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JPRS ID: 10540 TRANSLATION AIR DEFENSE OFFICER'S HANDBOOK ED. BY G.V. ZIMIN

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APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFIC{AL USE ONLY JPRS L/ 10540 26 May 1982 Translation AIR DEFENSE OFFICER'S HANDBOOK Ed. by G.V. Zimin FgI$ FOREIGN BROADCQST INFORMATION SERVICE FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 NOTE JPRS publications contain information primarily from foreign newspapers, periodicals and books, but also from news agency transmissions and broadcasts. Materials from foreign-language sources are translated; those from English-language sources are transcribed or reprinted, with the original phrasing and other characteristics retained. Headlines, editorial reports, and material enclosed in brackets are supplied Sy JPRS. Processing indicators such as [Text] or [Excerpt] in the first line of each item, or following the last line of a brief, indicate how the original information was processed. Where no processing indicator is given, the infor- mation was summarized or extracted. - Unfamiliar names rendered phonetically or translitPrated are enclosed in parentheses. Words or names preceded by a ques- tion mark and enclosed in parentheses were not clear in the = original but have been supplied as appropriate in context. Other unattributed parenthetical notes within the body of an - item originate with the source. Times within 3tems are as given by source. _ The contents of this publication in no way represent the poli- cies, views or attitudes of the U.S. Government. COPYRIGHT LAWS AND :cEGULATIONS vOVERNING OWNERSHIP OF MATL'RIALS REPRODUCED 'cIEREIN REQUIRE THAT DISSEMINATI(:N OF THIS PUBLICATION BE RESTRICTED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY. APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY JPRS L/10540 26 May 1982 AIR DEFENSE OFFICER'S HANDBOOK Moscow SPRAVOCHNTK Ok'ITSERA PROTTVC)VOZDUSHNOY 090RONY in Russiar 1981 (.signed to press 10 Jun 81) pp 1--431 jOfficer's handbook edited by G. V. Zimin, Voyenizdat, 40,000 copies, 431 pagesJ CONTENTS . . 1 Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1. AIR DEFENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1. Tasks and Structure of Air Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . ~ 1.1.1. Tasks and Structure of Air Defense Troops . 2 1.1.2. Tasks and Structure of the Field and Naval Ai_r Defense . 3 2. 1 The St ate and Development Prc,spects of Air Defense . 5 . 1.2.1. Historical Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2. ENEMY AIR-SPACE ATTACK RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.1. Classification of Resources . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � � . . � . 10 2.1.1. General Description of Air-Space Weapons and the Tasks Carried Out by Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.1.2. Classification of Air-Space Attack Weapons . . . . . . . . . 11 2.2., Aerodynamic Attack Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3. Air-to-Surface and Air-to-Air Guided Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.3.1. Space Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3. PRINCIPLES IN THE THEORY OF DESIGNING AIR DEFENSE WEAPONS SYST&MS 24 3.1. Characteristics of the Air Space Environment and its Influence on the Propogation of Electromagnetic Oscillations and Aircraft FLight Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.1.1. Characteristics of the Earth's Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . 24 3.1.2. Flight Conditions for Various Types of Aircraft 30 3.1.3. Laws of Motion of Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . 38 3.2. PrinGiples for the Designing of Detection Systems Against Enemy Air Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 [II - USSR - FOUOJ - a- jI2I - USSR - 4- FOUO] FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OEFiCIAL USE ONLY Page 3.2.1. Systems of Coordinates Employed to Solve the Problems of Der_ecting and Determining the Location of Aircraft 42 3.2.2. Physical Principles Unnarlying the Cbtaining of Information on Aircraf t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.2.3. Radar Detection of Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.2.4. Operating Range and Basic Characteristics of Ground and Onboard Radar Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.2.5. Target Detectien by Optoelectronic Equipment . . . . . . . . 72 . 3.3. Methods of Determining Coordinates and Parameters of Motion for Air Attack Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.3.1. 3.3.2. 3.3.3. 3.4. Princi 3.4.1. 3.4.2. 3.4.3. Distance Measuring Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Devices for Tracking the Direction of Targets 82 Devices for Tracking Target Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 ples for the Control of Antiaircraft and A:Lr-Launched Missiles Information from Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Missile Guidance Methods and Control Systems . . . . . . . . 100 Elements of Missile Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4. RADAR TROOPS . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.1. Weapons Systems of Radar Troops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.1.1. Detection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 4.1.2. Automation of Radar Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 4.1.3. The System of Taking, Transmitting and Displaying Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4.2. Combat Capabilities of Radar Troops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.2.1. Definitions and Quantitative Indicators of Combat Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.2.2. Methods of Evaluating Combat Capabilities . . . . . . . . . 151 5, FIGHTER AVIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.1. The Weapons System of AD Fighter Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.1.1. Design Principles of an Aircraft Missile Complex 154 5.1.2. Technical Realization of Weapons in Aircraft Missile Complex 158 5.1.3. Combat Capabilities of an Aircraft Missile Complex (AMC) 162 5.2. Principles in the Combat Employment of AD Fighter Aviation 165 5.2.1. Tactical Principles for AD Fighter Air Combat 165 5.2.2. Combat Capabilities of AD Fighter Aviation Subunits and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 6. ANTIAIRCRAFT MISSILE TROOPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 6.1. Antiaircraft Missile Weapons Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 6.1.1. Combat Characteristics, Classification, Structure and Operational Principle of Antiaircraft Missile Systems (SAMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 6.1.2. Combat CapabilitiPS of the SAMS . . . . . . . . . . 187 b FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY page 6.2 Principles of Firing Antiaircraft Guided Missiles 200 6.2.1. Tasks and Essence of Firing Antiaircraft Guided Missiles 200 - 6.2.2. SAM Guidance Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 6.2.3. The Coordinate Law for the Destruction of P T3rget 210 6.2.4. Quantitative Indicators for the Effectiveness of SAM Firing 215 6.2.5. Impact and Launch Zones, the Capabilities of SAMS to - Successively Fire on Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 6.2.6. Basic Concepts of Firing Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 6.3. Tactica of Antiaircraft Missiles Subunits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 6.3.1. Yrinciples in the Combat Employment of Antiaircraft Missile Subunits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 6.3.2. The Elaboration and Adoption of a Decision by the Commander for Combat Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 6.3.3. Support of Combat Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 6.3.4. Principles in Controlling the Fire of Subunits in Combat 240 6.4. Antiaircraf t Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 6.4.1. The Essence of Firing at an Airborne Target ar.3 the General Characteristics of Antiaircraft Artillery Systems (Mounts) . 245 6.4.2. Firing at an Airborne Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 6.4.3. Combat Employment of Antiaircraft Artillery 252 7. CONTROL SYSTIIMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 _ 7.1. General Characteristics of Control Systems and the Process of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . � ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 254 7.1.1. Def inition, Structure and Classification of Controt Systems 254 7.1.2. The Control Process and Its Characteristics 260 7.2. Automated Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 7.2.1. ACS Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 7.2.2. Cont rolling SAMS Fire Using an ACS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 8. EI,ECTRONIC COUNTERMEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 8.1. Equipment and Methods for Conducting Electronic Countermeasures 283 8.2. Ensuring Electromagnetic Compatibility of Radio Electronic Equipment 293 [Brief Annotation] - The handbook describes enemy air attack weapons, it outlines the tasks and struc- ture of the Air Defense Troops, it gives a brier history of their develnpment and examines the design principles of the weapons systems and the combat employment of the branches of air defense troopc. The handbook is intended for officers concerned with air defense questions. c FOR QFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500460053-2 _ FO.�. OM'FIC'IAI. USE ONI.Y FOREWORD The Air Defense Troops securely guard the frontiers of our motherland. This is ensured by constant high combat ceadiness, by stabiliLy in defending the protected installations, by the mastery of the combat equipment and by the ability to hit the air enemy on the first round (launch) and in the first attack. , The personnel of the Air Defense Troops are hard at work carrying out the party's plans and are a'Lways ready to carry out the combat mission. A modern air defen5e system includes diverse weapons and military equipment which have high combat capabilities. The realization of these capabilities in the course of combat operations demands from th2 personnel profound knowledge of the air attack - weapons and the mathods of their emg'_oyment, the operating principles of the weapons systems and the bases for the tactics of the branches of air defense troops. In the practical activities o~ Air Defense Troop officers, the need arises to ana- lyze and quantitatively evaluate the capabilities of weaponry to destroy air attack weapons in terms of certain conditions of a combat situation as well as the obtairi- ing of reference data on the operating principles of the weaponE systems and the particular features of their comuat employment. This necessitates the turning to various sources of information which irL a number of instan;.es creates certain niffi- culties. The present handbook provides a generalized description of military-technical amd operational-tactical questions related to air defense as based upon materials found in the unctassified Soviet and foreign press. The handbock has beea worked out under the editorship of Doctor of Military Sciences, Prof G. V. Zimin by the group ot authors inr_luding: G. V. Zimin (Foreword, 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3), F. T. Buturlin and Ya. I. Nizdran' (5.1, 5.2), S. K. Burmistrov (3.1, 3.2, 8.2), V. P. Demidov (3.3, 3.4, 6.1, 8.1), A. S. Mal'gin (7.1, 7.2), F. K. Neupokoyev (6.2, 6.3, 6.4) and 0. Ye. Orlov (4.1, 4.2). - The handbook has been prepared for publiGhing by S. K. Burmistrov. 1 FOR OFFICIAL iJSE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USF. ONLY 1. AIR DEFENSE 1.1. Tasks and Structure of Air Defense 1.1.1. Ta_6ics and Structure of Air Defense Troops The Air~ Defense Troops are a service of the USSR Armed Forces. They have the mis- sion of protecting major administrative-political centers, industrial installations, Armed Forces grovpings as well as other major objectives comprising the basis of the staie's economic and military might against enemy air strikes. The Air Defense Troops carry out their missions independently and in cooperation with the other Armed Services by destroying enemy air attack weapons (SVN) in the air. . In organizational r.erms tr.e Air Defense Troops consist of air defense field forces and formations and these in turn are comprised of units and subunits of branches of troops including the antiaircraft missile troops (ZRV), the air defense aviation, the radar troops (RTV) zs well as the units and subunits of special Troops, the rear units and facilities. The antiaircraft missile troops (ZRV) are one of the basic branches of troops. In cooperation with the fighter aviation, they are capable of preventing enemy air strikes against the nation's major installatio!ns as well as troop groupings. They are armed with antiaircraft missile complexes (ZRK) of varying purpose and range. Th(-, antiaircraf t missile troops possess great fire power and high accuracy in hit- ting the SVN over the entire range of their flight altitudes and speeds, at great , distances away from the defetided insta'llations at any time of the day and in any weather as well as under conditions of radio jammiag. In organizational termG today's ZRV consist of units having fire and technical sub- units a.s well as control (equipped with automatic control systems) and service sub- units. In the system of defending the nation's installations ZRV groupings can be created consisting of several ar.tiaircraft missile units. The air defense aviation is a branch of the Air Defense Troops with the mission of covering important sectors and inatallations against an airborne enemy. It includes fighter aviation (IA) units. The IA is based on units armed with missile-carrying fighters capable of destroying the SVN both at the distant approaches to tr.e 2 FOR OFFICYAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY protected installations as well as in close combat. The supersonic all-weather _ fightE>r-interceptors with powerful missile weapons can hit enemy aircraft and cruise missiles (KR) in a broad range of altitudes under any weather conditio,_ and at any time of the day. The presence of long-range missile-carrying interceptors in the aviation ensures the destruction oz aircraft carrying air-to-g:ound guided mis- siles before they reach the launch line. The radar troops (RTV) as a branch of the Air Defense Troops have the mission of continuously scanning the air space, conducting radar reconnaissance of the enemy SVN in the air and pr�oviding information on them needed by the command for taking decisions and supporting the combat operations of the antiaircraft missile troops [and] uir defense aviation. The radar troops are equipped with various modern radars making it possible during any time of the year or day, independently of weather conditions and interference, to detect the SVN at all altitudes, to identify and determine their precise coordi- nates as well as provide target designation for the antiaircrnft missile troops and fighter guidance. The rear units and facilities are designed ta carry out the rear support missions for the combat operations of the Air Defense Troops. 1.1.2. Task.s and Structure of the Field and Naval Air Defense The field [organic] air defense is a component part of combined-arms conbat and op- eration. It is organized by the combined-arms commanders under any situation for the purposes of attacking the enemq in the air and repelling strikes against troops and other installations. The successful carrying out of air defense, particularly the destruction of air- _ craf.t carrying cruise missiles in flight, helps to win superiority over the air enemy, to win air supremacy as well as maintain high troop morale. The aim of air defense is achieved by the carrying out of a number of tasks, the - basic ones being: the conducting of reconnaissance for ttie air enemy and the warn- ing of troops of this; the providing of a cover against air strikes and against air recnnnaissance of the troop groupings and rear installations; destroying enemy air- borne parties in flight; participation jointly with the Air Defense Troops in re- pelling the first massed air enemy strike. In addition, the missions of field air defense can also be: supporting the over- - flight of one's own airborne parties, long-range and naval aviation; the air block- ading of surrounded enemy groupings and so forth. Ttie Eield air defense is a branch of troops which includes antiaircraft missile, antiaircraft artillery and radar units and suhunits. 1'roop air defense is organized as a unified system in accord with the overall con- = cept of the combined-arms commander and includes the following elements: reconnais- sance of ttie air enemy and warning of the troops, the firing of a.itiaircraft weapor?, fighter air cover and the control system. 3 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The field air defense system is based upon the firing of the antiaircraft missile and antiaircraft artillery units and subunits. The basic principles in the organization and conduct of modern field air defense are considered to be the followiag: constant readiness to repel air enemy strikes, 'he concentrating of the basic air defense resourr_es on covering the main t:roop group- ings and major rear installations, close cooperation of the air defense resources between themselves ar.d with the covered troops, continuity of combat operatioiis, maneuverability (mobil.ity), high efficiency, stability and impassability, continuous and flexible centrali.:ation of control. ,s Air defense of the troops and rear installations is carried out by the field air de- fecises and fighter aviation in cooperation with the Air Defense Troops. NavaZ Air Defe.nse is a most important typE of combat support for fleet operations. This is organized in the aim of repelling enemy air strikes against the naval forces and its shore facilities. Proceeding from an assessment of the naval forces as air defense objects, two basic tasks of naval air defense have been established: covzring the naval bases, the points where ships have been dispersed and the naval shore facilities; covering the naval forces at sea. The sticcessful carrying out of the missions of naval air defense is possible only with the integrated use of the navy's own air defense resources, the air defense troops and the air defense resources of the military districts (fronts). Air defenses for the naval bases, the ship dispersion points and the shore installa- ' tions as well as the ships in coastal areas are provided by the Air Defense Troops in cooperation with the air defense resotcrces of the r.avy and military districts (fronts). The ship antiaircraft weapons are the basis of air defenses for naval forces at sea. The Air Defense Troops and the military districts (fronts) strengthen their defenses within the range of their air defense resources. The basic missions of air defense in a naval theater of war are the following: re- connaissance of the air enemy and the warning of the naval forces and shore facili- ties of it; preventing the enemy from conducting air reconnaissance and aircraft mine laying; covering the naval forces at sea and in bases against 2ir strikes. In organizing air defer.ses for naval ships at sea, the principles are observed of concentrating the basic efforts of the air defense resources on covering the naval forces carrying out the main missions as well as in the most probable sectors of enemy air operations as well as the principle of constant combat readiness to repel enemy air strikes. 1 4 FOR OFFiCIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OEFICIAL USE ONLY 1.2. The State and Development Prospects of Air Defense 1.2.1. Historical Information The birtn of air defense. The rise and development of air defense (AD) go back to the period of World War I when aviation began to be widely employed for militnry purposes. In 1913 in France and then in 1914 in Russia and Germany, special anti- aircraft cannons were developed to f ire at airborne targets. In the Russian Army field guns and naval- carlnons were adap'ted for this as well. The first battery for firing at aircraft with 75-mm naval cannons was organized in October 1914. In 1915, a special antiaircraft cannon was manufactured and the Rus- sian Baltic Military Plant built the world's fighter, the RBVZ S-16. The air obser- vation, warning and communications (VNOS) service was organized to detect enemy avi- ation, to observe its operations and to alert the air defensc resources and the population of cities about an air danger. Among the measures complementing AD were also: the creation of shelters, the organ- izing of fire fighting, the carrying out of camouflaging and blackouts in cities, the setting up of dummy installations and warning the population of an air danger. During the years of World War i, for the first time in military practice the prin- ciples were set down for the air defense of the nation's installations and the troops; the procedures and mettiods of combating an air enemy were worked out. AD during the years of the CiviZ War. One of the first AD subunits of the young republic was the "Steel Antiaircraf t Artillery Battalion (Arrored Train)" built in Petrograd at the Putilov Plant. By the spring of 1918, the Red Arrv had around 200 antiaircraft batteries and 12 fighter detachments. . The organized subunits were employed for the AD of Petrograd, Moscow, Tula, Astra- khan', Baku, Odessa as well as the troops on the fronts. In the period of 1918-1920, the tactics of the AD troops were further worked out, the principles for the organization of AD in the major points of the nation ;aere worked out and the elements of the operational art of the AD troops were born. The deveZopment of AD during the period from 1921 through 1941. In 1924, in Lenin- grad, from the individual battalions the first Antiaircraft Artillery (ZA) Regiment of the RKKA [Worker-Peasant Red Army] was organized, and in 1927, the first Antiair- craft Artillery Brigade. In the 1920's, the organizationa.'_ structure of the nation's AD was based on the AD posts which were org:~nized as AD sectors on the territory of the border military districts, the comanders of which were responsible for the AD in the borders of the district. During this same period a network of VNOS posts was organized in the border zone and around the major centers of the nation. In 1927, the Sixth Section was organized at the RKKA staff and in April 1930, a headquarters in charge of AD questions. In April 1932, this was put directly under ttte PeoplE's Commissariat for Military and Naval Affairs. The RKKA AD Headquarters was entrusted with practical leadership of the AD service for the entire territory 5 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OF'F'ICIAL USE ONLY of the nztion as well as for unifying the activities of all the civilian depart- mencs, institutions and public organizations in this area. From 1 July 1934, the RKKA AD Headquarters was headed by cne of the outstanding military leaders, Arm Cmdr. lst Rank S. S. Kamenev, and in SEptember 1936 this posi- tion was assu.ned by the Arm Cmdr. 2d Rank A. I. Sedyakin. Other important measures were also carried out to strengthen AD. In the military districts. AB headquarters were organized and these were headed by the AD chiefs of the military districts who were directly under the district cot:mmanders, and in special terms under the chief of the RKKA AD. In the 1930's, the AD troops were provided with new military equipment. During ~ these years our IA was provided with modern Soviet-produced aircraft such as the I-15, I-16 and I-153, and from 1940 with the more advanced types such as th.e Yak-1 and MiG-3 and in 1941, the LaGG-3. Antiaircraft artillery received new models of antiairc:raft guns such as the 1931 and 1938 76.2-mm models, the 1939 85-mm and auto- matic 37-mm, the PUAZO-2 antiaircraft fire control equipment in 1935 and the PUAZO-3 in 1939. The AD Troops were equipped with Soviet-produced searchlj_ghts, soun3 locaters and barrage balloons. During this same period, Soviet industry 3eveloped production of optical range-finders (the DYa rype). In 1939, the VNOS service re- ceived the first Soviet-produced surveillance radars, the RUS-1, and in 1940, the RUS-2. From 1934 through 1939, the number of ZA increased by almost 3-fold and the IA by 1.5-fold. There was also an inprovement in the organizational forms and structure of AD troop - control. In 1937, for the AD of the important industrial and administrative centers of the nation (Moscow, Leningrad and Baku), AD corps were organized while there were AD divisions znd separate brigades for defending other important cities and areas (Kiev, Minsk, Odessa, Batumi, Khabarovsk and others). These formations included all the branches of the AD troops, with the excegtion of the fighter aviation which continued to remain under the air force's commanders of _ the military districts. However, the IA was based in accord with the AD missions and participated in all t'ie operational axercises of the AD troops. With the start of a war in operational terms the IA was ro be put under *_he commanclers of the AD formations. In February 1941, the entire border territory of the nation was divided into AL zones (according :o the number of milicary districts) and these zones were headed , by deputy commanders for AD of the military districts. At the center the Red Army AD Main Directorate (GU) was organized. It was entrusted with the planning of the operational employment of the AD Troops, keeping the records of their weapons and directing combat training. From 14 June 1941, the AD GU was headed by Col Gen and _ subsequently Chief Mar Art N. N. Voronov. Maj Gen N. N. Nagornyy becai.ne the chief - of staff oE the AD GU from the moment of its organization. The measures carried out significantly strengthchned Soviet AD. A D during the years of the Great Patriotr,c War of 1541-1945. The start of the Great _ Patriotic. War caught the nation's AD in a period of its rearming. The Yak-1 and MiG-3 which Soviet aviation was receiving possessed better performan.ce than the Nazi 6 FOR OFFICIAL USE Ol'+1LY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500460053-2 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY aircraft but there were not enough of them in the troops. The ZA still had few of the new 37-mm automatic antiaircraft guns and 85-mm guns. At the beginning of July 1941, the GKO [State Defense Coffinittee] adopted a number of measures to strengthen the cover for Moscow and Leningrad, the Donets BPSin, the Moscow, Yaroslavl' and Gor'kiy industrial. centers as well as for organizing the de- fenses or certain strategic bridges across the Volga. For this purpose signif icant air, antiaircraft artillery, machine gun and searchlight units were formed. Subse- quently AD was organized for the industrial centers of the Volga and the Volga Riverway. The Moscow AD was a classic example of protecting a large center against air attack. No capital of the capitalist states had such strong AD during the entire World War II. This was provided by the I AD Corps under the command of Maj Gen Art D. A. Zhuravlev and the VI Fighter Air Carps under the command of Col I. D. Klimov and which in operationa_1 terms was subordinate to the I Corps. By the start of the German air raids (22 July 1941), these formatioiis had over 600 fighters, more than 1,000 antiaircraft medium- and small-caliber guns, arcund 350 antiaircraft machine guns, over, over 600 antiaircraft searchlights, 124 barrage balloon posts and 612 VNOS posts. The presence of such extensive resources arid the able organization af t.heir control broke the enemy's attempts to make mass air raids against L'�t Soviet capital. The Leningrad AD was also strong and this was provided by the II AD Corps and the subordizate VII Fighter Air Corps. On 9 November 1941, the GKO approvec a decision according to which the position of commander of the national AD Troops was introduced, while the national AD Staff and other headquarters bodies were organized. Maj Gen M. S. Gromadin was appointed the first commander of the national AD Troops and deputy NKO for air defense. ' For the purposes of better cooperation with the AD resources, in January 1942, fighter aviation which had been assigned to cover installations was put completely under the command of the national AD. As a result, centralized troop control was ensured on the operational and tactical levels. In line with the significant increase in the size of the AD Troops in April 1942, a partial reorganization was carried out in the structure of the national AD Troops. The Moscow AD Front was formed with AD armies being created in Leningrad and so:ne- what later in Baku as well. The first operational formations of the AD Troops ap- peared. The changeover of the Soviet Army to broad offensive operations substantially alter- ed the coriditions for the conduct of combat operations by the AD Troops. One of the important tasks of the national AD Troops during this period was the de- fense of rail lines and water barriers, the airfields of the frontal and long-range aviation, trains and river vessels underway as well as establishing an air blockade over the surrounded enemy groupings (Stalingrad, Korsun-Shevchenkovskiy and others). 7 FOR OFFICIAL USE aNLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The necessity of ensuring close cooperation between the AD resources of the various Armed Services in combating the air enemy in the zone along the frontline required a further improvement in the AD structure. In JunP 1943, the Directorate for the Commander of the National AD Troops was broken up and in its place two AD fronts were organized: the Western and Eastern. _ The AD troops defending Moscow were reorganized into the Separate Moscaw AD Army. In March-April 1944, the Western and Eastern fronts as well as the Transcaucasian AD Zone were reorganized into the Northern, Southern and Transca,icasian AD fronts. In line with the further successfv.l offensive operations by the Soviet Army, for convenience of control, in December 1944, the formations which were.defending in- stallations deep in the nation's rear were made into a new, Cf,ntral AD Front head- quartered in Moscow while the Northern and Southern were changed into the Western and Southwestern AD fronts. ; In the Far East, in March 1945; in accord with the GKO decree, on the basis of the Far Easterr, and Transbaykal AD zones as well as th,~ AD resources which had been re- grouped from the European USSR, three AD armies w-,re organized: the Maritime, Amur ar.d Transbaykal and these were parts of the front:s. In the course of the Great Patriotic War the AD Troops honorably carried out the missions entrusted to them by the Communist Party and Soviet government. The chief result of their combat activities was that they protected large industrial and ad- ministrative centers of the nation, thousands of population points and troop group- ings against destruction and annihilation by Nazi aviation and thereby significantly contributed to the rapid growth of the nation's military-economic potential. During the wartime, the AD Troops destroyed more than 7,300 aircraft and much other enemy military equipment, thereby making a major contribution to the common cause of de- feating the Nazi invaders. In the course of the war the antiaircraft artillery and fire aviation de-7eloped or- ganizationally as branches of the A11 Troops. The VNOS service, the searchlight units and barrage balloon units underwent great development. Operational field forces, operational-tactical formations and formations and units of the branches of troops were created. More than 80,000 soldiers, sergeants, off icers and generals of the AD Troops re- ceived orders and medals, 92 men received the high title of Hero ot the Soviet Union , while the air squadron commander, Capt A. T. Karpov became a winnar of two Gold Star Medals. For successful combat operations, 11 formations and units of the AD Troops received honorary names and 29 became guards units. _ Tlte deveZopment of AD in the postwar period. After the end of World War II, the United States and Great Britain maintained enormous air forces. The reactionary circles of the imperialist states began to carry out a hostile policy vis-a-vis the Soviet Union and the other nations of the socialist comnionwealth. Under these conditions, the CPSU Central Committee and the Soviet government, in adopting measures to further strengthen our nation's defense capability, devoted great att?ntion to improving its air defenses. By 1952, the AD fighter aviation had 8 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY been reequipped with jet fighters, a significant portion of which had radar sights. Antiaircraft artil.l.ery had received new antiaircraft artillery complexes consisting of 57-, 100- and 130-mm antiaircraft guns, a gun laying radar and anti::ircraft fire control equipment. The VNOS troops received the P-3 and P-3a radars. From 1952, the E:D Troops began to receive antiaircraft missile equipment with mis- siles of varying range and purpose. A new branch of troops was established in them, the AD antiaircraft missile troops (ZRV). The air defense fighter aviation began to rec^ive supersonic fighter-interceptors with air-to-surface missiles. The VNOS troops in mass amounts began to receive new fighter surveillance and guidance radars. A new brarich of the AD troops arose, the AD radar troops (RTV) which were officially named this in 1955. Diverse automated control systems [ASU] and other equipment be- gan to be received in mass amounts. The increased demands made upon AD and the reequipping of the un.'.ts with new weapons required a further improvement in the organizational structure of the AD troops and their control system. In February 1946, the position of commander cf the AD troops was introduced and he was directly subordinate to the artillery commander of the . Soviet Armed Forces. Col Gen M. S. Gromadin was appointed commander of tae AD Troops while Col Gen N. N. Nagornyy was chief cf staff. In 1948, for the first time the regulations stated that the AD Troops, along with the Ground Troops, the Air Forces and the Navy were to be an Armed Service. This notion stemmed completely from the experience of the Great Patriotic War and re- flected the objective pattern of the increased role played by the AD Troops in the postwar period with the advance in the SVN and the methods of their employment. During the same year, the AD Troops were made no longer subordinate to the artillery commander of the USSR Armed Forces. Mar SU L. A. Govorov became the commander of the AD Troops, and from 1952, Col Gen N. N. Nagornyy. In May 1954, the position of commander-in-chief of the AD Troops was established. Mar SU L. A. Govorov was ap- pointed the first commander-in-chief in May 1954. Subsequently the commanders-in- chief were: Mar SU S. S. Viryuzov (1955-1962), Mar Avn V. A. Sudets (1962-1966) and Mar SU P. F. Batitskiy (1966-1978). In June 1978, Mar Avn A. I. Koldunov was ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the AD Troops. 9 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFFICI/.4. USE ON1.Y , 2. ENIIMY AIR-SPACE ATTACK RESOURCES* 2.1. Classification of Resour4es 2.1.1. General Description of Air-Space Weapons and the Tasks Carried Out By Them ' T.he military-political leadership of the basic imperialist states have assigned a decisive role to the air-space offensive weapons in achieving the goals of a war. The air-space offensive weapons include the field forces, formations and units armed with air-space offensive weapons [SURN]. The SURN include ballistic missiles, aircraft, spacecraft, dirigibles and balloons. The field forces, formations and units armed with the SURN include the air forces, navies and ground troops. , The most important components in the U.S. Armed Forces are the strategic offensive forces and the general-purpose forces. The strategic offensive forces include units of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), the strategic aviation forces, formations and units and the formations of atomic nuclear-powered submarines. The ICBM and strategic bombers are part of the U.S. Strategic Air Command. At pres- ent, there are strategic offensive forces in the United States, England and France. The general-purpose forces include the field forces, formations and units of the air force tactical aviation, naval aviation, army aviation as well as the perational-tactical missile units and formations. The basic missions of the SURN can include: undermining military-economic potential; disrupting the system of state and military control; winning air supremacy; isolat- ing an area of combat operations; close air support for the ground troops and naval forces. * From materials of the foreign press. 10 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The undermining of military-economic potential can be csrried out by attacking the major military and industrial installations. The disrupting of the system of state and military control can be achieved by attack- ir.g military-political centers, control centers and communications. The winning of air supremacy is carried out by destroying aviation on airfieids and in the air as well as neutralizing the air defense system. The isolating of an area of combat operations is carried out for the purpose of preventing the bringing up of reserves, obstructing supply and impeding troop maneuvers by attacking rail junctions, bridges, troops and other objectives. Close air support consists in continuous and effective firing for effect against thP. - enemy from the air in the course of combat operations directly on the battlefield. 2.1.2. Classification of Air-Space Attack Weapons The SURN include: land- and sea-based ballistic missiles, aerodynamic vehicles, spacecraft, dirigibles and balloons. Ballistic missiles, depending upon range, are divided into close-range missiles (up to 1,000 km), medium-range (up to 5,000 km) and long-range (over 5,000 km). Mis- siles with a range over 5,000 km are ter.ned intercontinental. In accord with combat emplo-ycnent, ballistic missiles are divided into tactical, operational-tactical and strategic. Strateaic missiles include the medium- and long-range missiles. Ballistic missiles can be land and sea based. The land-based missiles are launched from silos or mobile launchers while the sea-based ones are launched from nuclear missile submarines. Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles are launched from launching silos. These are designed to hit major administrative-industrial installations, missile launching positions and other objectives. Such missiles have long ranges (sp to 12,000 km), great sgeed (up to 7.5 km per second) and altitude (1,000 km and more). The ICBM have high combat readiness and can attack at any time of the year or day regardless of the weather conditions. For example, modern ICBM include the Minuteman-2, Minuteman-3 and Titan-2 missiles. The sea-based intercontinental ballistic missiles with a range of 8,000-12,000 km - are launched from nuclear missile submarines from a depth of around 30 m at the - moment the sub reaches the launch position. The missile is ejected from the launch tube by compressed air and at a height of 20-30 m above the water surface the first- stage engine is fired. On board, inertidl systems are employed to control the flight of such missiles. These ICBM are designed to hit various military-industrial installations. The Trident-1 and Trident-2 are advanced sea-based ICBM. - 11 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL I.ISE ONLY The laRd-based medium-range ballistic missiles are launched from launching silos and are controlled in flight by iizertial systems. These are designed t, hit various military-industrial installations. The sea-based medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBM) are capabl2 of hittingtargets kip to a distance of 5,000 km. These are also launched from nuclear missile subs from a depth of 30 m. Each su'r, of the existing classe.s carries 16 missiles each. The MRBM are designed mainly to hit major administrative-industrial installations, forts, bases and other objectives. The Polaris A-3, Poseidon C-3, the M-2 and M-20 are among the modern MRBM. The operational-tactical ballistic missiles are capable of hitting targets to a dis- tance of huzdreds of kilometers. The missiles are launched from surface mobile launchers and this makes it possible to maneuver them in the field. These are used for close troop support and for hitting targets in the operational- tactical depth which are beyond the reach of aviation due to strong air defenses. = Among the present-day operational-tactical missiles are such missiles as the Lance and Pershing. Descriptions of the ballistic missiles are given in Table 2.1. 2.2. Aerodynamic At:tack Weapons The aerodynamic attack weapons include strategic bombers, tactical fighters, carrier-launched ground attack planes, unmanned aircraft, and army aviation air- planes and helicopters. Heavy strategic bombers possess a great range, up to 18,000 km, and are capable of operating at high, medium and low altitudes. They carry a bombload of up to 30 tons and more as well as various weapons for attacking installations and lements of the AD system, reconnaissance equipment, as well as ECM [electronic countermeasures] equipment for neutralizing various radio electronic devices. The heavy strategic bombers over the next few years will remain one of the basic strategic means of attack. The further modernization of strategic combers will be aimed at increasing combat effectiveness by arming them with new SRAAM missiles and subsequently the ALCM and ASALM, as well as increasing the capability of the ECM equipment. These aii-craft will basically be employed in a nuclear war, however considering the experience af combat uperations in Vietnam, the partial use of strategic bombers in limited wars is not excluded. These aircraft include the various modifications of the B-52 and the new B-1 aircraft which is being developed. Meclium strategic bombers are used for carrying out missions in nuclear and limited wars. Considering their range, they can hit objectives at a distance of 2,000- 4,000 km. For the purposes of increasing the bomber flight range, mid-air fueling can be carried out. The payload versions of such aircraft can vary. They can carry nuclear and conventional bombs, air-to-ground missiles and equipment for setting up active and passive ,jamming. The navigation equipment makes it possib].e for the bombers to fly at low altitudes. 12 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE UNLY ~ N C! ~ .o ~ F w G cu ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ cd o a rl v~ :3 cn : ' ~ ~ ~ w 0 d v d v ~ ~ 0) cc ca ~ 0 ~ o o u ~ o o iD o b o 0 tn L+ cd cn m R1 cd tn w cU R! .A �rl 41 W I W I W +1 W " W I W 1 W a.+ W +j z L' tp P4 Gl P4 Ol P4 tA P4 Ul 04 d 04 Ol PYi U1 P4 1 Ul aa i a a) a a) a i a i a va W a i a i i a ~ cn N ~ ~ ~ rn F [~-4 E-~ F+ 0- 8 -4 cd O Q) r4 u u - - - - u~ - - - - - - - - - - - - U v ~ ~ O O O O O O O O O O O O O lO 1O O O O O O ~ V1 ~i cf1 S lzr 00 N M e''1 M 00 G c0 O x u ~ Q 0 41 'U N Z Lr) 11 Z LrI ' ctf S N Gl I N 1r-i I O Ir-i i I G! N N 41 '-I r-I I . ' . ~ . ~ . r-1 v' O N Ul O Ol O d O N O N O ul ~ O ~ r r 1-4 cb i.~~ �r~i ~ 04 ~ k ~ l O r l rl r r l G 3 'rl �rl M *HC*1 �rl O ~rl 00 Mi -It tn to cn U rl i~ 41 e-I cis cd U U.C fn O N Lrl %O 01 N 1~ O 1 N G pp q Lr1 c+') C+1 .--1 N M u'1 N I r1 ~ ~ N Cl a 3 ~ M ~ N Cr1 M I z ~ ~ U a -4 N O + I N U E fs+ ~ tA ~ + p N JJ ~ 4-3 ~ p rl N Gi ~ .-I fA rl -i 7 N N N ~ ~ w � ~ ~ A k ~ c- i a + i 13 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY N G ~ GD ~ a~ a~ a1 ~ U O $4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~--I 41 a O a b ~ O ~ 1 I W CY+ a ~ N ~ b0 ~ N ~ GJ 44 U O a~ ~ a~ ~ ~ v a 0 a b r! ~ a ra I WI a a .a APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 'rhe medium strategic bombers include: the comparatively new FB-111 aircraft with a variable wing configuration and cagable of operating at low altitudes at supersonic speed; the supezsonic Mirage IVA bomber and the subsonic Vulcan B-2 bomber. The Zight (tact2ca2) bombers are employed for attacking objectives in the operational-tactical depth and for air support for the ground troops. Such aircraft are the English Buccaneer, the French Vautour of which there is a limited number in service. - The weaponry of the light bombers consists of conventional and nuclear bombs, guided and unguided missiles as well as ECM and reconnaissance equipment. In line with *_he increased combat capability of the tactical fighters (the increased bombload and the introduction of air-to-surface missiles), the role and significance of the light bombers have declined. For this reason new types of light bombers are not being developed and the already existing ones are gradually being taken out of service. 'I'acticaZ fighters are used for carrying out the following missions: destroying nuclear weapons and their delivery systems, aircraft at airfields and air defense weapons; striking military-industrial objectives; close air support for the ground troops; conducting tactical reconnaissance; troop air defense. Modern tactical fighters possess a range from 2,700 to 6,100 km, speeds from 1,000 to 2,500 km per hour, and flying altitudes from 60 to 18,000 m and can carry a bomb- load from 2 to 9 tons. The basic U.S. Air Force tactical fighters are the F-4, F-15 and F-111A. The Royal Air Force has the multipurpose Harrier and Jaguar fighters while the French Air - Force has the Mirage IIIE, Mirage SF and Jaguar f ighters. Among the advanced tac- tical fighters are the F-16, the Tornado and Mirage 2000. Tactical fighters can carry conventional and nuclear bombs, air-to-ground tactical missiles, air-to-air missiles and ECM equipment. For example, in operating against ground targets, different versions of a combat load are possible for the F-4 air- criift: 18 340-kg bombs or 11 450-kg bombs; 4 Bullpup missiles or containers with unguided missiles. Bombing can be carried out from various altitudes. From the experience of the combat operations in Vietnam, the U.S. tactical fighters in attacking objectives, carried out missile- and fighter-avoidance maneuvers for the purpose of evading the AD weapons. In this war the tactical fighters were used as part of the assault and various support groups. Modern tactical f ighters have a number of systems (an integrated weapons control system, an integrated navigation-bombing system, and a terrain following system) which make it possible for them to reach the objective, make the attack and return to the airfield. 14 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI,Y APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY G'arrier-based ground attack aircraft are part of the carrier aviation. These are used for operating from multipur.pose (attack) aircraft carriers and _`or attacking land and sea targets. Depending upon the type of carrier, it can have a.round 100 different types of aircraft, including 50-60 carrier-based aircraf t. Modern carrier-based attack aircraft can operate at ranges up to 5,000 km, fly at speeds from 760 to 2,200 lan per hour at altitudes from 60 to 14,000 m and carry a bombload up to 7 tons. At present, the U.S. carrier aviation Ilas heavy attack and reconnaissance aircraf t the RA-SC, the A-4, A-6 and A-7 attack planes. They can all carry conventional and nuclear bombs, air-to-surface and air-to-air missiles, EMC and reconnaissance equipment. The variations f or the combat load of the carrier-based attack planes can differ, for example, the A-6 aircraft can carry two-three Bullpup or Standard ARM missiles, unguided missiles and three bombs weighing 907 kg each. The A-6, A-7 and A-4 carrier-based attack planes were widely used ia combat opera- tions in Vietnam both for attacking targets as well as part of support groups. Reconnaissanee aireraft, as a rule, are reconnaissance versions of bombers, fighters, carrier-based attack planes and transports which have special equipment for conduct- ing reconnaissance. In addition, there are also special reconnaissance aircraft, for example, ir. the U.S. Air Force the SR-71 and U-2 which are designed to conduct strategic reconnaissance. The basic U.S. aircraft for tactical reconnaissance is the RF-4 which is employed for photographic and electric reconnaissance as well as for radar reconnaissance using the side-viewing radar. - Carrier-based aircraft includes the RA-5C reconnaissance aircraf t and the Hawkeye _ and Tracer long-range radar surveillance aircraft; these are used for conducting - reconnaissance in the interests of carrier task forces. Unmanned aircraft are used for carrying out the following missions: for jamming the - radars of the enemy air defense system; for conducting air reconnaissance (the BQM- - 34A, the 147J, H); for attacking targets and for complicating the air situation. Unmanned aircraft can be launched from other aircraft and from ground launchers. These are controlled by a program or by an operator from a ground or airborne post. In recent years abroad great attention has been given to developing small-sized remote controlled devices for conducting reconnaissance and neutralizing the radars. Arm,y aviation is employed for carrying out the following missions: close air sup- - port for the ground troops on the battlefield; ferrying ground troops to combat areas and dropping tacticai airborne parties; logistical support and the evacuation of sick and wounded; conducting air recoruiaissance. 15 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR Uh'M'IL'IAL USE (1NLY In addition to the designated missions, helicopters are employed as flying comnand posts. Army aviation consists of army aircraft and helicopter units and subunits. The U.S. Army employs the following classes of helicopters: The general-purpose (multipurpose) helicopters, the basic type of which is the UH-1D Iroqiiois helicopter; The CH-54A, the CH-47B and CH-47C troop carrier helicopters; The Iroquois and Hugh Cobra fire support helicopters; The Caius and Caiova reconnaissance helicopters. Army aviation also employs the Bird Dog and RU-21 airpianes. The tactical and technical characteristics of basic military aircraft are given in Table 2.2. 2.3. Air-to-Surface and Air-to-Air Guided Missiles - The air-to-surface guided missiles are divided into strategic and tactical missiles. Air-to-Surface Missiles Air-to-surface strategic missiZes include the SRAAM missiles which are in service on the strategic bombers and the ALCM, ASALM and SLCM which are being developed. These ar.e being designed to attack targets at ranges trom 200 to 2,600 km without entering the zone of active AD weapons. In addition, the ASALM missile can be employed for hitting airborne targets. The air-to-surface strategic missiles possess great accuracy in hitting the targets and the capacity to be retargeted to other objectives in the course of the air- craft's flight. They significantly increase the capabilities of strategic aviation in breaking through the AD system. The SRAAM missile was put i.nto service in 1972. It is employed on the B-52G and H bombers to which can be suspended up to 20 SRAAM, as well as the FB-111 which is capable of carrying up to 6 SRAAM. The SRAAI�: missiles can be launched from the B-52 in various directions in relation to the aircraft's heading. Th.-~ ALCM missile has been developed as a subsonic (M = 0.5-0.7) cruise missile cap- able of flying at low altitudes (up to 60 m). It has a small effective reflective surface. The ASALM missile is being developed as a supersonic (M = 4.5 at great altitudes) capable of flying in a broad range of altitudPS from low to high, including with terrain following. 16 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR UFFICIAL USE ONLY ~ N N 41 _ ~-i .o H P'l 'l7 00 x O O O C. +1 O O O O O O O ~ O O O a Q %D rl w O O O O .a 00 ~ G) %O u1 O~ 00 O w l11 > ~d m '--1 M cti ^ r-i O cn %G L/1 %O aa p ~ 14 O ~ O 'b 0 ~ ~ O ~ w O O F+ .SG I 3 + c o 3 -W ~ 'H ~ u � ~ w cn cn C ~ o 1 0 i co ~ ,-i ~ 0 ~ v-H Co a - p w 1+ w i 0 s~ a.Nc G o � b m ~ ~ ~ a~ s~ ,H �o 14 ~ b a~ a~ -H 10 ~ O tA N -rl tA N e-1 Y. c0 cO f+' 'H R1 O f: > `H O M O.f+ rl f-+ a. m c Z �H "o t3 z ,H P. :1 ca :1 co ca ~ 0 :3 4 �rq oZ oo e o cn aa W M ao o i %0 o Z a .o w o oa cn ~ 41 ~ d ~ � 1 ~ o ~ ~ W s 3 � i r~ ~ v ~ o o , c o %c c .7 .o c c a o ~ c~ -4 N $4 Sa Lf1 I ~ P Q O O ~ ~ N N 0 ~ ~ ~ 1 I c d R1 O al 4 O O O U) tA m m '-1 rl G ,a -rl N N N ~ 6 ~ 1 I I ~U :j cC 1 I i U .f. U I:r r-~ r-I x 0 k Z O Q O O O O -H O O O O rl O O O O N O OPN ia O O O D, O N O ~O O O rI oo 1+ C~. r. In oo ~ on ~ s~ a ~ w 00 %D r-i -t ~D lt Gl Rd f"1 c*1 N Ol u'1 R1 r-i r-I W 44 a v v ~ b0 O 5C O O 54 O O O O O O O U G O 00 O O O O O O O A O �rl �r1 p O w O L+ O Y+ O w O O p O O O G ~ -rl D u'1 O. O D u'1 LL O~ 9 a0 O ri 00 r-1 00 N O! Ol O rl Cd N O rl cd '-i O~I -W N O rl N rl rl cn U ~ 'b N C1 N 10 ~n ~ 0 O O O O O O O O u'1 O u1 O O O O O O O O O O a.+ N O r1 O M O c'1 O ~1 O u'1 O O O O C~ 0 O O O c'1 e'1 O c~1 O M O ~O O %D O c"1 O u'1 O r-I O -Y' O rl r1 ~ N N N u'1 N N N N N I N N ri N N N N 41 N k~ r~l cb r-I r-1 rl r-I '-I r-~ r-1 r--I '--I fU tb Gl 34 ~O N ~Y N N e--1 e--I N ~--I r-I U .-i r-1 '-1 ~ n u1 -7 r-I r-1 r-1 z a ~ ~ w w ~ w ~ w d c r. W a c r 17 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY b v G u C O u N N a) ~ .n c~ H i ct x o 0 0 o Ln o 0 -4 N O Ln 8 X ~ v1 s O cO cO ~ I w m r-4 0 ~ G a ai ~ + p 4, q 0 ~ 3 ~O c0 cd QO N i cn i o ~ o 0 w y M N M 0 r N N r' ~ -I ro :j cv U 0 U ~ to ~ a ~ �'4 �1 � ~ N � ~ ~ � 0 0 ~ + o o a Lr, w ao w Ln w ~ w td -:r 44 v ~t 44 v ~7 W v v o0 0 0 0 0 � ~ . . o > W -H al N r1 rl Cn U z b v v ai i ~ u ~ ov, o0 00 O ON 00 NO ~.C �r1 00 ~r1 r-I O o0 O +1 ^ = il rl N~ r-I O ~ ~ x cd u ~ Cd 3 a i y,4 r-I N r--1 U 0 b ~ 01 ~ ~ ~ oo H ti z � The SLCM missile is being developed by the comnand of the U.S. Navy for launching from subs and surface vessels and oossibly from aircraft and ground launchers. In its tactical and technical characteristics it is analogous to the ALCM missile. The tacticaZ air-to-surface missiZes in- clude the Bullpup, Maverick, Condor as well as the tactical Jumbo and SLCM missiles under development. These missiles, with the exception of the SLCM and Jumbo, are in service in the tactical and carrier- based aviation. The Bullpup missile put into service at the beginning of the 1960's has several modif i- cations. It is used to hit small-sized well protected ground targets. The Maverick missile was put into service in 1972 and was designed for hitting AD radio electronic equipment, tanks, air- planes at airfields and other ground tar- gets. Its basic arriers are the F-4 and A-7 aircraft which can carry 3-6 such mis- siles. The Maverick missile has an electronic- optical guidance system thP TV camera of which is located in the nose portion of the body. The missile is guided to the target by the maneuvering of the aircraft in such a manner that the crosshairs of the optical sight line up on the target. Then the crosshairs of the TV camera are lined up with the target and the missile is launched after which it is possible to aim the fol- lowing missile. The Condor missile is designed for hitting surface and ground targets with previously known coordinates (launchers of the anti- aircraft missile troops, command posts, in- dustrial buildings and shore facilities and naval vessels). These missiles are in service on carrier-based aircraft. U.S. military specialists are studying the possibilities of increasing the range of the Condor missile. 18 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAI. USF ONI.Y The SLCM missile (tactical) is being daveloped by the U.S. Navy for use from sur- fric.e vessely at a range up to 500 km and from submarines to a range of 260 km. Tho ECM missiles include the Quail decoy missiles and the Shrike, Standard ARM and Martel AS-37 antiradar missiles. The Quail missile was put into service in the U.S. Strategic Aviation in 1961 and was basically designed for use as a"decoy" which would divert the antiaircraft guided missiles launched to destroy the strategic bombers. The Quail missiles on the screens of ground radars simulate signals from overflying heavy bombers. The range of the Quail decoy missile is 370 km. The Shrike missile is an antiradar missile. It was put into service in 1964 and over this time has undergone several modifications. The Shrike is basically de- signed to hit the radars of enemy AD troops and has replaceable homing heads. It was widely used by the tactical and carrier-based aviation in Vietnam. The Standard ARM missile is a Gecond-generation antiradar missile. The missile is - guided as part of the onboard system which determin.es the coordinates for the radars of enemy AD troops prior to the launching af the missile. According to information in the foreign press, the Harm missile which is being de- veloped will have a greater speed and more effective guidance system with a low ' cost. The basic tactical and technical data for the air-to-surface missilis are given in Table 2.3. Air-to-Air MissiZes Air-to-air missiles can have long, medium and short ranges. The Zong-range air-to-air missile.s includes the Phoenix AIM-54A. The Phoenix missile is designed to hit subsonic and supersonic airborne targets over a broad range of altitudes using a conventional warhead, under any weather conditions, during the day and at night. The warhead damage area is 7.5 m. The missile has a combined homing head which includes a semiactive pulse-doppler radar system operating in the initial and middle legs of the flight and an active pulse- doppler radar homing system. The m.edium-range air-to-air missiZes include the Sparrow-3 and Matra R-530. Ttie Sparrow-3 AIM-7F missile is one of the basic medium-range missiles with a semi- active radar homing head. It is designed to hit airborne targets under any weather conditions. A hybrid guidance system is also being developed for this missile and it includes a radar and infrared homing head. The Matra R-530 missile was developed for the Mirage III, Mirage F-1 and Jaguar aircraft. It is equipped with a semiactive radar homing head. However, the mis- sile's homing system cannot isolate targets flying at a low altitude agsinst the earth's background. 19 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY cn C,, a A co H u ~ M i0,, u� ~ 0~+j ~ u~ u~ 0 U~ O 1 w G" Q d fs. - d ~ S-~ r...9 C7 C~ C~ ^cO Ol w Ln r-i U N f-l Q N Q4 N W fA UI ^ U M ^ O r-I ~ y~ u, o i u, Ul o --4 Ln $4 0 .o %0 �4T co U�rq I N W ~O I N I N 1 N I N 1 N 0o x1 I ~ r~ ~n Gl ~ D cn I I 1 d t~ c~ 1 1 I I I 1 1 c~ r~ c4 cA ca a1 Z OJ rl t d O ~ w Cd cU O G~ ~ ~ d 1-4 L (0 Cd ri 'C7 c0 Cd cU cU ~ cU 41 L rl ri 19 rl H CO ti-1 rl 19 1 C S D �rl GJ a~ 0) O a~ q 41 C! O OcO O 1a rl O U i-+ H H U H G1 -W s 0 N w S-i H w H 7ro ~ m P4 A ~ 3 U . , U . ~ V i 'd a~ G .a .x n G G P4 oD 7+ 04 O a W In ~ U@ o oco W ti ai CC w 44 1-+ a) P a P P. a w rn a a$+ cn ~n ~n b ,y Ln Ln tn i!'1 N w a 0 Ln p ~ N rl :n ~ $4 v O O 'rl O ~ ~ a ~ -4 A u Cd - - - 6 ~p ~O H L- $4 bD c: ~ W r l ~ $4 aJ O -ri 4-4 N O O w N~ 0 U1 O ~O O L/'1 O pp r1 ~D U W 41 1.0 r-1 ~T N O A ld O G7 ~ N O w fA p 00 N ~ ~C c1 p ~ 1a F+ ~ 0 � - 0 ~ 1 C cd .-i 0 J ~ O .L ~ yJ Sa ~ yJ '!L p 1J ~ I ~ v ~ ~ ~ , ~ ,hG 00 CU ? 4 cn 3 a --i o r-+ o 1-1 o D 1 D.~ 9.x > ~4 m a Cd o a u o cv u~ u ~ o c~ u~ ~ri oLn o0 oc~ oa ( 3 ~ z z z z 0 ~ s ~.o v.o c~ C', p o L 0 o 0 ~ 0 r-I 0 ~ 0 ao 0 %D u .~e o p n 00 O O 00 N 1-1 O~ ~ a 3 u d a c~ d d v rn ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ 0 ro z ~ ~ a, � � Q d c� ~ ~ v zo FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/42109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 b v ~ a u C O u C~ N v ~ ~ ~ H y, u I N ro v oo ~ co V ^ O cd W 7 ro -i %O H -1 00 U ro * j d ~ ~ ~ . r . c ` aU ~ > c a i $.4 �ri v m Ca 0 - b v~ :3 rA a c� n. v -4 c. w w on r- L a a w cn ~n v v v ,4 N r-1 a ~ ~ $4 v b o b aj 4-1 :j r. u a i - . ~ U ctl H 1J 00 ~ x � . ~ .r., u, W a N 00 0 ~ G p ~ . cv w x s4 > co 0 : ~ � ai ai m g G o a o u, o 0 0 0Ln cd ca a u r-q u 1-4 3 ~ u ,x Ln o tr, ca ~ .a 3 ~ b v p co fd t- ri 00 J \O 7 r. W ~ :ir or day, upon the area of the flight and other factors. The significant de- velopment level of aerodynamics and the advances in developing propulsion units and new high-strength materials have made it possible to obtain high performance for modern aircraft. 7'hc f'nr-ce of gravity F is a force in H in which a body weighing m at an altitude H is attracted to the earth: F ' 7 ~ ~t +f - - (~r H )~t 4.1014 ~ + ' (3.10) whcre y=6.67�10-11--gravitation constant, m3/kg sec2; M=6�1024--the weight of the earth, kg; Re=6371�103--radius of the earth, m. A,-,-F,Zcration of free faZZing body at earth's surfaee g--acceleratior, under the ef- fect of t}ie earth's force of gravity. As zi consequence of the daily rotation of the earth, the amount of acceleration for a free falling body (m/sec2) depends upon geographic latitude 30 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY g - g.(1 -F 0,0052sin'cp). (3.11) where go=0.78--acceleration of a free falling body at the equator, m/sec2; ~--geographic latitude, degrees. Depending upon height, the acce]_eration of a free falling body changes according - to the law / Re 2 gH- g 1 Re 1-11 ) . ~ (3.12) Corcditions of aircraft fZight in earth's field of gravity without considering infZu- ence of atmosphere. According to the known value of gg it is oos5ible to determine the circular velocity Vci of an aireraft (satellite) flying in a circular orbit at altitude H: vw - j/711 (R(,-} N) . (3.13) In particular, with H= 0 and gg = g, we obtain a value cf orbital velocity V1 = 4_Re =7.9 km/sec, and this is the limit for aircraft in flights in circumterrestrial - space. Correspondingly, escape velocity V2= 2gRe =11.2 km/sec. The trajectories for the movement of bodies in the field of the earth's gravity at velocities lying bemeen the orbital and escape velocities will be an ellipse the near focus of which coincides with the earth's center. Fli.ght, COYIdZtZOYIS of aervdynamic vehicles. The relationship between the required speed of flight for aerodynamic vehicles, atmospheric pressure P and air density p at a given altitude is established by the energy equation (the Bernoulli equation): v' P + - const. (3.14) Consequently, with an increase in altitude (with a reduction in the values of p and P) for maintaining the flight of the given type of aerodynamic vehicZe, it is essen- tial to increase the speed of f light in accord with equation (3.14). In formula (3.14) the first component has received the name of the velocity head q: - q = V2 ~ 31 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 1'orces Effectisag the Aircraft 'A,lal arrorlynamic fnrce R is the resultant of all the forces of pressure and fric- tiun effecting the aircraft in the process of flight: R-CRSp2~. (3.15) where CR--coefficient of total aerodynamic force; S--wing area. I,ift Y is the projection of the total aerodynamic force on the perpendicular to the speed of the air flow: O Y - CyS P 2 . (3.16) where Cy--lift coefficient. Dray Q is the projection of the total aerodynamic force on the direction of the speed of the free-flow stream and directed against the motion of the aircraft: , QR~.~S rl . (3.17) where CX -drag coefficient being the total of the drag coefficients in the absence of CXo and in the presence of CXi of lift. The valties for the coefficients Cx and Cy and the relationships between the forces are shown in Figs. 3.9a and b and 3.10, respectively. Cx 0,04 QOz n,nz 0.01 0,8' 1,0 1.2 1.4 1,6 Af a C cy ma b r."r v d Y R I I i I I 4 Fig. 3.9. Values for coefficients CX (a) Fig. 3.10. Distribution of and Cy (b) forces operating on aircraf t Any motion in essence is reactive as it is based upon the ejecting of mass in a direction which is reverse to the motion (the propellers of an aircraft eject air, a ship propeller ejects water and so forth). 32 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 N'OR UFN7CIAL USF ONLY Nowever, only the movement of a jet aircraft does not require the presence of a sur- rounding medium (with the exception of an air-breathing jet engine) as the ejected mass of the propulsive mass is carried on the aircraft. The thrust P is the basic value characterizing a jet engine as an element of an air- craft pawer unit: p sEeI-UrV, _ G"... 9 9 (3.18) where Gg, GT--the second weight expenditures of air and fuel, respectively, H/sec; VC, V--gas exhaust velocity and aircraft speed, respectively, m/sec. The aerodyruvric quality of an aircraft is the ratio of life Y to drag Q(the ratio of the lift coeff icient to the drag coeff icient): Y Cv 1( -v e ~.-X . (3.19) In the process of flight for an aircraft possessing a weight m, its structure is effected by the geometric total of the external forces EP causing the resulting ac- celeration a, m/sec2: EP a = - . m The occurrence of acceleration is accompanied by the presence of the forces of in- ertia. The amount of the force of inertia J(H) depends totally upon acceleration and direction is always opposite to the direction of acceleration J=-ma. Aircraft g-Zoads are a dimensionless ratio of the amount of the resultant of all forces effecting the aircraft to the amount of its gravity: 2;P n J ng G ~ 9 ~ - G Here FP = ma; G= mg; J= -ma. (3.20) The resLiltant of all the forces EP can be broken down into components using the axes of a body-axis system (xl, yl, zl), that is, EPxl' EPY1' EPzl' For the values of these components, the longitudinal and transverse g-loads of the aircraft (nyl and nZl) are calculated: E 1 1X' . 1'-V --longitudinal g-load; x, (i (i E --normal load� l~ g- ~ ny. 07z, GZi --lateral g-load. 0 33 FOR GFEICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/49: CIA-RDP82-00850R040500060053-2 FOR UF'NI('IAL U5E UNLY Thc thermaZ barrier of an aircraft is the aggregate of design and operational limita= tions related to a rise in the temperature of the aircraft skin and its individual p.3rts with an increase in f light speed. Air f'Zaw deceZeration is a drop in the local air velocity to zero in the boundary zone on the forward edge of the body passing through the flow. 7'he dynarrric temperature of the aircraft's surface is the rise in temperature due to the conversion of the kinetic energy of the air flow into potential energy with its dec~:tleration: 2 OTdyn = (T + 273� ) 1 + , (3.21) w'iere M--the ratio af flow velocity to the speed of sound; T+ 273�--absolute temperature of surrounding air. The theoretical dependence of dynamic temperature upon aircraft speed is shown in Fig. 3.11. The decline in the relative strength of modern aviation materials, including stain- less stezl, depending upon temperature is shown in Fig. 3.12. 611~ r �c 300 200 foo 0 3000 V,KM/ Fig. 3.11. Change in dynamic temperature depending upon aircraft speed ~ so ~o ~ N H ~ " 60 ~ ~ 1430 b r~ I ~ l H n a ~~n? Elektron vtlr8l Grg � glaes ~ 200 aoo qoo r�c Fig. 3.12. Relative reduction in strength of materials with rise in temperature Ttie f.light conditions of aerodynamic vehicles are determined by a number of con- straints which influence the nature of their combat employment (Fig. 3.13). The upper limit is determined by the tolerable pressure in the air intake ducts and the lower one by the structure's strength limit. The dotted line shows the extremal temperatures for various materials of the aircraf t structure. The static ceilling Hst is the greatest height for horizontal sustained flight of an aerodynamic vehicle in which tne condition determined by the energy equation (3.14) is f ulfilled. 34 FOR OFF'ICtAL USE (`NLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 iooo 7noo APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 HnR nFFI('IA1. USF. ONI.Y M-Lrc-imzun alZowabZe speed is the lowest speed Vmin of sustained flight 2.t a given alti- tudc excluding the stalling of an aerodynamic vehicle: 2G Vmin all - psCy.all (3.22) Mrzximum aZZowabZe speed is the greatest speed Vmax of sustained flight at a given altitude under the maximum or after-burner engine operating conditions ensuring safe flight of the aerodynamic vehicle: 2qa11 Vmax all - p ' wher.e qall--extremal amount of velocity head for given type Qf aircraft. (3.23) Qualitative characteristics of Vmin all and Vmax all for aeredynamic vehicles are shown in Fig. 3.14. H, KM 47 ~ f 8 1 2 800�C f000'1C 1300�C 6 N Hcr ---i ~ I 1 1 Vmax Vmin vmax , v o r 2., 4 5 6 7 A 9 ro 11 17 M Fig. 3.13. Constraints on aircraft flight conditions Fig. 3.14. Allowable values for flight speeds of aero- dynamic vehicles Prircciple of Jet PropuZsion for Aerobatlistic and BaZZistic MissiZes In jet propulsion a jet reaction is employed as the propulsive force. The theory of jet propulsion for a point of variable mass moving rectilinearly in an air-free space in the absence of external forces was worked out by K. E. Tsiolkovskiy in the form of a first problem and for upwards vertical motion as a second problem. The first TsioZkovskiy problem is the speed of point V1 at the end of the combustion process with an initial velocity Vp: n, v, - 2,1V 19 (I -1 M~ . 35 F'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY (3.24) APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2447102/09: CIA-RDP82-44850R444544464453-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY where Vr--relative partical exhaust velocity; M--ejected mass of fuel; Mg--mass of point at end of jettisoning process. 'Che rco-orrd Tsiolkovskiy probZem. The total height H for the lift of the point will cunsLst of the active leg Sa covered during time tl and the inactive leg Si covered by [he point with a fixed mass MS = MQ-M and with a velocity equal to the velocity - V1 at the end of the active leg: _ 9f' V ~ t' V' . -$s + -Vlt l- 11 +a l -I- lg (3.25) where a--specific fuel consumption; V1 = Vp - gtl +aVrtl. Flight Characteristics of AerobaZZistic and BaZZ-iJti-c MissiZes AerobaZlistie missiles are jet aircraft traveling alo:lg a ballistic trajectory on ttie basis of the laws of aerodynamics. The length of flight V2 sln 20 G 9; ; (3.26) maximum trajectory altitude v; sil,, o (3.27) 9 , duration of flight 2v, sln n T - - (3.28) where Hp--flight altitude of carrier (aircraft) at moment of launching missile; V1--speed of flight at the moment of shutting down engine; 0--angle of departure; g--acceleration of force of gravity. The characteristics of the trajectory are shown in Fig. 3.15. , ~ ~ *V11-- / A ` Hmob L Ho . . . , . PiK. 3.15. Characteristics for trajectory of aeroballistic vehicle 36 BaZZistic missiZes (BM) are vehicles the trajectory of which consists of an active leg with a firing engine during which the device gains a reserve of kinetic (speed of flight) and potential (altitude of flight) energy and an in- active leg when motion occurs according to the law of a freely thrown body, that is, according to a ballistic curve. FOR OF,FICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The trajectory of a ballistic missile can be broken up into three characteristic legs (Fig. 3.16). The active Zeg is the portion of the trajF:ctory from the launch point A to the end of the engine's operation (Foint K) over which there is an increase in velocity Vk to the required amount and direction. The free fZight Zeg is the portion of the trajectory (from point K to point B) over which the vehicle flies along a ballistic curve. The terminaZ Zeg is the portion of the trajectory (from B to point C) during which the vehicle moves in the dense layers of the atmosphere. V Fig. 3.16. Trajectory of Fig. 3.17. Basic ratios character- ballistic missile's flight izing ballistic missile flight A pro,jection of the totaZ distanee for the flight of a BM onto the earth's surface is: L = LA+Lg+LC , where LA, LB, LC--respectively, projections of the active, free-flight and terminal legs of the trajectory. Since LB � LA + LC, fnr a rough approximation it is poss�_ble to disregard the values _ LA and LC, that is, L = LB = 20Re, where 0--central angle, radian; Re -radius of earth, or L= 114.6 Rp��; (0�--measured in degrees). The dependence between the velocity Vk, the angle of its incline relative to the - horizon Ak, the altitude of the active leg Hk and the angular range of the flight 20 is expressed by the formula VZ 1-cos2,f � r" rkK cos' 9K - cos (2~ - 9k) cos flK (3.29) I , 3 37 F'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 n 10 JV 70 OU /J Vx, ' ~ I APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY where u= YMe(Y--�gravitation constant, Me--mass of the earth); rk = Hk + Re . The connection between the projection of the range Lg of the BM flight on the earth's surface, the velocity Vk at the end of the active leg and the angle of de- parture Ok is shown in Fig. 3.17 (in the diagram the points with the minimum angles of cieFarture Ak are circled). 3.1.3. Laws of Motion of Aircraft Motion is any change encompassing all processes occurring in the universe. While the motion of matter as a whole is not restricted by anything, it is absolutely in- evitable and indestructible, the motion of an-j individual body is limited in space and time anci for this reasor. can be determined only by a relatively concrete system of reckoning (a system of coordinates). Tu the degree that real motion always occurs simultaneously relative to a number of reckoning systems, a number of inethods for assessing it are possible. The choice of the reckoning system is dictatad solely by the conditions of expedience and sim- plicity of description. The Zaw of motion of an aircraft is an analytical or graphic dependence of the air- craft's coordinates upon time for the given reckoning system. The representation of the aircraft's motion is possible due to such physical phenomena as speed, accelera- tion and the other higher derivatives of speed. For a spherical system of coordinates, in a general form an aircraft's laws of motion for distance and angular coordinates car. be represented in the form of time series: nr- nr- ; n~" t� rj~r~ - n~o~ a- nr -i l+ 3 f- - }J M I n-0 N p(n) ln P (l) N (O) -1 3 nt n-0 (3.30) - N E �E l~ E(n) / n E !t~ (II~'- EI i' 2 + fl~ . . l !1- o where D(n), S(n), e(n)--values (n-x) for the derivatives from the distance, azimuth and elevation, respectively, N--the number of terms in the series. The laws of motion for an aircraft in terms of distance, azimuth and elevation de- ter.mine the operating conditions for the tracking range finder and angle-measuring 38 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500064453-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY systems, respectively. Here for the tzacking systems with a known magnitude of astatism, the values of the derivatives from range and angular coordinates deter- mine the amoants o� the dynamic errors and, consequently, the accuracy of ineasuring the aircraft's coordinates. An aircraft's Zaw of motion for range is an analytical or graphic representatian of the change in the aircraft's range coordinates relative to a specific reclwning system. v t - - A KAi 0 a b ao IRO Fig. 3.1$. Model of horizontal flight (a) and law for change in distance (b) of an aircraft For practical purposes it is advisable to represent the law of motion as a depend- ence upon the aircraft's azimuth. A model of an aircraft's horizontal flight with a constant speed relative to a ground tracking system (point C) is shown in Fig. 3.18a. The law for the change in distance relative to the tracking system is shown in Fig. 3.18b. The analytical expressions characterizing the law of change in range and its deriva- tives depending upon the aircraft`s azimuth are given in Table 3.3. Fig. 3.18 an3 Table 3.2 have employed the following symbols: V--aircraft speed; P--parameter relative to the start of the calculation; H--aircrait altitude; S, e-- azimuth and elevation of aircraft relative to start of reckoning. . Graphs for the change of D(s), b(O) and*D(s) are shown in Fig. 3.19. v P' Fig. 3.19. Graphs for change in Fig. 3.20. Graphs for change in derivatives for range derivatives for azimuth 39 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICiAL USE ONLY _ Table 3.2 CocrS3i~10%26 UKOw AueAMwewe npeattAbanue tllareoetr S1[CT."lYSA6Ytl! A"YrT 1 a~wacexM~ I 2 AlTaTtabtlOM AMPATA N DPOM38OlllllZ 3 se"erw I 4 o[CTQlYrYf Range, m D(P) - ~ 11 P' H'sin, ~ l~P' -f- ' ~-~v il[I ~ D co 0-180� Radial VP co+ 0 V 0-00: 5-180� velocity, mf s D(~1 _ VP' + H-sfa' 9 0 0.900 Acceleration M/BZ D(~) - V' (P' + H') sin' p y '(P'+ ! sin' F)' V' P' + ' 0��900 0 I P-O'; P-1800 Key: 1--Comgonent of law of motion; 2--Analytical representation of aircraft's range and derivatives; 3--Extremal values; 4--Extremum azimuth An aireraft's Zog motion for azimuth is an analytical or graphic representation for the cnange in the aircraft's azimuth coordinates relative to the specific reckoning system. The nature of the change in an aircraft's azimuth and the derivatives froat the azi- muth (Fig. 3.18a) is shown in Table 3.3. Graphs for the change in S(R), S(S),*S(S) are shown in Fig. 3.20. i s(R) An aircrrzft's Zaw of motion for eZevation is an analytical or graphic representa- tion of the change in the sircraft's elevation coordinates relative to the specific reckoning system. The nature of the change of the air- craft's elevation and the derivatives is shown in Table 3.4. The graphs for tb.e change of F($), e(S) and*e(S) are shown in Fig. 3.21. Fig. 3.21. GraphQ for change in The ratios given in the tables and grapha derivatives for elevation make it possible to asaess the amounts of the dynamic errors in tracking and guid- ance systems as well as determine the areas of space in the tracking and guidance (kill) zone where these errora are maximal and to take measures to compensate for them. 40 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL U9E ONLY Table 3. 3 MBAO Cocraa"~e~ee~ 2 ~esaTeas~iaro nnpesa pQOMSoOb9Y2 3~~uVerwM* 4 ~Ke~ipeaivrIk 1 Azimuth, rad. I Vt ,~(t) - arcctg P. + H, i V ain' p 0 p-00: N-180� Angular p velocity, 1/S ! ~ V P-90' P Angular ac- 2V' cos e stn� ~ V' ~.ri0�; ~-1:09 1e1~gration, @(~) ~ p+ �0.65 P, Key: 1--Component of law of motion; 2--Analytical representation of aircraft'e azimuth and derivatives; 3--Extremal values; 4--Azimuth of extremum Table 3.4 I .~KC7QlY~A61161! I ~ ~NYyT 1RCTQlMYYI Cq~t~YfqYla/ I AYAMTM4ttK0! OQtitTil~telle yiAi YtC'T~ 3N~YdIM1 2 SAKOr! lpNxteMf 2 AlT~TlAb110r0 aIIIIsQaTs 11 BQOMlMl9Yi 3 Elevation, rad. An lar ve~citq . I/s Angular ac- celeration, 1/s2 s - arctg ( P sin P) VN cos ~�stn' fi p9+ N'sin' P ca) - H' V'H stn' 11 (2-3 stn'~ - P, sin* ~ . ~ p, (I p~ sla' ~ 0 arctg H/P � 0,38 V H/P' � vrH -V'H'IPt l�IH -vr ' TW8 0.00; �r - 1800 11-90' P- 55�. 125� (P> t1) 0- o', 1600 (P � K) a-90� (P a N) 5 - 90' (P -C H) Key: 1--Component of law of motion; 2--Analytical representation of aircraft's elevation and derivatives; 3--Extremal values; 4--Azimuth of extremum 41 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 3.2. Principles for the Designing of Detection Systems Against Enemy Air Weapons ~ 3.2.1. Systems uf Coordinates Employed to Solve the Problems of Detectiag and = Determining the Location of Aircraft The position of an aircraft in space can be determined only in relation to certain othPr bodies which are termed reckoning or reference bodies. - As reckoning bodies it is possible to employ, the sun, the center of the earth, a certain point on the earth's surface, the center of mass of any aircraft and so forth. A certain system of coordinates is linked to the reckoning body. For solving the problems of determining the location of aircraft, their guidance and hitting in circ;unterrestrial space it is possible to employ earth (stationary rela- - tive to the earth), body-axis and wind-bAdy (moving relative to the earth) coordin- ate systems. Earth Coordinate Systems Geocentric rectangular (X, Y, Z) und sphericaZ (r, 0, A) systems. As the origin of the coordinates 0, thQ center of the earth's mass is employed while the OY axis of the rectangular system is directed along the earth's axis of rotation, the OX and OZ axes in such a manner as to form a right-handed system. In a sperical system, the positiou of the aircraft is determined by the radius vector r and the geocentric latitude 0 and a (Fig. 3.22a). The relation between the geocentric rectangular and spherical coordinates is: a z b Fig. 3.22. Geocentric (a) and surface (b) coordinate systems X - rcosIF alnX; Y - rslnp; (3.31) Z- r coa (p coa a. Surfuce rectangutar (x, y, z) and spherical (D, B, e) systems. As the origin of the coordinates o a certain point of the earth's surface is accepted, the oy axis of the rectalinear system goes vertically upwards, the ox axis runs to the north (or to a local object), and the oz axis in such a manner as to obtain a right- handed coordinate system. In a spherical coordinate system, the aircraft's position is determined by the slant range D and by two angles s, e determining the direction for the vector of the slant range D. The angle E between the vector and its projection to the horizontal plane is termed the elevation; the angle g determining in a horizontal plane the direction of the projection of D relative to the start of the readout (the ox axis) is called the azimuth (Fig. 3.22b). 42 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The relation between the surface rectangular and spherical coordinate systems is: D - Vr x' y' + t' ; arctg X ; (3.32) a - jl�rg y x*+s' ' Moving (Relative to the Earth) Coordinate Systema The body axis coordinate system (xl, y1, z 1) . For the point of origin o(Fig. 3.23a), the aircraft's center of mass is employed; the oxl axis is directed along the aircraf t's longitudinal axis, the oyl axia to the plane of the vertical axis and the ozl axis to the plane of the aircraft's horizontal section so as to obtain a right-handed coordinate system. Y' i 7, v / 2\ / ~3 v xo y: z'Y a b The angle between the aircraft's longitudinal axis and its projection to the horizontal plane is termed the pitch angle 0. The angle between the pro3ection of the aircraft's longitudinal axis to the horizontal plane and the ox axis is termed the heading (yaw) angle The angle between the vertical plane running through the oxl axis and con- necting the oyl axis is called the bank angle Y. Fig. 3.23. Body axis (a) and wind body (b) coordinate systems Fig. 3.23a shows the reciprocal posi- tioning of the body axis and earth co- ordinate system with the lining up of their center. The angles 6 and Y are formed by successive turns: 1--around the y angle to angle 2--around the z' axis to angle 9; 3--around the xl axis to angle Y. The wind body coordinate system (xc, yc, zc). The center of masses is taken as the point of origin o; the oxc axis coincides with xhe velocity vector, with the oyc and ozc axes lying, respectively, in the aircraft's vertical and horizontal planes of symmetry (Fig. 3.23b). The position of a wind body coordinate system relative to a body axis one is deter- mined by the angles of attack and slip. The angle of attack a is the angle between the projection of the velocity vector V to ttie aircraft's vertical plane of sqnmmetry and the oxl axis. The slip angle S is the angle between the velocity vector and the aircraft's verti- cal symmerry plane. 43 F'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OEFICIAL USE ONLY The choice of each specific coordinate system is determined by the conditions of the combat mission to be carried out by the given weapons system, by the requirement of design simplicity for the antennas and launchera, by the demands of reducing the dynamic errors, by the simplicity of the calculations made and by other f actors. In a general form, the transition from one system of rectangular coordinates tio an- other is carried out using the formulas of analytical geometry and direction cosine tables. Table 3.5 coordinate re- coord. calculation formulas x o, y b, z c, n, ai x- a,x, + n,Y, +aiz,: y - b,x, ~ b.Y, + z � c,x, + c.Yl + b, b, x, - a,x + b,Y -F cis: y, - a,X + b, y+ c,z; c, c, z, - n,,r + h,Y + c.z An example of the transition from the system (xl, yl, zl) to the system (x, y, z) and vice versa is given in Table 3.5, where for simplicity the cosine values have been replaced by letters. The values of the direction cosines between the body axis and earth coordi- nate systems are given in Table 3.6. The values of tre direction cosines be- tween the body axis and wind body co- urdinate systems are given in Table 3.7. Table 3.6 Table 3.7 coord . I oX, ox cos 8�cos py sln y oz -sin :�cos 8 oy, - cos -~�sin i)�cos Y t s1n -~�s1n 7 cos 8 � cos 7 cos,{+�sln Y-{- sin +�sin 8�cos 7 os, cos y+�sln 8�stn Y-F sin ~ �cos Y cos 8-sin Y cos y+�cos Y- sln +�stn 8� sln 7 Various modifications of the coordinate systems can be employed for solving in- dividual specific problems. c,)ord oy, I oz, oX, CoS a�COS ~ - CoS P�4in a Slp ~ 91f1 a COS a 0 oYc (,zc cos :�sln ~ sin a- s!n ~ cos ~ 44 FOit OFFICIAI. USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 3.2.2. Physical Principles Underlying the Obtaining of Information on Aircraft The detection of aircraft in the process of their flight can be ensured onlq by re- ceiving the energy returned from the aircraft's surface or emitted by the aircraft itself. It is also possible for a detection to be made by establishing changes in the surrounding medium and related to the process of the aircraft's motion in thia medium. Consequently, the physical phenomena comprisiag the objective basis of detection can be divided into three groups. - 1. The reflection of energy is a physical phenomenon ensuring detection due to dif- ferences in the Xeflecting properties of the aircraft and the surround3ng medium. For this reason the active detection of an aircraft is possible if it can be radi- ated by a flow of electromagnetic energq, the energy of sound waves or by a flow of particles moving at a high speed and the return signals picked up. Here it ia pos- sible to use the solar energy reflected fram the aircraft as well as energy from other �pace sources. = 2. The emission of energy is a physical phenomenon ensuring detection by the vari- ous types of rmission from the aircraft themselves in the flight process (the emis- sion of inf light sources, thermal radiation in the heating of the aircraft body, the emission from the jet engine glow and sonic emission). These phenomena ensure the creation of passive inflight aircraft detection systems by radio and in the optic and sound wave bands. Carriers of nuclear weapons are sources of very weak ' nuclear radiation the detection of which is virtually possible only at very short distances. 3. Perturbation of the medium is the physical phenomena accompanied by changes in the surrounding mediwn during the process of the aircraft's fliglit (the change in the chemical composition, the ionization of the earth's gravitational field, the earth magnetism field and so forth). These phenomena can potentially be employed to solve the problems of aircraft detection under the condition of realizing methods to record these phenomena. A classification of the physical phenomena which in principle can be realized for solving detection problems is shown in Fig. 3.24. Of all the listed phenomena for detecting an aircraft in flight, the most widely used is the phenomenon of reflected energy employed in active and semiactive radar location and the radiation phenomenon which comprises the basis of passive location. Seeondary radiation. The wave falling on the aircraft's surfac;e is termed the pri- mary or~e while the reflected or scattered wave is the secondary ard the phenomenou of reflection or dispersion is known as secondary radiation. The radar cross-section (RCS) of targets. If on the surface of a point target which is the distance D away from the source of radiation a flow density is created with a power St for the primary wave, then as a result of omnidirectional secondary radiation of the target, at the receiving point combine3 with the emitter a signal will be received with a power 45 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500060053-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY P = 4nD2Sre, where Sre -density of power flow at receiving point, watts/m2. Physical phenomena used to detect aircraft in flight Reflection of energy Radiation of energy a. Perturbation of inedium Radio waves IR range Change in Light Radio waves air chemical composition, gravity and Sound Light magnetism field Other types Sound Fig. 3.24.. Classification of physical phenomena used in detecting aircraft The radio of this power to the density of the primarl wave's flow is termed the radar cross-section of the target or echo area Qt, m: vt = P � 4~rD2 Sre . St St (3.33) D, ~ Real targets (or a group of targets) according to " ` the patterns of secondary radiation can be reduced radar le [ to a model of group emitters. D2 I eD a2 A modeZ of two emitters. The total RCS of a model consisting of two emitters with the RCS of each of Fig. 3.25. Model of secondary them ol and Q2 is (Fig. 3.25): radiation from two emitters + -I- 2 a,Q. coa (4sin e), (3. 34) 46 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The phase shift between the signals returned from the emitters Q1 and az: `lnD 4sl ~..ost-`lwJ c ~-r aln9. where t--distance between emitters; 6--angle between normal to the plane of the emitters' location and the direction of radiation. The total RCS of a model of n emitters is eti loj+2~j l~a~a~ cas TIJ. (3.35) t=i 1*l ^ where Oij--phase shift between emitter i and J. The RCS of bodies which are small in relation to the wave length (tt > yo,Pcd-*1. ProbabiZity of faZse aZarm Pfa is the probability of taking a decision on the presence of a target under the condition that a target is abspnt in the ~ ' given volume of space. Of pxactical significazce is : P-fv,- 2 LI -f \ o�/.I ~ 10-4+10-.. (3.41) Fig. 3.28. Graph of error function The threshold value yo is determined by the value of optimization and the task being carried out by the detector. 50 FOR OFFICIAL U5E UNLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY Detection optimization are the regular solving rules for taking a decision on the presence or absence of a target under interference conditiona. In detection theory the following criteria are employed: Minimwn average risk, a maximum of the liklihood ratio, the ideal observer, Neyman-Pearson, successive ob- aerver and othere. The most general optimization criterion for a detection system is the minimum aver- age risk criterion which can be reduced to a so-called weighted criterion: Pcd - tOPfa = max. (3,42) where P-p--a weighted multiplier determining the amount of the observer's threshold whereby a maximum value for the ratio of (3.43) is obtained. The maximum liklihood ratio criterion is the corollary of the minimum average risk criterion I (Y) - PSi. (Y) ! e ~s~-~rJ~ . z.+ f'L (Y) (3.43) The dependence of the liklihood ratio upon the amount of the total signal is shown in Fig. 3.29 where the value Z(y) >.Zp is equivalent to the value y> yp. 1 - 4' q.s g5 aq 4 4 q=3 /1g=I,5 46 0 Yo Y Fig. 3.29. Dependence of liklihood ratio upon amount of total signal 10"5 10"3 10'1 P.fzt- Fig. 3.30. Detection curves If it is necessary to choose the threshold value directly for the set level of Pfa, then the Neyman-Pearson test is employed. The detection parameter q is a dimensionless ratio of the energy E from the effec- tive signal to the spectral density Np of the noise: 2E q=NO . (3.44) The value of the detection parameter determines all the basic tactical characteris- � tics of radars such as range and detection probability, the false alarm probability, _ the accuracy of ineasuring the coordinates and so forth. 51 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The relationship between the values Pcd and Pfa is determined by the ratio s Ptiq, (3.45) A graphic repreaentation of this dependence is called the detection curves (Fig. 3.30). An analysis of the detection curves indicates that an increase in the correct de- tection probability can be obtained either by increasing Pfa with q= const., or by increasing q with Pfa = const., and this corresponds to increasing the radar's potential. An optimwn receiver is a receiver which, with other conditions being equal, ensures a maximum value for the ratio of the effective signal energy to the noise spectral density qmax. The total signal on the output of an optimum receiver is described by: 00 y,& (t) - S y(r) s(r--%) dt. (3.46) _c, where y(t)--the received signal; s(t-T)--expected signal; T--time shift between received and expected signals. The physical sense of an optimum detection operation is that the multiplying of the receivable signal y(t) by the expected one s(t-T) ensures the suppression of the noise not coinciding with the expected signal in time or in frequency. The right-hand side of formula (3.46) is called the correlation integral. The cor- relation integral is solved by the constructing of either a correlation receiver or a receiver with an optimum filter. A correZation reeeiver is a receiver which ensures the recEiving of the correlation integral of (3.46) using a correlator, integrator and threshold device (Fig. 3.31a). A receiver with an optimum fiZter is a receiver ensuring the receiving of the corre- lation integral of (3.46) using an optimum filter, a detector and threshold device (Fig. 3.31b). Here s(t-T) is the filter's response to the incoming efiect in the form of a short pulse (the S function) representing the mirror image of the probe pulse shifted by the arbitrary time T. The advantage of the correlators is their flexibility and the possibility of rapidly shifting te various signal. shapes and for this it is merely necessary to alter the s(t) function receined by the multiplier's input. An optimum filter is matched only with a certain shape signal and requires a sub- stantial change in the circuitry for matching with another signal. However, the energy capabilities of these receivers (from the viewpoint of obtaining qmaX) are approximately the same. 52 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY Y(t) 1 Pemenue 2 x j Y ,(t) S�lt) 3 ~�(t-s~ Y no aoooe 3 e P~ a) j1~M�s'it-~lac - Y(t) PealeHUe 2 . NMU Maab- ~IU16/p aam�R zoaoe Y, mo. 54 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR UFFICIAL USE ONLY + Binary encoding is the process of converting individual samples or continuous sig- nals into a binary code. Anj physical value expressed in fractions N can be converted into a binary code: n JV - a.�2' i- a,�2' -f- a.�2' + a,�2' + -~j at�21, (3.50) t-o where ai--coefficients assuming the value 0 or 1 depending upon the amount of N, , i= 0, 1, 2, 3,..., n. For example, N= 10 = 0�20.+ 1�21 + 0�22 4-1�23 = 0101. Here ap = 0, al = 1, a2 = 0, a3=1. Consequently, the various physical values (aircraft coordinates, controi commands, characteristics of an aircraft's motion and so for-th) can be represented in a binary code and the various operationa of the calculation can be done on a computer. Radar Signats , The nature azd quality of information received by a radar depends upon the structure and properties of the probe signals. Depending upon the radar's purpose, the probe signals provide: the required radiation energy for detecting aircraft at the set range with the subsequeut measuring of their coordinates and parameters of motion, the required resolution of the aircraft and the corresponding neutralization of various interference. The probe signals are characterized by a number of energy parameters, including: Instantaneous aetive power P(t) or the curr_euL power readi.ag (watts) averaged over a period of time Tp for the emitted oscilla.tions P(t) = u(t)i(t), where u(t) and i(t) are the instantaneous values of voltage and current averagad for the high frequency period Tp: ~ r. P(t) - -T. ~ P(t)dt. (3.51) The greatest value of instantaneous capacity is termed the peak, that is, Pmax(t) _ , Ppk. Putse pawer is the power averaged over the duration of a pulse Ti: - pt- S. `F(t)dt 46F� ' (3.97) where OFf--the width of the receiver filter pass band. The range of the unif -m distance measurement is: 1 (3.98) _ Dc mex 4 -g' cTu. The minimum distance determined by the radar is: 76 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY I c (3.99) . Dt mla> 4 ~F'M � The merits of the metliod include: the possibility of ineasuring short distancis and the low radiation pawer; the drawback ie the complexity of simultaneously'mea3urii:g the range of numerous targets. The phase method is a method whereby the delay time from the target signal is de- termined by the amount of change in the phase of modulating oscillations used to - modulate the signals emitted by the transmitter (Fig. 3.52c). Over the signal de- - lay time, the phase of these oscillations will change by the amount: AV = 2nFmtpd, (3.100) where Fm -modulation frequency of high frequency oscillations. 1 The distance to the target is: 4xF� (3.101) The range for the uniform measurement of distance is: 1 c (3.102) ~tm.:- 4 FN. The merits of the method include the high accuracy of range measurement and the drawback is the nonuniformity of the measurement and the absence of resolution. - The structure of a device for measuring target range depends upon the adopted method of ineasurement. Ttrey can be analogue and digital. A device for measuring range with a pulse method of ineasurement (a pulse range- finder) includes (Fig. 3.52a) a synchronizer 1, a transmitter 2, a receive-send switch 3, a send-receive antenna 4, a receiver 5, an indicator 6, and a range- measuring system 7. The high frequency pulses from the transmitter through the receive-send switch go to the antenna and are sent toward the target. The return signals are picked up by the 3ntenna and sent to the receiver. After amplification and conversion into video pulses, they go to the indicators and automatic tracking system. An analogue-type automatic range-tracking system with the pulse method includes a time discriminator, a voltage amplifier of the error signal, an integrater, a vari-- able delay circuit, and a range pulse oscillator (Fig. 3.53). The target video pulses from the r.adar receiver are sent to the time discriminator (TD) which also receives the tracking strobes. 77 FOR OFFIC[AL LJSE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR UFh'1(:IAL USE UNLY b c d e no ~ n ~ncr,v.cNxou 16 Ycanu- Ui:.o NHmez- ~o Cxceio ne OUf.NNIlA11F IqC/!6 . pCAN.'NHU! mnyAbc uena Nnmop lrc.o paniop ..~dep�rck~ a om Ic I m 06n T .rl.Lcmpo6 h ena- f mop uM- Uhllly/1hC Fig. 3.53. Functional diagram of an automatic - target range-tracking system Key: a--Pulse from target; b--Time discriminator; c--Voltage amplifier of error signal; , d--Integrator; e--Variable delay circuit; f--Range pulse oscillator; g--Metering pulse; h--Strobe The time discriminator is a metering element and most often uses a coincidence circuit. As a result of comparing the time position of the target pulse and the tracking strobes, the TD generates an error signal voltage uc.o = K t(K--propor- tionality coefficient, t--the time mismatching between the energy center of the target pulse and the middle of the tracking strobes). The voltage polarity corres- ponds to the sign of the time mismatching. The graphic dependence of uc.o = f( t) is termed the discrimination characteristics (the characteristics of the discrimin- ator). The steepness of the discrimination characteristics Sg = duc.o dt At=0 determines the accuracy of range measurement. With an increase in the steepness, accuracy rises. The voltage amplifier for the error signal is a linear element and is used for am-- plifying uc.o to a level which ensures the stable work of the integratur. The integrator perf orms the role of a servoelement. It converts the voltage of uc.o into a control voltage ucon Which is used to control the time position of the track- lllg strobes. The presence of an integrating element in the circuitry gives it the property of astatism. A levic2 fvr measuring target distance with the frequeney method (a frequency range finder) has (Fig. 3.52b) a modulator 1, a frequency modulatable generator 2, tx�ans- mitting and receiving antennas 3, 4, amixer 5, a low frequency amplifier 6, a fre- quency meter 7, and an indicator 8. The mixer, tYe LF amplifier and the frequency meter comprise the rangefinder receiver. The modulator generates a modulating voltage and under the effect of this according to the set law (linear or sinusoidal) the frequency is changed in the generator's - higti-frequency oscillations. The high-frequency signals are sent from the transmitter to the antenna and are sent out toward the target. The return signals through the receiving antenna are sent to the mixer where a small portion of the power from the transmitter's high frequency oscillations is delivered. As a result of the mixing of the oscillations of the ft 78 , FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLl' APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY and fre frequencies, different frequency oscillations are generated and these pass through the amplifier and go to the frequency meter. For measuring the frequency Fp, ir_ is possible to employ spectrum analyzers which are a set of filters tuned to the set frequency values. Target range is read off an arrow or digital indicator. A device for measuring target distanee with the phase method has (Fig. 3.52c) a. transmitter 1, transmitting and receiving antennas 2, 3, a receiver 41 .aad.a phase difference meter 5. The high frequency signals from the transmitter are beamed out by the tratlsmitting antenna. The signals returned from the target are picked up by the receiving anten- na and then sent to the receiver. After amplificatior. the received signals go to the phase meter where simultaneously high frequency oscillations from the transmit- ter are received. As a result of comparing the phases of these oscillations, a voltage is generated which is proportional to target distance. _ DigitaZ deuices for measuring distance employ converters of the "time--digit" type making it possible to obtain range values in a digital code. In the device (Fig. 3.54), the signals returned from the target, after the receiver, are sent to the detection device and then to a flip-flop. Here also is received a start pulse which coincides in time with the moment of sending the transmitter's probe pulse. The flip-flop generates a rectangular pulse the lengtti of which equals the time required for ths probe pslse to travel to the target and back. This pulse is sent to an AND gate whi.ch also receives pulses from the standard repetition frequency of the pulse generator. ILLLLLLLW feBepamop Ycm. 0 a un,nynbcoo F3 y b CvemyuK f Cun+nm. 10~1� .(tlMh~l--(Nm) n32 mop i Orrr jC~n cPe2ucmp Dq n3~ POY Y~mvo~} cmao Fig. 3.54. Diagram of digital device for measuring target range Key: a--Pulse generator; b--Counter; c--Dt register; d--Stop; e--Flip-flop; f--Start pulse; g--Synchronizer; h--Signal detection device; i--From receiver; j--AND Under the effect of the range pulse and the frequency pulses Fei the gate opens and through it passes a certain number of standard frequency pulses. Their number wili equal 2Dt Ne = tpdFe = Fe. c For counting these pulses, an i-discharge flip-flop counter has been used on the output of which a number is given ir a binary code. The number is read by the 79 FOR OFF7r" 4, L USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/42/09: CIA-RDP82-40850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI.Y potenttal-pulse output circuit on gates AND1, AND2, ...ANDn in a special range ' register. The moment of reading is determined by pulses sent to the gates from the delay line Lzl. The carget's range is: Dt = NeOJ = Ne cTe 2 , (3.103) where Te = 1/'F�--the pulse repetition period for the standard repetition rate. Distance is measured discretely with an accuracy up to onz pulse repetition period of r_he standard frequency. For increasing accuracy two-scale countir_g methods are employed. , . . : With a var.iabZe repetition rate of the radar probe puZses, it is possible to employ a devic~,..for measuring range with the gating of the range sections (Fig. 3.55). In such devices the output signals and noise after the receiver are sent to a threshold amplifier--limiter and then to the gates AND1, AND2, ANDk� For gating the range sections, pulses of the time markers are formed and these are sent from the appropriate generator to a shift regi.ster where pulses are generated following with the range discretization frequency. The number of digits in the register equals the number of elementary range sections OD falling on Dt max� CUN 1 UMIiI 3 DUdEO- Ycun CU2HO/161 PaNUYU- 8 om npu- menb N~ N2 NK eMr+uKo 6 6nox yn- _ Ypc yoc ~C paoneNUA _ _ =C dt ~D 2 CU HQ/!b! gCqCU 5 t Tn Fig. 3.55. Diagram of device for measuring target range with the gating of range sections Key: 1--Synchronized pulses; 2--Time marker generator; 3--Shift register; 4--Signal detector; S--Signals of targets; 6--Control unit; 7--Threshold amplifier--limiter; 8--Video signals from receiver The pulses generated by each discharge of the shift register go to the correspond- ing elements of the coincidence circuit AND1, AND2 and so forth. Here also is re- ceived the output voltage from the threshold amplifier--limiter and containing the receiver noise and the target signals. When element ANDi is activated by a pulse from the i digit of the xegister and the receiver's output voltage, the element opens passing to the i signal detection device (YOC) the voltage from the receiver output corresponding to the given moment in time. 80 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFF(CIAL. USE ONLY The YIJC store the received information from the receiver over several (for example, t) repetition periods Tp. With the receiving a signal--noise mix, the YOC performs the operation of dEtecting the target signa'L for all the t periods. If in m peri- ods a target signal is present in the mix (here m eB 2Dms: � (4.4) 6n. - c where OS--azimuth scan sector; Ae--elevation scan sector; AS, 6e--width of directional pattern for level of half power in the azimuthal and elevation planes, respectively; TSc--scanning interval; Na -antenna rotation rate, rpm. Radar altimeters are designed to determine the height of an aircraft above the sur- face of the land and the sea. Most of ten these are autonomous radars which have equipment for being connected to rangef inders, communications equipment and ASU. In individual instances altimeters are made in a nonautonomous version and are a camponent part of a three-dimensional radar complex. 127 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The principle for determining altitude by the maximum method comes down to measuring the slant range D, the elevation of the target E and solving the altitude equation (3.84). High-precision altimeters solve the equation with a correction for refrac- tion in kilometers: . , H- D sln t+ + oHM h,. (4.5) where Re--earth's radius, 6,368 lan; AH1eg--altitude correction for radio wave rzfraction, km; Ha--height of altimeter antenna electrical center, km; oHmt - 4� 10-7 (0.8 - 3� 10-+ Tar >(H-50) D', (4.6) where Ter -equivalent reduced temperature determined by pressure, humidity and temperature of inedium on radar--target path; H, D--altitude of aircraft and range to it. A uniform correlating of information on the height of targets being tracked by a rangefinder is achieved by sending the altimeter target designation signals (for range and azimuth) from the rangefinder which for the given altimeter is the leader; f or this in the altimeters provision is made for a system of ineasuring (displaying) target azimuth and range. This makes it possible in individual instances (in track- ing a small number of targets in circular scanning or in operating.in a narrow azi- muth sector) to utilize an altimeter for measuring three coordinates. Three-dimensionczZ radars measure the three current coordinates of a target. Charac- teristic of them is a simple technical solution for correlating altitude information with the target's planar coordinates and this increases the informational capabili- ties of the radar to simultaneously track a large number of targets. The identification systan is designed to determine the state affiliation of detected aircraft. A diagram of the identification system is shown in Fig. 4.3. The ground portion of the identification equipment is called the ground radar in- terrogator (GRI) and can be coupled to a radar over circuits for synchronization, antenna rotation and the indication (display) of the reply signal. The GRI transmitter forms a coded interrogation signal which through the antenna switch is transmitted by the antenna toward the aircraft to be identified and which carries the in-flight part of the equipment. The interrogation signal.is received by the antenna of the onboard transponder, it is amplified in the receiver and decoded. In accord with the interrogation signal of the established code, the reply signal encoder and the transmitter are activated and the latter generates a coded reply signal which is sent by the antenna of the onboard transponder. The reply signal picked up by the GRI antenna is amplified in sent to the identification signal decoder where the match of is checked. In the event of a code match, the decoder sends signal which is displayed on the indicator. 128 FOR OFFICIAL. USE ONLY the receiver and the reply signal code to the Eignal mixer a APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 6opm0600 2 3^~ omoemyux 1 ,Qewu~- � p�m�, pamop omoem~a 5 r_- rr- j' 7 NP3 i I ~ I AHI7ICNNW fl NUK 9 a mo 4momo ~ ~ cuzHa~oo ~ ~ I vnc fle~� I 13 ~ ( xmu o0-10 1 I H i rcm cMecumcn ~ 14 "pp ( om noMCx cUzNanoa 12 ~ J Fig. 4.3. Schematic diagram of identification system Key: 1--Onboard transponder; 2--Decoder; 3--Reply signal encoder; 4--Antenna switch; S--Interrogation signal receiver; 6--Trans- mitter; 7--Ground radar interrogator; 8--Receiver; 9--Signal decoder; 10--Encoding device; 11--Antijamming protective device; 12--Signal mixer; 13--Radar; 14--Indicator Combat CapabiZities The combat capabilities of radars are quantitative and qualitative indicators char- acterizing the capability of a radar to perform the combat missions inherent to it under the specific situational eonditions over the established time. Combat capabilities depend upon the technical characteristics of the radar, its com- bat readiness and the selected operating modes, upon the terrain where the complex is deployed, the target radar cross-section, the electronic situation, the composi- tion and training level of the combat crew, meteorological conditions and other factors. A change in the situational conditions leads to a change in the combat capabilities of the complexes. Combat capabilities are assessed in terms of the specific combat missions and the conditions for carrying them out. The indicators of radar combat eapabiZities for radar reconnaissance: the detec- tion zone; radar antijamming capability, information capability, capabilities for identifying targets, accuracy of information and time required to bring to a state of combat readiness. Indicators for radar combat capabiZity for radar guidance support: zone of guid- ance support, the number of simultaneously supported guidances (thia depends upon the number of guidance indicators and the discreteness of presenting all three co- ordinates). The accuracy of the provided information determines the probability of radar guidance support within the guidanc.e zone. 129 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICiAL USE ONLY The guidance support zone is an area of space in which continuous tracking of the targets and the fighter is provided, as well as the measuring of their current co- ordinates with the required accuracy and confident radar identification. Indicators of eomba t capabiZities for radar support of target designation for anti- aircraft missile compZexes is the zone of target designation support (an area of space in which target designation information is provided) and the nwnber of simul- taneously provided target designations. The quality of the target designation in- formation depends upon its accuracy and is characterized by the probability of no- search target designation. The quantity of simultaneous target designations depends chiefly upon the set discreteness of providing coordinate information. The Detection Zone The detection zone of a radar complex (radar set) is a spatial indicator of radar capability for radar reconnaissance of airborne objects. The detection zone is an area of space within which radar targets with a designated radar cross-section (RCS) are detected by the radar in each scan witY+ a probability no less than the designated. In a majority of operational and tactical calculations for describing the detection zone, the RCS is set as equal to 1 m2 and the detection probability is 0.5. A knowledge of the designated zone and the availability of simple mathematical pro- cedures given belaw make it possible to easily determine the radar detection zone for any other values of the RCS and the detection probability. This makes it pos- sible to evaluate the capabilities of the equipment in terms of a specific enemy. A detection zone can be represented in the form of a table of values of the detec- tion range D of an aircraft with a given RCS at various altitudes H over the surface of the earth; as a half section (a family of half sections) of the zone in the ver- tical plane as constructed in the H--D coordinates on the given azimuth (azimuths) considering the curvature of the earth (the detection zone in the vertical plane); as a section (family of sections) of a zone with spherical surfaces parallel to the earth's surface at a certain fixed height or at a number of fixed heights (the de- tection zone in the vertical plane). In areas with medium rugged terrain at altitudes of over 2 km the effect of the re- lief on the dimensions and shape of the detection zone becomes nonessential and the spherical sections assume a regular shape. With the tabular presentation of the detection zone, in addition to detection range - at various altitudes, the values are also given for the minimum and maximum eleva- tions emin+ emax, the maximum altitude of continuous target tracking and the radius of the blind cone Rbc at tha maximum tracking altitude (Fig. 4.4). The radar detection zone in the centimeter wave band is: _n(t) - Dn�xF (t), where DmaX -maximum target detection range with given RCS vt; F(E)--normed directional pattern of radar antenna in vertical plane. 130 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY (4.7; APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500460053-2 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 9 Z O - 4.5* - a.s' 3' 215' 2' 1,5' f' Emin xM Fig. 4.4. Half section of radar detection zone in vertical plane The dependence F(e) is ordinarily given in the technical specifications of the radar or is derived by the well-known method using the radio emission of the sun. The radar detection zone at low altitudes depends substantially upon the amount of the clearance angles which limit detection range in the direction of a terrain feature which creates the clearance angle. The demand on the acceptable clearance angles is the basic one in selecting the position for the radar. Maximum detection range at low altitudes which can be realized with various values of the clearance angle Y is given in a graph (Fig. 4.5). For increasing target detection range at low altitudes the electrical center of the antenna is raised with the simultaneous inclining of its focal axis to a certain negative elevation. For raising the an- tenna, prevailing heights, special towers, masts and other structures can be em- ployed. MUH tiQ Fig. 4.5. Graph of dependence of maximum 40 50M possible target detection ranges at / 1ooM low altitudes upon clearance angles 30 ~ i 200M (under conditions of standard refraction) ~ 300 M 20 / ' 400 M Ht= SOO M 10 ~ /tAe4M 0 The potential capabilities of radars to de- 20 00 140 180 220 260 300 D,KM tect aircraft range at low altitudes with -l0 normal atmospheric radio wave refraction _20 are determined by the formul3, km: -30 np - 4.12 �K(1rHt-1- (4.8) -40 where K--radiohorizon utilization coeffi- _50 cient; Ht--aircraft altitude, m; ha--height of raising aritenna e!lectri- cal center, m. 131 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500060053-2 FOR OFF(CIAL USE ONLY Nt, M rooo 900 eoo ~ 700 soo soo 400 300 zoo too The dependence Dp= f(Ht, ha) with K= 1 is shown in Fig. 4.6. For the decimeter and meter wave bands, the radar directional pattern is formed by the adding of the energy direct beam and the energy falling at various angles on the un- derlying surface and reflected in the direc- tion of the direct beam. The relief and mineral composition of the underlying sur- face substantially influence the reflection of electromagnetic eriergy. The radar direc- tional pattern of the meter and decimeter bands is: SM i r OM M D(e) = DCFC(E)F(e), (4.9) IS M coM where DC--maximum target detection range Q0"' with given RCS t in free 0 space; Fc(e)--normed directional pattern of radar in free space; F(e)--interference multiplier (earth multiplier). so roo iso 700 Dil.KM The clearance angles for the radar complex- es in these ranges also create a shadow ef- Fig. 4.6. Graph of dependence of fect at low altitudes and should be taken potential radar capabilities to detect into account in calculating the detection targets at low altitudes zones. The additional demands on the posi- t3.ons of these radars include: *_he accept- able incline (rise) of the position, the minimum platform area around the radar, and the height of the position's unevenness which should not exceed the values of Ohg. 1'he radius of the level area should be: h2 Rar =,23.3 ~ with ha/Ht � 0.25. (4.10) (In not fulf illing this condition, the radius of the area is a 4.12 1 27a 1~s h, - 21 1/ 1, the unit of ineasurement for all values is the meter) while the tolerable amount of unevennesses is: a IGsinO� (4.11) where A--the angle of incidence of the energy from the antenna's electrical center to the point of the unevenness. 132 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The actual detection zones of radars set up at battle positions are calculated considering the inf luence o� the terrain and are checked out by an overflight._ In the process of operating the radar statistics is accumulated on target detection at the given position at various altitudes and with various RCS and on the basis of this the detection zone is clarified. The experimental eaZeuZation method of determining the rad,ar deteetion zone at Zom aZtitudes. The calculating of the detection zone is preceded by a topographic surveying of the position which provides for the constructing of the position's relief profiles at various azimuths and the determining of the clearance angles and slope angles of the position Yav for the same azimuths. Then the potential detec- tion range of the radar complex is determ.ined, km: Dp = iCD,QS, where K--the radiohorizon utilization coefficient; DtS--line-of-sight range. (4.12) In knowing the potential detection range, the clearance angles and the position's profiles, the actual detection range is determined for the given azimuth at low altitudes. On the position's profile, a line of sight is drawn as well as the tar- get's flight profile with terrain following (Fig. 4.7) and then the areas of the flight profile are found where the target at the given altitude is not observable (these are below the line of sight). The beginning and end of the area are desig- _ nated respectively by RZh and Rzk� N,M 3� 20 1�30'f0 0�50' 0�36' 0�28' 0�24' 0�20' 1000 900 800 700 ha= 50 P52 '0 400 300 200 100 0 / llpooun e Mec Hocmu a HanQaa ~ nesuu p =12o ~ enp ocmampu oacMb c Q c en mxu map u npu H,~ w p. m 100 G . ~ _ i ~ I . S 10 15 20 25 3 i p 35 40 ; 5 50 55 60 15 7 f 75 +80 85 90 f00 RsHI R3KIl R3H2 RsK2 Dp Do b '08' '04' 0 0�04' D�O81 2�12r 0�f6' Fig. 4.7. Aircraft flight profile with terrain following Key: a--Unviewable areas of target route with Ht = 100 m; b--Terrain profile in direction of R= 120� One then determines the maximum target detection range at the given altitude D. If Dp> Dp, it is accepted that Do= D Thus, the detection range is determined for other values of target altitude.p.Having obtained the values of Do and the � 133 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY dimensions of the blind areas at various altitudes, a vertical section of the de- tection zone is constructed for the given azimuth. In a similar manner the calculated detection zone is constructed for the other azi- muths. In constructing the calculated detection zone for radars of the meter and decimeter bands, one must adjust for the amount of the position's slope Yav bY shifting all the points of the zone by the slope angle Yav on this azimuth. The calculated values Dp, RZh, Rzk are checked out by an overflight. The overfli-ght is made for one or several azimuths depending upon the various slope angles on the different azimuths. This makes it possible to clarify the actual value of the radia- horizon utilization coefficient K of the given radar as well as the influence of the position's slope. The amount of the deviation of the calculated detection range from the overflight one AD = Dov- Dp (4.13) is incorporated in the overflight azimuth and the other azimuths for which the posi- tion's slope equals zero or is close to c;he slope angle of the overflight azimuth. 0 270 ,180 90 Fig. 4.8. Radar detection zone in the horizontal plane target with the given RCS at one of the The horizontal sections of the detection zone for the set values of the aircraft's altitude (Fig. 4.8) are constructed on a map (blank) with a scale of 1:500,000, using an azimuth circle on which are plotted the points corresponding to the adjusted values of the detection range on each of the azimuths. Having con- nected these points with a free-form curve, we obtain the external limit of the radar detection zone at the given altitude. In an analogous manner the blind areas created by the shadow effect in the detection zone are found. The constructing of a radar detection zone at mediwn and great aZtitudes. For constructing a detection zone at medium and great altitudes it is essential to have a normed directional pattern of the radar antenna for the given position and the true value of detection range for a altitude values Ht. t1 normed directional pattern is taken by an astronomical method (from the sun's raciio frequency radiation) or by using a special generator tuned to the carrier fre- quency of the radar the antenna of which can be moved in altitude and set up at a distance of at least d > 4t2 (4.1k) 134 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI.Y the elevation ei = e 1= 1� = 100 km. According to the graph (Fig. 4.10) Bov = 1.04, B= 1.10 (wi th e 1= 1�, D 1= 100 km), then a= B/ BoV= 1.10/ 1. 04 = 1. 058 . The detection range at ei = el is taken as equal to D1�a = 100�1.058 = 105.8 km. The constructing of a radar detectian zone at maximum high aZtitudes by the poten- tial dip method. The potential dip method is employed for clarifying the radar de- tection zone at altitudes exceeding the aircraft service ceiling. In this instance the overflight is carried out at toZerable altitudes while the po- tential of the radar complex is artificially reduced. The dip in the potential is equal to the even compression of the detection zone along the constant elevation lines: N Dov 40 K~m = D 10 , (4.19) where Dov and D--detection ranges with reduced and normal potentials, respectively; N--degree of potential dip, decibel. The degree of the potential dip is selected in such a manner that the height of the aircraft making the overf light exceeds the altitude of its continuous tracking in the "narrowed zone." From the results of the overf light, in using the above-described procedure, a nar- rowed radar detection zone is constructed (Fig. 4.11) and then the real detection zone corresponding to the normal radar potential. For converting points a, b, c, d of the narrowed zone into their corresponding points A, B, C, D of the real zone, the ratio is employed: N D = Dov 1040 . (4.20) The line connecting points A, B, C, and D is the boundary of the detection zone. H RecaZcuZating the deteetion zone for another D~ ~ - vaZue of the RCS reZative to the given one. Ti=~ Dq,~;c 3 In practice, the need arises using a known detection zone calculated for one value of c'' the RCS Q1 to obtain the detection zone for 1106 Dd`l targets with a different RCS 02. - ~ For the conversion at medium and great alti- D~ q~~r p tudes, the formula is employed: D 3 Da , a D, = U,I/^ a' with E= const. (4.21) Fig. 4.11. Radar detection zones with reduced and normal potential For the conversion at low altitudes, the change in detection range caused by the change in the RCS is calculat:ed, km: 136 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY ' where d--the distance between the antennas of the radar and the generator,,,}n; .e--maximum linear dimension of radar antenna, m. The true valuP of the detection range is disclosed by an overflight of the radar at the given position. For recalculating the normed directional pattern into a detection zone, one deter- mines the value of the conversion factor (the directivity factor) Ko for elevation Evid for which the true detection range is determined according to the overflight: ( 2 evid = are sin ID t' 17 0001' , (4.15) t ov . In knowing the value svid using the normed directional pattern it is possible to de- termine the value ICo (Fig. 4.9). The values of the detection range Di for other elevations are: Di = KDiDmax. where KDi--value of conversion factor for elevation i: (4.16) DO� (4.17) Dmax - y ,o � For considering radio wave refraction attenuation at the given elevation, the value of Di must be multiplied by the coefficient a: B (4.18) a = , Bov where B--attenuation factor at angle ei; Boy--attenuation factor at angle evid� �8 p~ L[TI77J _[ITI 1, l XD 1,l1 ~ Kn! 1, I I.~E~E~i - f,;d 4 6 8 rn 12 14 16 20 27. 24 26 E' Fig. 4.9. Radar directional pattern 0 .8 �t. - Ell �v.j �vul`2* Fig. 4.10. Graph of values for refrac- tion attenuation factor The values B and Bov are determined from a graph (Fig. 4.10). The value of B is de- termined for ranges Di and their corresponding angles Ei, Bov--for the range Dov and Evid� For example, evid = 2', Dov= 200 km and the calculated value of the range at J_35 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY AD = md, ~,'{2 NM where m = IUIoA a , r,Cl~: d :i - . v/ f--radar carrier frequency, megahertz. (4.22) The obtained value of AD is added to or subtracted from (depending upon the sin of AD) D. The newly obtained points are connected by a free-form curve which is the external boundary of the detection zone with the new RCS value. In conclusion the two parts of the detection zone constructed for the ranges of low and medium altitudes are joined together. RecalcuZation of the radar detection zone for a given vaZue of the target deteetion probability. The range of target detection D with a given probability P is related to the known detection range Do and its corresponding probability Po thusly: 4 D - Doy/ -InI'. (4.23) Ordinarily the external boundary of the radar detection zone is constructed for values Po = 0.5. Under this condition for recalculating the detection zone it is nossible to use the formula 4 D - 1.35D.,s V( -IoR (4.24) The probability of target deteetion by several radars. The resulting probability Pres of detecting the given target by several radars conducting reconnaissance simultaneously and providing information to a singl.e collection point is: Pres~ ~ -MI Pi), (4.25) i=1 where n--the number of radars conducting target reconnaissance; Pi--probability of detecting the target by radar i at the given point. n ~ n l~ c-0'69 (n.is) r 10 0.3 . (4.26) where Di--range to target detection of which is provided with probability i. Radar Anti,jcmaning Capabitity The capabiZity of the RTV radars to conduct reconnaissance under passive interfer- ence is judged by the amount of the jamming visibility coefficient KJ�v of the anti- jamming equipment. In comparing its amount with the real ratio of the signal power 137 FOR OFFICIAL USE aNLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY of-the passive interfirence to the power of the blips which is characteristic for the area, a conclusion is drawn on the radar's capability to conducr_ reconnais- sance in passive interference under the given jamming situation. The capabilities for defense against active ,jcmming are characterized by the amount of the detection zone compression coefficient for nonjamming targets outside the effective neutralization sector and by the amount of the effective neutraliza- tion sector for jamming targets (sources of active jamming [SAJ]). The compression coefficient for the radar detection zone for nonjamming targets is: Dq ~ ~ - po - 4 ~ ' (4.27) PGre ~b ~ ~1 + 77 Nk2i 3 where p--spectral density of jamming power, watts/megahertz; Gre--receiver antenna gain; fb--the level of the side and back lobes in the directional pattern of the radar antenna; X--wave length, cm; N--receiveX noise factor; Rj,Q--distance from radar to jamming line, km. For a specific type of radar, the ratio (4.27) can be represented in the form: I Kan - , Y ,+^-P (4.28) For the convenience of calculating Kcm, it is possible to construct: a graphic de- ' pendence Kcm = f(Rj,e) with f ixed values of p. The effective neutralization sector is measured by the angle in the azimuthal (or elevation) plane in which the SAJ provides a cover for itself and a screen for the covered targets. The width of the effective neutralization sector depends upon the spectral density of the noise power p, the distance to the SAJ, the station's poten- tial, the width of the directional pattern of the radar antenna and the level of the side lobes. Radar CapabiZities for Providing Information and Determining the Composition of Group Targets The potential information capabilities of the RTV radars are: N - (Dm,w - nmin) eNes ~ (4.29) p 6/)b(ihc where DmaX, Dmin -OPerational limits of radar for range; AS, DE--radar scanning sectors for azimuth and elevation, rt_spectively; 8D, dR, de--resolutions for coordinates. 138 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY The actual realization of these capabilities is restricted by the productivity of the data taking equipment. In this regard the information capabilities of radar depend upon the method of collection, the number of parallel data taking devices, the methods of realizing target indication as well as the space scan rate. In the simplest instance, with autonomous operation of a radar, the information capability for producing the corresponding coordinate is: Ni _ Kpmi tdisc i With tdisc i> Tog (4.30) tc i where Kp--coefficient considering the reduction in information capability due to overlapping of the taking sectors and the redistribution of these sectors; mi--the number of devices taking component i of information; tdisc i--the discreteness of taking component i of information; tc i-time spent in taking information and realizing target desigaation; To--space scan rate. The capabilities for determining the composition of a group target and the moment of its splitting are characterized by the resolutions of the radars and are assessed using formulas (3.80), (3.81) and (3.82). Radar Capabilities to Carry Out Support Tasks for Antiaircraft MissiZe Troops and Fighter Aviation Radar support for the combat operations of firing complexes of the ZRV and the fighter aviation comes down to the prompt providing of information which ensures continuous target designation for the missile guidance station or the guiding of a fighter to a point from which it can detect and intercept a target with the onboard radar or detect it visually. The quali.:y of the radar support of a target designation and;guidance radar depends upon the mistakes in taking the primary information coming from the radar complex. Mistakes in measuring target coordinates in terms of the patterns of their occur- rence are divided into systematic and random. Random and systematic errors in measuring target coordinates by radar complexes in terms of the reasons of their occurrence are divided into bearing, instrument and dynsmic. Bearing errors arise under the influence of radio wave refraction, the reflection of them from the terrain, the distortion of signal shape due to the dispersion proper- ties of the environment and a change in radio wave propagation rate. Instrument errors appear due to the inaccuracy of forming the electric scale, errors in interpolating the position of the blip relative to the electric scale line, in- accuracies in lining up the marker with the blip, inaccuracies in the topographic locating of the station and a number of other factors. Dynamic errors of ineasurement depend upott the heading and speed of the target's moving as well as upon the method of taking the information: 139 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2407/02109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500460053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Rdyn � Vx(tl+t2), where VX -speed of target in direction of ineasured coordinate; tl--time of generating blip on indicator screen; t2--time spent on taking information for given coordinate. (4.31) The systematic components of all the listed errors groups can be determined and then accounted for and compensated for. For this reason, the accuracy of ineasuring tar- get coordinates basically depends upon the random errors the distribution law for which is considered normal. Random errors can be judged by the amount of the mean square error Q, the median and maximum error or by the error in 80 percent of the measurements. The Mean Square Error n a- n ~xi. (4.32) t-i where xi = ai - X--the random error of ineasurement i; ai--the result of ineasurement i; X--the true value of the measured coordinate; n--the number of ineasurements. If we know the mean square errors Q1, Q2, Qn caused by various independent sources, then the total mean square error is: an - Yoj a2-- a2� (4.33) The probability of the mean square error P(Q) = 0.683. The probable xp or median error is the name given to that value the appearance probability of which P(xp)= 0.5: 2 xP - 3 (4.34) The maximum error is the greatest error which is possible under certain measuring conditions: Xmax = 3Q. (4.35) For comparing the capabilities of the RTV radars for accurac; performance often the errors in 80 percent of the measures are employed and these are determined in test- ing by the collecting of statistical data. The converting of them into mean square errors is carried out by the formula: x0.8 = 1.3Q. (4.36) 140 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLX APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-04850R000504060053-2 FOR OFF[CiAL USE ONLY Accuracy of Measuring Target Range, Azimuth and Altitude The mean square error for measuring distance is: QD = QD bear + QD inst + QD dyn� (4�37) The bearing error QD bear ordinarily does not exceed several meters and in a major- ity of calculations need not be regarded with the visual taking of information. The basic reasons f or the appearance of instrument errors are: a) A change in the lag time for the passage of the blip through the paths of the radar complex (radar set) detei-mined by the operating mode of these complexes; b) The inaccuracy of determining the blip's position relative to the range electric scale lines (with the visual method of taking the information) or the inaccuracy of lining up the marker with the 6lip (with the automated method of taking the infor- mation); c) An error in the range electrical scale; d) An error in determining the position of the start of the blip caused by the in- fluence of background noise and the end thickness of the range scan. Since the change in the lag time of the blips in the paths of the radar complex (set) with tuned equipment ordinarily does not exceed fractions of a microsecond, the error caused by this factor can be disregarded. The instrument error consists of interpolation errors aD interp, the inaccuracy of forming the range electrical scale OD Sc, the presence of background noise aD n, and the end thickness of the range scan line vD g. The mean square values of the - designated errors are judged: QD interp - Dm min gp ~ (4.38) QD sc = 3f f ~ (4.39) re QD n ctfr (4.40) 6 l rug unJ d aD $ 6mD (4.41) where Dm miri -the distance between the scale marks of the minimum gradation in range units; Af --the relative frequency drif t of the reference generator; fre 141 FOtt OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500064453-2 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY tfr--the duration of the blip fronts; us --the signal--noise ratio; un dS--the diameter of the spot focused on the CRT screen; mD--the scale of the range scan, mm/lan. Having assessed the individual components of the instrument error, it is posaible to determine its resulting value 2 (4.42) D ins t- The dynamic error with a normal distribution of target headings relative to the radar complex is: Vrtread (4.43) QD dyn = 3 � where tread--the time lag in reading the information. With the visual and semiautomatic methods of reading information in a complex air situation, the dynamic error exceeds the instruinent one and even more so the bear- ing error. With the automatic method of reading information the determining error is the in- strument error and the bearing error is commensurable with it. The accuracy of ineasuring tar,qet azimuth depends upon the horizontal refraction of the radio waves, the curvature of the propagation tra3ectory under the inf luence of terrain unevenness (the bearing error), errors in orientation, errors in transmit- ting the antenna azimuth to the indicator, in the forming of the azimuth scale and in the line-up of the marker (instrument error), as well as the moving of the target along the azimuth over the period of forming and reading tYn information (the dy- namic errot). The bearing, instrument and dynamic errors are determined by a formula analogous to formula (4.42). The total mean square err.or of ineasuring azimuth is produced by an expression analogc,us to expression (4.32). The reasons for the appearance of errors in measuring target elevation (altitude) are the same as in measuring target azimuth and for this reason they are assegsed by an analogous procedure. 4.1.2. Automation of Radar Data Processing The process of processing radar data for the purposes of constructing optimum processing algorithms can be divided into the following stages: primary data proc- essing (PDP); secondary data processing (SDP); tertiary data processing (TDP). 142 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY By primary processing one understands the processing of radar signals coming in from the output of the radar receiver in one scan of space (detecting return signals from the targets, measuring target coordinates and their encoding). The data obtained on the target coordinates as a result of the primary processing in an encoded form (in the f orm of a binary code) is stored in the computer's mem- ory. Regardless of optimum methods for detecting the signals returned from the target, due to various types of interference it is impossible to assert with a probability close to one that with PDP signals returned from a target have been de- tected and not noise. The need arises for subsequent (secondary) data processirig based on the relationships of the blips belonging to the same targets. Secondary processing is the name that has come to be given to the processing of radar data coming in from the same radar in several scans and which has undergone primary pro cessing. In the process of secondary processing the tasks of detecting and tracking the target routes are carried out. This is done using the appropriate algorithms by computer installations. After secondary processing the data on the ctirrent coordinates and motion parameters is given to the users. The same target can be observed by several radars which are a varying distance apart. These radars operate out of synch and provide data on the target coordinates relative to their position. All of this necessitates the next (tertiary) processing of the radar data. By the tertiary processing of radar data one has come to understand the process of identifying the routes of targets tracked by several sources. The examined stages of automated radar data processing must be distinguished from the tactical concepts of primary and secondary radar data processing. In tactics, by primary processing one has come to understand the processing of radar data which is provided by the combat crew employing the primary indicators, and ty secondary processing the work of the secondary indicators. Primanj Processing It is possible to have automated and automatic methods for primary radar data prure5sing. Thc automa t.ed method is a method whereby the operator detects the target visually while the coordinates are measured using the read-out equipment. Here the encoding of the coordinates is done by the equipment without the participation of the oper- atur. The automated method is preferable in detecting targets under the conditions of jamming. It makes it possible to have the selecti.ve reading of data displayed on the indicator screen. 'lhn, autnrm tie method is a method which envisages the complete exclusion of man from the process of solving the problems of target detection and measuring the co- ordinates. Automatic primary processing of radar signals is carried out by a spe- cialized computer (a specialized PDP computer) which includes devices for detection and the measuring of coordinates. 143 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY 'Che decection device. The optimum method for detecting effective signals against a backKround of interference (noise) is accumulation. Foi� this reason the detectors employ analog and discrete (digital) storages. For primary digital processing it is essential to convert the voltage received from the output of the radar receiver in[o a discrete amount expressed in a binary code. This conversion is performed by a quantizer. Then the detector processes the quantized signals by one of two meth- ods: by the quasioptimum or the weightless processing method. The quasioptimum methods for processing quantum signals are difficult to realize and in practice more often simplified target detection algorithms are employed using the weightless processing method. This method is based upon an analysis of the density of units within the width of the radar antenna directional pattern. Naturally, the density of units in the tar- get area is always greater than the density of ur:its in the interference area. 'The decision of detecting the start of a blip cluster is taken using the criterion Q otit of m and the end of the cluster in recording K misses. The logic of the work carried out by the program detector of the start and end of the return signal clus- ter is usually written thus: "t-/m--K." The uni[ for measuring the target coordinates for range Dt, azimuth ~t and elevation et. The measuring of range can be carried out by a special range measuring unit or by a special computer in the process of detecting the target. The me.asuring of range is based upon measuring the time interval from the moment of sending the transmitted pulse to the moment of receiving the return signal by the radar receiver. With tlie weightless processing of quantized signals, the measuring of target azi- muth St comes down to calculating the azimuth of the middle of the return signal c Luster. Ttie measuring of target elevation et is carried out in an analogous manner. SecorzcLzr~j Processing The coordinates measured as a result of PDP characterize the target's position in space at the moment of its radar location. The determining of the parameters of tar.get motion by processing radar data coming over several scan cycles is carried otit in the secondary data processing. For constructing optimum algorithms the secundiiry processing is usually divided into two successive stages: the detection of target trajectory and the tracking of the trajectory. Depending upon the degree of the operator's involvement, each of the designated stages can be manual, automated or automatic. Automatic detection of a target tra- jectory is termed autolock-on and automatic tracking is known as autotracking. The solving of these problems is based upon the principle of a scan-by-scan linking uC the target blips the essence of which is that the position of the blips of each tarKet received in the next scan cycles is determined by the nature of this target's motion. 144 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY The movement of the target is characterized by the parameters such as heading, speed, acceleration and so forth and these can be calculated from data on the co- urdinates during the preceding scans. From the parameters it is possible to deter- mine (construct) the target's trajectory. Thus, with the steady and rectilinear motion of a target, its trajectory will be a straight line. For this reason, in the next scan cycle, the blip from the target will appear not in an arbitrary point of space but rather in a certain area which has moved in the direction of the target's motion over a distance determined by the radar's scan interval To and the target's speed. - In the stages of detecting and tracking a target's trajectory in the secondary proc- essing algorithms usually the following operations are established: calculating the parameters of the target's motion (heading, speed or the components of the velocity vector); the extrapolation of target coordinates; strobing or establish- ing the zone of the probable target location in the following scan cycle; collation or comparing the coordinates of the blips selected by the strobe and selecting one of them for continuing the trajectory. CaZouZating the parameters of the target's motion. The parameters are determined on the basis of data on the target's coordinates over n scans of the radar. Since the coordinates are measured with errors, for improving the quality of the data the need arises to smooth out the motion parameters and this can be done by the least square, weighted mean and exponential methods. ExtrapoZation of target coordinates. In the general instance, by extrapolation one usually understands the extension of results obtained from observing one portion of a phenomenon to another portion of it. In the extrapolation of coordinates, one studies the law of the target's motion in the time interval over n radar scans and this is extended beyond the interval of observation, for example, to n +m scan. The extrapolation of coordinates can be carried out by the least square method and using the parameters of target motion. In extrapolating the coordinates using the parameters of target motion, one assumes a hypothesis on the steady and rectilinear motion of the target. ;;*robing. Due to the presence of ineasurement errors and the extrapolation of co- ordinates, as well as the possible maneuvering of a target, in a general instance the extrapolation points in the next scan may not coincide with the current target - blips. The current blip in the next radar scan will appear around the extrapola- tion point. The area of the probable appearance of a current blip in the next scan has come to be called the strobe. The shape of the strobe can vary. In strobing one calculates the area of the prob- abLe appearance of a target and selects the targets which have fallen into the strobe. It is considered that a current blip belongs to the route of the target being processed if the difference for the modulus of the same coordinates of the current blip and the extrapolation point does not exceed the allowable amounts. The ellipsoid is the optimum shape of a strobe in operating in a rectangular coord- inate system. Collation. In the general case it is possible for several blips to fall in a strobe and of these one will belong to the route of the processed target (the remaining 145 F'OR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY blips are spurious from noise or other targets). The blip of the actual target dif- fers from the spurious ones that have fallen into the strobe only by the distance fi�om the strobe center (the extrapolation point). Both for the spurious and for the true blip, this distance is a random amount. But the statistical characteristics of these random amounts differ and this is employed in selecting the blips in the strebe. The deviation of the true target blip from the strope center is subordinate to a two-dimensional normal distribution law. The probability density for the appear- ance of a true blip is increased in approaching the extrapolation point while the distribution of the spurious blips within the strobe is even. Depending upon the values of the mean square deviations QX, oy, the selection of the true blips can be carried out by the method of minimal elliptical deviations if Qx # ay or by the method of minimum linear deviations if QX = Qy = Q. Tertiary Data Processing A command center can receiv e information on the same target from several sources and each source submits reports at arbitrary moments of time. On the basis of the reports from the sources, in the process of tertiary processing it is essential to make up a general report and for this it is necessary to reduce the information to a uniform start o'E the count in space and time; to identify the reports belonging to the same targets; to calculate the metric coordinates of the general reports. The reducing of information to a uniform start of the count in spar_e is carried out by performing the operation of coordinate conversion and to a uniform start of the count in time by performing the operation of extrapolating the coordinates to the moment of processing time. The solution to the problem of converting the coordin- ates into tertiary processing algorithms depends upon the coordinate system in which the information is exchanged. The simplest are the formulas for coordinate conver- sion for a rectangular system. The coordinates can also be extrapolated by the same methods as in the secondary processing algorithms. ldentification of reports. The problem of selecting the reports which belong to one target but which have been received from different sources is the basic and most labor-intensive one in the tertiary processing process. The process of selecting the reports is broken down into rough and precise identification. Rough identification comes down to assessing the difference in the same target co- ordinates. Two reports relate to the same target if the difference of the same co- ordinates does not exceed the acceptable amounts. For the purpose of formalizing this process, a coincidence feature is introduced for the metric coordinates of two reports. On the basis of the coincidence feature, the A group of reports is formed and these in the general instance can belong to different targets. 146 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Precise identification is carried out on the basis of logical rules and analyzing the metric properties of the space of the reports which have fallen into the A gronp. For an analysis of the reports in the A group, it is possible to employ the logical rules: a, b, c, d. ' Rule a. If the A group includes reports from one source, then these reports relate to different targets and they must not be considered identical. This rule stems from the impossibility of receiving two reports on one target in one scan. Rule b. If the A group includes one report from each source, these reports are re- por.ts on one target and they may be considered identical. This rule is based on the fact that it is improbable that one of two nearby targets would be observed by one radar and the second by the other. Rule c. If the A group contains a uniform number of reports from each information source, then the total number of targets in the group is determined by the number of reports from each source. Rule d. If the A group includes a varying number of reports from the sources, then the most reliable situation is given by the information source which transmits infor- mation on a larger number of reports. The logical rules c, d designate variations of report identification. In the cases of the designated logical rules (c, d) there is the subsequent analysis of the reports on the basis of the metric properties of the reports' space. 4.1.3. The System of Taking, Transmitting and Displaying Information The 3ystem for Taking and Feeding In Information Witii the automated processing of radar data, the task of detecting the target and - measuring its coordinates is carried out by an operator using information taking de- . vices and the method of selective electronic sighting which is based on the princi- _ ple of converting the observed coordinates of the target blips into an electrical signal. The system for taking information includes an indicator, sensors and a com- puter. 1'he Data Transmission System The exchange of information in an ASU [automated control system] is made up of the transmitting and receiving of discrete messages. The transmission of inessages over the communications channels is carried out by special signals which are information ccirriers. Uniform DC pulses usually serve as the elementary signals. Performance of data transmission systems. The operating quality of data transmis- sion systems is usually described by the following indicators: data transmission rate, coTmnunications capacity and reliability of inessage transmission. The message transmission rate characterizes the amount of information which can be transmitted in a unit of time. 147 - FOR OFF'ICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR 4FFICIAL USE ONLY f Iiy the capacity of a communications c.hannel one understands that quantity of infor- m Pcct;a DispZay System This system provides the contact between the commander (the personnel of the combat crews) rind the ASU computer complexes. It makes it possible to create an information model of the process being controlled. Here the following are provided: A visual reproduction of the information on the air enemy, on the combat readiness ntr.ol center). '1'}ie information is displayed in the form of digits, symbols and signs. A displ.n_y system includes: computer complexes, various types of displays and coup- lers for the radar equipment and communications channels. The computer complexes fol.lowing the corresponding algorithms and on the basis of information stored in their memory form the information model. 148 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Displays are Classified as FolZoras: In terms of the method of use, including individual and collectively used displays; thc individual displays are designed for equipping automated work areas for the mem- bers of combat crews at command posts (control centers); collectively used de'~rices display the air situation for a certain group of persons in a combat crew of a com- mand post (control center) and their uniform understanding of the air situation. By the type of information displayed there are primary and secondary displays; the screens of primary displays show the primary and secondary air situation, while the screens of the secor_dary displays show the secondary situation; by the primary air situation one usually understands the situation received from the radars and as the secondary the situation received from the computer complex and communications chan- ne ls . According to the methods of digit f ormation there are displays which realize the following methods: small-sized television screen, f unctional and matrix. With the method of a small-sized television screen, the sign is formed by the point mosaic method, with the functional method the sign is drawn by a beam on the screen of a CRT, and with the matrix method the sign is printed on the CRT screen. For re- alizing the matrix method, special printing tubes of the charactron type are em- ployed. For reproducing the signs on the screen, electronic, electroluminescent and opto- electronic elements can be employed. Information on the situation can be repre- sented or. indicators and panels. The PPI [plan-position indicatorsJ, altitude in- dicators, electronic plotting boards and large screens are employed as indicators. Pprformance of the data dispZay system. The functional quality of data display sys- cems is usually evaluated by information and technical performance. Among the in- formational performance of a display one could put the information capacity, tke sPecific information capacity and the speed and reliability of information display. 1nfo~r.mation capacity H(C) (binary units) describes the maximum amount of information wfl I('.tl can be displayed on the display screen: H(C) = NSP1092Ks, (4.44) where NSp--number of sigt: places on the screen; KS--number of signs generated by display sign generator. The specific information capacity j(binary units/sign place) describes the amount oC inCormation per sign place. This is determined: j = log2Ks. (4.45) The information display speed Ro (binary units per second) describes the quantity of information displayed on the indicator screen per unit of time: Ro = TzS log2Ks, 149 FOR OFFICIAL iJSE ONLY (4.46) APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL [iSE ONLl' where z--number of simultsneously filled sign places on display screen; _ Ts--writing time of one sign. _ The reliability of information display describes the degree to which the reproduced - signq c�onform to the sign which should be reproduced. Numerically this is assessed - by the probability of the false Pf or correct Pc reading of the sign. Under the conciitions of interference, the specific information capacity (binary units/sign place) is: r Pf j = log2Ks+(1-Pf)log2(1-Pf)+Pf1og21Ks l (4.47) AmonK ttie technical characteristics are resolution, brightness and contrast, screen size, playback time, operational reliability and others. " 4.2. Combat Capabilities of Radar Troops 4.2.1. 1)efinitions and Quantitative Indicators of Combat Capabilities By the combat capabilities of the RTV one understands their ability to carry out the _ missions of radar reconnaissance, radar support for fighter guidance, target desig- - nation for the ZRV and radar support tor control and command. Combcit capabilities are assessed by a system of indicators which describe: the di- men5ions of the space for receiving radar information (using radar equipment) cor- responding in terms of its performance to tha requ'Lrements of carrying out the tasks of c�ombat control as well as the information capacity of the system involved in the procetising and providing radar information and any of the system's elements. Tlie combat capabilities of a radar subunit the radar equipment of which is deployed at one combat position are characterized by the information zone of this subunit; the information capabilities for the output of the comnand post (information channel) is clescribed by the number of simultaneously tracked targets with the set discrete- ne5s. 'Che information zone is an aggregate of the detection zones of the subunit's radars :in(l represents an area of space in which are provided the measuring of the three co- orclin:ites, identification and the determining of other tactical characteristics of thc r.adar targets. '1'iie cumbat capabilities of a group of radar subunits or radar units are character- i-r.ed by the area of the existence of a radar field of information and which is formed by the aggregate of the subunit information zones. For evaluating combat capabili- cicIS, the basic interest is in the area of the existence of a solid radar information field within which continuous tracking of the detected targets is ensured. The information capabilities of the comnand posts of a group of radar subunits, r.adar units and corrnnand posts are also assessed by the quantity of simultaneously tracked targets in observing the discreteness permissible for successfully carrying out the specific mission of radar support for control of the firing camplexes or truops. 150 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY The capabilities of a group of subunits an3 units jammingJ are judged by the triangulstion zone and By the triangulation zone one understands an area of the SAJ are determined with a preset accuracy. tion zones of three and more rad.ar subunits forms condition of processing the bearings to the SAJ f en group at a central command post. to detect SAJ [source f ield . of space in which the The aggregate of the a triangulation field rom any of the subunit; of active coordinates triangula- under the s in the giv- Ttie detection zone of radaz equipment and the information zane of a radar subunit - are limited by the following: the minimum and maximum elevations, the maximum range and ttic extremal altitude of detection. The rangefinding zone of a passive radar complex (set) is limited by the minimum and maximum elevations for obtaining a bear- ing to the SAJ. These parameters are ordinarily given in the technical specifica- tions for the specific radar equipment. The solid active radar zone and the triangulation zone of a group of radar subunits or a unit is restricted by the following: the outer limit of the field at the given elevation, by the elevations of the lower and upper limits of the solid radar field (triangulation field). The limiL ol' the solid radar field (triangulation field) at a given altitude is the continuous line formed in the intersecting of the field of an imaginary surface equidistant in all its points from the surface of the earth (sea). The height of the lower limit of the solid radar field (triangulation field) is the name given to the minimum altitude for continuosu tracking of a target (SAJ) flying a course of terrain following. The height of the upper limit of the solid radar field (triangulation field) is the name given to the maximum altitude of contintious tracking of a target (SAJ) flying horizontally. 4.2.2. Methods of Evaluating Combat Capabilities Tlte iz*raformation zone of a radar subunit is constructed from the overflight-tested dctecrion zones of the subunit's radar equipment (4.1). 'i'he information zone is a family of horizontal sections ar different altitudes and vertical sections in the sectors of the expected actions of an air enemy. The verti- cal sections indicate the minimum and maximum elevations Qmin� Qmax, the maximum range Umax and the extremal altitude Next of detection. The clioice of the number of the family section and the computational values for the altitudes of an air enemy are determined by the set combat missions and by the rug- gedness of the terrain. 'Che effect of active interference on a subunit's information zone is considered by the compression coefficient and the sector for the effective neutralization of the detection zones for the radar equipment of this subunit. The pzirameters of a solid radar information f ield of a unit or group of radar sub- units are found by analytical and graphic-analytical methods. 151 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The analytical method is employed for an approximate determination of the parameters for tfie solid radar field in the stage of planning combat operations. The employ- ment of this method presupposes the following assumptions: a) Radars of the low-altitude (type I) and high-altitude (type II) types are in- ' volved in forming the radar field; b) The positions of the subunits do not distort the radar detection zones; c) The subunits are positioned at equal distances apart (in terms of the vertices of equilateral triangles). For caiculating the parameters of the radar information field using this method it is essential to know the area of the territory of combat operations Ster, the number of existing subunits nsub and the standard information zones of the type I and type 11 radars (H = f (D) ) . The height of the lower limit Hp is determined for the information zone of the type I radar and for this the minimum detection range of radar targets is calculated for which the radar field is solid: D _ Ster � /T. 6n sub (4.48) The target altitude corresponding to the found minimum detection range Do is the lower limit HQ of the solid radar field. For the upper limit of a solid radar field, the extremal height of the information zone for a type II station is employed under the condition: 2Hextllctg emaxIl < K1.73Do < DmaxII - HextlIctg EmaxII (4.49) where K= 1, 2, 3--integer depending upon the ratio of the number of type I and type II radars in the given battle forma- tion; t{extII; EmaxII; DmaxlI--parameters for the information zone of the type II radar. The graphic-analytical method is the basic one in calculating the parameters of a solid radar informstion field. It makes it possible to consider the influence of re-sl positions on the detection zones of radar equipment and to determine the detec- tion and tracking area for radar targets employing terrain following. 'I'tiE: initial data for calculating the field's parameters using this method are the b:3ttle formation of the radar unit (group of r3dar subunits) ploCted on a map with a scr_ile of 100,000 or 200,000 (depending upon the ruggedness of the terrain), a family of iiorizontal sections for the subunit information fields at various altitudes relative to sea level. The use of this calculation method provides for breaking the positions of the subunits in a radar unit into quadrants. For simplifying the cal- culations it is advisable to use the reference grid x, y found on the map. 152 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500064453-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY In each quadrant one puts the total of the altitudes of the highest point of the re- lief above sea level and the selected target altitude over the terrain HEt'1n meters. At the same time on the map are depicted the sections of the information zone of the radar subunits at different altitudes (50, 100 and so forth, in meters) and to which is assigned an altitude relative to sea level by adding to the position's altitude Hdet and then the quandrants are selected which meet the detection condition HEt a Hdet� The aggregate of these quadrants forms a section of the radar information field at the selected target altitude. The minimum height of the section is chosen as equal to the minimum possible altitude of an air enemy employing terrain follow- ing, and the number of sections is determined depending upon the ruggedness of the terrain. The minimum and maximum altitudes of the target at which the section of the radar information field is solid are taken as the height of the lower and upper limits of the solid radar field. The information capabilities of the RTV command posts depend upon the information capabilities of the incoming inf ormation channels of these coumand posts and their capabilities for processing and putting out information (the technical devices and the combat crew). The informational capabilities of an information channel which are assessed by the number of simultaneously tracked targets with the set discrete- ness are determined by the information capacity of the links forming this channel. 153 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOit OFFiCIAL USE ONLY 5. FIGHTER AVIATION 5.1. The Weapons System of AD Fighter Aviation 5.1.1. Design Principles of an Aircraft Missile Complex Structura Z Diagrcvn o f the Comp Zex An aircraft missile complex (AMC) is a complex of air and ground devices used to de- stroy manned and unmanned aircraft in the air. An AMC includes: an all-weather manned fighter armed with air-to-air missiles and cannons and carrying an onboard radar system for locating the air target, for aiming and weapons control; a complex of groutid or airborne control and guidance equipment. Fighters are employed in the AD Troops for hitting airborne targets chiefly at the di.stant approaches to the defended installations. Here they can operate individual- ly or in groups and when necessary autonomously, outside of contact with the ground control centers in independently searching for and destruying airborne targets. The Contents of the Intercept Problem By an interception one understands the stage in the fighters' flight toward the airborne enemy carried out upon comands from the control center up to the moment the enemy is detected by the onboard equipment or visually. In the general instance the intercept problem consists in determining the fighter`s laws of motion which ensure its rendezvous with the airborne target at the extremal value of any characteristic of the fighter's motion. As such a characteristic one can adopt, for example, fuel consumption expended on the interception, the time of the interception, the place (point or line) of the interception and so forth. Of the greatest significance are the tasks of determining such laws of fighter motion whereby either a maximum distance of the intercept line is obtained or a min- imum flight time to the interception. An essential condition for bringing the fighter to the point of impact (intercept) with an airborne target is the continuous or discrete control of its flight by pro- viding the pilot with the appropriate commands produced on a basis of information on the current position of the fighter and the target and the kinematic characteris- tics of their relative movement. 154 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY IrztF!ructiun of the Complex in the Equipment 'L'lie interaction of the equipment of the complex in destroying an airborne -target (viewing the entire flight by the fighter as a complex process conditionally con- sisting of several successive stages) consists in the following (Fig. 5.1).. H,M In the first stage there is the ground (distant) guidance of the fighter to the airborne target using ~---.,a 4 the ground (airborne or ship ) control sys tem. Ground guidance ensures the bringir., of /IV the fighter into a tactically advan- ~ tageous position relative to the air- ~ borne target at a distance of target visibility using the onbc+ard detection Ddi D, KM equipment or visually. Fig. 5.1. Interaction of equipment in The stage of ground guidance is prb- an aircraft missile complex ceded by the detection of the airborne [Roman numerals designate stages of flight] target and the notifying of the con- trol centers of it, the adopting of the connnander's decision to destroy this target and tb.e issuing of it to executors. The ground guidance of the fighters to the airborne targets is carried out by the crews of the control centers with the aid of equipment by giving guidance commands, by telling the pilots the flight mode and transmitting information on the target'R situation. The seeond stage is homing (close guidance) in the process of which the f ighter in- dependently closes with the airborne target using the onboard equipment (or visual- ly) for executing the attack. In practical terms homing commences after the detection of the tiarget by the fighter and ends with the employing of the onboard weapons. The crew of the control center in ttie homing stage should be constantly ready to provide the pilot w~th the neces- sary help even to the point of issuing the command to break off the attack. The third stage, the breaking off of the attack, is executed by various methods de- pending upon the type of weapons employed by the fighter. For example, if the fighter employs missiles with passive heat-sensing heads, then the breaking off of the attack can be executed immediately after their launching, while in employing missiles with semiactive radar homing heads, for ensuring control over the missile's flight it is essential to "illiminate" the target with the onboard radar and pull out of the attack af ter the target has been hit. The fourth stage ur the guiding of the fighter to the landing airfield, is carried out using the ground and onboard radio navigation systems. Guidance can be carried out both to the airf ield where the aircraft took off or to any of the previously chosen airfields located in the target intercept area. In the latter instance, the 155 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 F'OR OFFICIAL USE ONLY distar.ce of the intercept line can be significantly increased in comparison with ~ the returning to the take-off airfield. '['iius, a significant number of personnel and equipment is involved in carrying out inci siipporting the intercept f light and this requires the organizing of clear co- ordination and the all-rour_d training of all the persons participating in and sup- pur[ing it. F'iyhter Cuidance Methods For guiding fighters to an airborne target in a horizontal plane it is possible to " use the following basic guidance methods: "pursuit," "interception" and "maneuver." The ct:oice ot one or another guidance method depends upon the tactical situation and the charac.teristics of the weapons system and the fighter being guided to the air- borne target. P >V T T3 ~ ' T i T i T i ~ - ~ ~ Fig. 5.3. The "intercegtion" guidance Fig. 5.2. The "pursuit" guidance method methoci YIic "E~u,rjuit" guidance method provides for the pursuit of the target by the fightEr along a pursuit curve the essence of which is that t.he fighter's velocity vECtor at any moment of time is aimed at the target. The fighter's flight trajectory in thE }ior i�r.ontal plane with the "pursuit" giiidance method can be approximately constructed f ro,m ttie set values of the target's and fighter.'s speed proceeding from the adopted diticreteness of dividing up the time axis (Fig. 5.2). ,\i important positive property of the "pursuit" method is the simplicity of its re- :ilizatlt)Il since in guiding the fighter to the target it is sufficient to know only the coordinates of the target's current posiCion. Moreover, the given method is little 5ensitive to maneuvering by the target at great di.stances as well as to crrurs in measuring target coordinates. Onc uf the drawbacks of the "pursuit" method is the fact that in guiding the fighter to the target from the rear hemisphere, a sufficient excess of f ighter speed over target speed is required while in guidance from the forward remisphere the curve of t}ic- Eigtiter's trajectory rapidly increases in approaching the target and as a conse- quence of this the g-loads are increased and it is possible tha* the target may deviate from the kinematic guidance trajectory. 156 FOR OEFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY _ A tactical drawback of the "pursuit" method is that it does not provide an oppor- tun.ity to intercept a target at a set line or a minimization of the fighter's time and distance in intercepting the target. - Due to the designated positive and negative properties, the given method caa be em- ployed on the terminal stage of guiding the fighter to the air target after the fighter has first been brought to the target's rear hemisphere. The "intereeption" guidanee method consists in bringing the fighter to a certain ' lead poir.t on the target's flight trajectory (Fig. 5.3). The lead point is selected . on an extrapolated target trajectory under the assumption of the even and recti- linear movement of the target. In guidance by the "interception" method the = fighter--target line of sight shifts in the guidance plane parallel to itself. = The advantages of the given method consist in the possibility of bringing the fight- = fighter to the point of impact with the target in a minimum time and that it in many _ instances makes it possible to provide guidance to airborne targets ths speed of which exceeds fighter speed. ~ The drawbacks of the "interception" method are in the relative complexity of realiz- ing it and the necessity of ineasuring the parameters of the target's motion as well as in the high sensitivity of guidance errors to errors in measuring the coordin- ates and parameters of the target's motion. Moreover, using the given method it is - impossible to bring the f ighter to an airborne target to a definite, preset posi- tion relative to the target. - The "interception" method can be employed in the initial guidance stage for rapidly closing with the target. The "maneuver" guidanee method is a com- bined one and brings together the ad- vantages of the designated methods. For bringing the fighter to a certain posi- tion relative to the air target, the "maneuver" method provides three stages: closing, turning and coming in on the tar- get (Fig. 5.4). In the first guidance stage, the fighter flies along a rectilinear trajectory from the initial guidance point or airfield up to the point of commencing the turn. Fig. 5.4. The "maneuver" guidance method In the second guidance stage, the fighter turns along an arc with a variable curve radius to the required angle for bringing the fighter to the set aspect angle to the target. In the third guidance stage, the fighter flies along a rectilinear trajectory to the lead point. In this stage there is compensatiun for the guidance errors in the pre- vious stages, the search for and detection of the target by tre onboard radar and 157 FOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFIC[AL USF ONLY prepara;ions for the attack. Upon the completion of the third stage, tho, fighter should be the set distar.ce away from the target. From this moment guidance is car- ried out by the "pursuit" method and this brings the fighter to the curve for aiming and attacking the target. TechnicaZ Realization of Guidance Methods and the Fighter ControZ Loop Technically one or another guidance method in an automated control system can be realized by employing analogue or discrete computers which using the appropriate algorithms calculate the f ighter control commands for heading, altitude and speed. The commands generated by the computers are transmitted over the radio link to the fighter and are displayed on the piloting and navigating instruments (Fig. 5.5). Moreover, the ground guidance equipment generates individual fighter control com- mands and target designation commands which ensure the possibility of the automatic target lock-on by the fighter's radar. These commands are also sent over the com- mand radio link to the fighter, they are fed into the appropriate systems and are employed by the pilot for searching for, detecting and attackiiig the target. ~ 10, OPZON6l ynpaancNUA F( 1 NcmovHUx 9 Aamo� u)lq)op- nunom ~emvurr Mauuu ~ 10 ' du- 2 KaH nmop ~ ~ 12 ~ 4 M uno- m ax~He~e pamep Hnpu6o 6i I IUmYA' ~ 3 13 ' 14 ~ MOM HO' I ONd~NU II~UCMNUHi ney NUn exuA A npUCMXUN KOMCN(INOU 5 mePUOUOqUpao n pvduanuxau Wu(Ppa� Acpc- mco damvuK Fig. 5.5. Fighter Control Loop Key: 1-- Information source; 2--Indicator; 3--Fighter controller; 4--Compur.er; S--Telecontrol radio link; 6--Encoder; 7--Trans- mitter; 8--Controls; 9--Autopilot; 10--Pilot; 11--Decoder; 12--Flight instruments; 13--Receiver; 14--Receiver of command radio link. 5.1.2. Technical Realization of Weapons in Aircraft Missile Complex Requirements on Fighter Aircraft and Possibilities of Satisfying Them For a fighter to successfully carry out the combat missions of destroying airborne targets, it should possess a number of properties and in designing definite tactical and technical demands are made on it. In a completed, ready-for-action f ighter, thz tactical and technical requirements are embodied in the tactical and technical char- acteristics. 158 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00854R004500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY All tactical and technical demands on a fighter aircraft can be divided.into two groups: a) Tactical requirements: combat readiness, speed and altitude, maneuverability, range and length of flight, take-off and landing properties, the weapons system, equipment, autonomy of actions and so forth; b) The technical requirements: strength, rigidity, dependability and survivability of the basic structure, propulsion unit, assemblies and equipment, convenience'tn operation on ground and in the air, economy, production cost and so forth. The experience of the designing, operation and combat employment of fighters shows that a majority of the tactical and technical demands made on them are interrelated and contradictory. For this reason only the basic demands on a fighter could be satisfied best. Here in a number of instances compromises had to be made in select- lllg the basic requirements, considering the specific purpose of the actual type of fighter. Let us briefly examine some of the designated demands and the possibilities of satis- fying them. Here the demands on the weapons system of an AD fighter and the possi- bilities of satisfying them will be examined separately. Tavtical requirements. High combat readiness of f ighters is achieved chiefly by a high level of automating the fighter systems and equipment, by employing special maintenance equipment and by the training level of the flight and maintenance per- sonnel. Fighter speed and altitude are characterized by the range of speeds and altitudes of steady horizontal flight from their maximum values to the minimal ones. Aclvantages in maximum speed over the enemy aircraf t make it possible for the fighter to catch up with the target and impose battle on it as well as escape from enemy attack. Moreover, great maximum speed increases the total energy uf the fighter and as a consequence of this the range of its dynamic altitudes is broadened and climb performance is improved. fiowever, in the combat employment of fighters of great practical significance is not c>nly the maximum speed but also the entire range of speeds in which a fighter can provide steady flight. For this reason a fighter's minimum speed should also be of relatively small [sic] significance. The range of speeds is broadened chiefly by reducing fighter drag and increasing its thrust-to-weight ratio and net wing loading. However, the latter should not be achieved by increasing the fighter's weight as with the given engine thrust this leads to a reduction in the thrust-to-weight ratio. Increasing a fighter's altitude of steady horizontal f light is achieved by increas- ing it:: oynamic qualities and engine thrust and by reducing aircraft weight. The minimum flying altitudes are determined by the conditions of the fighter's combat employment and by flight safety. 159 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02109: CIA-RDP82-00854R000540060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Fighter maneuverability is one of its most important flight tactical characteristics. An advantage in maneuverability makes it possible for a fighter to anticipate the air enemy in taking up a tactically advantageous position for the attack, to seize and keep the initiative in air combat and to promptly escape from enemy attack. High fighter maneuverability is achieved with optimum values for such parameters as the thrust-to-weight ratio, the net wing load and the wing-sweep angle as well as in employing high-lift devices needed for obtaining the required msneuverability at subsonic speeds of flight. The distance and length of fighter flight characterize the depth and time of their effect on an air enemy. High values of flight range and length for AD fighters pro- vide them with an opportunity to hit the 2nemy at the distant approaches to the de- fended installations and to select the optimum method of combat operations under the specific conditions of the cambat situation. They also ensure the possibility of retargeting the �ighters in the course of combat operations. 'Die distance and length of fighter flight depend chiefly upon the fuel supply, aero- dynamic qualities, engine economy, speed and altitude of flig'.it. For a majority of modern fighters the maximum distances and durations of flight are reached at alti- tudes of 9,000-12,000 m and with subsonic flight speeds. The take-off and landing qualities of fighters determine their basing conditions and are characterized by the lift-off and touch-down speeds and by the lengths of the take-off and landing runs. The basic methods for improving the take-off and landing properties of fighters are to employ high-lift devices, assisted take-off units, wheel braking, landing brake parachutes and engine thrust reversing. The relatively high take-off weights of fighters lead to the necessity of basing them chiefly at airfields with a man-made surface and signif icant dimensions of the runways. The use of effective high-lift devices and other methods for improving the take-off and landing properties make it possible to base the fighters at airfields with shorter runway length and at dirt airfields. Fighter equipment. The successful carrying out of combat missions by an AD fighter to destroy the air enemy under various conditions of the tactical and meteorological situation, at any time of day and over the entire range of altitudes and speeds, ~ can be carried out only due to the employment of a range of equipment (radio- tecnnical, flight-navigation, high-altitude and so forth). The advanced equipent of modern fighters ensures the fullest and most effective employment of their tactical f.light properties in carrying out various combat missions, including in conducting autonomous or semiautonomous combat operatiuns. The automated flight control sys- tem is an inseparable part of the equipment of modern fighters. TeonnicaZ requirements. The satisfying of the technical demands placed upon AD fighters is related to satisfying the tactical requirements and is determined chief- ly by the general level of airframe construction and by the expenditures on the de- signing and modernization of modern aircraft. Here the increased cost of a modern fighter is substantially influenced by the increased need to employ a large amount 160 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY of expensive radio electronic equipment and by the significant increase in the amount of exploratory, scientific research and experimental work. In a number qf instances a tendency can be noted for a decline in certain tactical and .technical requirements which, without substantially reducing the aireraft's combat qualities, make its development less expensive. T}ie demands on the strength and rigidity of modern fighters with their relatively low weight are achieved by employing combinations of materials from special steels, aluminum and titanium alloys and plastics. The extensive use of titanium alloys and plastics in modern airframe construction tias been caused chiefly by tYe fact that they possess a comparatively low specific , weight and high mechanical strength. Thus, titanium alloys are 2- or 3-fold strong- er than aluminum ones, 4- or 5-fold stronger than magnesium alloys and even surpass certain alloyed steels in strength. Increased survivability and reliability of all systems are a characteristic feature of the new generation of military aircraft generally and fighters in particular. 'Ctie demand of increased survivability is met by employing special materials and methods f.or constructing the airframe, the propuision unit and the systems which en- stire the carrying out of the mission and the safe return of the fighter to the des- ignated airfield with the failing of individual technical devices or the presence of damage. }ligh fighter reliability manifested in the form of the trouble-free operation of all its systems is determined by the quality of the materials employed in manufacturing it, by the improved manufacturing methods for the technical devices, by the skills c,f the Elight and engineer-technical personnel as well as by the advanced technical and organizational methods for operating, servicing and overhauling the aircraft equipment. P,emcznds on the Fighter Weapons System and the Possibilities of Satisfying Them By the fighter's weapons system one must understand its weapons (chief ly guided missiles as well as cannons) designed to hit airborne targets and the sight system whic�li ensures the searching for the airborne target, aiming and control of the weapons. ~ Thc br.zoic tacticaZ and technieaZ demands made upon a fighter weapons sytem are: _ the possibility of employing the weapons over the entire range of fighter altitudes and speeds and in conduciing close maneuvering air combat, the all-angle capability of the weapons system, the high fire capabilities, concealment of attack, the possi- bility of creating various types of interference for the enemy and high antijamming capability. The nll-angle capability of a weapons system presupposes the possibility of attack- ing ttie target from any direction. However, satisfying the demand of all-angle capability complicates and increases the weight of the weapons system. With other conditions being equal, this leads to a deterioration of the fighter's flight per- foriuance. P'or this reason the all-angle capability of the weapons system as a re- quirement must not be considered categorical for any type of fighter. For example, 161 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFF'IC'IAL USE UNLY IsriLi5h militciry specialists consider it extremely complicated and irrational to provide guidance of light missiles under the conditions of close maneuvering air combat in attacking on head-on or collision courses. kiigh fire capability of a fighter can be achieved by employing the largest possible number of powerful weapons. However, considering the negative influence of the ex- ternal suspension pods and the weight of the weapons system on the fighter flight performance, it is essential to select an optimum variation of the weapons composi- tion proceeding from the basic purpose of the given type of fighter. In the opinion of foreign specialists, such a variation would be a range of weapons consisting of short- and long-range guided missiles and a cannon. Concealment of attack is a most important condition which determines the probability of destroying tile enemy. 5.1.3. Combat Capabilities of an Aircraft Missile Complex (AMC) The Coracept of "AMC Combat CapabiZities" By AMC combat capabilities one understands the expected result of the AD fighter's carrying out of the set combat mission and which can be achieved in a certain space over a certain time under the specific situational conditions. The basi_s of the concept of "AMC combat capabilities" is the expected result of the AD figtiter's carrying oL . of the combat mission set for it. However, the expacted result alone does not provide a full description of the given concept, as it does not answer the question of in what space and over what time this result can be re- alized. For this reason, a complete description of the concept "AMC combat capa- bilities" can be provided only by an aggregate of indicators which describe both the expected result as well as the space and time required for the AD fighter to carry out tlie combat missions set for it. CLassij'iaation of Indicators for AMC Combat CapabiZities 'The indicators describing the AMC combat capabilities can be divided into three groups: :i) Tlie probability characteristics which describe the expected result from the figtiter's carrying out of the combat mission; b) 't'he spatial indicators des4ribing the space within which the fighters are cap- able of carrying out combat missions; c) Thc ti.me indicators describing the time required for the fighter to carry out .i combat mission. 'Che probability of destroying an airborne target is the basic probability indicator for tlie combat capabilities of individual AD f ighters if one procee3s from their chief specific purpose. From the amount of this indicator it is possible to assess the effectiveness of an individual AMC both with the fighter's operati.on against an 162 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY airborne target with ground guidance as well as in operations with independent tar- Ket hunting. The basic spatial indicator for the combat capabilities of an AD fighter is the ciistkince of the line for destroying an airborne target in terms of the fighter's fuel supply. The position of the destruction line can be set relative to the fight- er take-off airfield. Among the basic time indicators of an AD fighter, are the time required to carry out the combL;j is carried out by the method of the engineer-navigator calculation (ENC) of the fighter's �light. 'Che initial data for making the ENC are tha flight profile and conditions, the con- ditions for carrying out the flight mission and the calculated aircraft fuel supply. Thc: basic guide in the ENC of a flight is the instructions on calculating flight range and duration for the given type of aircraft and these are an official document and contai.n all of the necessary materials for making the ENC. 'Che c:alculating of the destruction line in terras of fuel supply is carried out in the jollowing sequence. 163 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY 1. Fuel consumption is determined for the set flight profile: Gpro = Ggr + Gcl + Gcr + Gac + Gat + Gre + Gla, where Ggr--fuel consumption on the ground; Gc1--fuel consumption in taking off and climbing to cruising altitude; Gcr--fuel consumption on cruising leg of flight; Gac--fuel consumption in accelerating to a certain flight speed; Gat--fuel consumption in closing in and attacking the target; Gre--fuel consumption in returning to original airfield; Gla -fuel consumption in the landing approach and landing. 2. The difference is determined between the calculated fuel supply for carrying out the mission and the amount of fuel spent in flying the designated profile, that is, AG = Gcal - Gpro � If OG 0, there is surplus fuel which can be employed to increase the legs of hori- zontal flight toward the target and in returning to the base airfield. This is tantamount to increasing the so-called balance leg of the flight which can be de- termined by the formula: pG tbal - qcrl + 9cr2 2 (5.2) where qcrl, qcr2--kilometer fuel consumption on the cruising legs of horizontal flight in flying out to meet the target and in returning to the - base airfield, respectively. 3. The maximum distance of the destruction line is determined for fuel supply as ' the algebraic total of the projections of the legs of the flight onto the earth's surface: Dpy - f-cl + f-cr + tac + t,at, (5.3) climbing to cruising altitude; cruising flight toward the tatget considering the balance leg ght; accelerating to a certain flight speed; closing in and attacking the target considering the distance the missile (shells) to the moment of hitting the target. wtiere ecl--the leg lzrl --the leg of the tac-'the leg tat--the leg covered in in Eli in in by 1'he time for carrying out a combat mission by a fighter in destroying an airborne target includes the passive and flight time, that is, tcm = tpa + t fl . 164 FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102109: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIA[. USE 0NLY The passive time in an interception is spent mainly on readying the fighter for the sorti.c. - '1'he flight time equals the total of the flight times on all legs of the adopted fligtit profile up to the moment of hitting the target and is determined, like the target destruction line, by the ENC method. _ Z'hc t,ime required to prepare for a second sortie for a single fighter equals the totzil of the times spent un performing operations which are no_ coincidental in time by engineer and technical personnel (that is, operations which cannot be performed simultaneously on an aircraft due to safety considerations and so forth) in readying the tighter for a combat mission. The :iircraft preparation time depends basically upon the type of aircraft, the com- bat mission, the characteristics of the aircraft maintenance equipment as well as ttie number and training level of the engineer and technical personnel. 5.2. I'rinciples in the Combat Employment of AD Fighter Aviation 5.2.1. '1'actical Principles for AD Fighter Air Combat _ Ah, ~ornbu t is an armed clash in the air of individual aircraf t or groups (subunits, units) combining maneuver and fire for destroying the enemy or repelling its attacks. Air combat is the chief type of combat activity for the AD fighters. It is conducted for decisive goals, that is, to destroy the air enemy or cause him such harm as to force him to abandon the carrying out of a combat mission. Air combat starts after the fighter has detecte3 the airborne target using the air- craft equipment or visually. The most important conditions for achieving victory by the fighters in air combat are: an offensive nature of actions during the entire engagement; decisiveness of closi.ng in and surprise of attacks; skillful employment of maneuver in combat; the ;ibility to quickly destroy the enemy, as a rule, in the first attack; the use of - tacLical procedures which consider the strong points of one's aircraft and the weak ~)oints of enemy aircraft; coordinated actions and reciprocal support among the fightcrs in group air combat. SucCuss in air combat is achieved only by offensive actions with the seizing of ini- tiative and the maintaining of it during the entire engagement. Of crucial impor- caii('L' are the high skills and combat morale qualities of the flight personnel. ' For seizing the initiative, a fighter pilot should have a perfect knowledge of air comb:t tactics, in the process of the engagement he should correctly determine the po5sible type of enemy maneuver, he should carry out the most effective maneuver, quick.l.y aim and fire at ranges ensuring the highest probability of a target hit. 'i'tie :ictions of pilots in air combat should be decisive even in encountering a super- ior enemy. Indecisive actions lead to the drawing out of the engagement and to the losti uf iiiitiative. 165 FOR OF'FICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY In the process of air battle, the fi.ghters carry out combat maneuvering and employ tactical procedures for conducting combat. Cc,mb.at maneuvering is the name given to the shifting of the fighters (groups) in air space for taking up a tactically advantageous position or for maintaining coopera- , tion between the fighters (groups). Combat maneuvering in air combat can be offensive and defensive. With offensive combar maneuvering the fighters carry out actions which ensure a successful attack on the enemy aircraft and in defensive maneuver the fighter actions ensure an es- c�ape trom the attack with the subsequent taking up of an advantageous tactical posi- tioti for continuing the engagement. A tf the ntimber of destroyed targets� can be found by using the formula (5.7): Mt = NtPde. (5.7) Tf the fighters operate against the targets withot-t retargeting, the number of figtitcrs NL is equal to or less than the total numbPr of targets and the probability of destroying each attacked target is the same and equals Pd'~, then r't = Ni and the expectation of the number of destroyed targets will be obtalned on t,'L1e basis of the formula (5.7): 172 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007142/09: CIA-RDP82-40854R040500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL IJSE ONLY Mt = NiPde. (5.8) Formula (5.8) is �requently employed for approximately determining Mt in one sortie by a fighter group. Here it is essential to bear in mind that for a group consist- ing of different types of fighters (with different values of the destruction prob- ability), Mt is determined separately for the fighter types and then the results are added up. Moreover, if not all the aircraft of a unit (subunit) are involved in a sortie, then this reduction in the number of fighters is considered by a coefficier.t of their combat employment and the expectation for the number of destroyed targets is: Mt = KCeNiPde� (5.9) In ttie event when the probabilities for the destruction oL all the attacked targets are the same, the f?ghters operate without aiming, the distribution of the fighters to ttie targets is even but the number of fighters is greater than the total number of targets, Mt can be determined by the formula: Ni Nt Mt = NtPE = Nt 1 - (1 - Pde) , (5.10) wtiere P2;--the probability of destroying each target by all the fighters assigned to it calculating with the assumption that the probability of destruction, depending upon the number of fighters, changes according to an exponential law. A particular feature of formula (5.10) is that it is accurate in those instances when one and the same whole number of fighters occurs for each individual target. The cczpacity o; the guidance system for fighters to air targets is characterized by the number of fighter guidances over a certain interval of operating time for the guidance system and is approximately: ngu t u ngcs, (5.11) g ' where tgu--the set time interval for the operation of the guidance system; tcg--the duration of one fighter guidance cycle; ngc--the number of guidance channels in the guidance system. T1zE� required fighter detaiZ for destroying one air target with a set probability Pde set can be determined by the formula: N 19(1 - Pde set) . (5.12) 1 lg(1 - Pde) With the practical utilization of the given formula, the obtained value of Ni is r.ouiided off to the closest larger integer. 173 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-04850R000500060053-2 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY The required fighter detail for destroying a set portion of a group target consist- ing of Nt of uniform targets can be calculated by the formula: 19 (1- uset) Ni ~ Nt 1g(1-- Pde) ' ~5.13) where uset--the set share of individual targets to be destroyed from the group target. Formula (5.13) is analogous to formula (5.10) precisely in those instances when . there is the same whole number of fighters assigned to each individual target from the group target. The values of Ni obtained by formula (5.13) are rounded off to the closest larger whole number. The distance of the destruction Zine from the available radar information on the air enemy with a flight of targets toward the fighter airfield in a majority of the practically employed instances can be determined from the following formulas: DdZ 1+n (Dri - VttE +ntE) ; (5.14) Dd.e - Dri - VttE. (5.15) where Dri--available distance of radar information on air enemy; Vt--speed of target flight; tE--total passive time, fighter flight time under unsteady conditions and missile flight time to moment of target kill; n--ratio of target flight speed to speed of steady rectilinear horizontal fighter flight; f-E--algebraic total of the projections of the fighter flight legs under steady conditions and the leg of the missile flight on the direction of the target's movement. A characteristic feature of the amounts tE and tE is that for specific values of target altitude and speed, for the specific type of fighters, their initial position and the chosen intercept program, they have constant and known values. These values are determined (as an example) as follows: tE = tpa + tc,e + tac + tma + tae; tE _ Zct + tac +'ema + .Qae , where 4f, tct--rhe distance and time for climbing to a certain altitude by the I -;hter; Zacs tac--the distance and time for the acceleration of the fighters to a certain speed; tinat tma--the distance and time for the maneuvering of the fighters for coming out in the set position rel.ative to the target priar to the moment of its detection; taeg tae--the depth and duration of f ighter air combat consideri.ng the distance and time of the missile's flight to the moment of hitting thE: target. 174 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 F'OR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY 7'he amount of ZE according to the given formula is determined when the entire inter- _ cept f:ight is carried out directly toward or in pursuit of a target. If, for ex- ampLe, the climb, horizontal fli.ght and acceleration are carried out directly toward the target and the maneuver and air comhat are in pursuit of the target, then ZE � tc t + tac ' tma - tae � The physical sense of formulas (5.14) and (5.15) consists in the following. Formula (5.14) corresponds to instances when the target is detected before the figtiter airfield and is destroyed before the airfield (with Ddf> 0) or after it (wi th Ddt < 0) . Here in the intercept program there is a leg of steady rectilinear horizontal flight during which the movement of the fighters is directly toward the target. With the actual use of the given formula it is essential to bear in mind that it is valid in meeting the condition Dri - VttE >ZE, regardless of the sign of both parts of the given inequality. Formula (5.15), like formula (5.14), corresponds to instances when the target is de- tected prior to the fighter airfield and is destroyed before the airfield (Ddi >0) or after it (Ddy > 0,95 0,997 0,9999 (the second figure below the P1 in&sx des- ignates the sequence of the missi?.e launch). Hence /'n 1 - 0 - /13. 1) (1 - /)t.a)... 0 - P" n)� (6.96) It is very difficult to determine with sufficient accuracy the value of the proba- bilities P1,2���Pl,n for the given type of targets and firing conditions. In calcu- lating the target kill probability by using n missiles, as a rule, formula (6.94) is employed and the accumulation of damage is considered by correction factors. The probability of the normal functioning of the missile system for carrying out its combat mission (in firing) is usually termed the coefficient of combat work relia- bility KcW. Considering this coefficient: Pn = Kcw tot[l-(1-Kcw rcPl)n,, (6.97) where Kcw tot and Kcw rc--the probability of normal functioning, during the firing, of the general-channel systems of the missile system and the elements of one missile channel, respectively. The number of missiles which determine the given target kill probability is: I iz I J Kcwccc (6.98) r . IK ( ~ - K cW FC 220 FOR OFFICIAL USE 0YLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 !.'x(unq) l(, . Clven: 1'I = 0.8; KeW tot = 0.98; KcW rc = 0.96. To determine the number of miseiles for hitting a target with a probability Pd = 0.95. Solution: ~ 0.95 lg C~ 0.98 ) Ig (I -0,9ti�I),8) ~ 214= 3 missiles. MathematicaZ Expectation of Number of Hit Targets In firing at a grozp of individual targets, the mathematical expectation of the number of destroyed air attack weapons equals the total of the kill probabilities of the individual targets fYYed on: Nt M, _ ~ pi. (6.99) r=-i If the kill probabilities P1 are the same, then Mc = NtPI (6.100) An assessment of the kill probability of at least m or precisely m out of Nt indi- vidual targets comes down to calculating: With the same target kill probabilities--the corresponding terms of the binomial factorization p (j tl m) A C~ p,NC.-nr ~ (6.101) t NL P(I >,m) - Y, CN P"' (1 - p)"c -m (6.102) ' /-rn t or m-I ~'(I ;�.in) 1 - I CN p)Nt-~^ ~ (6.103) t o With different target kill probabilities--coefficients for a generating function of the type: 111` . N P I-'1) + f'i l) xi 1'j7j. (6.104) r=~ l=o 221 FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060053-2 APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2047/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000540060053-2 FOR OFFICIN. USE ONLY _ LxcuTle. The number of targets fired on Nt = 3. The probability of hitting the first target P1 = 0.7, the second target P2 = 0.5 and the third target P3 = 0.9. To determine the probability of destroying exactly two and no less than two targets. Solution: [(1-P1)+P1Z][(1-P2)+P2Z][(1-P3)+P3Z] _ (0.3+0.7Z)(0.5+0.5Z)(0.1+0.92) _ 0.015+0.185Z+0.485Z2+0.315Z3; P(j=2) = 0.485; P(j>2) = 0.485+0.315 = 0.8. In firircg at a group target, that is, a group of aircraft observed on a radar indi- cator in the form of a single blip under [he condition that the lock-on by the tracking radar or the GSN for one or another aircraft in the group is equally prob- able and with the detonating of a SAM near the given aircraft the destruction of other aircraft in the group is excluded: � A~1e-N[I -(1- P. N) (6.105) ExampZe. If N= 3, n= 6, P1 = 0.9, then Mc = 3[1-(1-0.9/3)6] = 2.64. On F,stimating Firirg Fffectiveness raith Countermeasures from the Airborne Target Firing effectiveness with countermeasures by the airborne target (electronic jam- ming, maneuvering) can be reduced as a consequence of: a) Increased guidance errors and reduced effectiveness of the SAM combat equipment: +ro P~ - S S I'(y. .:)!,(y. z) G*(v. z) dydz (6.lOF; (the asterisk designates the corresponding laws under the conditions of target countermeasures); b) A disruption of the normal functioning of the missile system's elements (the halt in the reception of information on the coordinates and parameters of the tar- get's movement in the guidance loop, the breaking of the SAM guidance loop, the false activating of the radar fuze and so forth); the probability Pf of the system's normal functioning: K p ~ (6.107) where K--the number of channels exposed to the effect of electronic jamming in the guid
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