THE PAN-TURANIAN IDEA

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• Document Creation Date: December 19, 2016
• Document Release Date: December 15, 2005
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THE PAN-TUFANIAN IDEA
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Table of Contents
Foreward 1
I. The Pan-Turanian Movement 4
II. The Turanian Race 21
III .Historical an Cultural Background 20
A. Political History 29
1. Early History up to the Hegira 29
a. The Eastern Huns ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 30
b. The Sien - pi 32
c. The Tabghach (To-pa) 33
d. The Western Huns 34
1) The Western Horde 34
2) The Eastern Horde 35
e. The Eastern Avers (Juan-Juan) . . . 36
f. The First Turki Empire . 36
g. The Western Avers (Varkhonites, 0gors)38
2. From the Hegira to the kongolian Campaigns40
a. The Second Turki Empire 40
b. The Empire of the Uighurs ? . . . . ? 41
c. The Kirghiz Empire 42
d. The Empire of Kara-Katai9 43
e. The Empire of Khorezn 43
f. The Empire of the Seljuks 45
g. The Empire of the Khazars ? ? ? . ? ? 46
h. The Empire of the Pechenegues . . ^ 47
i. The Empire of the Comanes 4P
j. The Empire of the Western Avers ? 49
k. The Chuvasho-Bolgars 50
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3. The Mongolian Campaigns and State Found-
ings
51
a.
The Empire of Kublai Chan in China . .
55
b.
c.
The Empire of the Kipchaks in Fussia
The Empire of the Jagatai in Central
56
Asia
58
d.
The Empire of the Timurids
60
e.
The Empire of the Golden Horde ? ? ?
62
f.
The Empire of the Uzbeks
65
g.
h.
i.
The Mogul Empire in India
The Subjugation of the Tatar Khanates ,
by Russia . . . .
The Dedline of the Yongol.Khanates in
67
68
Asia
70
j;
The Kalmuck Empire
71
k.
The Oirat Empire .
72
1.
Turki revolts Against Fussia
73
4.
The Ottoman Empire
75
a. Founding and Consolidation of the State 75
b. Century of European Fxpansion 0 ? 77
c. Century of European, Asiatic and
Africa Expansion 78
d. A Century of Clashes with the Holy
Roman Empire of the
German Nation . . 82
e. Two Centuries of Rear-Guard Action
Against European Powers . . 85
5. The Subjugation of the Turkish States in
Asia 08
a. Western Turkestan ? ? 98
.1) The Khanate of Kokand 99
2) The Emirate of Bokhara 100
3) The Khanate of Khiva . . . .
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b. East Turkestan 103
1) Taranchi Sultanate 104
2) Kingdom of Kashgaria 104
c. Mongolia 105
1) Outer Mongolia
105
2) Inner Mongolia
105
3) Tannu Tuve
106
6.
The Modern Epoch of the Turanian Peoples.
a. State Structures to be Included in
106
Confederation ... .. . . ?
110
Europe and Asia Minor
113
1) The Turkish Republic
113
?
b.
The Caucasus
115
Transcaucasia
117
1) The Azerbaijan SSP ..
117
a) Nakhichevan ASSR
117
b) Nagorno Karabagh AP
117
2) Iranian Azerbaijan
117
3) The Armenian SSE
118
4) The Georgian SSE
118
a) The Abkhazian ASSR
119
b) The Adhzarian ASS?
119
c) The South Ossetian AR .
119
c.
Northern Caucasia . . .
120
1) The Daghestan ASSR .
120
.2) The Checheno-Ingush ASSR (Grozny
Oblast . .
121
3) The North Ossetian ASS?
121
4) The Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR ? ?
122
5) The Stavropol Krai
122
a) The Karachaian AR
123
b) The Cherkessian AR
123
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The Krasnodar Krai 124
a) The Adygei AR 124
7) The Kalmuck ASSR (Astrakhan Oblast) 124
8) The Crimean ASSR (Crimea Oblast) . 126
d.
The Ural-Volga District
126
1)
The Chuvash ASSR
127
2)
The Tatar AS . OOOOOO
128
3)
The Bashkir ASS?
128
e.
Central Asia - Test Turkestan ? ?
129
1)
General History
129
2)
The Kazakh SSR
130
3)
The Uzbek SSR
132
a) The Karakalpak ASSR
133
4)
The Turkmen SSR
133
5)
The Tnjik SSE
134
a) The Gorno-Badakhshan AR
135
6)
The Rirghiz SSR
135
7)
The Yrai Altai
136
a) The Ol_rot AP
137
8)
The Kral Krasnoyarsk
137
a) The Khakass AB
137
9)
The Tuvinian AR
138
f.
Central Asia - East Turkestan . ? ?
138
1)
Sinkiang(Chinese Turkestan . . .
139
a) The Tnrir Basin . . ? ? ? ?
140
b) The Tien Shan Lange . .
141
c) The Dzungarian Basin
142
g.
East Asia
142
1)
Mongolia - General . . . ? ? ?
142
2)
The Mongol People's Iepub2ic
143
3)
Inner Mongolia
147
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h. Siberia 148
1) The Buriat, Mongol ASSR 148
a) The Ust Ordin Buriat Ivongol ND 149
b) The Agin Buriat Mongol ND . . 149
2) The Yakut ASSR 149
B. Cultural History 151
1. Literature 151
a. Monio1ian Literature 152
b. Literature of the Turki 154
1) The UtEuric Literature 155
2) The Jagataic Literature 156
3) The Seljuk Literature 157
4) The other ancient Turki Literature 158
5) Ottoman Literature ? ? ? ? 0 ? 158
6) Modern Literature of other Turki
Peoples. 167
2. Architecture 170
a. Mongolian Architecture . . 170
b. Turanian Architecture 171
1) The Perso-Turkish Style 171
2) The Mogul Style 172
3) The Seljuk Style ? ? ? 172
4) The Ottoman Style 173
5) Modern tevelopment 174
3. Other Spheres of Art . 175
IV. The Economic Position of Turco-Mongolian Regions ? ? 176
A. Asia Minor and Europe . . 177
1. The Turkish Republic ? ? ? ? 177
B. The Caucasus178
? ? ...... ?
1. Transcaucasia . . ? ? 178
a. Azerbaijan SSR . . 178
1) Nakhichevan ASSR 180
2) Nogorno-KarabaPh AY 180
b. Iranian Azerbaijan 180
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d. The Georgian SSR 181
1) The Abkhaslan ASSE 182
2) The Adzharian ASSR 182
3) The South Ossetian AF 182
2. Northern Caucasia 182
a. The Daghestan ASSR 182
b. The Chccheno-Ingush ASSF (Grozny oblaf t)1188243
c. The North-Ossetian ASSR . . . CI ? ?
d. The Kabardino-Balkarian ASSI
184
e. The Stavropol Krai . .
184
1) The Karachaian IF
185
2) The Cherkessian AR
185
f. The Krasnodar Kral. . .
185
1) The Adygei PI . .
185
g. The Kalmuck ASSR (Astrakhan Oblast)
.
.
185
h. The Crimean ASSF (Crimea Oblast) .
.
.
186
3.
Central Asia.
? . . ? ?
.
?
186
a. The Kazakh SSL . . ? ? ? ? , ..
b. The Uzbek SSE
.
186
1) The Karakalpak AS . ? . ?
c. The Turkmen SSR
1-
1!
d al . The Tajik S . . . . . . a ? 0 0
0
.
192
1) The Gorno-Badakhshan AF ? ? ,
1
e. The Kirghiz SSR
193
f. The Krai Altai
194
1) The Oirot AR
195
g. The Krai Krasnoyarsk
195
1) The Khakass AR
195
h. The Tuvinian AI
196
4.
Fast Turkestan . .
196
a. Sinkiang . . . . . . . , .......
196
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5. Mongolia
a. The Mongol PeoPle's republic
b. Inner Mongolia
197
17
6. Siberia .
199
a. The Buriat Mongol ASST. ...
..
?
1?9
b. The Ust Orein Buriat Mongol NE
. .
199
c. The Agin Buriat Mongol ND . .
200
Economic Survey
201
1. Agriculture
201
2. Livestock
204
3. Mineral Wealth ........ .
205
Epilogue
210
Map of Projected Federation of Turanian States
?
?
214
GeneoloFical Chart of Turanian Peoples
215
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Turkey end 3ritain, should not be essential differences,
and should hardly touch ?b a s i c attitudes and opin-
. i..ns , The groups in .6erlin, for their pa rt, .1Nere a1was
endeavoring to maintain contact with other groups. ivx)ra-
over, the author merelzi desires to present a general sur-
as the dissertation it,ould become too extensive for
the purpose of general infornbtion of interested circ-
les, should numerous details be included.
15 September 1948
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The Pan-Turanian Movement
Under the impression of an awakening national
feeling of non-Turkic peoples, governed by Turks whose
fight for liberty seriously endangered the existence of
the Turcc-Tatar states in today's Aussia and the uttoman
Empire in Asia biinor, Africa ani. urope, the .Ean-Turanien
movement came into being around the middle of the past
century among the cultured classes of Turkestan and
Turkey,
Thus the struggle of the hussians against the
Turks of the Caucasus ending in the latter's sujuga-
tion, was initiated at the beginning of the past cen-
tury (-Baku, the center of the Azerbaijan Turks, became
Russim in 1813) and concluded vith the AusSian victory
near Gunib (1859) in the fight for Daghastan and the
Caucasus eountains 1ot on1T leaders but -hole tribes
thereupon emigrAed to Turkey.
in Central ,sia, the subjugation of Turk peoples
began in the second half of the pest century. Tashkent,
the center of Central ,sia, became ,cussian in 1865, im-
protant Samarkand in 1868. The independent Emirate of
Bokhara became a vassalage in 1868 and the Khanata of
Khiva was conquered in 1873, The Turkomans were subju-
gated betYeen 1881 and 1886.
At about the same time (1864-77) the Chinese
conquered the kingdom of hashgaria, a Turk stte in
todv's Sinkiang.
Turkey, however, (the Cttoman Empire then) also
suffered seriously. Greece liberated itself (1821-29).
As a result of the Crimean Aar (1353-56), it lost its
influence on iv.oldavia, alachia and 6erbia. The Russo-
Turkish war (1877-78) brought about the loss of over
50A; of the nation's territory in Europe through the
separation of Bulgaria, Romania, S,rbin, i.iontanegro,
Bosniaand Hercegovina, thile Cyprus fall to the British.
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From all these countries, Turks returned to
Turkey. They recognized the reason for the disastrous
development as ti-P backwardness of their country in all
spheres, which had failed to keep step with the r,pid
t,chnological progress of the ,,est.
As a result, groups of intellectuals were formed
(who sought closer contacts bet can th Turkic rations)
and strove for modern dLmestic reforms on the ,estern
model. These liberal circles, who in Turke, Called them-
selves. Young Ottomans were able to ,in over the young
croi,.n prince Abdul Hamid (1842-1918) for their ideas.
When in 1876 he became sultan of the uttoman Empire as
Abdul Hamid II, he immediately introduced a liberal con-
stitution. His dearTh defined :Jutocracy and his inborn
suspiciousness were ski lfull; used b:- conservative and
reactionary elements. They succeeded in bringing to fall
the liberal Grsral Vizier Ahird Lidhat, adherent of the
Young Ottomans and outstanding novelist, and thus gained
the u)per hand. The constitution thereafter lost aj1
im)ortanca. Beginning ith 1882, the press was subjected to
strict cnsorship. These me sures considerably increased
political tension. Since 18.96, the movement for the re-
establishment of the Constitution of 1876 took on a bel-
ligerent charoter in that the so-called "constitutional
movement of the lOung Turks" came into being, leaning
he-ivil:,/ on officers, of:iciols, savants, authors, students,
and mercLants. . "Secret Society of Onion and ?rogress"
was formed by the loung Turks under the leadership of
Talaet Lay end the notable dahmi Bey. The central office
of this organization, erected along lines of 1,_asonic Lod-
ges, was in Saloniki, which belonged to Turke:;,at that
time. jue to the persecution of its adherents by the
State as a result of their revolutionary activities, many
of them had to emigrate abroad, where they gathered,
especiall:: in Geneva, Brussels and London, forming
committees, for the support of the underground organization
in the fatherland, The liaison man between headqu,rters
in SUoniki .ind the committees in the above-named European
cities was Or. Nazim- The outstanding representatives of
this sedret society in the Turkish Lacadonian Army of that
time were the oficers 11,,ajor idazi (subsequent lender of
the victorious revolution of 1908), Enver Pasha,(Iater
bar Linister), Ahmed 3jamal 5ask (later general and
politician) and .,_ustafn Kemal Pasha (later first president
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of the Turkish Republic). mustarn 0_881-1938), who
was transferred to aAmescus in 19.)5 bec7,.use of his prog-
ressive opinions end 3ctivities, there formed the secret
societ:; "Vat,3n" (Fntherland) and secretli came to SA_oniki
to help found the "Society of Liberty", which lAer merged
vith the "Secret 6ociety of Union end Progress". hJ al-
wvs mintolned his on position, hoyever, end was fre-
quently in opposition, rpresenting a more moder!=ite course
vith reference to foreign policy questions. Turkish ref-
ugees, vho with the pss,ge of time. C::M3 from Turkest3n,
the C-,ucsus, end. 6outhes:,st Europe, exerted the influence
which g:ive the "society of Union -end Progress" a P3n-
.
Tumnim mold.
Their nambers were further incresed by Turco-
Teter le,Aers from Aa p.i:rts of Aussi,, who h:,d to le,-,ve
the country Lfter the :,bortive revolution following upon
th defegt of Aussi3:.,in the w7Jr g.)inst Japan (1904-1905),
bemuse they hA :Atempted to profit from the general con-
fusion. The nAd sought to im,rove the position of sup-
pressed minorities. Thus, t thA time, :3 Moslem Congress
was held et Kaz n on the Volga the center of T.tr.$), et
which equal citizenship rights with the 1-iussians were
mended. In in Azarb::)ij5n end other cnuc:.,sin erees (Georgie,
Armeni,i) uprisings took phce seeking the liber:_lticn of
-these peoples from. the Ltussi:rn "prison of nTtions". In
1905 even in LEIstern hib3rie - in I3kutsk on the Lene
3 conference took pl5ce, at vhich a "Union of LiAion7,1
minorities" vms formed.
These people were ?,Tole, 1,ith the help of the in-
fluenti.,1 end greet sociologist Ziye Goklp (1875-1925)
os well as mehmet Emin, e p,,triotic poet with excellent
propgridizing 5bility, to hove the progrm extended to
oil Turkic peoples. The term "Tun:tn" refers to the ver,,,
vogue name of the stretches of I.?nd northast of Persia,
CentrIl ;ssi (TurkasTinn), the originnl home of the
Turks.
'nis "Young Turkish .L,ovement" estblished the
following gods:
1) eusternizetion 1:): domestic reforms through
introduction of new codes of civil-:1-11 commerchl
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2) Guyeentee of liberty; by restorytion of the
democrotic onrlinment r,y constitution.
3) Guerantee of "full liberty, aqu,:lity? end
frnternity" in s.ccordnnca vith the ides of the French
revolution of 1789, to the non-Turkish md non-oslem
notionnlities.
These damnnds brought the Young Turks the tam-
prry but complete support of rm.nz nationnlities of
the uttom,n Empire, Jspacinlly tlbeniiris,ivz,.cedonLns,
Bulgnrinns, end ,rmeni71ns, Friction erose, homelier,
through the endenvor of the Turkish mtionnlists tomnrd
n centrnlizing power in opposition to the decentrnliz-
ing tendencies represented b rEb end. Christinn nAdon-
nlities.
The dnger thre.:otening the most important Ishm
steta 7;.1so brought some Pen-IsLmitas into the oreno,
mho suoported the Progressive 1oung Turk movement. To
them belonged thJ fnmous ngitztor XamLddin Afgh!:,ni,
n Fersinn birth, -mho ,ssumed n nfghen nnme and mho
hod ben octive since 1870 in Turka3, Egypt, indin,
since 1883 in. Europe (Fr,,nce, Engldnd, Garmny). In
1889 he met in DLunich with the then Sh3h of .P3rsi:1 con-
cernin pen-islm coll.:dooretion. he spent his lest
ye21rs in Turkey, where he exerted greet influence :;t,
the University of Constentinople. He died in 1897 in
Nisontes.
The ganernl struggle, hoi;.ever, 11.73s for the most
pert cnrried on by Turkey, The politicl differences
increFlsed Le,:r b :ear. In July of 1908 prep3r3tions
hed..EAvnnced to such 7, st_ge thot an Lrmed uprising
ngninst the regime of lodul Hnmid II -v,s possible.
though the movement -mns supported throughout the Lnd,
the Lmcadonim .ormy, lend by Nizi Fey, formed the
nucleus. The politicel cempeign w.,s directed by Enver
The impression amde upon tha.pultn w.es so greet
tl-mt he renounced mithoA bloodshed. His successor
becma Lahmet V (1909-1918) end the Ioung Turks were given
most of the government position, The pplendid success
of the revolution, the re-introduction of the dommmt
constitution of 1876 end the implementntion of reforms,
made en enormous impression in Turkey :,nd Europa. Enver
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1--)3shs rpidly becme popul.,;r n-.tional hero. He was
invited to France, where he vr,,,s honored by lending circ-
las, end in Great Britain he lias even introduced to the
House of Lords end iJarlinment. Enver sha dispA-
chad to Berlin s rnilitsrp ettche in 1909, whore he
lerned to speak Germn fluentl,y e rid bec&me friend
of Keiser Hilhalm II. He there studied the org-niztion
of the ?russinn 1,rmy 7.nd'the Turkish army vms re-org-J1i-
zed on this modal. But .1.1 reforms were unnble to stop
the disintegr2tion of the Littomn Empire, which wns in-
volved in series of d teriorating vers in the course
of the ensuing whereb7 the differences of opinion
on t7,ctical politicl questions betveen Enver Peshe ad
Kernel Pa she became deeper :31-id deeper. (her of Tripolis
1911-12, First Belkn er 1912-13), second Bnlk,en Ir 1913)
Not even this development, however, permitted the "Pn-
Tu=ism" idea, sometimes A.so called "Pon-Turkism", to
die out. In 1912, under the sponsorship of authors,
includina the above-nrLed Zi;r, &oklp and iviehmet Emin,
the organization of Turkish tierths (Turkocngi) was
formed for spiritual deepening through publication of
these ides. The chAr= of the movement from 1912
to As dissolution in 1931 was almost without a break
Hamdullah Suphi T;nriover (born 1885), whose speeches
and vritings bec-me f-,mous 'Aqd are of lasting value in
Turkish literature, 3egir-InW in 1909, he w-=:s profes:3or
of esthetics at IstHnbul Universit, member of the Citto-
man parlLment, member of Lhe Great A-:,tion-J assembl,y in
1920, J.4inister of :_:,dcAion in 1920 .,nd 1925, diplomat
from 1931 (envoy in Bucharest, 1tomani).
The hope, with G'ermn help to realize the dreams
of Pen-lun-inists in ,,orld r I, ceused Enver ?i,sh,, .who
becnrne 2,.?inistar of wr in J,nuer:5 1914, to c rr on se-
c2et negotiations with GermAl of which onlp the GT nd
Vizier end LlaA P3s1Ye knew :end whic.:1 led to the secret
German-ottoman alliance, concluded on 2 august 1914, and
directed sole1:7 aginst Hussif,. ,lthough the position
of the Ottoman Lmpire in Jir,bi? 1.1d ,fricL, was not -t,ken
into consideration and the alliance was not concluded
against England'iTind Fr-ince, Turkey was nevertheless )uto-
mationlly drawn into the liver on the side of Germany ,gainst
the vl,estern Powers (1914-1918) end lost this war together
with the CentrA_ Powers.
8
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Y-kfter the collnose, thL,nks to the Superior person-
ality .c.f , whose adherents came into
power in Turk-,t,7, plannal reforms were carrisd out within
the framework of the Turkish H:.public (1923), whose first
president ha becams later being given the fmily name
Ataturk (Father of the Turks). He v\i:s more successful
than his predecessors, f. ithful to the principles he.
had back in 1908: extreme caution in foreign matters;
but drastic intern,1 reforms. In the clear refilization
of the weakness of the ;" o u.ng ? Turkish republic ,7..,nd th3
necesity of consolidrting it in order to save the last
independent Turi.:ic state, and to improve the living con-
ditions of its population, Kemal totur1c relinquished the
:demands of .t he Young 'lurks concerning expansion, and
dropped the most radic.?:,1 :adherents of these dermAnds.
Only in this way was it possible to estiblish good
relations 7 ith the ,estern Po- ars, especially with Russic.J.'
Teiet P:Ashs (1874-1921), one of ti7le most important
1.---iders of the Young Turkish , , who 1-1)d become ? GrInd
Vizier from iebrary' 1917 to uctober 1918, ir.,d to leave
the cc untry, end led to Bei:lin in 1919. Thera he AN' i S.
murdered b7 en rmani5n in 1921.
4
The 1,dnistar of ar Enver (1881-1922),' ;t
one time th3 heed of the r'an-Tur?:ni.-Iri may 2I11.3nt, the most
populr nd brilli nt figure in Turkish ? politics, also
fled to Uerrany in 1919, being sentenced to depth in
absentia for war ?rice s. The s::Alle ucer, however, he went ,
to eussie, where he strove fcr the secession -A-id independ-
ence of the Caucasus from Russia in collaboration with
Anton J. Denikin, .Russinn general heading on :7,:nti-
Bolshavistlb Eirmy. :ifter the Red Array wri5 Victorious
there, and Denikin fled to Engl.:nd, Enver Tush: remained
short time in .,-'izerbijan, -which hod temporerily made
itself independent (1917-1920), becoming involved in
adventures of most cent r -,dictory type for the reviwa
of the uttornan Emoira, uhun hope faded there, he want
to AfEh-nist,n where the Emir of 1Dokhtira
fled, whose st'Ae the 6oviets v.ere on the verge of 7,1:inex-
ing. Enver, yho successful in winning the Emir for
the Pan-TuraniA ide, become commander-in-chief .of the
nrmy of the Emirate of bokhara. fit the, close of i\iovembar
1921 Enver geve Un signul for on ins urrecti on a gidnst the
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Soviets, which b3c=e f3mous under the =re "Bsmchi
Revolt". The goA_ .of this uprising IN'Ei.S the est'iblish-
ment? of e grnd "i'n7Turlfli3.n Empire" comprising the
ares of the former Russin impend governor-general-
ship of Turkestn, the LridnAe of 12okh7,rs, the Kh,-,n,te
of Khiv, Persiand eventully Turkey.
The ci,mpign bapn with ./-1 ultimAum to the Soviet*
demnding their tot:il ebendonment of Turkestan. As
the Soviets did not rocode, veer broke out in J-Inu:iry
of 1922. In this struggle, Enver .t'shr, fell in action,
after only seven months, on 25 July (4 ugust) 1922 in
on oper7,tion against superior Eolshevik troops in
Raijiven ne7,r today's c::Ipital of Tjikist2In (btlin-
sbd-Dyush,mba). ,fter conclusion of the uninterrupted
fighting, Turkestn becrie en utonomous Soviet Socia-
ist Republic the __min3to Of okhare as well s the
Khm?nte of hhiva "c'eople's Independent Soviet Republics".
A few years later, out of these territories, were evolved
KTIz7ikhstn, hirghizist .n, Uzbekistn,
Turkmenistn.
Ahmed Djeuril Pasha (1861-1922), old member of
the "Oommittee of Union end ?rogress", politioLn
gener-a, also fled with other members of this group to
Switzerland en.1 to Germena in October 1918. lifter
short sty in these countries he went to Russi!:1 nAd
fim1.1:: to Afghnist]n, there he g?ined greet influence
and awakened the spirit of mtion-aism in Clentrl
This contributed to the strengthening of the political
afghan resistance against Soviet Ruscie thus preventing
the Russians from including this country in their chain
of states. Juring an attempt of the Soviets to
recapture the Trnsc7,ucsian Republics, Azerbijn,
Armeni, and Georgia, ,against the resistance orgnized ?
by him he w.7,s murJ.3r2d A Tiflis on 22 July 1922,
hile the ,c1h.31-?3nts of the r7idic7,1 group of the
,Young Turk ivovement rermined unsuccessful, the more mod-
crate groups who cme into pov-er in Turke:,. were able to
prevent ttee complete disintegration under Kernel PosM,
the heart ,rid soul of the. Turkish national resistmce'.
against the attempt to exploit the country ,emril effected
a break yith the government of the Sultan in Constntinople.
(now Istanbul), called a "Turkishotion,1 Assembly" in
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July 1919 in Erzerum, and in September of the same year in
Sivas, and with the backing et this body formed a de facto
government in 23 Aoril 1920 (Grand Turkish National Assemb-
1') at Ankara (Angora), the nav) capital. Shortly thereaf-
ter he was able to wage a victorious war against Greece
(1921-22) and hurted the Greeks base, driving them comple-
tely out of Asia Li.nor nnd Thrace, Subsequent to the
departure of the 'ciultan from Constantinople, Kemal easha
was -elected president and Turkey was proclaimed a repub-
lic ID' the National Assembly, the governing body, in 1923.
A new phase began. Of the Osmn State of Nation-
alities became a Turkish National State. Government, ad-
ministration, and the army were turkized, as well as the
entire spiritual ::ind economic life. Everything thereafter
was under the sign of "Turkism" . The necessary philoso-
phical and sociological foundation therefore, however,
was agin laid by a former "T:oung Turk": Ziya Gokalp,
who in one of his last Volumes ftTurkodlugun Esaslari"
(The Foundation of Turkish Nationalism) laid lo7:11 the
program of Turkism. The political, social, cultural and
spiritual reforms of the Turkish Republic, carried out on
the above basis, are well known. (f,i. dissolution of the
Sultanate l/introdu ction of the Republic, removal of the
CAAphate 2; removal of the Moslm Sheriat 3; introduction
of latin script and modernization after -western pattern
of practically all of the administrative and economic set-
up in all public institutions.)
The Young Turks were able to see from this that
their hopes had come to naught for a resurrection of the
Ottoman state with many racial minorities, so they sought
to instil in the Turks and all their linguistic relatives
the ancient ideal of Turanism in the form of a new nation-
al consciousness. This thought was energeticall' rejected
by Kemal Ataturk who recognized its danger (disruption of
1/ Turkish institution similar to monarchism.
2/ Lohammodan institution similar to papacy.
3/ Church law parmeatinE all civic life.
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relations with RUSSi3). This official disavomJ of the
pan-Islam and pan-Turanian ilea is of great importance.
The above line of reasoning Irr,S announced by Kemal
Ataturk as early as his speech. of 1 December 1921, that is
while th Turco-Greek her was going on. He said:
"Gentlemen:
"We do not belong to those counterfiters who tag
along behind images of phantasy and lend themsANes
the -ippadranc3 as if they were accomolishing things
which vi.3 cannot do. V,se have done no greet and phan-
tastic things. But because it looked as i we had
done them, we have drawn upon this lanJ and this
nation the enmity and the hatred of the entire world.
Vce did not pursue ?an-Islamism but said: we Jo and
shall do so. A moment earlier, however, the enemies
said, in order that we should not in so: we shall
kill them. ve did not pursue l'an-Turanism,'but
said we always do so, we do so now, we shall do
so. s_rld again they said: let's kill them,
"That is all that is at stake. Instead of multiply-
ing the number of cur enemies and increa sing .our
distress through vague ideologies, 13t us keep to
our natural and legal borders. ae wish the pros-
perity of all ivcslem nations. e wish that they
might re-establish their independence; but that
can only be a pledge:"
Despite this programmatic declaration of .the
chief of state of the Turkish Republic, many adherents
of the Han-Turanian idea remained loyal to the cause.
The "organization of Turkish Hearts" continued to work,
as did the "Union and Progress" party with whose lead-
ing members Kemal Ataturk continued to clash. The im-
portant influence of Halide Edip Adivar (born 1883)
Perhaps the greatest:. author of modern Turkey, _also
continued. Her ,avowal of this idea, set don in her
political novel "leni Turnn" (The New Turan) made a
far-reaching impression. In addition, Kemal Ataturk,
although he retained his liberal 7rid progressive ideals,
used dictatorial government methods as he considered -
end justifiably so - that the general backwardness of
the country and the complete absence of a genuine
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democratic tradition was a danger, which might make the
preparations and establishment of a liberal democracy
unsuccessful should the government assume a lax attitude.
And as a result, the existing constitution was practical-
ly not fully effective and against this, an oppusition
party was formed, with far-reaching support of the members
of the Young Turk movement, who, in doing so, sought
to have their other goal politically represented. The
party which emerged was the Republican Progress Party,
which in turn stemmed from the Liberty Party founded in
1921, This party opposed the Republican Peoples Party,
founded by Kemal AtatUrk. Due to clashes between members
of the two lines of thought on the occasion of the Kurd
revolt, which demanded the unification of all national
forces, the Republican Progress Party was dissolved in
June 1925
, A year later, an alleged conspiracy against Kamal
AtatUrk was discovered in Smyrna (now Izmir), which he
used to suppress completely the unpleasant opposition.
Among the 18 important persons arrested, who were condemned to
death in June 1926 were five former leaders of the
Young Turks, including Dr. Nazim, Rauf Bey, the
former president of the National Assembly and of the
Ministry, while Dr. Adnan Bey, who represented the Foreign
Office in Istanbul, with his wife Halide Edip Adivar,
was banished for 10 years, General Kazia Karabekir
and General Ali Fuad Pasha being acquitted because of the
pressure of the ailitary. In 1930 an opposition party
was permitted as a sop for foreign opinion, that,is, the
Libertarian Republicon Party under the leadership of the
then ambassador in London, M. Fethi. But this party was
banned -gain soon thereafter. In addition, the Organiza-
tion of the Turkish Hearths (Turkocagi) under Hamdullah
Suphi Tanridver, Was also dissolved in 1931. The Pan-
Turanian movement thereby lost more and more political
influence, but continued to hold its influential position
in the new literature. This was not changed even when in
1934 the ingenious poet Ahmed Hashim and the great
80-year old lyric poet Abdulhak Hamid, who were connected
with these circles, died in 1934 and 1937, respectively.
Others took their place and enthused, especially youth,
with their ideas. Halide Edip continued to be highly
honored and returned to Turkey after an absence of 15
years. Yakub Kadri Karaosmanoglu, creator of the new
novel, placed his services at the disposal of the new
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national cultural movement. In addition Resat Nuri
GUntekin, Sadri Ertem, Shevkrt Sureya and many others
helped to prepare the soi]. In the literary part of
this treatise we shall see what influence these liter-
ary circles excerted on the spiritual life and the
younger generation. Pan-Turanian groups were also
formed abroad, in which Turkic refugees from the
Soviet Union were especially strongly represented.
An important event for these circles was a
renewed attempt to make a Turkic nation in Asia in-
dependent again. When in 1928 the Chinese governor
of Sinkiang died, a province with a 4,3 million
Turkic population, General Ma Chung-ying attempted
to separate this area from China by means of a revolt,
and to found a Mohammedan state. The last attempt of
this sort in Sinkiang took place on the occasion of
an insurrection of the Dungani in 1862, when the very
able Yakub Beg, who tried to unite Turkestan, succeed-
ed in establishing the kingdom of Kashgar to rule this
area, which remained until 1877 and was recognized by
Russia and Great Britian. Thereafter it was reconquered
by the Chinese. General Ma also appeared to succeed at
first. The fighting for independence, begun in 1928,
became heavier in 1c32 and lasted until 1937, when it was
suppressed by the new Chinese governor with the
help of White Russian troops and armed Soviet interven-
tion. The Swedish explorer Sven Hedin told me - if I do
not err, in the year 1936 - on the occasion of a lecture
in Lubeck (Germany) that General Ma had said to him in
East Turkestan, he placed great hopes in intervention
of a war between Germany and Russia. 21
When World War II approached closer and closer,
Pan Turanian circles increased their activity and drew
new hope for the realization of their idea. It is not
Between 1927 and 1935, Svrn Hedin had directed three
major expeditions into Centr. 1 Asia, of which the last
one (1933-35) was undertaken under the commission of
the Chinese Government to study the possibility of
constructing highways along the old Caravan routes
to Sinkiang (Turkestan). I only learned some years
later that General Ma had actually been in Berlin for
a short time.
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