland
the target of their combined efforts. The Rev. Martin Luther King had
announced on 16 May that SCLC had chosen Cleveland for organized civil
rights action during the summer.
One Negro was killed and 3 others were seriously wounded as un-
rest swept through Negro residential areas of Atlanta on 19-20 June. The
trouble began 18 June when Stokely Carmichael, former SNCC chairman,
was arrested after he joined a crowd of 200-500. He was released on bond
the next morning. Violence erupted the evening of 19 June after Carmichael
told a crowd of about 350 Negroes "the only way these honkies and the honky
lovers can understand is when they're met by resistance. "
On 21 June, fifteen Negroes (11 men and 4 women), allegedly
members of the pro-Peking Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM),
were arrested in N. Y. City early on charges of plotting to murder
moderate civil rights leaders. The 15 were specifically charged with
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.plotting to assassinate NAACP Executive Director Roy Wilkins, Urban
League Executive Director Whitney Young, Jr. , and at least 3 other
moderate rights leaders and of conspiring to advocate criminal anarchy.
A 16th person, Maxwell Stanford, the alleged leader of RAM, was arrested
the same day in Philadelphia. Also seized in the pre-dawn raids by 160
policemen in Queens, Brooklyn and Manhattan were 30 weapons, 1, 000
rounds of ammunition, 150-275 packets of heroin, walkie-talkies, sub-
versive literature and radio receivers and transmitters.
The predominantly Negro East Side section of Buffalo was dis-
rupted by riots on 27-30 June. -Nearly 100 persons were reported injured
in the rioting. 205 persons were arrested. Property damage was estimated
at $100, 000. Violence erupted again on 3-4 July in the Avondale section
of Cincinnati. Twelve to fifteen persons were reported injured. Twenty-
six fires occurred during the night, causing an estimated $1 million in
damage.
The NAACP held a tense and acrimonious 58th annual convention
in Boston on 10-15 July. The convention passed a 30-page package of
resolutions, including a tersely-worded statement that avoided either
endorsing or attacking the Vietnam war while reaffirming the NAACP
board's April statement rejecting merger of the civil rights and peace
movements. Another resolution condemned the riots in Newark.
Rioting broke out in Hartford, Connecticut, on 12-13 July. Police
broke up the disorders early in the morning of 13 July. A second wave
of racial violence began in the Hartford Negro neighborhood late in the
evening of 13 July but it was quickly contained as police sealed off the
area.
The worst outbreak of racial violence since the 1965 summer
rioting in the Watts section of Los Angeles erupted in Newark, N.J. on
12-17 July. In the 6 days of rioting in Newark, 26 persons--24 Negroes
and 2 whites--were killed; more than 1, 500 persons were reported in-
jured; 1, 397 persons were arrested. More than 300 fires, 12 of major
proportions, were reported. Property damage was estimated at $15-$30
million. At its height, the rioting spread to 10 of the city's 23 square miles.
Governor Richard J. Hughes summoned the state police and placed New
Jersey units of the National Guard on "state alert. " After Hughes toured
the city, he charged that the rioting was a "criminal insurrection" which
had "nothing to do with civil rights. " On 14 July, as rioting began to
taper off in nearby Newark, it erupted with new fury only 14 miles to the
south of Plainfield. National Guard units were sent to the city after
violence had swept through its Negro neighborhoods; order was restored
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after 4 days of looting and vandalism. More than 100 persons were
arrested and 10 were reported to have been injured during the disorders.
100 National Guardsmen were sent to Plainfield. The rioting in Newark
and Plainfield seemed to spark disorders in other N. J. communities.
In Englewood, a N.Y.C. suburb just 2 miles from the George Washington
Bridge, there were 3 nights of violence, 21-23 July. In Jersey City,
sporadic firebombing and rock throwing were reported on 15-17 July.
At least 50 persons were arrested in the disorders, which included sniper
activity. Other disorders were reported in New Brunswick, Paterson and
Elizabeth on 17 July, in Passaic on 27-28 July and in Palmyra on 28 July.
A bill (HR421) to make it a federal crime to cross state lines or
to use interstate facilities to incite a riot was passed by the House on
19 July and sent to the Senate by a 347-70 vote. The bill would provide
penalties of up to $10, 000 fine and 5 years in prison. Rep. William C.
Cramer, author of the bill, said it was "aimed at those professional
agitators " who traveled from city to city to "inflame the people.... to
violence and then leave the jurisdiction before the riot begins. " The
Senate Judiciary Committee opened hearings on 2-3 August on the anti-
riot bill. Senator James O. Eastland was chairman. The Senate failed
to act on the measure before adjournment at the year's end, and it was
carried over to the 1968 calendar.
Illinois Governor Otto Kerner ordered National Guard to Cairo on
19 July, after 3 days of rioting in the city. National Guardsmen were
moved into Minneapolis on 21 July to curb racial violence that had beset
the Minnesota city for 2 days. The disorders resulted in 13 arrests and
9 injuries.
On 23 July, a Black Power conference in Newark, New Jersey,
closed with delegate approval of resolutions aimed at establishing a
separate course for American Negroes.
Detroit, the nation's fifth largest city, suffered through the worst
racial rioting in U. S. history on 23-30 July. The disturbances brought
the first use of federal troops to quell civil strife in 24 years. Before
they were ended, 43 persons were dead (36 Negroes, and 7 whites), more
than 2, 000 were injured, the vast majority of them Negroes, and 7, 207
persons were arrested--3, 365 charged with felonies, including 7 cases
of murder. Five thousand persons were homeless and $250-$500 million
worth of property had been destroyed. On the first day, 23 July, police
estimated that at least 5, 000 persons,. black and white, were roaming
through the West Side and moving into the East Side -neighborhoods of the
city. Firemen who tried to contain fires, by then consuming a 15-block
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area, were attacked by mobs with rocks and bricks; at times they were
forced to lay down their hoses and retreat. However,. on several occasions,
whites and Negroes, armed with shotguns and rifles, were reported to
have stood guard over firemen attempting to control the fires. On 24
July, President Johnson received Governor Romney's telegram request-
ing "the immediate deployment of federal troops into Michigan to assist
state and local authorities in reestablishing law and order in Detroit. "
Within 6 minutes, an order of President Johnson, Defense Secretary
Robert S. McNamara ordered 4, 700 airborne troops flown in. Governor
Romney announced that he had sent National Guardsmen to quell outbreaks
of rioting in other Michigan cities: Flint, Pontiac and Grand Rapids. On
30 July federal troops were removed from Detroit and moved to the fair-
grounds. 7, 000 National Guardsmen, 200 state troopers and 4, 200 city
policemen remained on duty.
The rioting in Detroit spread to smaller Michigan cities and com-
munities on 23-26 July. In Kalamazoo, a distrubance involving about 200
Negroes was quelled by police on 23 July. A firebombing spree in the
Detroit suburb of Flint on 24 July resulted in the arrests of more than 100
young Negroes. Three Negroes were wounded in racial violence in Grand
Rapids, Michigan's second largest city, on 24-25 July. The wounded men.
were members of a task force attempting to cool off tempers. They re-
portedly were shot by a sniper. 250 National Guardsmen arrived in the
city on 25 July and a curfew had been imposed. Two Negroes were killed
in racial disorders in Pontiac on 24-25 July.
Rioting and anti-police disorders broke out in the East Harlem
ghetto of New York City known to its Puerto Rican residents as El Barrio--
The Neighborhood--on 23-25 July. On 23-25 July, racial disturbances
involving firebombing and looting were reported in Rochester. The dis-
orders spread and by early 24 July, police sealed off a 20-block area..
In the early hours of 25 July, fire swept through the Negro business
section of Cambridge, Maryland. The fire, apparently set by arsonists,
raged out of control after the city's white volunteer firemen refused to take
action against the blaze. The fire and accompanying violence followed a
Cambridge speech in which SNCC Chairman H. Rap Brown had exhorted
a crowd of 400 young Negroes the previous evening to "burn his town down. "
"You better get yourselves some guns. The only thing honkies (whites)
respect is guns, " he was reported to have declared. In the response that
followed, nearly 20 buildings were destroyed. Damage. was estimated at
$200, 000. Later on 25 July, Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew toured the
district and told newsmen that Brown was to blame for the disturbances.
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7.00 National Guardsmen took up stations in the town at his orders. Within
hours after his Cambridge speech, Brown was being hunted by state police
and the FBI as a fugitive from. Maryland charges of "inciting to riot" and
"counseling to burn. " The FBI arrested Brown at the Washington National
Airport on 26 July as he was about to board a flight to New York, and he
was released on bail on 27 July. Speaking later on 27 July in the heart
of Washington's Negro ghetto, Brown repeated the advice he had offered
in Cambridge: "You better get you a gun. The honky got respect for but
one thing, a gun. " He assailed President Johnson as a "wild, mad dog,
an outlaw from Texas. " Brown told a SNCC-sponsored rally that even-
ing: "There should be more shooting and looting. " "I say violence is
necessary,." he asserted. "It is as American as cherry pie. "
(Brown told a rally of about 1, 500 in New York on
6 August that the 1967 summer's racial riots were only
"dress rehearsals for revolution. " Brown told a cheering
crowd of about 3, 000 Negroes in riot-stricken Detroit on
27 August: "You did a good job here. " But he said the
riots in Detroit would "look like a picnic" when Negroes
united to "take their due. ")
A Special Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders was appointed
on 27 July by President Johnson to "investigate the origins of the recent
disorders in our cities. " The panel was to make recommendations to him,
Congress, the state governors and mayors for ways "to prevent or contain
such disasters in the future. " He also proclaimed Sunday, 30 July,- a
National Day of Prayer for Peace and Reconciliation and announced that
he was ordering new training standards :for riot-control procedures for
National Guard units across the country.. The President said that the
nation had "endured a week such as no nation should live through; a time
of violence and tragedy. " He declared that "the looting and arson and
plunder and pillage which have occurred are not part of a civil right pro-
test. " "There is no American right, " he said, to loot or burn or "fire
rifles from the rooftops. " He said that public officials must help "bring
about a peaceful change in America, " and he warned officials that "if
your response to these tragic events is only business-as-usual, you invite
not only disaster but dishonor.
Mayor James H. J. Tate issued a proclamation of limited emer-
gency on 27 July, on the second night of scattered disorders in predomin-
antly Negro South Philadelphia. Rioting broke out in Milwaukee's predom-
inantly Negro "Inner Core" neighborhood on the city's near North Side on
30 July-3 August. A 24-hour curfew was imposed in the city, the nation's
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11th largest, and National Guard units were called in. Four persons
-0ere killed; at least 100 were reported injured and 705 persons were
arrested during the disorders. Governor Warren Knowles dispatched
a force of 1, 450 National Guardsmen to the city.
Negro and white gangs clashed in predominantly Negro South
Providence, R. I. , on 31 July-2 August. Gangs of white youths shouting
"White Power" tried to attack Negro gangs. Twenty persons were injured
as snipers and heavily armed police traded gunfire; 13 persons were
arrested in the clash. Seventy-two more persons, most of them whites,
were arrested in the early morning of 2 August.
Stokely Carmichael, former SNCC chairman, said on 1 August
that the Negro was fighting "guerrilla warfare" to attain his rights and
that a "revolutionary movement" would be initiated to help him. He made
the remarks at a news conference in Havana, Cuba, where he was attend-
ing the conference of the Organization for Latin American Solidarity.
Arson, vandalism and looting were reported in the Negro ghetto
of northwest Washington, D.C., on 'l August. Thirty-four persons--21
adults and 13 juveniles--were arrested. About 50 store windows were
reported to have been smashed and 11 minor fires were reported.
President Johnson, on 3 August, announced plans to send an addi-
tional 45, 000 to 50, 000 U. S. troops to Vietnam by July 1968.
On 9 August, at the Organization of Latin-American Solidarity
meeting in Havana, Cuba, a resolution was passed calling on U. S.
Negroes to use direct revolutionary action to achieve their aims.
U. S. planes launched an intensified air offensive against North
Vietnam on 11 August, bombing targets in the Hanoi-Haiphong area and
other objectives in the northeastern part of the country that previously
had been declared off-limits by the Johnson Administration. The lifting
of these restrictions permitted American pilots to attack objectives with-
in 10 miles of the Chinese Communist border.
Martin Luther King, Jr. , on 15 August, called for a campaign
of massive civil disobedience in Northern U. S. cities to pressure the
administration and Congress into responding to Negro demands. In a
broadcast from Havana, on 17 August, Stokely Carmichael, militant
Negro leader, called for U. S. Negroes to arm for "total revolution.
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Sporadic disorders took place in Syracuse, N. Y. , from 16-19
August. Violence flared in New Haven on 19-23 August. Nearly 450 m persons were arrested during d pdays uertof Rlooting, arson and ican neighborhood was sea led
A 12-block area in a Negro off and placed under heavy partol.
Among other cities and communities around the country
where racial rioting was reported (in order of date):
Cleveland (16 April); Lansing, Mich. (14-15 June);
Kansas City, Md. (9-July); Waterloo, Iowa (9 July);
Erie, Pa. (11-12 July & 18 July); Fresno, Calif.
(16-17 July); Des Moines, :[owa (16 July) Nyack, N.Y.
(19 July); Birmingham, Ala. (22 July); Youngstown,
Ohio (22 July); New Britain, Conn. (22-23 July);
Toledo, Ohio (24-26 July); Mt. Vernon, N.Y. (24-28
July); Phoenix, Ariz. (25-26 July); Saginaw, Mich.
(25-26 July); South Bend, Ind. (25-28 July); Peekskill,
N.Y. (27-28 July); San Francisco, Calif. (27-28 July);
Long Beach, Calif. (28 July); Marin City, Calif. (28
July); Memphis, Tenn. (28 July).; Wilmington, Del.
(28-29 July); Newburgh, N.Y. (29-30 July); New Castle,
Pa. (29-30 July); Rockford, Ill. (29-30 July); West
Palm Beach, Fla. (30 July); Portland, Ore. (30-31
July); San Bernadine, Calif. (30-31 July); Riviera
Beach, Fla. (31 July); Wichita, Kansas (31 July, 3-5
August); Peoria, Ill. (2 August); Wyandanch, N. Y.
(2-4 August); Elgin, Ill. (5 August).
George Lincoln Rockwell, founder and leader of the American
Nazi Party, was shot to death in Arlington, Virginia, on 25 August, and
a former Rockwell aide was arrested as his assassin.
On 28 August, thousands of Negroes and whites led by the Rev.
James E. Groppi, and the Milwaukee Youth Council of the NAACP partici-
pated in a series of daily open-housing demonstrations in Milwaukee.. The
drive was frequently marked by violence. By 222 carried signs that read
persons had been arrested. Many of the whites
"white power" and "Polish power, " and some chanted "kill, kill, kill ! "
From the start the marches provoked bitter and violent reaction from
white residents of Milwaukee's predominantly Polish South Side.
A growing schism between "black-power" leaders and "white
liberals" dominated the first convention of the National Conference for
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A New Politics, which was held in Chicago on 31 August-4 September.
The approximately 2, 100 delegates represented about 200 groups class-
ifiable. as Negro, student, labor, antiwar, antipoverty, dissident Demo-
cratic, Communist and otherwise leftist. A Negro statement adopted by
the convention attacked Israel and pledge unquestioned support to all
"liberation wars. "
Violence broke out in East St. Louis, Illinois, on 10 September
shortly after H. Rap Brown told a cheering crowd of more than 1, 000
Negroes that "America has no use for Negroes" and urged them to "stop
singing and start swinging. " Reports of looting and arson continued on
11-13 September. At least 5 persons were injured and more than 55
arrested. Violence flared for more than. 5 hours on the Chicago South
Side on 14 September following a Negro rally sponsored by SNCC in pro-
test against alleged police brutality. Sniper fire began shortly after dark,
and the police returned the fire. Looting again broke out in the Dayton,
Ohio, West End section on 10 September following a demonstration of 500-600
persons. Racial violence again erupted in Hartford, Connecticut, on 18-19
September during a demonstration calling for stricter enforcement of the
state's open housing laws.
About 500 members of the Women Strike for Peace clashed with
Washington police in front of the White House on 20 September.
On 10 October, Bolivian military authorities confirmed the death
of Cuban revolutionary leader Ernesto "Che" Guevara two days earlier
in a clash between guerrillas and the Bolivian Army.
Demonstrations against the draft were held through the U. S. on
16-21 October by opponents of U. S. policy in Vietnam. Major incidents
occurred in Oakland, California on 16-17 October and 20 October. 125
pickets were arrested, including folk singer Joan Baez. About 3, 000
anti-war demonstrators showed up at the Oakland induction center on
17 October in another effort to bar entrance to inductees. A force of 400
police and highway patrolmen routed the demonstrators with clubs and
chemical sprays. Twenty persons were arrested in the 10-minute melee.
About 6, 500 persons staged a silent demonstration on 20 October near the
Oakland center but were dispersed by police. Other anti-draft protests
were staged the same week in Los Angeles, Boston, New York, Chicago
and smaller cities. 1, 000 University of Wisconsin students clashed with
police on the Madison campus on 18 October during an associated protest
against the presence of job interviewers from Dow Chemical Co. , the
manufacturers of napalm for firebombs. Similar number of students
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fought on 19 October at Brooklyn (N.Y.) College when they attempted
to disperse demonstrators protesting the presence of U. S. Navy re-
cruiters at the school. The college was virtually closed on 20 October
by a student strike protesting alleged police brutality during the clashes.
Klaus Schutz was elected governing mayor of West Berlin on 19
October. Schutz succeeded Heinrich Alberta, who had resigned from his
post on 26 September as a result of divisions within the city's ruling
Social Democratic Party and a controversy arising from harsh police
action against recent student demonstrations. The demonstrations re-
sulted in the death on 2 June of a student at West Berlin's Free University.
The death provoked student demonstrations against "police brutality" in
Munich, Bonn and Cologne.
On 21 October, thousands of Americans participated in a massive
demonstration in Washington, D. C. , in protest against U. S. policy in
Vietnam. Demonstrators first attended a rally at Lincoln Memorial, and
then many of them marched to the Pentagon in nearby Arlington, Virginia,
where they held another rally and a vigil that continued through the early
hours of 23 October.. Many demonstrators at the Pentagon were arrested
after clashing with U. S. Army troops and federal marshals who had been
called out to prevent the Defense Department's headquarters from being
stormed. The demonstrators included a wide variety of participants,
among them liberals, radicals, costumed black nationalists, .hippies and
students. The Washington demonstration, organized by the National
Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, was the culmination
of the nationwide anti-draft protests that had started on 16 October. U. S.
Army and police authorities estimated that 55, 000 persons had taken part
in the Lincoln Memorial rally. But David Dellinger, chairman of the
National Mobilization Committee, said the true figure was 150, 000. The
crowd in front of the Pentagon was reported to number 35, 000. According
to military authorities, 681 persons were arrested, most of them in the
Pentagon area, during the 2-day demonstration. Thirteen U. S. marshals,
10 soldiers and 24 demonstrators were reported injured in the clashes,
which saw the paraders circle the Pentagon and throng its main steps: At
the height of the demonstration, 2, 500 U. S. Army troops were deployed
to keep order, and 2, 500 were held in reserve.
The Washington anti-war protest was paralleled by demonstrations
in the major cities of Western Europe and Japan on 21-22 October. Many
were anti- U.S. rather than anti-war in tone, In London, police clashed
with more than 3, 000 demonstrators who attempted to storm the U. S.
embassy. In Copenhagen, fighting broke out between police and 15, 000
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demonstrators who marched on the U. S. embassy. Demonstrators threw
stones through embassy windows. Molotov cocktails were tossed at the
building, but did not explode.
(Demonstrations supporting U. S. fighting men in
Vietnam were held in the New York area and other parts
of the U. S. on 21-22 October. The demonstrations were
organized by the National Committee for Responsible
Patriotism. A 31-hour vigil by almost 1, 000 persons
was staged in Manhattan's Battery Park on 21-22 October. )
Demonstrations occurred in various parts of the country in 1967
to protest job recruitment by Dow, which manufactured napalm used in
Vietnam. The protests reached their peak in October. About 20 Univer-
sity of Minnesota students engaged in an anti-Dow sleep-in the night of
24-25 October. About 300 persons picketed the University of Illinois chem-
istry building on 25 October and participated in a sit-down outside a room
used by Dow job recruiters. 200 Harvard students participated on 25 Octo-
ber in a sit-down in front of a conference room occupied by a Dow job re-
cruiter. A sit-down by about 125 persons at the University of Connecticut
on 31 October prevented Dow representatives from carrying out scheduled
job interviews.
On 27 October, FBI agents in Baltimore arrested 3 persons, in-
cluding a Roman Catholic clergyman, for pouring duck blood on records
at the city's Selective Service headquarters. A Protestant clergyman
who stood watch for the 3 also was seized.
Racial violence erupted in Winston-Salem on 2 November. More
than 250 persons were arrested on 2-4 November. Governor Daniel K.
Moore on 2 November ordered 200 National Guardsmen to the troubled
city, and a squad of state troopers were sent to aid police. Property
damage was estimated at $350, 000. Another 600 guardsmen were sent
to the city. On 13 November, the Ohio National Guard was called in to
quell violence on the predominantly Negro campus of Central State Univer-
sity in Wilberforce. The school was closed on 14 November.
President Johnson, on 12 November, canceled plans to attend the
13 November annual meeting of the National Grange in Syracuse, N. Y.
Reportedly Johnson had decided not to come to avoid a threatened anti-
war demonstration by 2, 000 students. Hundreds of anti-war demonstra-
tors clashed with police in New York on 14 November during a rally in
protest against State Secretary Rusk who was attending a dinner there
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of the Foreign Policy Association. Forty marchers were arrested and
many persons were injured, including 5 policemen. More than 3, 000
persons participated in the demonstration.
On 14.November, the Venezuelan government reinstated con-
stitutional rights that had been suspended in March following a wave
of Castroite terrorism.
More than 3, 500 students from 10 predominantly Negro high
schools clashed with more than 400 policemen in Philadelphia on 17
November during a demonstration outside the Board of Education's
administration building. At least 22 persons were injured, and 57
were arrested.
Martin Luther King announced plans in Atlanta on 4 December for
a massive civil disobedience campaign to disrupt federal activities in
Washington in April, 1968 and put pressure on Congress and the Admin-
istration to act "against poverty" and provide "jobs and income for all.
The plan had been proposed publicly by King on 15 August. King said
3, 000 demonstrators would be recruited and would be trained for 3 months
in nonviolent discipline to.serve as a nucleus of a "strong, dramatic and
attention-getting campaign. " King said that the "angry and bitter" mood
of many Negroes in the nation's slums could make the campaign "risky"
but that Negroes would respond to nonviolence "if it's militant enough,
if it's really doing something. "
A coalition of about 40 anti-war organizations staged "Stop the T
Draft Week" demonstrations throughout the U. S. on 4-8 December. The
marchers sought to disrupt U. S. armed forces induction centers. The
largest and most violent of the demonstrations took place in New York.
Police arrested 585 persons on 5-8 December. On 18 December, Oakland,
California police arrested 318 of about 750 anti-war demonstrators who
tried to block the armed forces induction center in the city. Nearly 50
persons were arrested in a second day of demonstrations in front of the
induction center on 19 December. Similar protests took place at induc-
tion centers in Cincinnati, Ohio, Madison, Wisconsin, New Haven,
Connecticut and other cities near major university campuses.
The build-up of U. S. forces in Vietnam reached approximately
500, 000 men by the end of 1967, compared with about 380, 000 at the begin-
ning of the year. American casualties during 1967 were greater in number
than in all the previous years of the war combined. U. S. dead numbered
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9, 353 compared to 5, 008 in 1966. Total U. S. dead since 1961 numbered
k5, 997. American wounded in 1967 numbered 99, 742.
After early fall 1967, the majority of the U. S. street activity was by
the anti-war and new left oriented groups. In an overview of this situation
in December 1967, the FBI reported:
"One of the most significant features of the
American scene of the 1960's is the evolution and
growth of what has become known as the 'new left.
This movement of rebellious youth, involving and in-
fluencing an estimated 100, 000 to 300, 000 college
students, is having a jarring impact upon contem-
porary society and portends serious trouble for this
country.
"The new left grew out of student participation
in the civil rights movement of the late 1950's and early
1960's, and throughout the continuing development of the
new left the civil rights movement has had an important
effect upon it. Student activity in militant civil rights
protest activity subsequently helped to spark a demand
for student power on college campuses and vociferous
opposition to the war in Vietnam.
"Increasingly, in the last.three years, United
States policy on Vietnam has become the focal point of
the new left's interest and activities. More than anyone,
the Reverand Dr. Martin Luther King has given impetus
to the efforts of the new left to effect a merger of the
civil rights and anti- Vietnam war. movements.
"While the new left has no real ideology of its own,
it does have strong Marxist, existentialist, nihilist, and
anarchist overtones. It philosophizes rebellion against
conformity, established institutions and society. American
society, it claims, is corrupt and beyond salvation, and
representative democracy is a failure. The new left sees
the United States as the chief villian in the world today.
"Encouraging widespread questioning of values,
the new left knows what it does not want, but not what it
wants. Its adherents offer no solution to the problems of
society, which they find intolerable. The new left is not
interested in reforming society, but seeks merely to dis-
credit and destroy it.
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"In the new left's anti-Vietnam war activities, a
prime target is military service, especially the draft. The
new left is striving to promote resistance to the draft, dis-
courage military and industrial recruiting on the campus,
ban military-related research by colleges and universities,
and close the campus to the Central Intelligence Agency and
the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The overall aim of the
new left is total and radical student autonomy of American
universities.
"The new left, which is amorphous and undisciplined,
is distinguishable from the communist left, which consists
of such authoritarian and dedicated organizations as the pro-
Soviet Communist Party, USA (CPUSA), the Red Chinese-
oriented Progressive Labor Party, and the Trotskyite Socialist
Workers Party. The new left, however, is not anti-communist,
as it frequently cooperates with the communist left because of
an affinity of, goals and interests. The CPUSA has increased its
participation in new left activities, particularly anti-Vietnam
war demonstrations, and is trying to exploit the new left to the
fullest extent by influencing, manipulating, and directing its
activities wherever possible.
"Representatives of the new left have established and
maintained contacts with the representatives of foreign com-
munist and other leftist organizations and have traveled to
such communist countries as Cuba, North Vietnam, Czecho-
slovakia, and the Soviet Union as well as to a number of non-
communist nations. There is much reciprocal support by
leftist organizations abroad for new leftist antiwar demonstra-
tions in the United States.
"There can be no doubt that the new left movement in
this country is a subversive force. Through its protest activi-
ties, the new left movement is helping to advance the cause of
communism, is endangering the orderly process of education
in a number of colleges and universities, and is a substantial
factor in the trend from peaceful dissent and lawful protest to
civil disobedience and violence. It can be expected that the
new left will become more and more violent and hostile in
character in the future, thereby posing an ever-increasing
peril to the internal security of this Nation. "
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The Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Dis-
orders published in the spring of 1968 prefaced the report with the
statements, "The summer of 1967 brought racial disorder again to
American cities, deepening the bitter residue of fear and threatening
the future of all Americans. " "How can the nation realize the promise
of a single society--one nation indivisible- -which yet remains unful-
filled? Violence surely cannot build that society. Disruption and dis-
order will nourish not justice but repression. Those few who would
destroy civil order and the rule of law strike at the freedom of every
citizen. They must know that the community cannot and will not tolerate
coercion and mob action. "
1968
Civil disorder continued to present major problems to police through-
out the United States in 1968. A national survey revealed that 41% of the
municipalities with population over 100, 000 had racial disturbances in 1967.
To meet anticipated crises in 1968, conferences on civil disorder for chiefs
of police and their city managers and mayors were conducted in Washington
by the International Association of Chiefs of Police at the behest of U. S.
Attorney General Ramsey Clark and were followed. by regional sessions
for police captains and watch commanders. Many police departments pur-
chased added equipment; one manufacturer reported that over 3, 000 agencies
purchased the Mace spray gun.
The FBI "Uniform Crime Report" revealed that 76 law-enforcement
officers were killed by criminal action in 1967, as compared with the annual
average of 48 for 1960-1966. Assaults on police officers increased 11% in
1967 to 26,755.
A study by the National Students Association revealed that from
1 January to 15 June 1968, there were 22:1 major demonstrations at 101
colleges and universities. Involved were 38, 911 persons, or Z. 6% of the
students enrolled in the institutions studied. In 59 instances a college or
university building was taken over. The study did not include Columbia
University, scene of one of the most serious uprisings.
On 5 January, five men including author and pediatrician Benjamin
Spook, were indicted on charges of conspiring to counsel young men to
violate the U. S. draft laws. Two U. S. military attaches were shot to
death in Guatemala in a series of terrorist attacks on 16 January.
On 7 February, President Johnson proposed to Congress a series
of measures to deal with rioting, crime, drug. traffic, law enforcement
and justice. On 21 February, a bomb of undetermined origin exploded at
the Soviet Embassy in Washington, D. C. President Johnson's. National
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Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, headed by Governor Otto
Kerner of Illinois, on 29 February, warned that the U. S. was moving
toward two societies--One white and one black, separate and unequal.
The U. S. Senate, on I I March, after seven weeks of debate,
passed by 71-20 a major civil rights bill containing open housing and
anti-riot provisions. On the same day, tens of thousands of Poles,
protesting government interference in cultural affairs, fought with
police and armed militiamen in several parts of Warsaw. On 13 March,
university students and the police clashed in Cracow and Poznan as
student demonstrations spread across Poland. More than 200 persons
were injured in a clash between right- and left-win; students at Rome
University on 16 March in the latest of a series of student disturbances
in Italy. On 28 March, a protest march led by the Rev. Martin Luther
King, Jr. , in support of striking Memphis, Tennessee garbage collectors
ended in violence in which one Negro youth was killed. Elsewhere in
March, London police confronted thousands of anti-Vietnam demonstra-
tors who hurled stones and steel pellets at the U. S. Embassy. Follow-
ing a police-student clash in Warsaw on 8 March, students held sympathy
meetings in eight Polish cities. The University of Madrid was closed on
28 March following student disturbances and was reopened on 6 May.
Following the assassination of civil-rights leader the Rev. Martin
Luther King, Jr. , in Memphis, Tennessee, on 4 April, violence erupted
in many cities and the police were overwhelmed. Particularly hard hit
were Washington, Baltimore and Chicago. In Chicago, 5, 000 federal
troops and 6, 700 Illinois National Guardsmen were dispatched to aid
police. Mayor Richard J. Daley was publicly critical of the Chicago
Police Department for having failed to take more aggressive. action when
the rioting started. His announcement on 15 April that in the future the
Chicago police were instructed to "shoot to kill" arsonists and "shoot to
maim" looters received nationwide publicity, was vigorously denounced
by civil-rights leaders and subsequently was modified. The 46 deaths
.that occurred nationally during April made it the worst month of rioting
in recent years with the exception of July 1967, when 81 persons were
killed. On 5 April, racial violence broke out in several cities following
King's assassination and President Johnson ordered federal troops into
Washington, D. C. to halt disorders there. on 6 April, federal troops
were ordered into Chicago to halt racial violence. Federal troops moved
into Baltimore, Maryland to quell racial rioting on 7 April. In West
Germany, on 13 April, West German Chancellor Kurt Kiesinger went on
nationwide TV to warn of tougher police measures as demonstrations by
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left-wing youths continued in many major cities; the disorders had been
set off by an assassination attempt against student leader Rudi Dutschke
on 11 April. The following day, 14 April, the police in West Berlin
broke up a peace march by nearly 4, 000 students. On 24 April, the
? campus. of Columbia University in New York City was closed after two
days of tumultuous student demonstrations. U. S. Secretary of Defense
Clifford, on 26 April, announced the establishment of a riot-control
center in the Pentagon. On 30 April, the New York City police forcibly
removed Columbia University students and nonstudent supporters from
five university buildings that they had held for several days.
On 2 May, militant leftist students of the University of Paris
occupied a lecture hall on the university's suburban Nanterre Campus.
On the third of May, fighting broke out between students and police in
the Latin Quarter of Paris; the Sorbonne was closed because of the dis-
turbances. The Latin Quarter was cordoned off by riot policemen in an
attempt to avert further student rioting on 6 May. On 13 May, hundreds
of thousands of French workers and students joined in a nationwide 24-hour
strike and thousands of students had occupied the Sorbonne by 14 May. An
estimated 100, 000 strikers, on 17 May, took over dozens of factories in
France and President de Gaulle returned. to Paris from Bucharest a day
ahead of schedule, on 18 May, as strikes and demonstrations continued
throughout France. By 20 May, France headed toward virtual paralysis
as millions more of its workers occupied factories, mines and offices,
culminating in a motion to censure the French government which failed
by just 11 votes in the National Assembly on 22 May. Rioting again
broke out in the Latin Quarter as rebellious students and other youths
clashed with riot police. President de Gaulle, on 24 May, asked the
French people to give him a personal vote of confidence and said he would
resign if he did not receive it. On 30 May, President de Gaulle announced
the dissolution of the National Assembly, preparatory to the holding of new
elections in June and pledged to prevent a communist dictatorship by all
means at his disposal. On 31 May, French Premier Pompidou revised
his cabinet amid signs of an emerging back-to-work trend an-long ten million
striking workers and civil servants. Concurrent with these demonstrations,
on 10 May, U. S. and North Vietnamese negotiating teams, lead by W.
Averill Harriman and Xuan Thuy, respectively, began talks in Paris.
On 16 May, 800 students shouting slogans against the government
stoned police in Madrid. About 200 leftist students armed themselves
with clubs as they occupied the Free University of Brussels in May.
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On 5 June, Senator Robert Kennedy was shot in Los Angeles
shortly after he had claimed victory in the California Democratic
presidential primary. On the same day;, President Johnson appointed
a commission of. distinguished citizens to investigate the phenomenon
of physical violence in the U. S. ; Johnson also ordered Secret Service
protection for all major presidential candidates. On 8 June, police
removed students who had occupied the buildings of several institutions
of higher education in Milan during the latest wave of student demon-
strations in Italy. On 12 June, the French government banned all pro-
test demonstrations during the election campaign and dissolved eleven
extremist student organizations. Benjamin Spock and three others were
convicted on 14 June in a federal district court in Boston of conspiring
to aid, abet, and counsel draft registrants to violate the Selective
Service Act. On 16 June, Paris police surrounded and cleaned the
Sorbonne of some 200 occupying students.
On 19 June, more, than 50, 000 persons, about half of them white,
took part in the Solidarity "Day March in Washington, D. C., climaxing
the Poor People's Campaign which had been officially opened on 12 May
by the widow, Mrs. Martin Luther King, Jr. The campaign grounds
was a plywood "city" (Ressurrection City) near the Lincoln Memorial.
On 24 May, police closed the encampment. Meanwhile, on 20 June,
students clashed with police during antigovernment demonstrations in
Rio de Janeiro.
On 25 June, the U. S. House of Representatives passed and cleared
for the White House a bill making it a federal crime to desecrate the U. S.
flag. By the 26th of June, U. S. and North Vietnamese negotiators had
held nine, and started their tenth session in Paris with no outward signs
of progress. On 30 June, candidates supporting the de Gaulle regime
won a landslide victory in the second and final round of elections for the
French National Assembly. In Argentina in June, police used tear gas
to remove 400 students from La Plata National University. In June during
three days of student disorders, the U. S. Embassy in Rio de Janeiro was
stoned and rioters fought police. In Belgrade, Yugoslavia, more than
1, 000 students battled policemen in the streets. Students were occupying
the administration building of the University of Belgrade and threatened to
hold it until their demands for educational and economic reforms were met.
In June the police had to break up a battle between opposing factions of
Rome University students.
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By the middle of July serious racial disturbances had occurred
in 211 cities. During the summer months of June, July and August,
however, there was a significant decline, in the number and severity
of riots: 19 deaths were recorded as compared with 87 during the same
period in 1967; National Guard assistance was required 6 times (18 the
previous summer).
On 24 July; Mayor Carl B. Stokes of Cleveland, Ohio, ordered
all national guardsmen and white police withdrawn from a six-square-
mile area of the city's East Side; the move was made as community
leaders attempted to quiet disoi tiers that had followed a gun battle between
black nationalists and police. The following day, Stokes ordered the re-
turn of white police and national guardsmen to the East Side and announced
a curfew in the area. Federal troops and police in Mexico City fought
students and other youths during massive demonstrations on 30 July.
Policemen and students clashed in Istanbul in July following a visit to
Turkey by a unit of the U. S. 6th Fleet.
The Republican national convention opened in Miami Beach,
Florida, on 5 August; and on 8 August National Guard troops were called
into Miami after three Negroes were killed in rioting that reportedly
began at a black "vote power" rally. On the same day, Richard M.
Nixon won the Republic presidential nomination on the first ballot. On
16.August, the Manila police fired in the air to disperse 300 students
who stormed a police cordon around the U. S. Embassy. Feelings ran
high following the killing of a Filipino who had strayed into a U. S. military
base. On 23 August, members of the Youth International Party (Yippies.)
and their presidential candidate, a pig, were arrested in the Chicago
civic center.
The biggest confrontation between police and demonstrators
occurred during the Democratic national convention in Chicago, 26-29
August. Thousands of dissidents flocked to Chicago to protest against
the war in Vietnam, the Democratic administration and the "establish-
ment" leaders of. some of the groups announced that plans were made to
disrupt the convention and paralyze the city. Before the convention,
television newscasts showed groups practicing tactics they intended to
use if violence erupted. Prominent leaders of these groups were Jerry
Rubin of the Youth International Party (Yippies), Tom Hayden of the
Students for a Democratic Society, and David Dellinger of the National
Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam. Dellinger organized
a Chicago project committee with Rennie Davis as one leader.. Literature
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before the convention referred to the police as "pigs" and announced
that the police would be shown up "as the brutes they are.
In anticipation of trouble, a barricade was placed around the
amphitheatre, in which the convention was to be held. The National
Guard was called in and federal troops were flown to Chicago and kept
in a state of readiness. Chicago's police force was placed on a twelve
hour shift. Confrontation between police and protest demonstrators
were numerous, the most serious occurring near the Conrad Hilton
Hotel. During the disorder, 198 Chicago police officers were injured,
including victims of tear gas. persons arrested totaled 641. Television
cameras recorded many instances of clubbing by the police but the police
claimed the acts of provocation were not shown.
Meanwhile, on 28 August, U. S. 'Vice-President Hubert H. Humphrey
won the Democratic presidential nomination on the first ballot. On the
same day, U. S. Ambassador to Guatemala, John Gordon Mein, was
assassinated .by terrorists trying to kidnap him in Guatemala City.
In Tokyo, on 4 September, policemen broke through barricades
of desks and chairs to end a three-month sit-in by 100 students at Nihon
University. On 5 September, the National Commission on the Causes
and Prevention of Violence announced plans to investigate the disorders
in Chicago during the Democratic national convention.
In Mexico City, student agitation extended over seven weeks. On
18 September, federal troops occupied the National University in Mexico
City. One of the bloodiest battles, on the night of 24 September, resulted
in 15 deaths and injury to dozen of policemen and students in the 24 hours.
Clashes in an area in the northwest part of the city raged for 12 hours
before Army reinforcements aided police and restored order. It had been
feared that students would attempt to disrupt the Olympic Games, but most.
of the agitation had ceased by 12 October. On 25 September, in Lima,
Peru, tear-gas barrages and water cannon were used to disperse angry
bands of youthful demonstrators as a large police force maintained guard
on the city's thoroughfares.
On 2 October, the bloodiest clash of troops and students in the
nine-week student strike occurred in Mexico City. On 23 October, nine
Cuban exiles were arrested in New York on charges of bombing of six
offices of countries that traded with Cuba. On 27 October, approxim-
ately 50, 000 persons protesting the Vietnam war marched through London
31
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with minor violence. President Johnson, on 31 October, announced a
complete halt to all U. S. air, naval and artillery bombardment of North
Vietnam.
On 3 November, Richard M. Nixon was elected 37th President
of the United States. Antigovernment student rioting began in Pakistan
on 7 November. On 24 November, the U. A. R. government shut down
all universities to prevent the spread of student rioting. In November
1968, dozens of U. S. college campuses exploded: Kent State, Oshkosh
State University, University of Illinois, Northwestern Atlanta University,
Colorado College, Arizona State, and Notre Dame, where on 20 November
a CIA recruiter was routed from South Bend.
A special panel of National Commission on the Causes and Pre-
vention of Violence issued a report on 1 December sharply criticizing
members of the Chicago police force for their conduct during the 1968
Democratic convention. On 14 December, new outbreaks of student
disturbances in France prompted the issuance of a government decree
threatening the expulsion of student agitation.
1969
There were 64 law enforcement officers killed by criminal
action in 1968; 86 were killed in 1969. On 21 January, the newly in-
augurated Delaware Governor Russell W. Peterson ordered the with-
drawal of National Guard troops stationed in Wilmington since:April
1968. A student uprising at San Francisco State College in January
presented major police problems.
After an admission that calling in police to disperse students
in January had been rash, the Tokyo University authorities, one week
later, proceeded to call in a greater show of force against demonstrators
than had been witnessed since World War II. Six hundred students were
arrested and nearly 200 police injured. Police were also called to the
Kanda area, where barricades had gone up around two other universities.
A few days later, police tore up 50, 000 paving stones in an attempt to
deny weapons to the militants; 2, 600 weapons were confiscated.
On 16 February, fighting broke out in Istanbul as 20, 000 persons
clashed over a visit by ships of the U. S.. 6th Fleet. On 19 February,
the London School of Economics and Political Science reopened after
having been closed for over three weeks because of student disorders.
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In Rome, police clashed with students and communist demonstrators
during President Nixon's visit in February. The police had to use
tear gas three nights running to disperse rioting students at the
University of Wisconsin in February. There was a major student
uprising at Duke University, Durham, N. C., in February.
President Nixon, on 22 March, indicated that the task of deal-
ing with student protests should be left to college authorities. In March
there were three days of fighting between police and demonstrators in
Louvain, Belgium. Police used truncheons, tear gas, and water hoses;
many of their opponents came prepared with crash helmets. In March,
about 3, 000 policemen raided the barricaded campus of Rome University
and found dozens of Molotov cocktails, fused and ready for action. 2, 300
Japanese police fought pitched battles with demonstrators at Kyoto
University in March, with 90 police and 140 civilians being injured.
On 2 April, twenty-one Black Panther Party members were
charged with plotting to bomb five New York City stores. Student re-
volt at Harvard University began with the seizure of University Hall,
on 9 April, by.300 militant students. On 20 April, Negro students
emerged from a Cornell University building they had seized carrying
rifles and shotguns. Following three nights of racial unrest, National
Guardsmen moved into Cairo, Illinois, on 29 April. Queens College in
New York was the scene of student uprisings in April. In Addis Ababa,
truckloads of police arrested more than 1, 000 students in 24 hours in
April after a month of agitation for educational reforms had led to a
students death.
In Charleston, South Carolina, on 1 May, a state of emergency
was declared as protest marchers supporting striking hospital workers
continued. On 7 May, Howard University, Washington, D. C., was
closed after students seized eight campus buildings. Buell G. Gallagher
resigned as president of City College of New York, on 9 May, after court
orders forced the reopening of the school, closed two weeks before dur-
ing a takeover by black and Puerto Rican students. On 14 May, President
Nixon proposed an eight point peace plan that included the mutual with-
drawal of U. S., allied, and North Vietnamese troops from South Vietnam.
Rioting broke out in Berkeley, California, on 15 May, between police and
National Guardsmen and demonstrators protesting the closing of a "Peoples
Park" on a field owned by the University of California. On 28 May, the
Argentian government imposed a limited state of siege amid student unrest
and the threst of a general strike. The state of siege was lifted on 4 June
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a.nd the Argentinian President, Juan Carlos Ongania, announced the
resignation of his cabinet. In '.\Lv1ay, there were also student uprisings
at Brooklyn and City Colleges in New York; and Dartmouth College,
Hanover, N. H. The Federal Bureau of :Investigation, in May, was
asked to look into reported connections between student militancy and
Arab activists working on behalf of Al Fatah on U. S. campuses.
On 9 June, the National Commission on the Check and Preven-
tion of Violence warned that U. S. legislation proposed to punish students
on colleges for campus disorders was likely to spread the conflict. On
21 June, internal struggles resulted in factional splits at the Students
for a Democratic Society convention in Chicago. On 24 June, Uruguayan
President Pacheco reimposed the limited state of siege lifted in March
in response to student and worker unrest.
On 8 July, the first U. S. troops to be withdrawn from Vietnam
were flown to the U. S. On 11 July, the Boston appeals court reversed
the 1968 conviction of Dr. Benjamin Spock for conspiring to counsel
draft evasion.
A six-month blockade of Hiroshima University ended on 18 August
when 1, 200 Japanese policemen stormed the administration building. By
August about one third of Japan's 327 universities had been involved in
student strikes and all 20 major buildings at Tokyo University had been
occupied. In August 1969, the actress Sharon Tate and others- were
murdered and later Charles Manson and. members of his "hippie" family were
charged.
On 4 September, U. S. Ambassador to Brazil, C. Burke Elbrick
was kidnapped on a street in Rio de Janeiro; he was released on 7 Sept-
ember. President Nixon, on 16 September, announced the withdrawal
from South Vietnam of an additional 35, 000 U. S. troops. Eight persons
charged with conspiracy to incite a riot at the 1968 Democratic national
convention went on trial in Chicago.
On 6 October, a bipartisan group of U. S. senators and represen-
tatives announced their support of the nationwide moratorium planned
for 15 October. On 8 October, the "Weatherman" faction of the SDS be-
gan a planned four days of radical actions to "bring the war home" in
Chicago with a rally in Lincoln Park followed by a window-breaking spree
through nearby streets. President Nixon, on 13 October, announced his
intention to make a major Vietnam policy address in November and stated
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he would not be swayed by street demonstrations. Hanoi broadcasted
an open letter acclaiming the efforts of U. S. anti-war protestors on
14 October. On 15 October, anti-war moratorium observances drew
massive support throughout the United States. On 19 October, U. S.
Vice-President Agnew told a Republican dinner audience in New Orleans,
La. , that the Vietnam moratorium was "encouraged by an effete corp of
impudent snobs who characterize themselves as intellectuals. "
On 9 November, U. S. District Judge Julius J. Hoffman sentenced
Black Panther leader Bobby G. Seale, one of the codefendants in the
"Chicago Eight" conspiracy trial, to four years in prison for contempt
of court. On 13 November, the "march against death" began, in which
46, 000 persons carried names of U. S. soldiers killed in Vietnam past
the White House. On 15 November, anti-war protestors, estimated at
more than 250, 000, staged a peaceful march and rally in Washington,
D. C. Demonstrations throughout Japan took place on 17 November,
planned to prevent Prime Minister Sato from visiting the U. S. to nego-
tiate the return of Okinawa resulted in 1, 700 arrests.
On 1 December, the U. S. military command reported that the
60, 000 troops to be withdrawn by December 1st had left Vietnam. On
4 December, two Black Panther leaders were killed in a police raid on
a Chicago apartment; and on 12 December, the U. S. Justice Department
announced it would investigate the slaying,, On 17 December, bomb ex-
plosions in Milan's National Bank of Agriculture killed 14 persons and
injured over 90; three bombs also exploded in Rome. President Nixon,
on 15 December, announced a third reduction of U. S. troops in Vietnam,
despite reports of increased enemy infiltration.
1970
During the 15-month period from 1 January 1969 to 15 April
1970, the U. S. experienced 4, 330 bombings, 1, 475 unsuccessful bomb-
ing attempts and 35, 129 threatened bombings. The bombings were re-
sponsible for 43 deaths, 384 injuries, and a loss of $21. 8 million in
property damage. In New York City alone, there were 368 bombings
between January 1969 and June 1970--more than twice the total in the
preceding eight years. The upward trend of assaults on police continued
in 1970, when there were 18. 7 assaults for every 100 officers. One
hundred law enforcement officers, including ten in Chicago, were killed
by felonious criminal action, an increase of 16% over 1969.
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On 21 January, a Chicago coroners jury ruled as justifiable
the deaths of two Black Panther Party leaders during a police raid in
December 1969.
On 13 February, four hundred U. S. volunteers sailed for Cuba
to help harvest sugar cane. The U. S. Embassy, in Manila, on 18 February,
was attacked by an estimated 2, 000 youths who had broken from a massive
peaceful demonstration; and on the sarn.e day, a Chicago jury acquitted
seven defendants of charges of conspiring to incite a riot during the 1968
Democratic national convention but convicted five of the seven of seeking
to incite a riot through individual acts. On 23 February, French President
and Mine. Pompidou arrived in the U. S. for a state visit; 3, 500 persons
rallied at the Washington Monument protesting French Middle East policy.
California Governor Ronald Reagan, on 26 February, disclared a state of
emergency in Santa Barbara after a night of student rioting in which the
Bank of America branch office was burned. In February 1970, a bomb
detonated in a police station parking lot: in Berkeley, California, resulted
in the injury of two police officers and the destruction of three cars, and
an explosion inside a San Francisco police station killed one officer and
wounded five others. Subsequently, within a two-month period in the San
Francisco Bay area, three policemen were shot and killed while making
out traffic tickets.
On 3 March, about 125 French policemen were injured: during a
five-hour clash with over 300 leftist students at Nanterre University in
a Paris suburb. On 6 March, U. S. diplomat Scan M. Holly was kidnapped
in Guatemala by members of the Rebel Armed Forces guerrilla group.
On 10 March, New York City police speculated that a Greenwich Village
town house demolished by explosions four days earlier had been used as
a bomb factory by members of the Weatherman faction of Students for a
Democratic Society. The Dominican Republic, on 26 March, released 20
political prisoners in exchange for Lt. Col. Donald J. Crowley, a U. S.
Air Attache kidnapped two days earlier by Dominican revolutionaries.
On 2 April, a U. S. grand jury in Chicago indicted 12 members of
the Weatherman faction of the SDS on charges of conspiring to cross state
lines to incite a riot in October 1969. On 14 April, the French government
introduced two measures aimed at curbing public disorders. On 20 April,
President Nixon announced the planned withdrawal of .150, 000 more U. S.
troops from South Vietnam by the spring of 1971. In mid-April, the
Vietnam Moratorium Committee was disbanded but a swift reappearance
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of anti-war demonstrations marked the scene when President Nixon,
on 30 April, announced that U. S. combat troops were moving into
Cambodia in an offensive against communist border sanctuaries; and
on 1 May the U. S. and South Vietnamese forces launched an offensive
into the Fishhook area of Cambodia.
Four students were killed and at least nine wounded, on 4 May,
when National Guardsmen suddenly fired into a group of anti-war demon-
strators at Kent State University, Ohio. On 6 May, U. S. Interior
Secretary Walter J. Hickel, in'a letter to President Nixon, charged that
continued attacks on the motives of young people would solidify their
hostility. On 7 May, student anti-war groups began intensive lobbying
in Washington, D. C. , as the U. S. F--louse of Representatives rejected a
proposal to cut off funds for U. S. combat. efforts in Cambodia on 1 July.
On the same day, President Nixon assured a meeting of university
presidents that verbal attacks by administration members on students
would cease. On 8 May, U. S. Senator George Mc eve support co ed
formation of a Committee to End the War to se public r
Congressional efforts to bar funds far military use in Cambodia, repeal
the Tonkin Gulf resolution, and require total U. S. troop withdrawal from
South Vietnam by mid-1971. On the same day, 8 May, President Nixon
discussed U. S. involvement in Cambodia. and the domestic reaction to
it at a televised news conference; and construction workers disrupted
student anti-war demonstrations in New York City's Wall Street.
On 9 May, a hastily organized protest of U. S. actions in Cambodia
drew a crowd estimated up to 100, 000 in Washington, D. C. ; and President
Nixon -visited demonstrators at the Lincoln Memorial shortly before dawn.
On 10 May, Brandeis University, Waltham, Mass. student strike center
reported that 448 U. S. universities and colleges were on strike or closed.
President Nixon met with 45 state and territorial governors, on II May,
to discuss Southeast Asia politics and campus turmoil. Six black men were.
killed and at least 60 other persons wounded in clashes with Augusta,
Georgia police on 12 May. On 15 May, two black youths were killed and
nine others wounded when police fired into a crowd outside a women's
dormitory at Jackson (Miss. ) State College. O a series of bomb President
assent
Pompidou called for public calm in the wa
attacks against police stations, public buildings, and homes of politicians.
On 20 May, a noontime rally and parade- around New York's City Hall in
support of President Nixon and his Indochina policy drew a crowd of con-
struction workers, longshoremen and office workers estimated at from
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60, 000 to 150, 000. On 23 May, civil rights marchers rallied in Atlanta,
Georgia, at the conclusion of a 110-mile "march against repression. rr
On 27-28 May, Maoist student rioting swept the Latin Quarter in Paris
and the police occupied a university building to keep the rioters from
smashing laboratory equipment.
On 9 June, the New York City police headquarters ova s bombed.
On 13 June, President Nixon named a nine-member commission to ex-
plore campus violence and student grievances. In Detroit, Michigan,
on 28 June, one police officer ivas seriously injured in an ambush on the
city's East Side; two members of a black extremist group were charged
with attempted murder. On 29 June, U. S. ground troops completed their
withdrawal from Cambodia.
On 4 July, Honor America Day celebrations, to mark Independence
Day,were held in Washington, D. C. On. 5 July, Molotov cocktails were
found under five police cars in a fenced in parking area in New York City.
On 12 July, Montreal police defused a 150-pound dynamite bomb outside
the Bank of Montreal in one of a series of bomb investigations. On 17 July,
two Chicago policemen, James Severin and Anthony Rizzato, were killed
by sniper gunfire as they walked across a field near the Cabrini-Green
public housing project, where :they were assigned to a program intended
to improve community relations.
On 5 August, Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton
was freed on bail from an Oakland, California jail after a reversal of his
1968 conviction for voluntary manslaughter was upheld. On 10 August,
the body of U. S. diplomat Dan A. Mitrione was found in Montevideo, 11
days after he had been kidnapped by Uruguayan Tupamaro terrorists. On
16 August, a federal warrant was issued for black militant Angela Davis
in connection with the San Rafael courthouse deaths on 7 August when
California Judge Harold J. Haley and his three kidnappers were killed
in an escape attempt. In Omaha, Nebraska, on 17 August, a suitcase
exploded killing patrolman Larry D. Minard and wounding seven other
policemen who had responded to an emergency call to a vacant house.
Two Nebraska leaders of an offshoot of the Black Panther Party were
charged with the booby-trap murder. On 24 August, a research building
at the University of Wisconsin in Madison was destroyed and one person
killed in an early morning explosion; and on the same day, about 30 people
were injured, three by police bullets, in a seven-hour battle between police-
men and hippies in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, described as the worst
in history.
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Following numerous skyjacking incidents, on 11 September,
President Nixon ordered the use of federal armed guards on overseas
flights of U. S. airlines. On 26 September, South Vietnamese Vice-
President Nguyen Cao Ky reversed his decision to address a pro-war
rally in Washington, D. C. on 3 October. On the same day, the U. S.
Commission on Campus Unrest issued a report warning of growing
crisis.
On 4 October, the U. S. Commission on Campus Unrest issued
its second report in four days, describing the Kent State shooting, like
that at Jackson State, as "unwarranted. " On 12 October, President
Nixon announced the planned withdrawal of 40, 000 troops from South
Vietnam by Christmas 1970. On 16 October, Canadian Prime Minister
Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act for the first time in peacetime
to deal with Quebec kidnappings, to include the 10 October kidnapping of
Quebec labor minister Pierre Laporte. On the same day, an Ohio grand
jury indicted 25 persons, none of them National Guardsmen, on charges
connected with the Kent State disturbances in May. On 24 October, on
Detroit's West Side, a nine-hour confrontation between 100 policemen
and black militants was touched off by the shotgun slaying of a black
patrolman, Glen Smith, while he was on his way to aid policemen answer-
ing a complaint that a sidewalk was being blocked. On. 31 October,
President Nixon called for the end of "appeasement" of "thugs and hood-
lums" in a campaign speech in Phoenix, Arizona, two clays after objects
were thrown at him following a rally in San Jose, California.
On 13 November, Guatemalan President Arana imposed a 30-day
state of siege to combat terrorism.
On 28 December, three men suspected of kidnapping and murder
of Quebec labor minister Laporte were arrested near Montreal.
1971
On 8 January, a bomb exploded outside the U. S. S. R. cultural
building in Washington, D. C.
A federal grand jury in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, on 12 January,
indicted the Rev. Philip F. Berrigan and five others on charges of con-
spiring to kidnap Henry A. Kissinger, assistant to the President for national
security affairs, and of plotting to blow up the heating systems of federal
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buildings in Washington. The plots were allegedly designed to bring
pressure to end the Indochina var. The indictment said that Berrigan
and Wenderoth had investigated the Washington tunnel system as part
of the plot, which was to include the detonation of dynamite charges "in
approximately five locations" on Washinton's birthday, 22 February.
Mayor James M. Corbett declared a curfew and martial law after a
third night of violence, on 23 January, near the campus 'of the University
of Arizona. Six police officers were injured and 41 persons arrested on
23 January during an outbreak of firebombing and window breaking.
Officials attributed the trouble to "street people" who demanded that a
portion of the campus be made a "people's campground" and that the city
drop proposed ordinances against hitchhiking, loitering and panhandling.
Order was reportedly restored on January 24. On 25 January, campus
officials said that only about 40 of the 148 persons arrested since 21
January were students at the university,, which had an enrollment of
25, 000 students. On 25 January, Charles Manson and three female
followers were convicted of first-degree murder in the slayings of
actress Sharon Tate and six other persons.
Anti-war demonstrators protested the invasion of Laos on 4-15
February with nationwide demonstratiorns on 10 February that were the
most widespread since the reaction to the invasion of Cambodia in May
1970. However, the protests did not reach the level of dissent in past
years. Among demonstrations across the country: 2, 000 protesters
demonstrated peacefully in New York City; 14 demonstrators were arrested
in Boston after windows were broken and two policemen injured in a march
and protest by 4, 000 demonstrators; 23 persons were arrested in Baltimore
when a.protest by 300 demonstrators ended in rock and bottle throwing
which resulted in injuring six policemen; two persons were arrested as
some protesters in a demonstration of I., 500 persons near the Berkeley
campus of the University of California clashed with police; several
hundred protesters occupied the Social Science Building at the University
of Wisconsin for several hours; six persons were arrested and some win-
dows broken during a march by 1, 000 protesters from George Washington
University to the White House; several thousand persons, including Ann
Arbor Mayor Robert Harris, demonstrated near the University of Michigan;
peaceful protests were held in San Francisco, Chicago, and Des Moines,
Iowa.
On 1 March at 1:32 a. m. , a powerful bomb exploded in the Senate
wing of the Capitol, 33 minutes after a telephone warning that the blast
would occur as a protest against the invasion of Laos. The ex-plosion,
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in an unmarked, out-of-the-way men's lavatory, damaged seven rooms.
A preliminary estimate by the Capitol architect's office calculated
damages at more that $300, 000. No one was injured. A conspiracy
theory developed early, supported by a report from Leonard H. Ballard
of the Capitol police force that the two telephone callers from Chicago
and Spokane, Washington, within an hour of the explosion, asked about
damage. "That was almost before it was on the air and before it was
known nationally, " Ballard contended. In "Letters postmarked 1 March
after the bombing and sent to the New York Times, the New York Post
and the Associated Press, a group calling itself the Weather Underground
claimed responsibility for the bombing. On 8 March, a group calling
itself the Citizens Commission to Investigate the FBI broke into the FBI
office at Media, Pennsylvania and stole 800-1, 000 documents from the
bureau's files. Over 60 of the documents were made public. Also on
8 March, four U. S. airmen kidnapped on 4 March by Turkish leftists
were freed unharmed. On 15 March, Mexico charged that North Korea
had trained a group of Marxist guerrillas to overthrow the Mexican
government. On 26 March, the Columbian government declared a state
of siege after rioting broke out in the city of Cali.
On 8 April, a fire which police attributed to arsonists destroyed
the administration building at the Santa Cruz campus of the University of
California, causing $500, 000 in damage and destroying irreplaceable .
student records. In other fires police said that arson or firebombs caused
blazes at the following campuses: the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy
at Tufts University (Medford, Mass.) where a 21 March fire caused $75, 000
damage; the University of Hawaii (Honolulu), where a 5 March blaze caused
by gasoline splashed around a campus building followed a fire the week be-
fore at a Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) building; and Cornell
University (Ithaca, N.Y.), where a 17 March fire damaged a classroom
used by the Air Force ROTC unit.
On 19-23 April, about 1,000 anti-war veterans held five days of
demonstrations in Washington. The demonstrations, organized by the
Vietnam Veterans Against the War (a group of about 12, 000 formed in 1967),
included rallies, lobbying in Congress and guerrilla theater protests. The
demonstrators called the protest Operation Dewey Canyon III and described
it as a "limited incursion into the District of Columbia. " (Dewey Canyon II
was the code name used for the Laos invasion.) The protests began with a
march to the Capitol on 19 April, after which the veterans held a rally
demanding Congressional action on a 16-point program to end the war. One
hundred and ten veterans were arrested on the steps of the Supreme Court
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on 22 April as they demanded a ruling against the war as unconstitutional.
The city prosecutor dropped disorderly conduct charges against those
arrested after Superior Court Jude William Stewart found on 23 April
that there was "no evidence of any violent act. " The veterans, joined by
supporters, held a candlelight march to the White House the night of
22 April. The high point of the protest came on 23 April when 700 veterans
discarded their military medals and ribbons at a demonstration at the
Capitol.
On 24 April, hundreds of thousands of marchers massed in
Washington and San Francisco and held peaceful rallies urging Congress
to bring an immediate end to the war in Indochina. There was none of
the violence and large-scale arrests that marred some of the previous
mass protests against the war. In Washington, the turnout was at least
double the expectation of the Justice Department and Washington police
officials. Police Chief Jerry V. Wilson said 200, 000 attended the rally,
but the National Peace Action Coalition (NPAC), chief sponsor of the march,
estimated the crowd at 500, 000. Marchers accepted fellow demonstrators
walking under banners promoting women's liberation, gay liberation and
a variety of radical causes. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
organizers used bullhorns. to urge protesters to abandon the "so-called
liberal politicians" and attend a counter rally. Later SDS led an unevent-
ful march to Dupont Circle, the scene of a police-protester clash during
November 1969 anti-war protests.
In San Francisco in April, the scheduled program at a peace rally
was disrupted when militant Chicanos and radicals seized the platform and
held the stage for more than an hour. Dissidents including Chinese,
Japanese and Indian protesters charged that the ralliers ignored "third-
,voald" issues. Scheduled speakers left the rally without delivering
addresses. The march and rally was the largest peace demonstration ever
held on the West Coast. Police estimated the rally crowd at 156, 000, more
than three times higher than their figure for the November 1969 war protest.
Demonstrators. lobbied in Congress on 26 April and on 27-30 April
brought specific demands to various government agencies. Focusing on the
issues of the draft, war taxes, poverty and repression, the lobbyists visited
Selective Service headquarters on 27 April, the Internal Revenue on 28 April,
the Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) Department on 29 April and the
Justice Department on 30 April. The lobbyists engaged in limited acts of
civil disobedience, such as sitting in at the offices of Congressmen who
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who refused to talk to them and blocking the doors of federal agencies.
Arrests were kept to a minimun on 26-27 April, but began on a larger
scale on 28 April when police detained more than 200 protesters who
had conducted an all-night vigil outside draft headquarters. A similar
number was arrested on 29 April during an attempted march from HEW
to the White House. (Charges against the 200 were dropped on 7 May.
Some 370 demonstrators, including Hosea Williams of the SCLC, were
arrested on 30 April for blocking entrances to the Justice Department.
On 27 April, Leslie Badon, 19, was arrested in Washington, D. C.
as a material witness "with personal knowledge" of the 1 March bombing.
After her arrest, Miss Bacon was flown to Seattle on 29 April where she
appeared before a federal grand jury, which Justice Department officials
said was investigating the bombing and other matters "relating to national
security. " The arrest came in a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
raid of a youth commune where Miss Bacon lived with members of the
Mayday Tribe, which was organizing anti-war protests in the capital.
Miss Bacon was sent to jail on 19 May for contempt when she refused to
answer questions about her movements on I March, despite a government
offer of limited immunity. On 16 June, the U. S. Court of Appeals for the
9th Circuit released Miss Bacon in the custody of her lawyers and on
30 September ruled that her arrest on 27 April had been illegal.
On 3-5 May, thousands of anti-war protesters were arrested in
Washington as demonstrators attempted massive traffic disruptions
combined with marches on the Pentagon on 3 May, the Justice Department
on 4 May and the Capitol an 5 May. The protests, designed to close down
the capital, were organized by the Peoples Coalition for Peace and justice
and particularly the coalitions's radical Mayday Tribe constituent. The
protests seemed at an end on 6 May when a scheduled march on the South
Vietnamese embassy drew only about 60 demonstrators. Washington
police prepared for the threatened disruptions by ordering 3G, 000 pro-
testers out of West Potomac Park in a pre-dawn raid on 2 May. The
demonstrators' permit to use the park was canceled, according to Police
Chief Wilson, because of "numerous and flagrant" violations of the permit
and "rampant" use of drugs. Later, government and city officials and
demonstrators alike credited the failure of the demonstrators to close
down the city to the clearing of the park and dispersal of the army of
demonstrators. With a mandate from President Nixon to keep the city
"open for business," police were Joined by 4, 000 federal troops, 1, 400
National Guardsmen, and Park and Capitol police.
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On 7 May, police used tear gas and mass arrests to keep traffic
moving and to prevent the demonstrators from reaching their announced
target--the Pentagon. By 8 a. in. , 2, 000 of the protesters were arrested,
successfully stifling their attempt to tie up traffic at targeted bridges
leading into Washington and at downtown traffic circles. Lacking jail
facilities, police detained thousands outdoors in the Washington Redskins
football practice field near Robert Z. Kennedy Memorial Stadium. Through-
out the day, protesters, splintered into small groups, roamed through the
city and blocked intersections, using their bodies, trash cans and disabled
or parked cars. Chased by police, they regrouped on other corners.
There were no reports of looting or window-breaking, but demonstrators
slashed the tires of cars. In a few incidents, rocks were thrown at police,
but such violence was rare. There were 155 reported injuries of police
and protesters. Police used their nightsticks, aimed mostly at protesters'
legs, but some of those imprisoned at the Redskin field were treated for
head injuries. Mayday leader Rennie Davis was arrested on 3 May on
charges of conspiracy, and John Froines was arrested on similar charges
on 4 May. Abbie Hoffman, who along with Davis and Froines was a
"Chicago Seven" defendant on conspiracy charges arising from riots at
the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, was arrested in New
York on.5 May on charges connected with the D. C. protests. (Hoffman
was indicted on 13 May by a grand jury in Washington. )
On 4 May, the protesters changed their tactics and did. not attempt
to block the heavily guarded bridges leading into Washington. Two thousand
were arrested during the day--most during a rally at the Justice Depart-
ment. Others were arrested in incidents throughout the day as police
scattered groups of protesters, but without the sweeping arrests and tear
gas used the day before. Protesters marching to the Justice Department
cooperated with authorities by stopping for traffic lights and keeping to
sidewalks. The arrests at the Justice Department were peaceful, with
protesters sitting in the street, then rising to be arrested. More than
1, 000 demonstrators were arrested on 5 May on the steps of the House
of Representatives after they had forced officials to close the Capitol to
visitors. Meanwhile, 500-1, 000 government workers gathered in Lafayette
Square, across from the White House, in a protest organized by Federal
Employees for Peace.
On 5 May, protesters estimated at 20, 000-40, 000 gathered in
Boston and 10, 000 rallied in New York City in the largest of numerous
anti-war protests held outside of Washington in a "moratorium" on busi-
ness as usual declared by the Peoples Coalition and other anti-war groups.
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While most of the protests were peaceful, police used tear-gas to disperse
thousands of University of Wisconsin protesters in Madison and thousands
of University of Maryland students who blocked traffic near their College
Park, Md. campus. In San Francisco, protesters clogged the streets,
and 76 clemonostrators were arrested after a confrontation between police,
armed with nightsticks, and protesters, armed with rocks. In Seattle, a
protest march by 3, 000 youths was dispersed by police. Other disruptions
and arrests occurred during protests in Waukegan, Ill. , Lakewood, Colo. ,
Rochester, N. Y. and in Minneapolis, where 10 students and the chaplain
from Macalester College (St. Paul) were arrested for blocking the entrance
to the federal building.
On 8 May, the Rev. Carl Mclntire led an estimated 15, 000 demon-
strators, calling for a military victory in Vietnam., in a march and rally at
the Washington Monument. The marchers, armed with American flags and
Bibles and marching behind a "victory" band of members of the Veterans
of Foreign Wars, were considerably fearer in number than the 20, 000 drawn
by McIntire's second victory march in October 1970.
On 15 May, police and sheriff's deputies confronted 500 demon-
strators near the University of California at Berkeley in a clash that re-
sulted in 40 arrests and a number of injuries. The protesters, marking
the second anniversary of the "People's Park" battle were responding to
editorials in the campus newspaper, the Daily Californian, urging an
assembly to "rededicate" the park. (The May 1969 violence, which left
one person dead, one blinded and others seriously injured, occurred after
the university moved to reclaim a plot of land that students had begun to
set up as a park for residents in the area. The plot later was turned into
a parking lot.) In the 15 May clash, which apparently involved some people
of high-school age, police used tear gas and putty-like bullets designed to
control crowds to disperse roving bands that threw rocks .and bottles at
police. (Following the clash, the Daily Californian's board of publishers
ousted three of the paper's editors on 19 May. The remaining editors
announced they would resign to protest the action. )
During May 1971, 11 U. S. policemen were killed and 17 injured
throughout the country. In the first five months of 1971, seven policemen
had been killed in New York City, the same number killed in all of 1970.
On 31 May, about 400 Vietnam veterans marched from Bunker Hill
(Charlestown, Mass.) to the Boston Common. About 100 of the veterans
and more than 300 sympathizers were arrested on 30 May for violating
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curfew in Lexington after a meeting on 29 May of Lexington selectmen
refused to suspend the curfew for the veterans camping on Lexington
Green. Townspeople who opposed the decision left the meeting to join
the Veterans. State and local police moved in at 3 a. m. to clear the
green.
On 7 June,. hundreds of lawyers gathered in Washington for
several days of lobbying and rallies sponsored by the National Convoca-
tion of Lawyers to End the War. The group backed legislation to with-
draw U. S. troops from Vietnam by the end of the year. In Mexico City,
on 10 June 1971, at least ten students were killed and 160 wounded in
fighting involving protests against the government cif President Eeheverria.
The New York Times on 13 June began the publication of a series
of articles based on a secret Pentagon study of U. S. involvement in Viet-
nam. The publication set off a chain of events which included publication
of articles based on the same study in the Washington Post and other
papers, a Supreme Court decision which allowed the Times and the Post
to continue publishing the articles after a hiatus caused by Justice Depart-
ment requested court injunctions against publication and the indictment of
Dr. Daniel Ellsberg, who admittedly had leaked the papers to the press.
FBI agents and local police foiled Selective Service office raids
in Buffalo, N. Y. and Camden, N. J. with arrests of 25 persons late on
21-August and early on 22 August. Both groups were connected with the
Catholic left, but FBI officials made no direct connection between the two
planned raids. In Buffalo, FBI agents, who were on the scene reportedly
"checking the security of the building, " arrested five young people who
ransacked files in both the draft and U. S. Army Intelligence offices in
the federal building. In Camden, 40 FBI agents were stationed at the
Camden Post Office for hours preceding the 4 a. m. arrests on 22 August.
Twenty were arrested at the time of the raid, some still on the premises
of the federal building, which included offices of the Selective Service
Board, Army Intelligence and the FBI. Also on 21 August, grenades
thrown during a Liberal Party rally in Manila killed ten persons, and on
23 August, President Marcos. suspended habeas corpus rights to persons
involved in what he described as armed leftist rebellion sanctioned by an
unnamed foreign power.
Four fugitives sought by the FBI.for a year, were indicted on
murder charges on 1 September in connection with the death of Robert
Fassnacht, killed when a bomb exploded at the University of Wisconsin
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in August 1970. On 6 September, Uruguayan Tupamaros freed III
prisoners from the Puerta Carretas maximum security prison; and they
released, on 9 September, U. S. Ambassador to Uruguay Geoffrey
Jackson in Montevideo. On 13 September, nine hostages and at least
28 prisoners were killed when about. 1, 500 state troopers, sheriff's
deputies and guards regained control of Attica (N.Y.) prison, held
for four clays by 1, 200 inmates.
About 300 anti-war protesters, on their way from a Washington
Monument rally to the White Hbuse to deliver an "eviction notice" to
President Nixon, were arrested on 26 October after sitting down in the
middle of Pennsylvania Avenue during the evening rush hour. Over
1, 000 police had been deployed, and city officials had prepared a "deraon-
stration contingency plan" for the firs: time. The plan provided for
federal-city enforcement coordination and first aid, food, amenities,.
phychiatric help and a 100-.lawyer Legal Defense group for arrested
demonstrators.
On 12 November, Presideri~ N1:-~;men by February 1972.
Vietnam would be reduced by 45, 000 additional
On 26-28 December, fifteen members of Vietnam Veterans Against
the War barricaded themselves inside the Statue of Liberty in New York
The veterans left after a U. S.
harbor to protest continuation of the tivar.
district court judge ordered them to open the doors. In Philadelphia on
27 December, 25 protesters, most of them members of the veterans group,
were held after occupying the Betsy Ros s I-louse for an.hour. In Washington
on 28 December, 87 veterans were arrested for blocking the entrance to the
Lincolm Memorial. On 26 December, U. S. aircraft launched massive
sustained air strikes against North Vietnamese military installations,
lasting for five days.
1972
On 10 January, a street corner rally by black militants in Baton
Rouge turned into a wild gunfight that left two white deputy sheriffs and
two young black men dead and 31 other persons reported injured.
There were 126 law enforcement officers killed due to felonious
criminal action in 1971, compared with 100 in 1970, and 86 in 1969.
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Ronald Kaufman, a 33-year-old psychologist and AWOL army
private, was indicted on 13-19 January in San Francisco, Chicago and
New York on charges of placing time bombs in safe deposit boxes in
eight bank branches in those cities. (Kaufman was still at large.) The
bombs,' which were attached to nine-month timing devices, had been
defused by police on 7 January after identical unsigned letters were
received by several newspapers listing the bombs' locations and warn-
ing that the "Movement in America" could 'kidnap property" by plant-
ing powerful bombs in office buildings or highways under construction
and could reveal their location in return for the release of imprisoned
radicals. A ninth bomb mentioned in the letters had exploded pre-
maturely on 7 September 1971 at a San Francisco Bank of America
branch.
On 13 January, President Nixon announced that 70, 000 more U.S.
troops would be withdrawn from Vietnam within three months, leaving
69, 000 by May first.
A woman employee of Sol Hurok enterprises, an organization
which booked Soviet cultural artists for U. S. tours, was killed on 26
January and 13 other persons, including Hurok, were injured in an ex-
plosion in the group's offices in New York. The blast and fire, police
believed, were caused by an incendiary device. The explosion folld:ved
by several minutes a similar detonation at Columbia Artists, another
talent-booking organization located a few blocks away.
On 16 February, Canadian authorities in Toronto arrested
Karleton L. Armstrong, charged in the .August 1970 bombing at the
University of Wisconsin at Madison, in which a graduate student was
killed. Armstrong had also been charged with the attempted 1 January
1970 bombing of a Baraboo, Wisconsin ordnance works and with three
additional bombings in 1969 and 1970.
On 25 February, Rene-Pierre Overney, a Maoist and former
Renault worker dismissed for political activism, was fatally shot by a
plainclothes security guard at a state-owned Renault plant in the Paris
suburb of Boulogne-Billancourt. The killing occurred when company
guards tried to. stop a group of .7vIaoists, including Overney, from forc-
ing their way into the plant. Some l0i-000-30, 000 demonstrators partici-
pated in a Paris march staged by leftist extremist groups on 28 February
Co protest the shooting. After the march., police clashed with several
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hundred young Maoists who had constructed street barricades and set
them on fire. The funeral procession for Overney on 4 March resulted
in the biggest extreme leftist demonstration in Paris since the strikes
and protests in May 1968. Police estimated the number of marchers at
18, 000, but most estimates set the figure at 50, 000-100, 000.
President Nixon, on 9 March, ordered immediate enforcement
of tighter security measures for the nation's airlines following an ex-
tortion plot and bombing directed against TWA.
Two plastic bombs exploded on 4 April at the Cuban Trade
Commission offices in Montreal, killing; a Cuban security guard and
badly damaging the building. Authorities arrested seven Cuban officials
and charged six of them with interfering with a police investigation, but
the charges were later dropped. On 5 April, the "Harrisburg Seven"
jury failed to reach a verdict on charges that the defendants conspired
to kidnap presidential adviser Henry Kissinger and blow up heating
ducts of federal buildings. Two defendants were convicted on minor
charges.
On 10 April, U. S. B-52s began deep penetration raids into North
Vietnam for the first time since November 1967. The escalation of bomb-
ing in Indochina provoked a new wave of protests during April and early
May--the first major anti-war protests of 1972. Most of the demonstra-
tions centered on college campuses and near military or military-
industrial installations. Demonstrations against the war and the Reserve
Officers Training Corps (ROTC) began at the University of Maryland on
17 April--culminating in two days of pitched fighting between state police
and up to 2, 000 students, the arrest of several hundred students and an
order. by Governor Marvin Mandel sending 800 National Caiardfanen onto
the campus and imposing a curfew. Srnn)o 250 student:, at C.:olum bi:a
University in New York--protesting the university's summoning of police
to the campus to enforce a court injunction barring coercive picketing of
buildings- -broke up a meeting of the University Senate on 20 April, prompt-
ing university President William J. McGill to suspend all classes. Police
were called into Columbia on 25 April to clear one of several buildings
occupied by protesters,. and at least five students were arrested and several
injured in the ensuing melee. Other campus violence was reported at: the
University of Wisconsin at Madison and Stanford University in California on
April 17; Harvard University on 18-25 April; RutgersUniversity in Newark
(N.J.), the University of Oregon in Eugene and Madison on 19 April; Boston
University and the University of Massachusetts in Amherst on 20 April;
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Boston University, the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, the
University of Texas in Austin, Stanford, Syracuse University, Boise
State College (Ida. ), Yale University, Fordham University in New York
and the University of California in Berkeley on 21 April; Princeton
University on 22' April; Boston University on 24 April; Reed College in
Portland (Ore. ) on 25 April; Cornell University on 26 April; and the
University of Pennsylvania on 27 April?-1 May. A survey by the American
Council on Education reported on 5 L\-May that war protests took place on
27% of a representative sample of college campuses in April, compared with 16
reported after the 1970 invasion of Cambodia.
Some 41 demonstrators were arrested on 17 April at the Alameda
Naval Air Station in California, and 16 protesters were arrested the same
day while occupying an Air Force recruiting station in San Francisco.
On 17 April police arrested 60 persons standing in the entrance of a
United Aircraft plant in Stratford, Conn. , protesting production of assault
helicopters used in Vietnam. In Dayton, Ohio on 20 April, 160 persons,
most of themAntioch College students, were arrested while trying to block
the gates of Wright Patterson Air Force Base. About 95 protesters were
arrested on 21 April and another 35 on 24 April for trying to block the
gates of the Westover Air Force Base in Chicopee, Mass. Some 21 pro-
testers were arrested on 23 April for attempting to interfere with loading
operations of a Navy munitions ship near Middletown, Mass. An attempt
to blockade the Groton, Conn. submarine base ended in 42 arrests on 26.
April.
The protest over the increased bombing also tool-, other forms.
More than 200 persons were arrested on 15 April for demonstrating
without a permit in Lafayette Park, across from the White House. About
200 law school students protested at the Supreme Court building on 21
April against the court's refusal to review the constitutionality of the war.
In Boston the same day, police arrested 15 demonstrators for blocking a
federal building. In anti-war rallies on 22 April, a crowd of 30, 000-
60, 000 marched in New York, while 30, 000-40, 000 protesters marched in
San Francisco and 10, 000-12,000 marched in Los Angeles. Smaller marches
were held in Chicago and other cities on 22 April, and a few thousand
marched in Salt Lake City on 24 April. Police in Boston, on 27 April,
arrested 44 demonstrators at a television studio when they demanded time
to reply to a speech by President Nixon on the bombing. Twelve nuns lay
down in the aisles of St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York on 30 April to
symbolize the Indochina war dead, while 50 other nuns (mostly from the
Order of Sisters of Charity) simultaneously conducted an anti-war vigil
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outside the cathedral. Police arrested seven of the 12 nuns, but the
archdiocese announced later that it would not press charges.. At least
29 congressmen and 80 congressional staff members supported an anti-
war vigil on the steps of the Capitol in Washington on 3-4 May. The
presidents of 60 Midwestern private colleges on 6 May issued a state-
ment calling for a total immediate withdrawal of U. S. forces from
Indochina. (The presidents of the eight Ivy League Colleges and the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology had issued a statement on 19 April
condemning the renewed bombing raids on North Vietnam and supporting
peaceful anti-war demonstrations. )
J. Edgar Hoover, 77, the first and only director of the FBI,
died in his home on 2 May of the effects of high blood pressure. At the
time of his death, Hoover was in his 48th year as director of the FBI.
On 3 May, President Nixon named Patrick Gray 3rd, the No. 2 man in
the Justice Department and a long-time friend of Nixon, to serve as
acting director of the FBI until 7 November, after the Presidential
elections.
On. 4 May, the U. S. ordered more than 50 more fighter-bombers
and a sixth aircraft carrier to Vietnam.
President's Nixon's 8th of May announcement that he had ordered
the mining of North Vietnamese harbors and the interdiction of land and
sea routes to North Vietnam touched off an intense wave of anti-war
protests on college campuses and in major cities on 8-11 May, and wide-
spread use of civil disobedience tactics led to violent clashes with police,
scores of injuries and a reported total of 1, 800 arrests in several cities.
The protests continued through mid-May, but their scale and extent
seemed to decline from the first week. Serious incidents were reported:
in Berkeley on 8-11 May as police fired wooden and putty bullets and used
tear gas to disperse as many as 1, 000 rioters; in San Jose, California,
where suspected arson at a Naval Reserve armory and an Army veterinary
c en May; in Boulder, Colorado,
ter caused over $200, 000 damage on 9
where at least 70 persons were arrested while 1, 000 protesters blocked
intersections with burning automobiles and cars on 9 May; in Gainsville,
Florida, as 1, 000 students from the University of Florida fought police
on 9-10 May, resulting in 395 arrests; in the Chicago area, as more than
22 persons were arrested for blocking expressways on 9-11 May; in
Albuquerque, N. M. , where at least nine persons were injured, one
seriously, by police fire during disorders involving University of New
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Mexico students on 10-11 May; in Madison, Wisconsin, where three
policemen were shot on 11 May while pursuing bomb suspects after
three nights of clashes in which over 50 clenionstrators had been
arrested; and in Minneapolis, where Minnesota Governor Wendell
Anderson on 11 May activated 713 National Guardsmen after an out-
break of violence on 10 May between city police and as many as 2, 000-
5, 000 students which resulted in injury to at least 25 students and three
policemen. Sporadic demonstrations, violence or arrests occurred at
varying locations in New York, Boston, Washington, San Francisco and
Philadelphia, among other cities, while demonstrations or rallies were
reported in dozens of areas. More than 400 protesters were arrested
in Washington, D. C. on 21-22 May during battles between police and
war protesters, while up to 15, 000 demonstrators attended a peaceful
anti-war rally on the Capitol grounds on 22 May.
A wave of terrorist bombings swept through West Germany on
11-24 May, killing four U. S. servicemen and wounding 34 other persons,
12 of them seriously. A series of explosions erupted on 11 May at the
headquarters of the 5th U. S. Army Corps in Frankfurt. Other bombings
occurred on 12 May (two bomb explosions at police headquarters in
Augsburg and one at the Munich criminal police headquarters), on 15
May. (one bomb explosion in the car of Mrs. Gerta Buddenberg, the wife
of Judge Wolfgang Buddenburg), on 19 May (two bomb explosions at the
Hamburg headquarters of the right-wing Axel Springer newspaper and
magazine publishing concern) and on 2May (two explosions inside the
U. S. Army's European headquarters in Heidelberg). It was reported on
12 May that the bombs used in the first explosion were unknown in Germany,
but familiar to Vietnam veterans, leading security authorities to suspect
that a U. S. army deserter was responsible for the bombings.
An explosive device was detonated in a section of the Pentagon
building early on 19 May, causing damage estimated at $75, 000 but no
injuries. Just before the explosion occurred, two newspapers received
telephone calls announcing the bombing. One call, from someone identify-
ing himself as "a Weatherman, " announced the explosion. The second call
said the explosion was in honor: of the birthday of the late North Vietnamese
leader Ho Chi Minh and directed the newspaper to a phone booth where a
six-page statement criticizing President Nixon's war policies was found.
Another statement was received on 19 May, signed by "Weather Under-
ground No. 12, " and bearing insignia identical to markings on 1971
Weather Underground letters claiming. credit for the bombing of the Capitol
building.
52.
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Black militant leader H. Rap Brown was resentenced in New
Orleans on 2 June to five years in prison and a $2, 000 fine for a 1968
conviction on a federal weapons charge. He had been in custody in
New "Ifork since his capture by New York police in October 1971. On
4 June,- black militant Angela Davis was acquited of charges of murder,
kidnapping and conspiracy in a San Jose, California, court.
Five men were seized at gunpoint at 2 a. m. on 17 June in the
headquarters of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) in the Water-
gate building complex in Washington. All of those arrested and charged
with second-degree burglary were reported to have had links at one time
with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
The Democratic party convened on 10-13 July in Miami Beach.
In contrast to the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago, the only major
demonstration outside the 1972 convention was peaceful, as 3, 000 non-
delegate youths and a few poor people rallied, peacefully for two hours on
11 July. In the only incident during the convention, a group of 300 young
demonstrators on 10 July pulled clovmv 90 feet of fence surrounding the
convention hall after breaking away'from a peaceful march. But security
remained tight as 3, 000 National Guardsmen moved into the Miami Beach
area on 9 July to join 1, 000 law enforcement officers and Z, 000 para-
troopers of the 82nd Airborne Division.
Six members of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW)
were indicted on 14 July in Tallahassee, Florida on charges of conspir-
ing to disrupt the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach with
bombings and shootings. According to the indictment, at least four
meetings were held during the period of 1 April-24 June to plan the dis-
orders, and a variety of weapons was assembled.
Violent student disturbances in Mexico throughout the early part
of the year resulted on 25 July in the imposition of strict security measures.
Amon,3 the major incidents of student unrest: two. students were killed
and others wounded on 7 April when police in the northern city of Culiacan
fired into a crowd of student demonstrators. Efforts by police and a
right-wing paramilitary group in early August resulted in the death of two
students, the injury of others and the arrest of over 200; students in
Culiacan also burned down the offices of the ruling Revolutionary Institu-
tional party in late July. QiCluliacan students paralyzed the city's public
transportation beginning/? October, two persons were killed and several
wounded in Me ico City on 13 June when a gun bade broke out between
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loft-ruin; and right-ruing students who had been struggling for several
months for control of the campus of the University of Mexico; students
from the National University in M exico City in late July seized a number
of buses; students, teachers, peasants and workers demonstrated in
Puebla, near the .capitol, during late July to protest the murder, apparently
by right-wing terrorists, of Joel Arriaga Navarro, a left-wing architect
and headmaster of the local tuliversity's preparatory school; student riots
were also reported during late July in Monterrey and in the southeastern
city of Oaxaca.
On 12 August, the last U4. S. combat troops left South Vietnam;
the U. S. Air Force announced its -planes had made "probably their
heaviest raids ever" over North Vietnam during the preceding 24 hours.
The Republican National Convention convened in Miami Beach
on 21-23 August. Protesters demonstrated in Miami throughout the
convention. The protesters' aims were as varied as the activist groups
represented, which had been organized by the Miami Conventions Coalition
(MCC), an umbrella group comprised of the Youth International party
(Yippies), the Peoples Coalition for Peace and Justice, the Coalition of
Gay Organizations and the Miami Women's Coalition. Apart from the
MCC actions were those organized by the Students for a Democratic Society
(SDS) and the Zippie faction of the Yippies. Those two groups on 20 August
spQnsored a demonstration in which about 350 protesters marched on the
Fontai.nbleu Hotel, Republican party headquarters. Police dispersed the
crowd after 45 minutes when several persons trying to enter the hotel
were roughed up by demonstrators, who also damaged cars. Members
of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War (VVAW), who were consistently
peaceful and well-disciplined during the convention demonstrations, joined
other protesters on 21 August for a demonstration in front of the Miami
Beach High School, which was occupied by National Guardsmen. (Florida
National Guardsmen, paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne and several
Marine units also were on call at the nearby Homestead Air Force Base
during the convention. The Secret Service, the Federal Bureau of
Investigation and local police officials brought the total force to 8, 500. )
Several arrests were made.
Arab commandos, some disguised as athletes, scaled an eighL--
foot-high wire fence surrounding the Olympic village in Munich on 5
September, beginning a drama which ended shortly before midnight that
day after the death of 11 members of the Israeli Olympic team, five
commandos and a German policeman and the critical wounding of a
German helicopter pilot.
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On 23 September, Philippine President Marcos declared a
state of martial law in order to combat a "Communist rebellion";
the action followed several bombing incidents in Manila and an un-
successful attempt to assassinate the secretary of defense.
On 17 October, the Philippine government announced the arrest
of at least four persons suspected of taking part in an alleged assassina-
tion plot against President Marcos.
On 27 October, U. S. Defense Secretary Laird confirmed a pre-
vious report that U. S. bombing of North Vietnam north of the 20th
parallel had been halted.
On 7 November, President Nixon won reelection in a sweep of
49 states.
Student disturbances at the predominantly black Southern University
in Baton Rouge, La. , led to the shooting death on 16 November of two
black university students. The shootings, occurred after East Baton Rouge
Parish sheriff's deputies and state police ordered about 300-2, 000 students
to leave the administration building and its environs, and. began shooting
tear gas canisters into the crowd. Louisiana Governor Edwin Edwards
declared a state of emergency on 16 November after the shootings (and
after a fire and a bomb explosion were reported elsewhere on the campus),
and sent in the National Guard to seal the campus. Edwards originally had
called in the guard on 31 October after more than a week of demonstrations
on the campus and in downtown Baton Rouge. In a related development:,
Governor Edwards, on 8 November, ordered the eviction of students occupy-
ing Southern's New Orleans campus administration building after banks of
students allegedly roamed the campus and "routed students from classes, "
and after reports that guns had been brought onto the campus.
The U. S. Court of Appeals on 21 November overturned the con-
victions of five defendants in the "Chicago 7" trial because of improper
rulings and conduct by District Court Judge Julius J. Hoffman during the
1969 trial for crossing state lines with the intent to start a riot at the 1963
Democratic National Convention.
On 15 December, U. S. B-52 bombers concluded the heaviest raid
of the war to date, a record 16-mission attack on supply bases in North
Vietnam; and on 18 December, the White House announced that President
Nixon personally ordered the resumption of full-scale bombing and mining
55
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of'North Vietnam "until such time as a settlement is arrived at. "
The U. S. Command in Saigon, on 26 December, announced the re-
sumption of bombing of North Vietnam after a 36-hour Christmas
pause. On 30 December, the White House announced that President
Nixon had ordered a halt in bombing of North Vietnam above the 20th
parallel and that private peace talks would resume in Paris on 8 January.
1973
The arrest on 29 December 1972, of about 50 .-student leaders
precipitated strikes and riots on 1-3 January by students of Cairo
University, Alexandria University, Ain Shams University in Heliopolis
and other colleges and educational institutions. The most violent dis-
turbances occurred in Cairo on 3 January as thousands of police clashed
,with 3, 000 Cairo University students. Cairo University, four other
colleges and dozens of other education institutions were closed by the
government on 3 January and did not reopen until 3 February. The dis-
'turbances were totally quashed on 4. January, when police evicted the
last 200-300 rebellious students who had been occupying the main building
of Cairo University since 29 December. A parliamentary commission
report charged leftists with being largely responsible for the violence.
It also charged that right-win; extremists were waiting to take advantage
of the turmoil.
One or more heavily armed snipers killed six people and wounded
15 others in a dramatic two-day battle with about 500 policemen on 7-8
January in the Downtown Howard Jo;rison's Mottor Lodge in New Orleans,
La. Police marksmen, hovering above the 18-story hotel in a Marine
helicopter, killed one of the snipers. Among the dead was New Orleans
deputy police superintendent Souls Sirgo, who was among the first of the
police and firemen lured to the hotel by a series of fires set by the sniper(s).
President Nixon on 15 January ordered a halt to all U. S. offensive
actions against North Vietnam, including air strikes, shelling and mining
operations. A White House statement said that Nixon had taken the action
"because of the progress made" in peace negotiations between Kissinger
and Tho on 8-13 January.
Three anti-war protests were held in Washington on 20 January
during the second inauguration of President Richard M. Nixon, although
the protests did not interfere with the inaugural ceremonies. In the
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largest of the gatherings, protesters massed at the foot of the Washington
M nuznent after a march from the Lincoln Memorial along Constitution
Avenue. A second rally was held on the steps of the Capitol by Students
for a Democratic Society and the Progressive Labor party, joined by
members of the Youth International party (Yippies). Shouts from a third
anti-wa:r rally at Union Station Plaza could be heard at the inauguration
site. No major incidents were reported. during any of the three demon-
strations, although objects (reportedly fruit and pebbles) apparently were
thrown at the President's car at one point in its return to the WhiLe House
for the inaugural parade. Demonstrations against the Vietnam war also
were staged abroad on inauguration day in Paris, Stockholm, Berlin,
Tokyo and New Delhi. One of the largest, attended by an estimated 10, 000
persons, was held in Dortmund, West Germany.
Lyndon Baines Johnson died on 22 January of a coronary thrombosis.
In Washington on 24 January, President Nixon and Vice President Agnew
joined the cortege to the Capitol rotunda, where more than 40, 000 people
passed the bier as the body lay in state.
President Nixon announced on 23 January that Henry A. Kissinger
and Le Duc Tho had initialed an agreement in Paris that day to end the
tear and bring peace with honor in Vietnam and Southeast Asia. " The
agreement wa.3 signed in Paris on 27 January. A cease-fire throughout
North and South Vietnam would be effective at 8 a. m. on 28 January
Saigon time (7 p. in. on 27 January, EST).
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