JPRS ID: 10711 USSR REPORT MATERIALS SCIENCE AND METALLURGY

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• Sequence Number: 8
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 1071 1
4 August 1982 ~
USSR Re ort
p
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND METALIURGY
cFOUO aisz~~~
FBIS FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/10711
4 August 1982
. USSR REPORT
MATERIALS SCI~,NCE AND METALLURGY
(FOUO 4/82)
COtJTENTS
AVIATION MATERIALS
Aviation Instrument Engineering and Structura~ Materirls........ 1
ECONOMY OF METALS
Improving Structure of Metals Input in Industry 7
Econamy of Metal Through Eligher Quality M~etal 18
NONFERROUS METALLURGY
Extraction of Copper, Nickel and Coo~:lt With Several 27
Oxyoximes..~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~��~~~~~~.�~~~~~~~~��~~~~~~~~~~~~�
MATERIALS SCIENCE DEVELOPMENTS
~ Some Directions for Development of Modern Science of 33
Materials.~~~~~~��~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~�~~~~��~~~~�
_ a_ [III - USSR - 21G S&T FOUO]
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~
AVIATION MATERIALS
UDC: 669.017.018.5 (07S.t3)
AVIATION INSTRUMENT ENGINEERING AND STRUCTURAL MATEF:IALS
Moscow MATERIALY DLYA AVIAT:IONNOGO PRIBOROS'tROYENI'.IA I KONSTRUKTSIY in Russian
(signed to press 19 Nov 81) pp 2-4, 397-400
[Annotation, foreword and t$bJ.e of contents from t,ook "Materials for Aviation
Instrument Engineering an~ atructures", edited by A.cademician A. F. Belov,
Izdatel'stvo "Metall~szgiya", 3300 copies, 400 pageei]
[Text] Thi.s textbook examines conductor, semicond+~ctor, dielectric, magr_~tic
and structural materials employed in aviation instrument engineering and
structures. Their electrical, magnetic and mechanical progarties are described.
Principal attention is devoted to an analysie of the relationship between the
properties of materials, their composition and structure. Practical application
of specific materials in designing aircraft equipment is ahown.
This textbook is intended for students enrolled at aviation higher educational
institutions. Iz may also be of use to engfneera and techni~ians in the metal-
lurgical and aircraft industry.
TABLE OF CONTENTS pa8e
Foreword 3
_ Part I. Materials With Special Physical and Physical-Mechanical
Properties ~
Section I. C~~nductor Materials 5
Chapter 1. Metallic Conductor Materials 5
1. Electrical Conductivity of Metals 5
2. Metals and Alloys With High Electrical Conductivity 11
3. Conductor Elements of Microelectronic Circuits 15
4. Electr~cal Conductors at Low Temperatures 20
5. Contact Materials 21
6. Alloys With High Electrical Resistance 24
7. Bimetallic Conductors and Thermobimetals 29
8. Materials With Special Electrical and Mechanical Properties
Operating in Conditions of Corrosion Effect 32
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Chapter 2. Superconducting Materials 41
1. Some Points of Theory of Superconductivity 41
2. Superconducting Elements 47
3. Superconducting Alloys 50
4. Superconducting Compounds ~ 53
Section II. Semiconductor Materials 55
Chapter 3. Structure and Propertiea of Semiconducter Materials 55
1. Nature of Semiconductora 55
2. Principles of Obtaining Semi~onductor Materials With Predeter- 58
mined Properties
3. Phyaicochemical Principles of fleat Treatment of Semiconductora 7~
Chapter 4. Basic Groups of Semiconductor Materials and Areas of Their 84
Application
1. Classif ication of Semiconductor Materiale 84
2. Principal Areas of Application of Semiconductor Materials 86
Section III. Materials With Special Magnetic Properties 91
Chapter 5. Magnetic Materials With a Rectangular Bysteresis Cycle ~ 91
1. Basic Parametera and Characteristics 91
2. Ferrites With a Rectangular Hysteresis Cycle 94
3. Textured Ferromagnetic Tapes With s Rectangular Hysteresis Cycle 96
Chapter 6. Thin Ferromagnetic Filma 98
1. Some Questions of Theory and Principles of Utilization 98
2. Features of the Domain Structure of Thin Ferromagnetic Films 106
3. Multilayer Ferromagnetic Filma
Chapter 1. Materials for Magnetic Recording Media 107
1. Powder Magnetic Recording Media 109
2. Metallized Magnetic Recording Media 114
- 3. Materials for Magnetic Heads 117
Chapter 8. Permanent Magnets Based on Rare-Earth Elements 119
1. Electronic Structure and Properties of Rar~Earth Elements 120
2. Technology of Making Magnets Based on Compounds of Rare-Earth
Elements With Cobalt 124
Chapter 9. Corrosion-Resiatant and Radiation-Reaietant Magnetic Alloys 128
1. Corrosion-Resistant Magnetic Alloys 128
2. Radiation-Resistant Magnetic Alloys 131
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Section IV. Materials With Special Physicomechanical and Mechanical 137
` Properties
Chapter 10. Alloys With "Mechanical Form Memory" Effect 137
1. Features of the Kinetics of Phase Transf~rmation~ in Alloys
- With "Mechanical Form Memory" Effect 137
2. Characteristics of Alloys With "Mechanical Form Memory" Effect 145
Chapter 11. Beryllium and Its Alloys 147
1. Propertiea of Beryllium 149
2. Alloys of Beryllium 154
3. Employment of Beryllium and Its Alloys 159
Chapter 12. Composite Materials 161
1. Composite Materials Reinforced by Particles 162
2. Filamentary Composite Materials 163
3. Reinforcing Materials 165
4. Methods of Obtaining Composite Materials 168
S. Camposite Materials Based on Aluminum and Aluminum A].loys 171
6. Magnesiwa-Base Composite Materials 171
7. Nickel-Ba~e Composite Materials 1~2
8. Titanium-Base Composite Materials
Chapter 13. Welding, Soldering and Brazing Mater~als for Aviation 173
Instrument Engineering
1. Welding Materials 173
2. Soldering and Brazing Materials 176
Part II. Non-Metallic Materials. General Deacription 188
Section I. Organic Non-Metallic Materials 193
Chapter 1. Polymers Basis df Non-Metallic Materials 193
1. Structure of and Obtaining Polymers 193
2. Physical Properties 201
3. Thermomechanical Properties 207
4. Mechanical Properties 210
5. Dielectric Properties 219
Chapter 2. Thermoplastics 230
1. Nonpo~.ar Thermoplastics 232
2. Polar Thermoplastics 238
Chapter 3. Synthetic Resins (Polyfunctional Hazdening Oligomers) 245
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1. Resina Hardeniag With the Release of By-Producte 245
2. Resins Hardening Without the Release of By-Products 253
3. New Heat-Resisting Resins 262
Chapter 4. Raw and Cured Rubbers 26~
1. General 26~
2. Phyaicotechnical Properties of Vulcanized Rubbers 272
Section II. Inorganic Non-Metallic Materials 2~6
Chapter 5. Graphite 2~6
1. Synthetic Graphite 2~9
2. Properties of Synthetic Graphite . 281
3. Employment of Graphite 286
' Chapter 6. Glass and Sitalls ~ 289
l. Inorganic Glaes 289
2. Sitalls 296
Chapter 7. Ceramica 3p2
1. New Industrial Ceramica 302
2. Electrical Engineering Ceramics 319
Section III. Film-Forming Materials 329
Chapter 8. Glues 332
_ Chapter 9. Sealers 337
Chapter.l0. Paints and Varnishes 339
1. Protective Paint and Varnieh Materials and Coatings 340
2. Electrical Inaulation Varnishes and Compounds 344
Chapter 11. Polymeric Films 346 ~
Section IV. Filamentary Materials 348
Chapter 12. Filaments . 348
1. Organic Filaments 348
2. Inorganic Filaments 352
3. Filamentary Crystals 357
Chapter 13. Non-Woven Teactile Materials 360
1. Quilted, Lightly-Glued and Matted Materials 360
2. Yarn, Thresd and Twisted Products 361
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Chapter 14. Woven Fabrics, Rnitted Goods and Materials 363
1. Woven Fabrics and Knitted~Goods 363
2. Materials Leather Substitutes aad Varniahed Cloths 366
Section V. Plastics and Composites 368
Chapter 15. Gas-Filled Plastics 368
1. Foamed Plastics 368
2. Honeycomb Plastics 371
Chapter 16. Powder and Fiber Plastics 374
1. Powder Plastics 375
2. Fiber Plastics 379
Chapter 17. Laminated Plastics 382
1. Traditional Laminated Plastics 382
2. Polymer-Matrix Composite Materials 385
3. Carbon-Carbon (C-C) Composites 392
Recommended Bibliography 394
FOREWORD
This country's aviation higher educational institutions offer lecture courses
on the properties of structural and electrical engineering materials employed
' in aviation instrwnent engineering. There are no standard textbooks and
manuals on this sub~ect, however; at the same time considerable Soviet and
foreign information on specific materials is contained in numerous'periodicals
and monographs and requires certain systematization.
Thus there arase the need to produce a textbook combining within the framework
of established curricula not only basic information on theory of modern
specialized materials for aviation instrument engineering, but also on their
practical application. ,
In writing this book the authors were guided by the current course curriculum
"Structural and Electrical Engineering Materials" tor Aviation Higher
Educational Institutions. This book consists of two parts. The first part
deals with materials with special physical and physicomechanical properties.
It examines conductor and semiconductor materials, materials with special mag-
netic properties, and materials with special physicomechanical properties.
The second part of this textbook contains a general description of nonmetallic
materials and examines the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of
thermoplastics, synthetic resins, raw and cured rubber, graphite, ceramics,
glass and sitalls, as well as filamentary and film-forming materials, plastics
and polymer-base composite materials.
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Cun~idcrable attentibn is devoted to study of the most difficult and new areas
ot materials science, which are lacking or are inadequately treated in existing
textbooks and manuals. The following sections, for example, are contained for
the f irst time in this textbook: "Materiale With Special Electrical and
Mechanical Properties Operating in Conditions of Corrosion Effect"; "Physico-
chemical Principles of Heat Treatment of Semiconductors"; etc. Considerable
~ attention is devoted to fundamentally important questions connected with
analqsis of the re].ationshp between the properties of materials, their composi-
tion and structure, for the purpose of determining possibilities of application
of specif ic materials in aircraft equip~ent. In conformity with the curriculum,
the authors also sought to reflect in this textbook important materials con- .
nected with the future area of specialization of engineers.
The literature listed at the end of the book is recommended for a more
thorough study of a number of subjects. Compositions af alloys in this book
are stated as percentages by mass.
Subsections 1-5 of Chapter 1 and Chapter 6, Part I, were written by T. S.
Morozova; Subsection 6 of Chapter 1, Part I-- Ye. V. ~tyabchenko; Subsection 7
of Chapter 1 and Chapter 9, Part I-- V. S. Terent'yeva; Subsection 8 of
Chapter 1, Part I-- A. A. Klypin; chaptera 2 and 10, Part I-- Yu. P. Frolo~;
the Foreword, chapters 3-5 of Part I-- A. Ya. Potemkin; Chapter 7 of Part I--
V. V. Nikolenko; Chapter 8 of Part I-- M. G. Karpman; Chapter 11 of Part I--
G. P. Benediktova and A. A. Klypin; Chapter 12 of Part I-- A. S. Viskov;
Chapter 13 of Part I-- G. P. Fetisov; the introductory part, Subsection 1 of
Chapter 1, chapters 3, 5, 7, 8-14, and 17 of Part II Yu. I. Sheydeman; sub-
sections 2-5 of. Chapter 1, chapters 2, 4, 6, 15 and 16 of Part II G. Ye.
Vishnevskiy.
This textbuok was readied for publication by ~octor of Chemical Sciences
Professor A. Ya. Potemkin (Part I) and Candidate of Technical Sciences Docent
I. Yu. Sheydeman (Part II).
The authors would like to express their deep gratitu3e to the reviewers for
- valuable comments made during perusal of the manuscript: to Doctor of Technical
Sciences Professor P. T. Kolomytaev and the faculty members of the Department
of Materials Science of Electronic Equipment at the Moscow Institute of
Electronic Machine Building, Doctor of Technical Sciences Professor A. A.
Shmykov, chairman. The authors are also very grateful to the faculty and
staff inembers of the Department of Aviation I~laterials Science at the Moscow
Aviation Institute for their considerable assistance in readying the manuscript
for publication.
COPY RIGHT: tzdatel'stvo "Metallurgiya", 1982
3024
CSO: 1842/132
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ECONOMY OF METALS
IMPROVING STRUCTURE OF METALS INPUT IN INDUSTRY
Moscow VOPROSY EKONOMIKI in Russian No 4, Apr 82 pp 75-82
[Article by N. Ivantaova: "Metals Intensiveness of Production and Reserve
Potential for Achieving Savings in Metal"]
[Text] The CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministers decree en-
titled "On Intensifying Efforts for Economy an3 Efi;.cient Utilization of Raw
Materials, Fuel-Energy and Other Material Resources" specifies a group of con-
crete measures to improve the system of planning and incentive applying to
utilization of material resources. The objective is to achieve savings in
resources both in the production procesa proper and in consumption of the
finished product. '
Machine building, metalworkiag and construction are the principal consumers of
finished metal products. The growth rate of these industries, change in their
structure, and the level of inetals input [metalloyemkost' also trans?ated as
"metals requirements" and "metals intensivenesa"J in production exert direct in-
fluence on the volume of inetal consumption and metals input of societal product.
Machine building and metalworking consume the largest volumes of inetal. In the
structure of material outlays of machine building and metalworking, for example,
metals comprise approximately 30 percent taking into account internal turnover
within the machine building industry, and 50 percent excluding it, that is,
they comprise the bulk of the material outlays in this branch.
The level of inetals input in production is still comparatively high, which
leads to considerable metal waste in the metal-consuming branches. At the
26th CPSU Congress L. I. Brezhnev noted that reduction of losses and waste in
metalworking by only one half would be equivalent to a~ 10 percent increase in
output of finished ferrous metals rolled etock. Metal waste in consuming
branches is growing and presently exceeds 19 million tons per year (including
9 million tons into chips). The rolled metals utilization factor in machine
building has remained unchanged in the last 10 years 0.72. The decree on
economizing in material resources notes the necessity of improving the
structure of the economy, its branches and sectors in the direction of all-
out reduction in t}Ye energy and materials requirements of production.
The specific metals input of production varies from one branch of machine
~ building and metalworking to another, and therefore changes in the branch
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structure of this complex exert differing effect on the production metals in-
put of machine building, industry, and societal product as a whole. fleavy,
power, transport, tractor and agricultural machine building are the most
metals-intensive within machine building. Their percentage share of branch
gross output is high (almost 30 percent) and exerts an influence on growth of
the production metals input of all machine building. In the future the
production~volume growth rate of these branches will slow somewhat and the
percentage share of their output in machine building will decline, which will
cause a decrease in the production metals input of machine building as a whole.
The level of production metals input of the road, construction and chemical
machine building and automotive industry is close to the level o� production
metals input of machine building as a whole. The percentage share of this
group of branches will increase and cause a certain rise in the production
metals input of machine building as a whole.
Machine tool building, machine building for light industry and the food process-
ing industry, the electrical equipment industry, and especially instr oduction
gineering are characterized by a lower metals input. The level of p
metals input in instrument engineering is I/17th that of heavy, transport, and
power machine building. Intensive development of the above-listed branches
with a lower metals input will promote a decrease throughout machine building,
although metal consumption volumes will rise.
Studies of the internal structure of individual machine building subbranches
attest to considerable reserve potential for reducing the metals input of
machine building production on the basis of improving the structure oF its
subbranches and design of the products manufactured. The structure of
production of tractors, machine tools and certain other machinery and equipment
remains fairly metals-intensive. For example, caterpillar tractors comprise a
substantial share in the structure of tractor manufacture (40 percent).
Standard metal consumpt~on per crawler tractor is 80 percent more than for a
wheeled tractor. In the future we should improve the structure of manufacture
of tractors, increasing the manufacture of wheeled and small-horsepower
tractors, including orchard-and-garden tractors. This will help reduce the
metals input of the tractor industry and machine building as a whole.
The most effective ways to reduce produ~~.tion specific metals input per unit of
principal machine parameters are concentration of power in one unit, increased
productivity and improved performance characteristics of machinery and equipment.
In recent years there has been observed in many types of equipment a gap
between the technical ca~.~abilities of machinery being manufactured :nd the
level of its actual utili~ation, that is, improved performance is far from
fully utilized. For example, the volume of large and heavy.metalworking equig-
ment is considerable within the structure of manufacture of inetal-cutting
machine tools and press forging equipment. This ratio causes an increase in
the production metals input of machine tool building and machine building as a
whole, while large machine toals are not always used at f+ill capacity. This
leads to inefficient expenditures not only of material but of labor resources
as well. It is therefore very important that deaigners and engineers, when
designing machinery and equipment, proceed from the actual conditions of
equipment utilization.
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lmprovement of the type-size structur.e of machinery and equipment remains a
pressing macter. Herein lies significant reserve potential for achieving
savings in mstal and other productive resources. With unchanged metal re-
sources, using the same production facilities and with comparatively small ad-
ditional outlays, it is possible substantially to increase o~itput of machine
building products. In order to determine this reserve potential one should
calculate specific metals input when designing machinery and subsequently dur-
ing operation not only for specifications and performan~e characteristics but
also for work performed. This indicator is determined by the ratio of all
material outlays (production and operation) to the volume of work performed by
a machine during its service up to the first major overhaul. Work to optimize
the type-size structure of machines should be performed in all branches of
machine building. It is noted ~.n the Basic Directions af Economic and Social
Development of the USSR in 1981-1985 and the P eriod up to 1990 that it is
essential to increase within optimal limits the unit power output of
machinery and equipment with a simultaneous decrease in th.eir physical size,
metals input, power consumption, and a decrease in the cost per unit of end
useful effect.
Efficient utilizatian of inetal products in consuming brar.ches and elaboration
of ways to achieve savings in metals during their processing depend in large
_ measure on metal product manufacturing branches. In spite: of certain ad-
vances in the area of improving the structure and qualitative characteristics
of inetal, the requirements of the branches and sectors of the nation's
economy in the majority of highly econamical types of rolled stock are far
from being fully satisfied. Many machines of Soviet manufacture are heavier
than counterpart foreign-built units, primarily because of an insufficiently
modern structure of the metal: a comparatively high percentage share of cast-
ings in the structure of inetal prodt~ction and an insufficient percentage
_ share of r~lled plate, and especially sheet, in the structure of rolled metal
products.
Factors which determine the ~e�al of inetals input, reliability and durability
of machines, instruments, and structures include the quality and structure of
ferrous metals. A decrease ir structural metal requiremer?ts is promoted by im-
provement in the structure of inetal production a decre~.se in the percen-
tage share of castings and an increase in the share of ro]_led products, in-
cuding sheet and economical products. In recent years the structure of con-
sumed ferrous metals has been characterized by progressive trends, but the
percentage st,ate of castings continues to remain comparati.vely high (see
table).
. Consolidated Structure of Metal Consumed in Machine Building (as percentages)
Consuming Branches Percentage Stiare Percentage Share
of Casting~ 3n of Plate and Sheet
~1~ Me~al Production in Finished ~3~
(2) Rolled Stock
1966 1980 1966 1980
_ Machine building and metalworki~ig 31.1 27.8 46.9 52.6
of that:
tractor and agricultural machine building 38.8 31.9 35.5 43.2
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Table on preceding page, cont'd
~1) (2) (3)
1966 1980 1966 1980
heavy machine building 32.9 33.3 46.3 49.7
automotive industry 18.6 18.5 40.3 49.0
machine tool industry. 51.5 51.1 30.3 38.0
road,construction machine building 29.9 24.0 54.7 59.2
chemical machine building 35.4 34.7 48.U 61.3
As is evident from the figures in the table, the structure of inetal for machine
building as a whole changed insignificantly during the 15 years: the ppr-
_ centage share of castings declined by 3.3 percent, while plate and sheet
- production increased by 5.7 percent. In the largest consuming branches
machine tool building, the automotive industry, heavy and chemical machine
~ building the percentage share of castings remained practically unchanged.
And an i.nsignificant decrease in the percentage share of castings is planned
by 1985 for practically all machine building branches other than machine tools
and construction-road construction machine building.
The relatively high percentage sh~re of castings in the structure of inetals
consumption is due in a number of instatices to a shortage of certain types of
rolled steel. This leads to the manufactur~ of castings out of heavy ingots
and the ~rming of a high metals-input structure of certain branches of
machine building. Analysis of tY.e structure of castings consumption has shown
that in the future castings production in consumption volumes can be reduced
by~5-7 million tons per year by replacirsg cast parts with rolled metal and
reducing the weight of castings by adopting precision casting methods. Tt:;s
will make it possible to reduce production metals input and to obtain sub-
stantial savings. For example, replacement of parts made of steel castings
with welded structures of steel plates generates savings of approximately
103 rubles per ton in calculated expenditures. Consequently, replacement of 5-
7 million tons of castings with parts made of rolled stock will make it pos-
sible to obtain annual savings of 500-700 million rubles nationwide.
At the present time a number of organizations in this country have completed
work on techi;ical-economic substantiation of the fabrication of welded
structures out of rolled stock in place of castings. The institutes of the
machine tool and tool industry have designed a number of welded machine bed
structures of rolled stock in place of cast iron for lathes and grinciing
machines, machine tools for finish machining, and press forging machines.
Work has been completed on development of lighter-weight structural designfe
for agricultural machinery employing parts fabricated of rolled stock in pl~tce
of castings.
Considerable work is being done in the area of reducing the metals �.quire-
ments of machine structures by VNIlmetmash [All-Union Scientific T'.esearch
and Design Institute of Metallurgical Machine Building], which Y~as designed,
jointly with the Electric Welding Institute imeni Ye. 0. Paton, an automated
line for the manufacture of radiators out of sheet steei (in coils, by
stamping and welding) in place of cast iron. The mass (specific metal
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requirements) of an equivalent square meter of a welded ra~iiator made of
sheet steel is 3.4 times less than with cast iron. Manufa:ture of radiators
of rolled sheet will save substantial volumes of inetal. V.~VIlmetmash has
developed a new method of designing prestressed beds for h~draulic presses,
rolling and pipe mills. Building presses with prestressed beds reduces metals
consumption 2-7-fold in comparison with presses with conve:ational columns or
with a frame arrangement. Stressed-sheathing bed deaigns for rolling and pipe
mills are approximately half as heavy as unit-cast structures.l
Rolled product which is presently in short supply i~ Y~quired for going into
production with lightweight structures which have already been designed. In
the last five-year plan the production growth rate was the same for rolled
stock and castings, which is not a sign of progress. Appropriate reorganiza-
tion of inetals production should be accompliehed in the next few years, rein-
forced by a system of economic incentive, in order to ensure that the rolled
metals production growth rate (under the condition of allocation of the
requisite quantities for replacing castings) exceeds the production growth rate
of steel and iron castings.
- Reduction in the weight of machinery and equipment is being held back by the
extensive employment of inerchant shapes in the consuming branches. Merchant
shapes continue to represent a substantial percentage within the structure of
finished rolled stock: almost 50 percent in machine building and metalworking,
and from 50 to 60 percent~in certain branches of machine building.
Change in the production structure of finished rolled products is essential
in connection with the accelerated development of branches of industry with
high requirements in sheet and plate, which are demanding increasingly larger
- quantities of these products. Sheet and plate production should grow at a
substantially more rapid rate than merchant shapes production in order to
satisfy the requirements of those branches with high sheet and plate re-
quirements the automotive industry and electrical equipment industry; for
the manufacture of pipe for natural gas and oil pipelines, structural tubing,
curved structural shapes, and coated, plated, and clad sh~:et; for employment in
construction; replacement of castings and merchant shapes. Employment of sheet
and plate, and especially cold-rolled, produces considerat~le economic effect.
Calculated outlays per ton of finished parts (rubles per t.on) fabricated of
sheet and plate are approxima~ely 20 percent less than wit:h merchant shapes.
With an increase in the percentage share of plate and sheet in the rolled
products structure to 50 percex~t (it is approximately 40 percent at the
~ present time), savings to the Pconomy could total approxiniately 1.5-2 billion
rubles.
The variety of available merchant shapes is expanding comparatively slowly.
According to the approximate calculations of expertsy the requirements of the
branches and sectors of the economy in these products are running ahead of
production by 50-100 percent. In order fully to meet the requirements of
machine building, for example, it would be necessary to put into production
more than 800 new structural shapes. One shortcoming of the product mix of
simple structural shapes is the limited number of size graduations which
leads to overconsumption of inetal (2.5-15 percent goes into chips)~ or to
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increased ~tals input of machines and structures, and diminishes societal
l~bor productivity. An increase in the number of intermediate rolled product
sizes would make it possible substantially to increase metal savings in its
consumption.
On the whole we must note that there is inadequate production of economical
ro~led sectional shapes: merchant shapes and :~igh-precisien ahapes, and curved
shapes employment of which in place of conventional products reduces the
weight of workpieces and finished products. General and special-purpose mer- .
chant shapes are more economical. Only half of the entire number of iner-
chant shapes (970) are produced in lightweight versions.
Reduction in the metals ?-equirements of machinery depends in large measure on
utilization of rolled products made of low-alloy Eteels, heat-treatment
hardened, coated, plated and clad, apecial and lightweight merchant shapes.
For the mcst part hot-rolled commercial carbon steel is employed in the na-
tion's ecanomy (75 percenc~, s~eel which many timea fails to meet the elevated
demands on modern material:~, especially as regards strength. Much more effec-
tive are low-alloy.steels which are stronger than carbon steels and which pos-
sess good plasticity, toughness, weldability, and resistance to corrosion.
An important means of ensuring the durability of machinery and metal savings
is a systematic increase in the quantities of manufacture of rolled stock with
various types of coatings, platings, and claddings, and heat-treatment
hardened. Losses to corrosion comprise approximately 10 percent of iron and
s~.eel production. A large percentage of rolled stock is produced without
s u itable hardening treatment, while heat treatment of hot-rolled carbon and
low-alloy steel makes it possible significantly to increase its strength.
Plastic-coated sheet and sheet aluminum are produced in insignificant quanti-
ties. The economic effectiveness of consumption of heat-treat~.~i~t hardened
rolled stock, coated, plated and clad rolled products and rolled stock of low-
alloy steel ranges from 20 to 60 rubles per ton in calculated outlays.
Machines and structures made of such metal are stronger and lighter, are
longer-lived, while metal consumption and the metals requirements of products
are reduced. For example, products made of galvanized sheet last approximate-
_ ly two to five times as long as items made of untreated sheet. Requirements
in these rolled products are considerably greater than volume of p*-oduction.
In order to improve the structure of inetal and rolled stock and to improve
their qualitative characteristics, it is necessary to conduct a number of
measures together with optimization of the organizational structure of ferrous
metallurgy and primary processing production in the machine building industry.
Simultaneous adoption of advanced directions in the production and consumption
of inetal and improv~.ment in technological level not only in the producing but
also in the consuming branches ensure conditions for fullest utilization of
reserve potential for achieving metal savings. Let us examine some of these
areas.
Considerable influence on improving the technological level of inetallurgical
production is exertec; by ri,:celerated deve3opment of ateelmaking in oxygen con-
verters and electric furnaces, out-of-ovem degassing and continuous steel
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casting, and extensive adoption of modern, high-output equ.ipment capable of
ensuring the requisite quality of inetal products. Possibilities of intensifica-
tion of ferrous metals production depend in large measure ~~n the structure of
capital investment in the iron and steel industry. It is advisable to in-
crease the percentage share of capital spending in rolling~-mill production,
including ~n improving quality and expanding the variety oE rolled products.
Precision caeting and atamping methods, welding and rollin;~ parts, and powder
metallurgy methods, that is, low-waste and no-waste method,a of manufacturing
machine and equipment parts are promising areas in the dev~~lopment of inetal-
working technology. Mechanical working of inetal by cuttin.~ still predominates
in the machine building industry, howev,~r, which leads to considerable metal
waste in the form of chips and increases metals input, labor intensiveness and
the capital-to-output ratio of production. What is needed is standardization
of manufacturing processes and development of optimal techlologies in the
initial processing shops of the machine building industry. The structure of
manufacturing processes should be planned according to mat~rials labor in-
tensiveness. It is essential t~ perform analysis of machize structural
designs and processi~.g in a planned and systematic manner, in order to deter-
' mine reserve potential for achieving metal savings and to expand the scale of
utilization of advanced structural materials. Improvement in the technical
and organizational level of inetalworking technology is one of the important
ways to achieve savings in metal.
An insufficiently high degree of specialization and concentration of initial
processing production in tha machine building industry is holding back the
adoption of high-output resource-conserving equipment and efficient manufactur-
ing processes. It is advisable to plan specialization indices for iii~ensive
development of the ce~ntralized production of castings, forgings, etc, A long-
range spe~ialization and co-production plan for the various machine building
branches should also be drawn up, including the manufacture of castings,
forgings and other initial-process items. Capital investment must be al-
located precisely to these specialized production operations, not into ex-
panding initial processing shops at machine building enterprises or for
building combined plants.
Efficient utilization of inetals and a decrease in production metals input
depend on the scale of employment of a number of structural materials used in
place of inetals. Plastics are widely employed in all branches and sectors of
- the economy. Plastics consuming branches have developed advanced, lighter-
weight structures with employment of polymeric materials in place of ferrous
and nonferrous metals. The level and rate of development of the chemical
industry, however, do not yet ensure technical and economic possibilities of
consumption of these efficient structural materials, both in production volume
and in qualitative characteristics. Production volumes of plastics, especial-
ly modern structural thern?oplastics and glass plastics, are still inadequate.
Prices on structural plastics and synthetic resins remain high.
All this is hindering expansion of the scale of employment of structural
polymeric materials and decrease in production metals input. The requirements
of the machine building branches in plastics are being met by 65 percent on
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the average, while this percentage is lower for certain types of plastics. An
increase in the production volumes of structural plastics, especially with en-
hanced characteristics, which are capable of competing with ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, improvement of the tec:::icat and economic characteristics of
plastics production and decrease in the pro~luction cost of pla~tics will en-
sure conditions for reducing not only prodv.ction metals input but also the
~ weight of machinery and equipment.
Obviously in the future we should plan accelerated development of structural
plastics and more intensively improve the technical base for their production
and intrabranch structure. The structure of plastics production should be
planned in such a manner that they are utilized primarily in those induatries
where they generate the greatest effect. Branch technical and structural
policy should be focused toward this.
One promising substitute for ferrous metals is aluminum, which is chardcterized
by excellent physical-mechanical pr~perties and corrosion resistance, low
specific weight, good de:corative qualitiea, and effectively replaces steel
and heavy nonferrous met:als, substantially reducing the weight of machines .
and equipment. Transp,~_t machine building is the most effective area of
employment of alumii~um alloys. A priority rate in the production and con-
sumption of aluminum has become one of the characteristic features of tech- .
nological progress. Tn o~s co~aitry the growth rate of aluminum in recent years
has been running ahead of that of ferroue metals.
Achieving savings in metal on the basis of improving the technical and organiza-
tion level of enterprises depends in large measure on indices apecified in
production plana. The present system of planning, evaluation and economic
stimulation of production in tons and in volume of product sold leads to the
manufactura of heavier and more metals-requiring rolled stock and equipment.
L. I. Brezhnev noted at the November (1981) CPSU Central Committee Plenum
that we have not yet succeeded in eliminating indices which essentially en-
courage waste. He was referring to the vaunted "groas" in tons or rubles.
Enterprises have no incentive to manufacture new, lightweight rolled sectional
shapes or lighter-weight machines, since their manufacture worsena an enter-
prise's technical-economic performance indices volume of sold production
and labor productivity decline. ,In the iron and steel industry the labor in-
tensiveness and capital-to-output ratio of high-quality product are frequently
increased, since these products require additional processing. All this has a
negative effect on material incentive funds. ~
The system of ineasures to achieve further improvement of plan and evaluation
indices specitied by the CPSU Central Committee and USSR Council of Ministera
decree entitled "On Improved Planning and Strengthening the Effect of the
Economic Mechanism on Improving Eff iciency of Production and Work Quality" is
being implemented slowly and not in all branches. Incentive for economical
utilization of material resources is provided by planning such indices as
standard net production and sales volume taking i~:to account meeting product
sales deliveries on the basis of contracts and sales orders. It is essential
to plan an expanded product list in units of ineasurement which more fully
characterize product use properties.
~
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New indices should be reflected in prices and technical-standards documenta-
tion. Product materials intensiveness indices were taken ~.nto consideration
to a greater degree than previously in elaborating the wholesale prices which
became effective in 1982, which makes it possible to intens:ify the incentive
- role of prices in economizing in material reaources. Planr?ing and production
incentive for certain types of equipment, however, are expr.essed in tons. The
ton also remains the principal planning and evaluation indi.cator in ferrous
metallurgy, since on the baeis of tonnage it ie easier to fulfill the plan
by increasing �~olumes of ordinary-grade rolled stock. We ~hould nc~p that ex-
periments are being conducted in the iron and steel industr.y on planni~lg and
record keeping on certain types of rolled stock and rolled product in meters,
square meters, and theoretical weight. It is advisable to expand approval of
indicators which most fully take the quality of inetal into account. Metals
input and standard weight of product items characterize economy both of their
production and consumption. Obviously this indicator should become mandatory
in designing structures and manufacturing processes and whc~n putting new or
modernized product items into production. There is not yeC adequate economic
incentive, however, for designe:.s and engineers to develop less materials-in-
tensive products. Insufficient ,3ttention ie also being de~~oted to reducing mate-
= rial intensiveness of products at machine building enterprises. This is
due to the fact that according to existing regulations an :Ltem is put into
production if it meets all requirements imposed on it othe~ than the require-
ment of reduced materials intensiveness. Nor is a high level of materials in-
tensiveness an obstacle in awarding a product the Seal of Quality.
An important role in overcoming these deficiencies will be played by implementa-
tion of ineasures, specified in the decree on economizing in material resources,
pertaining to further improving standards and technical sp~acifications and en-
hancing their role in improving product quality and in economical utilization
of materials. Now principal product characteristics incorporated into
standards and apecifications will include indicators of a product's materials
intensiveness and Pnergy requirements, corresponding to thp finest achieve-
ments of Soviet and foreign science and technology. On certification, a
product can be assigned to the top quality category only if these requirements
are satisfied.
In order to implement measures specified by the decree pertaining to economical
utilization of material resources, it is essential to make appropriate changes
in organization of accounting and record keeping pertaining to indices
characterizing eff icient utilization of material resources. In particular,
there should be established a[echnically substantiated standards base for the
major material resources, for all metals, as well as for the principal
machine building produ~ts. Until recently only savings in hot-rolled metal
was planned. Many machine building products are not covered by standards. As
a result, for example, castings production and consumption volumes unwarranted-
ly grew and, correspondingly, the percentage share of castings in the total
metal structure was declining slowly. This was impeding the progress of
reduction in weight of machines. In addition, consumption standards are not
always revised with the adoption of scientific and technological advances.
Planning of targets pertaining to an average decrease in sper_ific consumption
for steel and iron castings and forgings from ingots, as well ~s a rolled stock
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utilizatian factor was adopted effec~ive 1981. This should provide incentive
for more ef;icient utilization of all metal.
'fhe decree specifies establishing, beginning in 1383, for industrial, construc-
tion and transport ministries, associations, enrarprises and organizations
production cost targets in five-year and annual plans, including a ceiling on
material outlays in monetary terms per ruble of output. Consumption standards
for the major types of materials, fuel and energy wLll be established in
physical terms per unit of output. The list of material resources on which
centralized targets pertaining to average decrease in consumption standards are
established will be exnanded. In order to carry c,ut the pla~ned measures, it is
essential tc, imprave the standards operations :.f enterprises. Existing
standards on consumption of raw materials, supplies, fuel and energy resources
should '~e promptly revised anr~ new ones established proceeding from plan tar-
gets, t~�king into account adoption of scientific and technological advances.
A number of scientific research inst~tutes have begtin implementing these
measures. Ln particular, NIIPiN [Scientif.ic Research Insti'tute of P~anning and
Standards] under USSd Gosplan is preparing a list of the most important
materials-intensive products and material resources, is drawing up standard
methods for calculating technically and economically substantiated standards
and for planning the materials intensiveness of products, and is drafting a
standa~d regulation on organization of bonus paytnents for achieving savings
in material-technical resources and reducing the materials intensiveness of
products manufactured.
Of great importance for efficient utilizacion of materials is a balance between
production and consumption of all types of resource~, and the availability of
an opt~.mal central reserve of thes~. resources. A shortage of certain types of
rolled products and ceiling-limited distribution of ferrous metals are forcing
enterprises to incorporate reserves into consumption standards for principal
product items. Enterprises are essentially creating "their own" internal
reserves for meeting various additionally occurring needs, including compensat-
ing for losses due to production-line rejects, which leads to ineff icient
utilization and freezing (accumulation) of certain quantities of material
resources at enterprises and the development of a short-supply situa~ion for
certain metal produc~s.
At the stage of plan drRft3ng, ministries should determine actual rEequirements
in all types of rolled products and capabilities to meet these requi.rpwants.
Essential for this is elaboration of a balanced metals production and consump-
tion plan. For proportional and balanced development of the eco.r.omy, when
drawing up national economy economic and social development pians it is es-
sentfal to specify centralized material reserves. Their formation will
promote an end to scattering of materials among separate agencies and enter-
prises and will create the possibility of selection of necessary materials and
their more efficient utilization.
- The decree on economizing in material resources acknowledges as essential in-
creased incentive for workers, managers, engineers, technicians and office
employees of associations, enterprises, and organizations to achieve ~Fficient
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utilization of material resources. ~bviously a uniform system of material
incentive to economize should be created. Econemic incentive funds of
ministries and agencies, associations, enterprises and organizations will be
formed in relation to the level of mate^ial outlays per ruble of product (work
perfoi~ued) and total savings achieved by reducing material outlays in com-
parison with the ratified ceiling. Workers, foremen, process engineers,
designers and other engineer-technician personnel will be awarded bonuses for
achieving savings in specific types of material resources in comparison with
the specified technically substantiated consumption stande.rds. Payment of
bonuses to adpinistrative office personnel at production associations, enter-
pris~s and organizations would be in relation to the level of material outlays
per ruble of product in comparison with the established cei.ling, taking into
account fulfillment of targets pertaining to product cost for the association,
~ enterprise, and organization. Implementation of all these ~?easures will serve
as a basis for establish3.ng a uniform system of incentive to economize in
resources.
Economical utiZization of material resources will be promoted by converting over
all branches of industry to planning a sales volume indicator taking into ac-
count completion of prodcction deliveries according to the full list and
variety. When figuring the material incentive fund, one :hould take into ac-
count the levels of materials intensiveness of product itE~ms and fulf illment
of contracts pertaining to delivery schedule, product qua].ity and variety. It
is advisable to increase the amount of fines and to increase the personal
liability of officials of enterprises, ministries and supply personnel for
failure to meet contractual agreements.
In our opi.nion the above-examined areas of reducing production metals input and
achieving efficient metals utilization, particularly optimization of the
branch structure of inetals consumers and iwprovement in the structure of
structural materials will foster economical utilization of: material resources.
- FOOTNOTES
1. See A. I. Tselikov, "Metallurgicheskiye mashiny i agrE:gaty: nastoyashcheye
i budushcheye' [Metallurgical Machinery and Equipment~ Present and Future],
Izdatel'stvo Metallurgiya, 1979, page 136.
2. See N. F. Sklckin, "Ekonomicheskiye problemy povyshen:Lya kachestva i
razvitiya sortaiaenta chernykh metallov" jEconomic Problems of Improving the
Quality and Enlarging the Variety of Ferrous Metals], Izdatel'stvo
Metallurg~ya, 1978, page 138.
- COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Pravda", "Voprosy e~onomiki", 19$2.
3024
CSO: 1842/134
,
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ECONOMY OF I~TAL THROUGH AIGHER QUALITY METAL
Moscow METALLOVEDENIYE I TERMICI~SKAYA OBRABOTKA METALLOV in ~ussian No 5,
May 82 pp 2-6
[Article: "An Increase in the Quality of Metal - the Real Means of Its
Economy"]
[Text] '1'he economy of inetal is one of the key problems of modern ma~hine
building. Under~conditions of the improvement~ eacpansion and optimization
of the existing praduction, the rational use of inetal becomea very important.
Therefore in the "Basic Trends in the Economic and Social Development of
the USSR for the qears 1981'1985 and for the period up to 1990" together
with the formulation of the scientific and technical problems, the solution
' to which allows obtaining a considerable savings of inetallic materials, the
need for implementing another, more effective means is underlined: the
zealous uae of inetal in the process of its procesaing. economical with
respect to the national good. "...We, of course, will put new metallurgical
~ plants into operation. But to overcome the ehartage of inetal~ there existe
another means, a more akillful and complete uae of that which is produced,"
said L. I. Brezhnev at the 26th CPSU congxese [1]. This is a practical
embodiment of the Leninist thought about the fact tt~at communism begina with
the everyday care of the workers concerning each pvod of inetal and grain and
the increase in the labor productivity.
If we bear in mind the problams of the economy of inetal which arie~ from the
firat trend, the improvement of production based upon new acientific and
technical achievementa, then, f irst of all, we need to know the feature
which is characteriatic for it: these problems are essentially compl~x.
They can be eolved effectively only under the condition of the economp of
materials in all linke of the industrial chain of manufacturing a part,
beginning with the smelting of the metal and ending with finishing operations,
i.e., it is necessary at the same time to seek the means of the economy 4f
metal in the reserves which are available in metallurgy, in machine building,
_ in particular, in metal working, and ao on. The greatestt eavinge of materials
can be achieved in solving basic problems Qf the modern production of producte:
an increase in the quality of the metal; improvement of the metallurgical
convereion; the development of powder metallurgy; an increase in the corro-
sion resistance of materials; the ~evelopment of new strcutural ateels and
alloys; the improvement and development of new forms of heat, deformation and
chemical-~eat treatments; and the introduction of low~-waste technology.
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The increase in the quality of the metal is the basic way to increase the
life of the parts and one of the main sources of the economy of steels and
alloys. Therefore, the development of ferrous metallurgy in the trend of
the ~mprovement and creation of inethods of production, which provide an
increase in the quality of the smeltable materials, is, at the same time,
one of the means of the economy of inetal. In the llth Five Year Plan there
will be further development in electric-furnace steel smelting and oxqgen-
cor.version production with and increase in the smelting of steel by 1.6 and
1.3 times. respectively, [1], plasma smelting, and also processes of electric-
slag, vacuum-arc, vacuum induction~and electron-beam remeltings [2J. The
portion of the metal scrap and waste products of ferrous metals will be con-
- siderably increased in t~he chaxge. For exa~ple, i~~i the smelting of electric-
furnace steel, the quality of it will consist of more than 95% of the w ight
of the whole charge, and in the total volume of steel production the portion
of ine[al scrap exceeds 44x [3J. There is much ir?terest ir. *~e smelting of
steel with the use of inetallized pellets as the charge. which was devel.oped
at the Oskol'sk electrometall;irgical combine. In the next five-year plan,
the production of large tonnage forms of inetallurgical productic�~, witfi reliable
and st;ible normalized quality characteristics will be carried ~~ut. In the
first place, it is necessary to ensure an increase in the tniformity and
purity of the metal with respect to harmful impurities: a decrease in the
content of sulfur and phosphorus down to thousandths of a percent. This
makes it possible to increase considerably the ductility at low temperatures
of the alloyed high-~strength and low-alloyed steels for gas and oil pipe--
lines~ b�~ilding structures for the northErr.. regions and so on. The large-
tonnage production of such metal will be posaible because of the intensive
development of the extrafurnace methods of refining. The volume of steel
refined by degassing is increased by 3.2 times~ by inert gases, 1.4 times,
and by synthetic slags, 1.3 times. Thus, for example~ th.e ;:se of vacuum
processing of electric (sheet) steels in the ladle at the Cherepovets
metallurgical works made it possible to increase considerably tlie output
of high-quality steels and~ furthermore, to lower the cost of one ton of a
cold-rolled sheet by 18-20 rubles j4]. The refining of ~teel also permits
reducing the consumption of ferroalloys, decreasing t~e rejects of inetal
with respect to chemical composition and defecta of the surface of the
rolled stock~ and stabilizing the properties of steel from smelting to
smelting.
The improvement of the metallurgical process stage is one: of t~e trends
which provide a considerable economy of the materials witfiout an increase
in the volume of its production. The main effect is reached due to the
production of efficient forms of inetal production and the introduction of
new progressive industrial processes~ which improve the structure and com--
plex of inechanical properties of the metal.
In the first case the most promising are works on the optimization o� tfie
dimensions, the increase in pre~ision of tfie rolled stock and pipes~ the
expansion of their grades (for tfie purpose of equipping the customer witfi
materials with minimal deviations of the dimensions from thnse required)~
and also the creation of fundamentally new deforming devices, for example,
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part-rolling mills which allow malcing by plastic deformation either the
parts directly or blanks having the configuration of parts, with minimal
allowancea for machining. At present, ferrous metallurgy in the USSR
produces more than 7,500 merchant, shaped roll-formed and higix-precision
section dimensions of rolled sttock, sheet rolled stock - 22~000 dimensions,
steel pipes - 30,000 section dimensions, and metal hardware - 50,000 forms
[2]. In recent years about 900 state and dozens of branch standards and ~
5400 specifications for producible production have been renewed. About 300 .
obsolete and heavy sections are excluded from the assortment~ and requirements
for deviations fram the assigned dimensions are tightened. In spite of the
fact that only in the .last five years there nas been the development and
assimilation of inetal production of a large range of products (rolled stock
of 870 new grogressive section dimensions, including 339 hat rolled shaped,
283 roll-formed and 248 shaped of high precision), during years of the llth
Five-~Year Plan there will be an increase in the production of roll'formed
section of 1.5 times, of wide~flange beams 1.2 times, and of sheet cold-
rolled steel 1.5 timea j2]. The maximum economy of inetal is achieved in
precision forging and rolling in a field of negative and narrowed tolerances.
For example, as a result of rolling in a field of negative tolerances, at
the "Azovatal plant, the Donetsk, Western Siberian~ Cherepovets Novo'
Lipetek, ChelyAbinsk, and Taganrog metallurgical works, the Dneprovsk
metallurgical works imeni Dzerzhinsk, and the "[~nurstal plant, more than
34,000 tons of inetal are saved j5]. Extremely effic3ent is the introduction
at the wire, light--section and mediwn-section rolling mills of preliminarily
stressed stands (PSS), which makes it possible to produce rolled stock of
high precision. Here the microstructure and properties of the metal ~re im-~
proved~ losses to scale and the thickness of the decarbonized layer of the
rolled wire are decreased, and the specific quantity of inetal of the struc-
tures is lowered. The national economic effect resulting from the introduc--
tion of a new system of stands~ at the Cherepovets metallurgical works
alone was about 60 million rubles. In the llth Five Year Plan the PSS will
be installed at the light--section mills of th~ Western Siberian and Chelyabinsk
metallurgical works and the "Krivoy Rog" plant j5]. A considerable reserve
in the economy of inetal is the putting into production of progressive indus-
trial processes based on the most recent achievements in science and tech-
nology, for example, the manufacture of machine~building parts by tfie method
of rolling. About a hundred part--rolling mills are already operating in our
country. An increase of 4-5 times in tfieir number makes it possible not only
to save 350,000 tons of inetal yearly, but also free about 20,00 0 metal--cutting
machines and 27,000 workers. The total savings amount to about 400 million
rubles per year I6]. Thus only owing to the development of progressive
methods of producing rolled stock of steel pipes and metal hardware~ will
about seven million tons of inetal be saved in 1985.
The second trend of works on improving the metallurgical process stage
permits obtaining an economy of m~tal owing to an increase in the complex
of its mechanical properties. The successful development in this trend in
the next five'year plan, in the first place. is determined by the results
achieved in the lOth Five-Year Plan in the field of applied and theoretical
physical metallurgy and the theory and practice of heat and deformation treat-
ments. The basic means for increasing mechanical properties of inetal is the
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regulation of the temperature-rate parameters of processe~: of the deforma-
~ tion of ingots in their treatment and the combination o:~ plastic deforma-
tion with heat treatment. To achieve the maximum economy of inetal, it is
necessary to conduct extensive studies on the finding of efficient indus-
trial schemes of heat and heat and strain hardening wi~h the appropriate
alloying of steel. Deserving special attention among theee schemes are:
the hardening of the rolled stock by heat treatment from ~pecial or milling
heating, monitorable rolling, heat treatment from the intercritical tempera-
ture range, the use of TMT t9'hermomechanical Treatment] iti the production of
rolled stock fram ateels with perlitic converaion~ and thE:rmocyclic treat-
ment. For example, thermal hardening from milling heatin~ in the flow of
the mills, based on the theory of the thermomechanical efi'ect on steel and
a technology worked out in each specific case with the usE~ of simple devices
for the cooling of the steel from the deformation temperature~ permits a
saving on the avaerage of 22X of the metal and the obtaining in the national
economy of an economical effect of about 38 rubles per ton j7]. During
1981-1985 an increase in the production of such rolled stack of 1.8 times
will be provided. The monitorable rolling of th~ low~alloyed steels, carried
out with high degrees of deformation at comparatively low temperatures, ensures
an increase in their strength and plastic properties. The putting into opera-
tion of the 3000 mill at the I1'ich metallurgical works permits the rolling
additionally in monitorable modes up to twc million tons of plate per year j2].
The implementation in future years of rolled stock by mon3.torable modes and
different schemes of heat and thermomechanical treatments will provide not
only a saving of the metal, but also a considerable saving of the alloying
elements, since with such methods of treatment it i~ possible to use economi-~
cally alloyed materials. As a result of the improvement uf the metallurgi-
cal process stage f.n all links, by 1985 there will be an .3ssimilation of the
techn~logy of the production of sheet and section steel and pipes with an
ultimate atrength of 700~-2500 MPa, and the average strength of the metal will
increase by 57~6y as compared with that reached in 1980 j2].
The powder or "little" metallurgy in the llth Five Year Plan should prdvide
a considerable economy of steels and alloys because of thP high utilization
factor of the metal. In the production of each thousand tons of products
by such method~ a savings of 2.5 thousand tons of rolled stock will be
achieved. The effect of the savings, f irst of all, depen3s on the volume
of.production of the high~quality iron powders and also p~wders from alloyed
steels and alloys, and~ therefore, by 1985 it is planned t~ increase the
production of inetallic powder by 3.3 times. To do this~ it is necessary to
concentrate the scientific studies in the direction of obtaining iron powders
by the method of the spraying of inelts by high pressure water and the method
of restoration of the ores and hydrogen superconcentrate and of the obtaining
of pure iron oxide and iron powders of higher quality from the depleted
hydrochloric-~acid etching solutions of the rolling production. Fram these
powders it is planned to manufacture products with increased wear resistance~
life, corrosion resistance, and other special properties. This requires the
development of new heat-resistant and corrosion-resistant alloys on the basis
of intermetallic compounds and refractory metals and the improvement of pro-
cesses of the application of heat-resis*ant~ wear-resistant and anticorrosion
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coatings by the gas-thermal and ion-plasma methods. There ie increased
interest in powder composite materials, and the use of these materials
allows saving not only tha scarce alloying clements, but also the spe~ial
expansive steels. For example, the replacement on ~ust one centerless
lathe of rollers of hardened steel R6M5, which feed and hold the bars to be
machined, b,y rollers of sintered alloy, titanium carbide and stainless
steel, makes it possible to increase the reaistance by 15-20 times and obtain
an annual ssvings of five to six thou~and rubles [11].
The increase in the corrosion resistance of materials is one of the most
import$nt problems of modern physical metallurgy, the successful solution
to which is governed by the effectiveness of combatting corrosion, which
brings losses in the billions of rubles to the national economy. The basic
studies are conducted in the direction of development of fundamentals of the
alloying of new corrosion-~resistant steels and alloys and the creation of
polymer and metallic coatings with the minimal use of expensive and z~carce
metals and, namely, anticorrosion coatings for parts of machine-building
production and coatings for pipes.
In the development of new materials, the principle importance is in works
on the optimization of the composition of complexly alloyed steels and alloys
for the purpose of reducing the consumption of scarce metals, for example,
nickel, the investigation of the effect of alloying elements and impuriti.es
cn the structure and corrosion resistance, and the creation of new alloys
with increased corrosion resistance. The use of coatings. especially polpmer,
is one of the promising trends in the protection of inetal from cqrrosion.
The combination of the steel base and polymer coatinge permits creating new
structural materials with assigned properties, including resistance in dif--
ferent chemical m~dia. and thermal and sound insulation raaterials with g~od
stampability and a commercial foxm. At the present, TsNIIChERMET ICer~tra~
- Scientif ic Research Institut~ Ferrous Metallurgy imeni I. P. Bardin]~
jointly with a number of institutes of the chemical industry, is conducting
- works to create a new corro;aion-resi.stant and salt--tolerant material for
the automotive industry of ~the type "Tsinkrometall" j2]. Of the known
~ methods of applying metallic coatings, a special place is occupied by vacuum
chromizing (VC), the technology of which has been developed by UkrNIISPETsSTAL'
[Ukrainian Scientifie Research Institute of Special Steel] in collaboration
with a number of inetallurgical works of our country j8]. This technology
~ has certain advantages over other methods of the application of coatinge.
For example, a diffusion layer 100-200 um thick with saturation in a vacuum
is formed in 3--5 minutes; to obtain a similar coatin~ by gas or powder methods
28-36 hours are required. Suc:h a high rate of the formation of the diffusion ~
layer is caused by the special feature of the very process of the VC: the
metallizing spray gun is vaporized in the heating process in a vacuum, and its
vapors precipitat~ Qnto the surface of the article heated above 700�C. Under
these conditions an effective diffusion saturation of the surface layers of
the metal occurs. The metal rolled stock (sheets, pipes) with coatings
applied by this method ha$ practically the same resistance at increased

_ temperatures as do the corrosion-resistant steels Kh18T1 and lOKh13 and, in
individual cases, a~ austenite steels of. the type 18-10, i.e., after such
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treatment the standard rolled stock can be successfully u:;ed instead of the
more expensive and complexly alloyed steels. A thin chrome-plated sheet,
with respect to corrosion resistance, is equivalent to a bimetal, and its
net cost is considerably lower. The VC o~ boiler pipes, :in the retention of
high heat resistance, allows increasing by 2-4 times the ~-esistance of gas
corrosion~ increasing the reliability of operation of higli-pressure boilers
and considerably reducing the number of ~a~~r repairs [8].
Other methods of applying coatings are of great importance. Thus a process
which is progressive is the industrial process of the production of a hot-
aluminized thin sheet - a corrosion-resistant, weatherpro~~f and heat-resis-
tant structural material, the application of which in the construction in-
dustry allows increasing by three times the life of the structures as compared
with hot zinc-plated metal j2].
- Special attention in the problem of the economy of inetal is being given to the
protection of pipes fY~m corrosion: a decrease in their thickness even of
several percent makes it possible to save a significant quantity of steel and
alloys for the national economy. Thus the use of glass ena^~zl coating of
pipes for heat simultaneously with an increase in the peri,~d and service of
five to si.~c times allows decreasing the thickness of the wall of the pipes
by 30% ta ~?0% and st~arply reducing the consumption of inetal j9]. The appli-
cation of the method c+f applying coatings developed in the Ura1NITI [Ural
Scientific Research and Technical Institute] at the Sokolovsk~Sarbay mining
combine~ with a yearly productivity of the section of 5000 meters of pipes
377 millimetprs in diameter, ensures an increase in the resistance of the
pipes of 10 times I9] and a savings of 150 rubles frc~m the use of each meter
of pipe. A large saving of inetals is achieved in the production of multi~
layered pipes. In this case the fundamental importance 3.s acquired by the
- metal physical problems of producing high-strength rolled. steel, beginning
from its t3melting and ending with the development of the technology of de~
formation and heat treatment. Showing promise is the modern technology of
smelting steel in oxygen steel~making co~verters, which ensures the possi-
bility of obtaining the content of alloying elements in narrow limits; the
uniformity of the structure and mechanical properties of the rolled stock,
and the possibility of using the best possible conditions of the milling
being monitored.
The development of new structural materials is a fundamental problem of
modern physical metallurgy, and the successful solution L-a it~ first of all,
depends on the economy of steel and alloying elements. '~he creation of
new materials in the near future will be accomplished mainly in the same
directions as that of the lOth Five Year Plan j10~. The main effect of the
economy can be achieved as a result of the development o` economically
alloyed steels and alloys possessing an increased complex of physical and
mechanical properties: low-carbon steels alloyed by abundant elements
(Mn, Si, Cr), low--carbon steels with carbonitride hardening, martensite-
ag~Ing economically alloyed steels, and low-carbon steels of the ferrite-
martensite grades. A considerable savings can be obtained as a result of
the creation of new materials intended for the introduction of highly
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effective methods of treatment, for example, cold die forging, and Ineconnecf
th~m in spQCial operating conditions in regions of the Far North.
tion with this, there is interest in works on the introduction of economical-
ly a11oyed steels for gas pipelines, whi:;h operate under a pressure of 100 at,
and highly cold-resistant steels (down to -120�C) for reservoirs and building
structures j2J. For the operation of the pipelines at increased pressure,
it is necessary to develop steel with a higher complex of properties than
is used for this steel 09G2FB. The new steel should possess increased im-
pact strength and strength at -15�C to -20�C with good weldability. The
creation of such a material is possible with the collaboration of inetallurgists
and metal scientists, since to do this it is necessary to develop the technology
of smelting steel with narrow limits of the content of the a11004y) and coms~
with an ultralow content of sulfur (not more than 0.003~ to 0.
pletely globulariaed sulf ides, and also with a reduced content of hydrogen;
the conditions of monitorable milling for sheets of large thickness (22-
24 mm); and the technology of the production of p~pes, which ensures a high
reliability of the basic metal and welded joint, and an effective coYrosion
coating for pipes. The ~echnology for obtaining rolled stock and pipes
from steels with nitride-vanadium hardening will be assimilated in the next
five-year plan. Structural steels which are resisiaes of Setroleum gradeland
ment will be used in the llth Five-Year Plan for p p P
a~paratuses for processing natural gas. Also fundamentally important are
works on the testing of weldable steels with Q~ = 800-1000 MPa for the manu-
f acture of machine bueloimentaand introduction ofihighgstrengthcsteel for
also works on the dev p
welded housings of new atomic energy plants.
The improvement and development of new forms of heat~ deformation and chemi-
cal-heat treatments are efficient means in the economy of steels and alloys.
This is conditi~:~ed by the fact that from year ta year the portion of the
metal (semifinished products and parts) being sub~ected to strain-hardening
treatment is increased in the total volume of production. Simultaneously
with an increase in the complex of inechanical properties and structural
strength, new methods and progressive industrial processes make it increase
to improve the quality of the output production and, consequently,
the reliability and life of the essential parts of different structures.
Promising workr~ in this direction can belong to the development of differ--
ent p.lans for obtaining heat-hardened rolled stock; the extensive use of
methods of heat treatment based on the use of currentsi~f ~o ective atmospheres
trial frequency for heating; heat treatment (heatiin)the llth Five Year Plan
and a vacuum; and the laser treatment of inetals.
~ the most promising are works in the field of TMT je~a~OmeThermomechanic~alnt],
in particular, the introduction of HTTZ [High-Temp
Treatment] by quasi-hydroextrusion and high-temperatur~. gas extrusion [2].
Finding application in industry are different industrial schemes of treat-
ment by explosion ofintthesultimate strengtheabovea2000nMPa withea~retenh
provide an increase
tion or increase in the ductility.
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In the field of chemical and heat treatment (CHT) process~~s which allow
obtaining diffusion layers of high quality and~ ultimatel~~, increasing the
life of the parts will be developed. Belonging to these processes, in the
first place, can be differ~nt forms of low- and higii-temperature processes
of Chemical-Thermal Treatment: cyaniding, cyanidation, c:irbonitriding, short-
term nitriding, and others. There is special interest in chemical-thermal
treatment at increased temperatures in a vacuum~ and when this is carried
out it is possible to effectively act upon the structure ~~f the diffusion
layer through the change in the pressure and improve the ~~uality of the pro-
ducts through the elimination of. internal oxidation.
The introduction of low waste technology. At present in the creation of
new methods of t:~e treatment of materials, beginning with the smelting and
ending with the manufacture of a part, it is necessary to strive for the
development of low-waste ~echnology. This is one of the aain sources of
the economy of inetal. For example, already for several years the collec-
tive PO ZIL jPlanning Department of the Moscow Automobile Plant
imeni Likhachev] has been carrying out a long-term progra~m for introducing
low-waste technology, as a result of which ten:s of thousands of tons of
metal have already been saved j6]. A considerable importance in this
article of economy is occupied by problems of the lowerinq ~~f the specific
quantity of inetal of the struct~ires and the increase in the utilization
factor of the metal j6]. In connection with this, special significance is
acquired by the combined development by metal scientists, metal physicists
and mechanical engineers of inethods for evaluating the structural strength
for the purpose of optimizing the strength safety factors in the calculation
of structures operating in different temperature-rate loading conditions.
In spite of the fact that in this direction certain achievements have al-
ready been made (determination of the destructive strength of materials and
components of impact strength, the plotting of serial curves, and so on).
on the whole the problem remains unsolved. There is fundamental importance
in the studies of the connection of the structure with structural strength,
the classif ication of factors determining the brittle and. ductile failure,
an3 the creation of universal criteria for estimating the structural strength.
The main efforts in the creation of new machines and assemblies are directed
at the lowering of their weight i:: calculati,~n per unit Fower. For example,
89 of the 128 most important products being Fioduced by the machine-building
works of the Sverdlovsk Oblast have a lower specific met~l content than
similar Soviet and foreign specimens [6]. H~wever, as Comrade L. I. Brezhnev
noted, "...the specific quantity of inetal of many machines and equipment
being produced remains excessively high. The amount of waste in metal work--
ing has not been reduced. Precision billets are slowly being introduced."
In connection with ~his, the basic problem liea in the creation of such
processes of treatment which will ensure the obtaining of a utilization
factor of the metal of higher ~han 0.72-0.73 [6].
; The measures outlined for imgroving the quality of inetal, the increase in
the complex of its physical ar.d mechanical properties, and also the improve-
ment of designs of machines and the technology of inetal working and a more
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extensive use of inetallic and polymer materials make it possible to save
eight million tons of rolled stock in machine building and two million tons
in construction j4]. Such a result can be reached only if the competition
fvr the saving of inetal takes on an even wider scope~ and if in each labor
collective, as is required by resolutions of the November (1981) Ylenum of
the CC CPSII, results of its work will be analyzed, and reserves for the
succegsful impl~en~ation of the production assignments will be put into
operation. �
, ~
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Materialy BXVI s"yezda KPSS" jMaterials of the Twentp-siath Congr~ss
of the CPSU], Moscow: Politizdat, 1981, p 39.
2. Kugushin, A. A., "Tasks of Branch Science in Light of the Resolutions
~f the Twenty-si.Yth Congress of the CPSU," STAL'. 1981, No 9, p 1�
3. Khamskiq, G. S., "State and Prospects of the Development of the Procesa--
ing of Metal Scrap," STAL', 1981, No 11, p 6.
4. "Higher the Quality of Metal," PRAVDA, 1981. 22 Dec.
5. Kostyukov, I. I., "Competitifln and Technical Progress~" STAL', 1981~
No 10, p 2.
6. "Economize the Metal," PRAVDAr 1981~ 30 Dec.
7. Brodov, A. A., et al., In the Collection: "Effektivnost' tekhnicheskogo
progressa v~chernoy metallurgii" jEfficiency of Technical Progress in
Ferrous Metallurgy], Moscow: Metallurgiya, 1979. No 3, p 28.
8. Petrov~ A. K., et al., "Diffusion Chrome Caatings on Steel," STAL',
1981, No 9, p 63.
9. Blinov, Yu. I., "Protection of Pipes from Corrosion an~. Wear," STAL'~
1981, No 10, p 67.
10. "Physical Metallurgy and Aeat Trea~ment on the Boundary of the Tenth and
Eleventh Five~Year Plans," MiTO~M jMETALLOVEDENIYE I TEItMICHESKAYA
OBRABOTKA METALLOV]~ 1981~ No 2, p 3.
11. Gurevich, Yu. G., et al., STAL', No 10, p 77.
COPYRIGIiT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye"~ "Metallovedeniye i termicheskaya
obrabotka metallov", 1982
9978
CSO: 1842/139
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NONFERROUS METALLURGY
UDC: 669.2:66.061.5
EXTRACTION OF COPPER, NICKEL AND COBALT WITH SE~.'F cAL OXYOXIMES
Moscow TSVETNYYE METALLY in Russian No 3, Mar 82 pp 24-27
[Article by V. F. Travkin, V. V. Yakshin, V. S. U1'yanov, A. M. Mirokhin and
I. V. Belyayev]
[Text] Hydrometallurgical methods are the principal methods employed in
processing low-grade off-balance sheet as well as diffir_ult-to-beneficiate
oxidized copper ores. In the past these ~res were processed according to the
scheme leaching-cementation, while in recent years extraction methods of
recovering copper from leaching solutions have been in increasingly widespread
ue. This became possible in connection with the development of Lix, SME-529,
Acorga, and Kelex type reagents [1=3], which are used for selective extraction
~ of copper from weakly acid solutions.
Copper extracting agents belonging to the cate~ory of oxyoximes OMG [4], ABF
[5-7], and others have l~een developed in the USSR. Of these extracting
agents, alkylbenzophenonoxime ABF which has gone through full-scaZe tests
and has been recommended for commercial adoption [8] has been studied in
the greatest detail.
In spite of the fact that extraction methods are already being employed in the
copper industry abroad, the search for new, more efficient and cheaper reagents
j.s continuing. Of considerable interest, for example, is an evaluation of the
inf luence of th~: structure of an oxyoxime on its extraction properties. For
example, introduction of a chlorine atom into the molecule of the Lix 70 re-
agent has the result that copper extraction can be accomplished from more
acid solutions (pH ~ 1.0-1.5). It therefore was of interest to examine the
properties of alkoxyoximes containing an oxygen atom, which can increase the
stability of the copper cowplex with the oxyoxime (AOBF-1 and AOBF-2). Finally,
the presence of two oxyoxime groupings in the extracting agent molecule can
lead to an increase in the copper extracting capacity of the extracting agent
(OKFO).
In this article we shall examine the e:xtraction properties of the following re-
agents, which are members of the class of oxyox3mes:
4-alk (CT-C9) oxy-L-axybenzophenonoxime (AOBF-1);
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4-alk (C~-C9) ~xy-2-oxyphennaphthenyloxime (AOBF-2);
bis-(4-oxy-5-caprinophenoxime)-2.2-propane (OKFO).
we used specimens of r~=::gents containing not less than 95-97 percent of the
principal substance. All reagents are viscoua liquids of a dark brown color,
with a density of 0.�2-0.94 g/cm3. The reagents AOBF-1 and AOBF-2 are readily
b~iuble in kerosene, and the reagent OKFO in a mixture of lcerosene plus
20 percent octyl al~~hol. The viscosity of 10 percent (by volume) solutione
of these reagents in a?p:;;.riate organic solvents was (1.50-1.95) x 10'2m2/s at
30�C. Preliminary tests established that in 2-3 minuteF of phase mixing, extrac-
tion of copper into organi.c phase is not less than 90-95 percent.
Of the greatest interest is extraction of copper from sulfate solutions. It
is evident from the figures in Table 1 that the tested reagents possess a
fairly high copper capacity and selectivity as regards principal impurities,
which are not inferior to the properties of ABF reagent. At the same time re-
agent AOBF-1 is even somewhat superior in these propexties to ABF, and therefore
we shall subsequently examine in detail the principal properties of precisely
this reagent.
Table 1. Distribution of Copper and Impurities During Extraction by 10 Percent
(by Volume) Solutions of Oxyoximes in Kerosene (O:B=1:1) and Re-
extraction by 20 Percent Sulfuric Acid (O:B=1:1)
Solutions pH Content, g/1
Cu(II) Fe(II11 Zn(II) Ni(II) Co(II)
Initial
Refining
Agent: 2.01 2.3 0.85 1.72 1.68 0.81
OKFO 1.68 0.76 0.84 1.70 1.68 0.81
AOBF-2 1.66 0.79 0.83 1.71 1.66 0.80
AOBF-1 1.63 0.62 0.84 1.72 1.67 0.81
ABF 1.65 0.61 0.82 1.71 1.67 0.81
Reextract:
OKFO - 1.49 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.005
AOBF-2 - 1.56 0.07 0.05 0.02 ~..~OS
AOBF-1 - 1.68 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.005
AgF - 1.64 0.06 0.04 0.0: 0.005
As a rule sulfate solutions for leaching copper-containing ore have a pH of
1.5-3.0. In this case the determining factor in aelective separation of copper
from iron, as the principal impurity, is the acidity of the aqueous phase.
Separation of copper and iron takes place most efficiently when pH=1.0-2.0
(Figure 1).
Removal of copper and iron impurities from nickel electrolyte is a complex
technical problem. During extraction with employment of alkoxybenzophenon-
oxime with pH =5, copper and iron pass into organic phase, while virtually no
nickel is extracted. Reextraction of. the copper from organic phase is
accomplished with a solution containing 150-200 g/1 of H2SO4, whereby .
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D
, 1000 ~
100
10
2'
1,0
Q1 / 4 d
0,01
2 3 , ~F pN
Figure 1. Influence of pH oT extraction (D degree of extraction) from
sulfate solutions copper 1, iron 2, nickel 3, and cobalt 4, by AOBF solu-
~ tions in kerosene. Initial aqueous phase, g/1: 1.2 Cu; 2.0 Fe(II); 5.83 Ni,
0.85 Co ~
reextracts are obtained, on which electrodepoeition of copper can be per-
formed.
_ Studies have shown that the priacipal mechaaisms of extraction of inetals by
alkoxybenzophenonoxime from sulfate and sulfate-chloride solutions are similar.
Copper is extraGted at pH50X extraction (pH at which ICd=1), equal to 1.2 for
sulfate and 1.0 for sulfate-chloride solutiona. Extraction of the other metals
takes place in the following sequence: iroa-nickel-cobalt-manganeae-zinc
(Table 2).
Table 2. PHSOX Values of Metals in Extraction by a 10 Percent (by Volume)
solution of AOBF in Tetrachlorethylene
Metal Sulfate Solutton* Sulfate-Chloride Solutionx*
Cu 1.2 1.0
Fe 2.5 2.3
Ni 5.7 4.4
Co 5.8 4.7
Mn 5.8 4.7
Zn 5.9 5.0
* 50 g/1 sulfate ion concentration.
40 g/1 sulfate ion, 10 g/1 chlori.de ion concentration.
In thP case of sulfate-chloride solutions,~the pH50x values are displaced into
the more acid region. This is probably connected with the existence of
chloride or sulfate-chloride groups in such solutiona, which are better ex-
tracted by oxyoxime than metal sulfates.
Employment of tetrachlorethylene~ as a diluent preveats the formation of a
second organic phase, which is conaected with the high solubility of complexes
of copper or other metals with oxyoximea in diluents of this type. In addition,
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~~m{~loyment of this diluent makes it poesible to extract metals from more acid
~ulutions than with the employment of a solution of AOBF reagent in kerosene.
For example, with extraction of copper from sulfate soluti.ons of 10 percent
(by volume) alkoxybenzophenonoxime in kerosene, pH50X�1.45, while in
tetrachlorethyleae, P~50Xs1.2.
Of practical significance is the separation of copper and zinc when they are
both present in sulfate and sulfate-chloride aolutions. Extraction of zinc and
cadmium by oxyoximea, even when pli;5y is quite insignificant (ICd~ 0.01) , which
makes it possible selectively to recover copper from such solutiona by
extraction. The extraction process can be used to remove copper from zinc
electrolytes and to treat copper-chlorine cake in the production of zinc.
Ammonia methods of processing copper- a.d nickel-containing ore are of in-
terest. Processes of extracting co~pper [9] and nickel [10] from ammonia solu-
tions with oxyoximea used as extracting agents are in practical use at the
present time. One can encounter in industry a~onia solutions with a fairly
high content of carbonate, sulfate and chloride ions. Conceatrations of copper,
nickel, and cobalt in these solutions can vary across a broad range.
D x~x~~,~x
700 ~
>0 �
1,0
0,1
0,01 ~
0,001 ~ .
- SO 100
[NH~], t/~?
Figure 2. Relationship between extraction of copper nickel 2, and cobalt 3
from an ammonia concentration for AOBF solution in kerosene.
Aqueous phase, g/1: 1.1 Cu; 3.6 Ni; 1.2 Co; 10 C03
As is evident from Figure 2, change in a~onia concentration in ammonia-
carbonate solutions has practically no effect on extraction of copper, while
nfckel distribution factors increase from 1 to 10, and extraction of cobalt in-
to organic phase is quite negligible (Kd ~ 0.002-0.003). Consequently,
selective separation of copper and nickel from cobalt during extraction from
ammonia-carbonate aolutions is poasible. The slight influence of changes of
concentrationa of ammonia makes the process of extraction of copp~r and nickel
easily controllable.
The .:.oncentration of carbonate ion in the aqueoue phase has practically no ef-
fect on extraction of copper, which is extracted by 10 percent (by volume)
AOBF-1 with a high Itd 100). Extraction of nickel decreases smoothly with
30
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an increase in concentration of carbonate ion: for solutions with a C0~ =10 g/1,
Kd=10, and for [CO~--]=60 g/1 Kd=1 (ammonia content 50 g/1). Thus in the case
of amanonia-carbonate solutions, the separation factors of copper-cobalt and
nickel-cobalt pairs are large across the entire range of change in carbonate
ion concentration. For example, with a carbonate ion concentration of 40 0!1
and ammonia 50 g/1, /~~u_~=16,000, and (~Ni-Co ~ 350. This makes it possible
selectively to recover copper and nickel from the aqueous phase. Separation
of these metals caii be accamplished at the reextraction stage. A sulfuric
acid solution at a concentration of 50-80 g/1 is used for reextraction of
nickel, ar.~ 150-300 g/1 for copper.
Extraction of inetai~ from ammonia-sulfate solutions has certain peculiarities.
� For example, an increase in the a~nonia concentration leads to suppression of
copper and cobalt extraction, while nickel is extracted by oxyoxime [1] in a
fairly narrow range of ammonia concentrations (30-80 g/1), with Kd=2-4. The
metal separation factors reach maximum values with fairly law ammonia con-
centrations (to 40-60 g/1).
~
f00 ~
10
1,0
0,1 ~
0,01
SO 100 150
[~~t~ ~ Z/n
Figure 3. Relationship between extraction of nickel 1 and cobalt 2 from a
calcium chloride concentration for an AOBF solution in keYOaene. Aqueous phase,
g/1: 4.6 Ni; 1.5 Co; 90 NH3 (bound)
Sul�ate ion concentration in the aqueous phase doea not greatly affect ex-
- traction of copper: Kd ~ 10 in the range 50-250 g/1 of eulfate ion. Extraction
of nickel increases with an increase in sulfate ion concen.tration, while
extraction of cobalt decreases. E xp2rimental data indicatest3~at with the aid
of alkoxybenzophenonoxime [1] one can selectiv~ly recover nickel and cobalt
from ammonia-sulfate solutions with high sulfate-ion concentrations 150 g/1)
and comparatively low ammonia concentrations 60 g/1). In these conditions
cobalt remains in solution.
Recovery of inetals from ammonia-chloride solutions has been examined in [he
example of nickel and cobalt. With a constant concentration of calcium
chloride l^~150 g/1), change in the ammonia content in aqueous phase does not
lead to a raubstantial change in extraction of nickel and cobalt. Throughout the
entire investigated range of ammonia concentration (40-120 g/1), nickel distribu-
tion factors remain high (Kd ~ 100), and cobalt low (ltd ~ 0.1). This makes it
� possible to separate nickel and cobalt with 900-1000. Calcium chloride
31
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concentration also has little effect on the coefficients of distribution of
nickel and cobalt (Figure 3). Thus nickel and cobalt can easily be separated
with extraction by oxyoxime [1] also in the case of sulfate-chloride solutions.
Conclusions. 1. The high selectivity of recovery of copper from sulfate and
sulfate-chloride solutions with the employment of alkoxybenzophenonoxime as
extracting agent has been shown.
2. The po~sibility of separating copper, nickel and cobalt from am-
' monia-carbonate and ammonia-sulfate solutions by means of extraction by
� alkoxybenzophenaruoxime has beea established.
3. Nickel,, during extraction from ammonia-chloride solutions, transi-
tions to organic phase with high coefficientg of distritwtion,'while cobalt
remains in aqueous phase.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Flett, D. S. CHEM. IND., No 17, 1977, pp 706-712.
2. Van der Zeeuw, ERZI~TALL, Vol 30, No 4, 1977, pp 30-31.
3. Probert, T. I., $nd Richards, K. I., PROC. ISEC, Vol 2, 1980, Liege, Belgium,
PP 80-228.
4. Zeger, I. I.; Giganov, G. P.; and Fedneva, Ye. M., TSVETNYYE 1~TALLY, No 2,
1976, pp 24-25.
5. Laskorin, B. N.; U1'yanov, V. S.; and Sviridova, R. A., TSVETNYYE I~TALLY,
No 10, 1972, pp 17-18.
6. Laskorin, B. N.; U1'yanov, V. S.; Sviridova, R. A.; and Akimova, I. D.,
TSVETNYYE METALLY, No 6, 1975, pp 26-28.
7. Laskorin, B. N.; Skorovarov, D. I.; Shatalov, V. V.; et al, TSVETNYYE
METALLY, No 6, 1971, pp 19-21.
8. Travkin, V. F.; Ivanov, A. V.; Yakshin, V. V.; et al, TSVETNYYE METALLY,
No 11, 1979, pp 26-28.
9. Kuhn, M. C., CAN.MIN. AND MET. BUL., Vol 67, 11, No 742, 1974, pp 62-73.
10. CIM BULLETIN, Vol 67, No 742, 1974, pp 82-86.
COPYRIGHT: IzdBtel~stvo "Metallurgiya", "TSVETNYYE METALLY"~ 1982
3G24
CSO: 8144/1164
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MATERIALS SCIENCE DEVELOPI~II~NTS
UDC 66.017
SOME DIRECTIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SCIENCE OF MATERIAI,S
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMtI NAUK SSSR in Russian No 1, Jan 82 pp 47-SC
[Article by Ch.V. itopetskiy, corresponding member, USSR Academy of Sciences, and
A.F. Vyatkin, candidate of physical and mathematical sciences]
[Text] The solution of problems related to the creation of materials with given
physicochemical and mechanical proper{:ies determines the progress being made in many
branches of technology and the national economy. In connection with this, there are
heightened requirements for the development of the science o~ materials as a field
of .~Cnowledge that has been called upon to provide scientific substantiation and
pra~:tical rec~mmendations for the creation and utilization of new and the production
of traditional materials with extremely good characteristics. One of the main goals
is to investiga.te the surface of materials, which has a definite effect on a materi-
al's propertif�s and the nature of the pracesses taking place when articles made from
it are being used. The rapidly growing flow of scientific publications in `his
field has resulted in an extraordinarily broad spectrum of practical problem� the
successful solution of which is directly related to understanding the properties of
a surface, the progressive development of inethods of investicating it, and the emer-
gence of new, highly effective methods for treating both the external and internal
surfaces of .~aterials. In this article we discuss several of the areas of investi-
gation in the science of ma~erials that have been developing most actively in recent
years.
The traditional object of the science of materials is metal. The knowledge that has
been amassed in the field of the science of materials makes it possible to formu-
late, in particular, the following conclusion: in order to provide metal articles
with the ~^~st mechanical properties, it is necessary to create a given macro- and
microstructure with a controllable chemical composition, including that of any al-
loyed material; in connection with this, in most cases it is important to have chem-
ical and structural uniformity.
It is a well known fact that a metal polycrystalline aggregate is characterized by a
ramified system of internal surfaces; these are the boundaries of the grains, on
which intergrain, internal adsorption of impurities--primaril~ harmful ones--active-
ly develops. In this case, the grains' boundaries obviously become the weakest
place in the material. C::^sequently, for a generally invariable content of harmful
impurities in a metal, reducing the size of the grain--that is, increasing the over-
all area of the gra�.n boundaries--must result in a reduction in the impLrity content
per unit of grain b~:indary area and an increase in the material~s three-dimensional
strength. �
~ ~ 33
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v~~~ For this purpose we are developing differ-
. ent methods for treating metals that are
so realized during crystallization from the
~ liquid state and during processing of a
3o metal in the solid state. They include,
zO ~ for example, the use of ultrasound in the
zone of crystallization of a steel ingot in
~o continuous casting units, which results in
a reduction in the size of the grain that
� ~ooo ~oso ~~oo ~~so ~soo 12b0 T;C is accompanied by an improvement in the �
Figure 1. Depen3ence of impact strength characteristics.
strength on temperature: 1. after
treatment with ultrasound during Fiqure 1 depicts the dependence of impact
crystallization; 2. without treatment strength ak on temperature for a piece of
with ultrasound. steel subjected to such treatment (curve 1)
and a piece cast without the use of ul~ra-
sound (curve 2). The equiaxial, small-crystal structure that is typical of an ingot
treated with ultrasound, instead of the roarse-grained dendrite structure that is
obtained by standard technology, provides--~s is obvious from Figure 1--a twof~ld
increase in impact strength.
A substantial reduction in grain size in the solid state (for steels, in particular)
is also possible when other metal treatment methods--including deformation and re-
crystallization processes with repeated heating and cooling--are used, because of
phase recrystallization (includinq phase cold hardening during rapid heating). Such
treatment proved to be particularly effective for the pipe steels for the main high-
pressure pipelines that are used in the northern regions af our country. For in-
stance, the method of cyclic (three or more cycles) heat treatment with heating
rates of 10 deg/s and cooling in water after each cycle makes it possible to obtain
a material with a grain size of 3-5 Um (13th ball), which re~ults in an increase in
impact strength and a lowering of the fracture trdnsition temperature. When 17G1S
steel in treated in this way, its impact strength is increased from 6 to 10.5 kg/cm2
(when tested at -40�C).
In the limiting case, the small-crystal structure can be repre~ented as amorphous.
Right now, intensive work is being done to develop different methods for hardening
from the liquid state for the purpose of obtaining an amorphous or extr~ordinarily
small crystalline structure. In order to do this, it is necessary to acriieve cool-
ing rates of 106-10~ deg/s. The interest in such materials is huge, since they dem-
onstrate new and unique properties. For example, for compounds of the Fe-P-C and
Fe-Cr-P-C types, the maximum $trength Qg is 310 and 385 kg/m~n2, respectively, while
filaments with an amorphous structure that are made from the alloy Fe60Cr6Mo6B28
have vg = 450 kg/mm2 and, in addition, are very hard and resistant to wearl (the
level of hardness for Fe80B2~ reaches -1,100 kgf/mm2). The mechanical characterist-
ics of amorphous alloys are ~~xtraordinarily sensitive to a change in the alloy's
composition. For examplF:, replacement of part of the iron in the alloy Fe80-C~-P13
with titanium, vanadium, chrc�mium or manganese leads to an increase in its micro-
hardness from 750 to 850 kgf/mm2. However, the introduction into the alloy of such
1See: Duhay, P., Sitek, I., Prejsa, M., and Butvin, P., PHYS. STAT. SOL., Vol 35(a),
No 1, 1976, pp 223-233.
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~~l~~m~~nts as cobalt, nickel or copper results in a lowering of the microhardness val-
uesl to 650 kgf/mm2.
The deformation mechanism of such alloys is interesting. Whe:n stretched they are
subject to brittle failure, whereas during compression or flexure testing a high de-
_ gree of plasticity is seen. For example, bars made from the alloy Pd~~,S-Cu6-Si16.5
that are 2 mm in diameter can be rolled into strips that are 0.1 mm thick. The high
plastieity of amorphous materials makes it passible to prc+duc:e deformable tapes from
brittle ~r~~terials, such as Au-Si and Au-Ge solder and other :;olders used in elec-
tronics to join stainless steels and heat-resistant alloys (rIi69Cr6Fe3B14Si8).
Rapid hardening from the liquid state, which eliminates segregation effects almost
completely, provides both a uniform chemical composition and a homogeneous structure
in the solid state. The absence in amorphous metal alloys of defects of the type of
grain boundaries, dislocations and so on, which are typical c>f a crystalline struc-
ture and are sources for the origination of corrosion processes, provide these ma-
terials with good anticorrosion properties. In the present literature there are
description of many experimental facts that note for amorphotis alloys either a com-
plete lack oi corrosion losses or a reduction in them in comparison with crystalline
alloys having the same composition.
The magnetic characteristics of amorphous alloys are extreme"~y good: high magnetic
permeability and low coercive force, while the magnetostriction of the saturation of
a number of alloys reaches previously unachievable values 5�10-~). Thanks to
these properties, amorphous materials are extremely promising for the production of
magnetic circuits, transformers and motors (instead of texturized ferrosilicon), the
magnetic circuits of magnetic recording Yieads, magnetic screens and so on.
Thanks to the development of inethods for directed action on the external surface of
materials in recent years, it is now possi.ble to solve on a qualitatively new level
the well knawn problem of insuring the optimum relationship between the surface's
properties and the bulk of the material. Here we are talkinq about the intensive
development work that is being done on methods involving laser treatment, ion doping
and modern methods for creating special coatings. The use or these surface treat-
ment methods makes it possible to raise the level of the mechanical and physico-
chemical properties of material surfaces and achieve fundamentally new effects that
are expanding substantially the boundaries of the practical utilization of such ma-
terials.
Surface treatment with lasers is being introduced intensively in various technologi-
cal mcthods for treating materials. We should also point out the extensive intro-
duction of laser technology in the automobile industry and other branches of machine
building, which is being carr~ed out under the leadership of Academician Ye.P.
Velikhov. When the treatment ;nodes are varied, it is possible to realize different
mechanisms for strengthening material surfaces. For ins*_ance, by partial.ly melting
the surface of a piece that is bzing worked, rapid cooling causes the effect of re-
duction in grain size to be achieved. When working without ~artial melting, mechan-
isms ty~~ical for traditional hardening methods are realized. As Academician V.D.
Sadovskiy points out, phase cold hardening plays the basic role in them.
1`~c,c,: Masumoto, T., SCIENCE REPORTS JUST TOHOKU UNIV., Vol 26A, No 4/5, 1977, pp
246-262.
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Laser chemicothermal treatment, or laser doping, offers extensive prospects for the
cr~~ation of materials with ur:ique properties. With the help of treatment of this
type, by using the effect of rapid melting and hardening it is possible to introduce
into the surface layers of steel the most variegated camponents in combinations and
quantities that cannot be achieved by standard ehemicothermal treatment methode.
HVO S"y~~
~ 80
900 O
- 0 ~
� � ~ Mo
0 40 ~
800 p
~ , Cz
10
400
Ni
20C ~ 0.5 1,0 1.5 4,0 ~.5
0,5 I,0 I.S 4,0 ~.b ~1~ firyt6wMt, rr ~1~
f IIydNN~, MY
Figure 2. Change with depth of hardness of steel (left) and composition of
~ alloying components (right) after laser chemicothermal treatment.
Key: 1. Depth, mm 2. Composition, $
When the treatment mode parameters (radiated power and duration of the effect on the
_ zone being treated) are chosen appropriately, it is possible to create a given
structure in the surface layer of a material. For instance, when fusing together a
powdFr with a complex camposition (Mo, Cr, Ni, Si and chromium carbide), using .
continuous C02 laser with a radiated power of 8-10 kW and an exposure time of about
1 s, in the surface layer of low-carbon steel a structure that insures a fourfold
increase in hardness (Figure 2) and has a ramifiEd system of micropores is ob-
tainedl. Such a structure, as is well known, insures the maximum wear resistance
for the parts of a friction assembly that are func~ioning under hydrodynamic fric-
tior~ conditions.
When creating laser treatment (in the pulsed mode, for example) conditions that in-
sure the hardening rates needed to obtain amorphous alloys from the liquid state, in
alloys of the Fe-B-Si type it is possible to create a thin surface layer (about
10-15 ym thick) witk~ an amorphous structure. The nontriviality of this statement ~s
based on the fact that the amorphous phase exists in direct contact with a crystal-
line phase ha�?ing the same composition.
At the present t.tme there already exist quite a few publications describing the use
of laser thermal and chemicothermal treatment to improve such operating properties
as wear and corrosion resistance, thermal stability and so forth. In connection
with this, the basic advantages of the laser treatment of materials over furnace and
induction h~ating consist of the possibility of carrying out effective surface ther-
mal treatment with a high productivity rate, including the possibility of local
1See: P.elmondo, A., and Castagna, M., THIN SOLID FILMS, Vol 64, 1979, pp 249-256.
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thermal strengthening of given sections of a surface with mir..imal distortions of the
geometry of the surface being treated and minimal thermal stresses. The latter fact
is particularly important when treating precision parts H~ith complex shapes and ar-
ticles made of cast iron. At the same t~me, energy consumption for the heating of
the inner bulk of a material, which is not being strengthenec., is eliminated.
Laser chemicothermal treatment opens the possibility of the H~idespread replacement
of expensive alloyed steels with sir~nle carbon ones. Nevertheless, the present
stage of development of this method can be characterized as t:he initial one, con-
sisting of the accumulation of experirnental facts. The quite~ thorough science of
_ materials analysis of phases and structures that are obtainecl and the determination
of the general rules governing their formation and evolution-�-in a word, everything
that has been developed for traditional thermal treatment methods--is now of no val-
ue. This area is still a"blank spot" in science of materials.
This applies to equal degree to methods f:r
� treating materials using ion doping. It .
o~l now firmly implantecl in technalogical meth-
~ ods for the creatior~ of modern semiconduct-
; ing instru.~nents, but in the field of inetal
o treatment only the f:irst steps have been
= taken. The well-known skepticism with re-
s O.1
� spect to implantation metallurgy, which is
; usually related to the shallowness of the
~ effect on the material (no more than sever-
~ al thousand angstroMS) and the relatively
= 6 complicated and expensive equipment, is
o.oi /Ti+C disappearing r~pidly because of the exten-
' T~~e sive possibilities of the treatment method.
_Ti Ion doping makes it possible to introduce,
in the required concentration, any admix-
ture in any materia~ at any temperature to
a given (within the capabilities of this
o method) depth. As ~ result, it is possible
1,2 2.4 3.8 d.e
~ PaccronMMe, MM(2) to obtain states in the surface layers of a
Figure 3. Dependence of rate of nor- material that are fundamentally impossible
malized wear of stainless steel on to realize by such traditional methods as,
slippage distance: a. unimplanted for example, cement~~tion and nitriding.
samples; b. implanted samples.
Key: 1. Normalized wear rate A large part of the different uses of ion
2. Distance, km doping are related to improvi.ng the mechan-
ical pruperties of the surfaces of inetals.
Tt~is means, primarily, increasing the wear resistance and fatigue strength. For in-
stancc, when stainless steel is doped with carbon, boron, nitrogen, titanium or a
combination of titanium with one of the named metalloids, the wear resistance of
test F~ieces is increased by a factor of 100 (Figure 3)1. In connection with this it
turns out to be essential that the effect of the increase in wea~ resistance pene-
tratcs to a depth many times greater than that achievable with an implanted ion.
~ 1See: Hirvonen, I.K., et al., THIN SOLID FILMS, Vol 63, 1979, pp 5-10.
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This phenomenon is related to radiation-stimulated diffusion, which is well known
from the science of irradiated materials and which consists of a significant (up to
several orders of magnitude) increase in the diffusion coefficients of a material's
components when radiation defects are introdu..ed into it. During ion doping, when
the ions' energy can reach 200 keV and the dose is about 1018 ions/cm2, a signifi-
cant concentration of radiation defects is also achieved. In addition to this, when
materials undergoing wear tests are subjected to friction, quite high temperatures
are realized at the interacting pair's area of contact, which leads to an increase
in the mobilitX of a material's different components and complexes of them contain-
incj radiatiori;d'efects. Radiation-stimulated diffusion and the local increase in
tempe~ature at the point of contact result, therefore, in the propagation in the
body of a test piece of a dose of initially introduced ions, the maximum concentra-
tion of which is reached at a depth of 500-1,000 in the irradiation zone, depend-
ing on the nature and energy of the ions.
As far as the detailed mechanism of the process of increasing wear resistance is
concerned, because of the insignificant amount of experimental data from investiga-
tions of composition and structure, it is still quite difficult to draw even quanti-
tative conclusions. It should be mentioned here that even in materials not doped
with ions this multifaceted mechanical process, which is composed of different
physicochemical phenomena, has not yet had any clear description at the atomic lev-
el. This applies, in equal measure, to the understanding of the phen~menon of an
increase in a material's fatigue strength after ion doping.
Ion doping is also extremely promising from the viewpoint of increasing the corro-
sion resistance of materials. In the first place, it is possible to achieve high
corrosion resistance values because of the creation in the surface layer of com-
I~ounds with new physicochemical characteristics. It is obvious that such is the
case when titanium is doped with palladium, when the treated material's resistance
to corrosionl increases by a factor of more than 1,000. In the second place, when
the material to be irradiated and the doping ion are chosen appropriately, along
with the energy and intensity of the irradiation, in the treated material's surface
layer there appears an amorphous state that is also characterized by increased cor-
rosion resistance (as is the case for amorphous alloys produced by hardening from a
liquid state). The possibility of obtaining amorphous states by ion doping methods
is also interesting because it can be realized for even pure metals. This has now
been achieved in practice for the following systems: copper implanted with tantalum
or tungsten and iron implanted with tantalum. The distinctive property of such
amorphous states is their high thermal stability. For example, a Cu-W system does
not lose the characteristics of an amorphous structure even when it is aged at 600�C
for l. 5 h.
As in the case of amorphous layers obtained by laser treatment methods, during the
- crcation of ion-doped layers, the amorphous surface layer coexists with the crystal-
line state without any disruption in continuity. In both cases the transition from
the amorphous to the crystalline :~tate apparently takes place through a series of
intermediate states. This type of structure is of extraordinary theoretical inter-
est, since it can give information about the nature and evolution of the amorphous
Gtate, which is of importance for tht~ practical utilization of amorphous materials.
1Tomashev, N.D., Guseva, M.I., et al., DOKL. AN SSSR, Vol 256, No 5, 1981, pp 1129-
1133.
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Yct another significance of practical significance offered by ion doping (mixing)
methods is the creation of complex surface compounds that cannot be produced by tra-
ciitional methods, including methods for hardening from a liquid state and direct ion
doping methods. Since the ion daping process is accompanied by atomization of the
basic material, for sufficiently large doses a state is reacY:ed where no further in-
crease in the concentration of introduced ion in the original material takes place.
Depending on the nature of the doping ion and the material of the substrate being
doped, as well as the energy and intensity of the ion beam, the maximum ion concen-
tration in the substrate is limited to a certain value. 7n order to achieve a high-
_ er level of concentration of a required ion in a given substx~ate, the process is
conducted in the following manner.
A thin (on the ordex� of several hundred
angstroms) layer of the material that is
a,2 needed in order to obtain the required com-
pound in the surface: layer is first appli~c:
e:~ a -1e0, 26, 250�C to the substrate' s~~urface in any manner ,
(1) such as by thermal e~vaporation in a vacuum.
�a ~ This two-layered composition is then ir-
= a,o ~
m ~ radiated by flows of ions of, for example,
3 \ 3aNON~2~ an inert gas. As a result of the complex
_ a 3,8 \\r- Berapq processes occurring when the gas ions col-
~ ~ lide with the atoms of the applied surface
A \
a ~ layer, as well as tYie dissipation of the
. C 3? , ~
I 1900~ 6 ~ implanting layer's energy, the applied lay-
~ er mixes with the material of the basic
3,s 2s'c substrate and compounds with different
2so�C stoichiometric compasitions are formed.
3,50 20 4o so eo ioo This method is now the only possible one
Ag ar% Ni N~ for obtaining, in a solid state, alloys
Figure 4. Dependence of lattice pa- with a uniform disti:ibution of components
rameter of inetastable solid alloys in a broad area of c;oncentrations of sys-
formed by ion-beam mixing, at differ- tems characterized by limited solubility
ent temperatures, from an initial both in the liquid and the sol~d state.
film composition: a. GTsK [possibly For example, for an Ag-Ni system the maxi-
face-centered cubic] solution based mum equilibrium soliibility in the solid
on Ag; b. GTsK solution based on Ni. state is 0.1 at. ~ tJi in Ag at 960�C and 2
Key: 1. Lattice parameter, A at. $ Ag in Ni near the monotectic tempera-
2. (Vegard's) Law ture of 1,435�C. Over a broad inter~al of
compositions, in the liquid state this sys-
tem is subject to lamination bec'use of the limited solubility of the components in
cach other. When the ion-beam mi.xing method is used on a multilaer compo~ition con-
sisting of alternating layers of Ag and Ni., with the thickness of each layer being
20-100 A and the total thickness being 800 A, when xenon ions with an energy level
of 300 keV are used it is possible to obtain solid, homogeneous alloys throughout
the entire interval of concentrationsl. An analysis of these alloys showed (Figure
4) that there are two phases present. in them: a solution ba:~ed on Ag and a solution
based on Ni, dif�ering not only in the parameters of the crystalline lattice, but al-
so in other properties, in particular the dependence of the Ni-based solution's lat-
tice parameter on the temperature at which the allo;~ was formed.
1Sec: Tsanr, B.Y., and Mayer, I.W., APPL. PHYS. LETT., Vol 37(4), 1980, pp 389-392.
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Thc prospects for using ion doping to create materials with special properties are
extremely good, and it is already clear that they are far from being exhausted by
the examples given above. Th~erefore, the science of materials aspects of tr~is meth-
od of treating material surfaces are becoming the determinant ones for the introduc-
tion of ion doping in practice.
The first investigat~ons of the properties of ion-doped layers already show that
_ with this method it is po~~~ble to obtain the most variegated structural states and,
in particular, stable solid solutions that are typical of equilibrium conditions for
solution formation. For example, an Au-Ag system forms a continuous series of ~olid
solutions bot.h for standard methods for tre formation of these alloys and when ion
doping is used. However, for systems characterized by limited solubility in the
solid state, such as Cu-Ag, the solubility limits are enlarged considerably; in oth-
ez~ systems there appear different metastable solutions of a substitutional as well
as an interstitial nature. The regularities governing the formation of these solu-
tions are not subject to th~: known rules of alloy formation, although to formulate
new rules is still impossible, since only single binary systems have as yet been in-
vestigated. The theoretical analysis of this problem is quite complicated, because
along with the physicochemical properties of the elements forming the alloys it is
necessary to take into consideration the effects caused by the alloy formation pro-
cess itself, such as the formation of radiation defects, replacement collisions and
' so forth.
Among the methods for directed action on the surface of solids, the creation of
coatings is now the one most commonly used in practice. In connection with this,
along with the traditional methods (diffusion, galvanic and so on) intensive devel-
opment work is being done on new ones: plasmochemical, magnetr.onic vaporization
methods, various methods for ion-beam deposition of coatings and so on.
Progress in the development of these methods is related to the possibility of creat-
ing, with their help, coatings from materials from a broad class, rangxng from sim-
ple materials to complex composition and compounds that determine, in turn, the var-
iegated spectrum of properties of these coatings and make it possible to use these
materials in the most widely separated areas of the national economy, from machine
building to the production of the very smallest instruments used in medical technol-
ogy and the submicron elements of semiconducting instruments and superconductors.
Industry--particularly different branches of machine building and the machine tool
building industry--is now making extensive use of coatings to increase both the wear
resistance and fatigue strength of friction assembly parts, as well as the wear re-
sistance of cutting tools. As a rule, the materials used for coatings of this type
are compounds characterized, on the one hand, by a high hardness level and, on the
other, low chemical activity. The choice of c~ating is determined by the fact that
in most cases a material's wear resistance is directly proportional to its surface
layer's microhardness and inversely proportional to its chemical activity. All'owing
for this, as well as economic factors, the coating most commonly used right now is
titanium nitride.
For instance, when this coating is produced under certain conditions, it is possible
to obtain a microhardness value of about 3,500 kg/mm2, in connection with which the
coating's compositionl corresponds to a eutectic mixture of 50 percent TiN and 50
1See: Yacobson, B.E., Nimmajadda, R., and Banshah, R.F., THIN SOLID FILMS, Vol 63,
1979, I~p 333-339.
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~BO percent Ti2N. One oE the essential factors
; determining the opersting properties of
080 coatings is the proc~sses taking p~ace at
~ ~ the coating-substrat~ interphase boundary,
d4o particularly the pro:blem of the coating's
a Z ~ adhesion to the substrate. It is obvious
= that, all other conditions being equal
s so
� (substrate purity an3 temperature, the de-
L gree of roughness--each of these conditions
(1)� to so 30 4o so eo also has a substantial effect on adhesion),
t~n~?r the coating's adhesive properties are de-
Figure 5. Dependence of depth of wear termined by the nature of the substrate and
crater on a cutting tool with differ- coating materials. In order to provide the
en.t coatings on operating time (cut- optimum combination ~f the requirements for
~ ting rate--160 m/min; depth--2 mm; high microhardness and good adhesion, in a
movement per revolution--0.2 mm): 1. number of cases multilayer coat~.ngs are
TiC; 2. TiC + A1203. created. The use in the tool ind~stry, fc
Key: 1. Depth of wear crater, U example, of multilayered coatings of the
TiC + A1203 and TiC + NiN types for cutting
tools is significant and increases the service life of such an instrumentl by a fac-
tor of 4-10 (Figure 5). In this case the iritermediate coating plays the role of a
material that "matches" the properties of the substrate and the basic coating.
Another variant of changing the conditions of tha interphase interaction of the
coating and the substrate is the composite method, which combines ion doping with
some method for applying the coating. By introducing into the substrate ions of an _
element or group of elements that are required for good adhesion of the coating that
is then applied, it is possible to create a transitional layer of a certain thick-
ness and then apply the coating to it. This procedure is carried out most simply in
coating application methods where the deposition takes place from an ion flow.
This is t~e so-called KIB (condensation with ion bombardment) method. In the ini-
tial stage of coating creation, with an ion energy level of up to 104 eV, they are
introduced into the substrate to a depth of about 40 ~i, after which the ion's energy
level is lowered and normal coating deposition takes place. The advantages of this
method have been confirmed convincingly by measurements of coating microhardness:
its level is always higher for composite coatings.
rJnique properties are also demonstrated by so-called diamondlike carbon coatings.
Descriptions of several different methods for obtaining them have appeared in the
literature in recent years. High microhardness and a structure that is close to
am~~rphous are characteristics of all such coatings. When such a film is used to
scratch the face of a natural diamond, a clear trail is left on the film, while when
the film is scratched with a diamond, intrusion of the diamond into the film is not
scen.
Techniques fcr obtaining the most variegated (from the viewpoint of their future
use) coatings have now been developed. They include self-lubricating coatinqs (of
the MoS2) type, heat- and corrosion-resistant ones, coatinys functioning under the
1See: Lindstrom, Y.N., and Johnson, B.F., "Ohlsson F;,OW," U.S. Patent No 3837896,
1974.
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com~lex conditions of the combined effect of an aggressive medium and high tempera-
tures and so on. The effectiveness of their use at the present time and further
progress in the development of inethods for obtaining them depend essentially on our
qaining an understanding of the formation and evolution of the coatings' structures
and compositions, as well as the processes taking place on the interphase boundar-_
ies.
At the present time, the study of coatinqs in the science of materials is lagging
ronsiderably behind their practical utilization. As was pointed out earlier, this
applies to all the modern methods for acting on internal and external interfaces
and is obviously related to the fact that the layers of a material in which substan-
tial changes take place in both structure and properties as the result of treatment
with modern methods are extraordinarily thin. Traditional science of materi~ls
- m~thods for investigating such structures cannot produce the necessary information
about the processes taking place in these layers.
Therefore, further progress in the development of the science of materials as ap-
plied to thin surface layers must be related to the use of modern methods of surface
analysis. Quite a few original and summary works devoted to the development and ap-
plication of modern surface analysis methods have now been published in both the
foreign and domestic literature. The spread of these methods to specific science of
metals investigations is being held up only because of a lack of the appropriate
equipment, since the Soviet tool buil.'~ng industry has only just begun to develop
and produce some types of it. The development of the tool building industry for in-
vestigations in the field of the science of material surfaces will undoubtedly make
it possible to elevate this research to qualitatively a new level.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel~stvo"Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1982
11746
CSO: 1842/128 - END -
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