JPRS ID: 10537 USSR REPORT HUMAN RESOURCES

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• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000500060050-5
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• Document Page Count: 38
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 50
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 10537
24 May 1982
USSR Re ort ~
p
HUINAN RESOURCES
- cFOUO 5i82~
FBIS FOREIGN BFtOADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/10537
24 May 1982
~ USSR REPORT
HUMAN RESOURCES
c~avo ~/~821
CONTENTS
DEMOGRAPHY
hew Book Discusses Soviat Law and Curren~ Den.ogra~hic Trends
(Galina Il~inichna Y.itvinova; PRAVO I ~NIOGRAFICHESXIYE
PROTSESSY V SSSR,1981) 1
- a - [III - USSR - 38c FOUO]
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DEMOGRAPHY - ~
, NEW 8001~ DISCUSSES SOVIET LAW AND CURRENT DF1~lOGRAPHIC TRENDS
l~o~cow PRAVO I DEMOGRAFICHESKI~tE PROTSESSY V SSSR ia Rusaian 1981 pp I37-184
~hapter 4, Migration ar~d Labor Resources, from "Law and Demogra hic Processes
� in the USSR," by ~alina I1'inichna Litvinova, Izdatel'stvo Nauka/
- /Text7 The legal norms which affect migration belong to a significant degree
to th~ norms of direct action. It ie in this regard that they differ from
the legal norma which affect the birth and death rates, where the effeat o~
~ the l~w is mainly indirect.
As processQS ahich are gurely social in nat~:~~,the migratory proceases depend
oi1 the individual person: this cannot be sai.d .~?out the death rate, the h~man
_ life span axid the natural but ndt the physical ma~.~ment of the population. For
this reasun there is with regard t~ thp migratory pr~casses muc~i greater ground
for talkin~ abou~ th~ir regulability than there is when talking about other
= dEmographic procesaes.
Migration is ae~in~~ as the territorial movement of the population,as well as
social mobility, the mov~mment from one social group into another.
~ The territorial relocation of individuals can take�place within a country
(intra-state migration) ~r between count~cies (inter-state migration). Intra-
- state migration is regulated only by the legal norms of a given state, while
external migration is regu].ated by the norms of international law and of th~
laws of the countries from ~hich the emigranta depart and the immigrants arrive.
In contrast ~aith migration with~n a state, external migration often brings
with it a change in citizenship~ the balan~e of external migration (i.e., the
differenc~ between the size of the arriving and departing population) influences
the changing of the magnitude and composition of the population not only of a
- given xayon but also of the nation as a Whole.
,
Migration is a complex social phenomenon, which is conditioned by political,
economic, legal, natural, psychological, demographic, ethnographic and other
f_actors. ~t influences substantially the economic, socio-cultural and socio-
political Yife of the state and constitutes an important component o~ its
socioeconomic development.
1
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r utc ur r t~. in++ u.. L v~~++~
Migration changes the distribution of pro~uction forces, and without it the develop-
ment of new regions of the country would be impossible. Ir many respects migrltion
predetermine~ the success of ind~~strialization; it facilitates sign ificant chan~,e9
in the social structuxe of society--the growth of the working class, for example,
is ensured to a significant degree by the flow of migration from the countryside
to the cityo Migration contributes to the exchange of labor skills and production
experience, to the improvement in the welfare and cultural level of the population
and to the development of personality.
Migration influ~ces the age and sex structure of the carresponding region and
through it the marriage and birth rates,
Migration plays a great role in bringing together the socialist nationalities. As a
result of migration ~here is a mixing of the national composition of the resi-
dents in the republics, and this leads to mutu~l cuZtural enrichment of the
nationalities and ethni.c groups, as well as to the strengthening and development
of internationalism.
Migration of the population from one republic to another influences the size
as well as the national and social composition of the popula~ion in a union or
autonomous republic, and it also influences the degree to which the republic
is supplied with labor resources and the turnover or stability of the personnel.
In this way the migratory processes exert a substantial influence on the economic,
political, social and demographic deveiopment nf the Union of Saviet Socialist
~tepublics and the republics which comprise it, and on the geography of industry.
VaI. Lenin considered the movement of the popula~ion to be a progressive phenome-
non which contributes to the economic development of L�he state am4 the individual,
He wrotei "The migration of workers not only provides 'purely econc.:nic' advantage~
to the work~rs themselves but it must als~ be recognized as a progressive phenome-
non... Unless mobility of the population is established, there cannot be population
development, and it would be naive to think that any kind of rural school can provide
people with what they can get from actual acquaintance with different relations
and procedures both in the south and in the north, in agriculture and in industry,
in the capital and in au~of~the-way places."1
Under the influence of a number of circumstances a pexson organizes and carries
out his migratory behavior by llimself. But in turn, the act. of migxation, ar
resettlement, exerts a substantial influence on the person. The influence oAs is
migration on an indi~vidual is mainly positive; however, it is not certair?-.
we11. known, by no means all newcom~rs adapt easily to the new place; reszttlement
frequently bri.ngs with it changes in life style; ties with frThe socialradaptation
are bro~cen and difficulties in becoming acclimati.zed arise.
of the newcomer does not always take place painlessly. Criminologists have estab-
lished the fact that tomersiinaal egion,wthe higherithearaterofecr imee2higher
the percentage of newc
In the same way the migration processes themselves cannot be viewed frora one side
alone. It should be acknowledged that in the last 20 years the rate of activity
and the direction of migrat~on both wi~chin and between republics has become
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less and less rational in nature. Demographers ha~e been directi.r~ attention
" to the serioua inadequacies ot present-day migration in the RSFSP.s tn~ ~�yn~rtrophied
growth of population in the larger cities, the exces~iv~ely large namber of ,
people, especially youn~ people~ leaving the countryside for the city ar?~ the
_ exceseive movement of population away from the RSFSR to other republics.
Socialist society has at its disposal enornwus potential for ratioralizing
migratory processes, stren~thening their positi~e and weakening theiz negative
consequences.
In the USSR an important influence on the migratory movement cf the population,
both sociat as well as territorial, is exerted by the constitutional right of
citizens to labor; under developed socialism this right is interpreted
more braadly than before, specifically as a right to obtain guaranteed work
for payment in accordance with its quantit~? and quality, including the right to
choose a trade or type of occupation and wark aacording to his calling, capa-
bilities, vocational training and education (Article 40 of the USSR Constitution).
- The absence of unemployment under socialism sharply differPntiates migration
in the USSR from migration in the capitalist co~a.tries, where the migrants most
of ten move for one purpose--to fir~d work.
The social mobility of USSR citizens is ensured by ~he followingt
the abolition of all privileges and limitations as declared by the first decrees
of the Soviet state4;
the constitutianal principle of equality of all citizens before the law~
the equality of ci~tizens' labor rights regardless of sex, nationality, race or
religion;
the constitutional right to education, including free, specialized education at all
levels i.ncluding tY~e tertiary level.
widespread ~pportunity for improving labor qualif ica;.ions and for receiving
instructions in new specialities;
the freedom, guaranteed by the constitution, of scientific, technical and artistic
work;
the right to elect and be elected to the soviets of people's deputies and to other
elective state organs;
the possessioz by citizens of all the rights --socio-economic, politica~l and
personal rights-- declared and guaranteed by the USSR Constitution and by Soviet
laws. ~
All this provides the basis for the broad freedom to choose one's trade or type
of occupation and ensures that citizens have great social mobility, and this has
particular s~gnificance under conditions of the scieniific-~echnical revolution.
3
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The opportunities granted by Soviat legislation for great social mobility are
broadly re~a~iaestateeofficiali a~wo ker~rmay,becomehan engineer~or~a~scholar,yetc.
a worker
The territorial and social mobility of the USSR lationtat the expenserofhthe ie
fundamental to the growth of the industrial pop
agricultural popLlation and of the urban population at the expense of the rural.
- Nearly half of the increase in the country's urban population is provided by
emigrants from the village.
A high rate of migrational mobility was characteristic of prerevolutionary Russia
- although for social and religious motives tsarist legislation limited the movement
of certain categories of ~We~eeallowed t
Xtravel nutsideeitf nlytundertspecialtab-
lished for Jews, and they
circumstances.
Migration to Siberia was especially intense. Its enormous expanses were the
destination f irst of feasan~~ lw
olgathered~large~landeallotmentseinbChetsparsely-
serfdom, of landless p
settled outskirts of Russia.
Historian D.L. Mordvinoy, who studied the history of peasant migration in the ~
last century, w+~otes "It has been noted that the Russian people, despite the
settled nature which is characteristic of an agricultural country, has a
tendency toward the wandering life and that without any apparent reasons the
Russian will abandon his Homeland and go to look for something in a foreign part.
But this lack of sociabilitq, it seems, lies not in the nature of the people,
as many others explain, but is rather a consequence of 'unfavorable historical
circumstances. While they note that the Russian easily abardons his native
village and `hp cemetery of his fathers, it should be noted that while abandoning
one, he seeks another, better one: "Ivan, "o~s unlcrio~n ancest-ry, ~alw~ an~We~ s the
judge's question on the reason for his flight by saying you don't run from good'
and 'let well enough alone"'S D. L. Mordvinov cites exatnples of peasants, who
moved in whole villages and large groups beyond the Volga to Siberia, Central
In response to
Asia and even beyond the state boundary, apecifically to Poland.
the foreign exodus of ichusecretlyi~rossedethe~boundaryrin orderrtoecatchganized
special detachments wh
fugitives and return them to Russia.
In his analysis peas ant movements to Siberia, V.I. 'Lenin emphasized that .
peasants were moving from the densely populated agricultural provinces, where
the vestiges of serfdom were mo~e pronounced and that it was mainly the peasant
of average means who was moving. The new settlers included discharged soldiers,
~ Cossacks, representati�~es of persecuted religious sects, etc.
In addition to voluntary resettlement for the purpose of developing new regions,
_ especially in Siberia, which was enc~uraged by the granting of certain benefits
established by ~aw (tax benefits, etc.), br4ad use was made of forced resettlement,
including administrative resettlement of state peasants, exile of penalized soldiers,
the resettlement of military units, dispatch of Cossacks on the basis of drawing
lots ar:d the so-called criminal colonization.
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Forced resettlement of political and regular criminals in order to use their labor
for colonization of uninhabited regions of Siberia Was widely practiced in tsarist
Russia. In the 19th century alone, 860,000 people were exiled to Siber~a. In the
1897 census, 299,000 exile~ were registered, and they constituted 5.2 percent of
the population of Siberia.
After the October Revolution the very rich natural resources of Siberia and of the
northern and eastern regions of the country remained little-used anc~ sparaely
populated. In addition, the most backward national regions of Centr~l Asia were
in need of rapid development.8 The need to develop these expanses determined the
large scale migration of the 30�s. From I926 'through 1939 approximately 5 mf~llion
people migrated to Siberia, the Urals, the Far East, Razakhstan and Central Asia.
A specific phenomenon of this period was the etner~ence of induatrial cities in
previously uninhabited regions beyond the arctic circle and in areas of the F'ar
East which were not cansidered suitable for economic development.
Great territorial shifts by the Soviet population were prompted by the beginniag of
the Great Patriotic War, when more than 25 million people were evacua~ed by the
Soviet government from regions ~?hich were under threat of occupation. This resulted
in substantial change in the demographic map of the country, in the number and
propox~tion of the population in the union and autonomous republics and in their
social and national composition. All the republics became more multinational.
At the present time the CPSU and the Soviet government are undertaking organiaational
and legal measures to increase migration of the work force to regions of Siberia
and the F ar East, where a s.ubstantial increase in industrial production has
been ca11Ed for by the Ilth F~ve-Year Plan. The 26th CPSU Congress stipulates
for these regions a higher rate of construction of industrial-energy complexes,
the development of the infrastructure as well as the introductien of wage increases
for blue- and white-co~lar workers who have reeords of unint~~rupted service
in the southern regions of the Far East and Eagtern Siberia.
The optimization of present-day migratory processes requires improvement in the
organizational forms for the management of the territorial redistrlbution of
the population.
Within the system of the Soviet state apparatus there are organs, which carry out
the pla,nning, finaz~cing and management of the organizational fortns of migration.
USSR Gosplan and gosplan of the union republics estatilish the need for manpower
and skilled specialists according to regions and branches of the national economy.
Until 1976 all questions regarding the use of labor reaources w~ere ~esolved
at the republic level.
The recruitment and resettlement of workePS was managed by labor cotnmittees
at the ce~un~cils of ministers of the union republicsj these cominittees were assigned
the responsibility of working with the ministries, agencies and enterprises in
develaping measures to retrain workers and to redistribute them a~nong enter-
prises~ ol~}asts and rayons of the country, taking into account the needs of
industry. In 1976 the USSR Council of Ministers' State Committee for Labor and
Wages was reorga_nized into the tmion ~republic USSR State Committee for Labor and
Socia~ Questions, with the republic state conunittees on labor subordinate to i,t.
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r vn ur r�i~ tn?. u~.: uivL i
In this way a better organizational structure for the "vertical" management of
labor resources was created, and it became possible to plan and implement inter-
republic distribution and redistributior, of manpower and to rEoulate operationally
the fulfillment of the plans from a single union-wide center. At a time when
certain republics have a shortage of labor resourc~s and others have an excess,
the strengthening of centralization and the expansion of the authority of the
national organs in the resolution of issues related to the redistribution of
labor resources is wise and economically necessary.
However, it should be said that a certain degree of decentraliza~tion is useful
in solv~ng specif ic problems related to the distribution of labor resources. For
example, young specialists are placed in jmbs by the union-republic Ministry
of Higher and Secondary Specia73ze~d Education. It is one thing when questions
related to the supplying of specialists for small places like Estonia or Kirghizia
are resolved by the corresponding miniatries of the republics in Tallinn or Frtmze,
but it is anotYier thing when issues related to supplying an enormous region such as
Western Siberia with specialists, including graduates of the Tyumen' WZ's
and tekhnikums, are resolved in Moscow, thousands of ki.lometers from the region.
It goes without saying that with the second alternative the deci.sions are less
frequently the optimal ones. This was correctly noted by the participants in
a conference on the comprehensive development of the Western Siberian regionf
they proposed expanding the jurisdiction of the local soviet~ in the resolution
of issues such as these 12
It is essential to coord~nate the activities of numerous org::nizations which
require the influx of manporaer from the village inasmuch as the individual interests
of these organizations and en~erprises do not always coincide with the interests
of agriculture.
Individual enterprises in certain'regions are granted the right ~o ~3raw n~anpower
from other regions by means of material incentives for resettlement in order to
eliminate a deficit ~f manpower, Plants, factories and construction sites are
interested in obtaiining from the village, not just manpower, but young people
who have secondary and speciai'.i2ed technical education, i.e., the same manpower
that the kolkhoz's are inter.ested in.
The ministries and agencies which are responsible for supplying manpower to
new construction projects prefer a rapid and "profitable" transfer of skilled
manpower from the regions in which labor is in short supply to the training of
specialists from regions of surplus labor. Legislation must prevent this
~ practice, especially the organized recruit~ent of~personnel in regions experi-
encing a shortage of labor resources. Important measures t~~ resolve this
problem were set out by the 26th CPSU Congress, which decreed that there must
be more training of skilled workers from the local p~~ulation of the Central
Asian republics, especially from among rural youth.
The law is called upon to contribute to the optimizatica~ of migratory currents
while providing for subjective interest in resettlement. For example, the
USSR Council of Ministers adopted a decree m 31 May 1973 "Concerning Resettlement
Benefits" in order to facilitate resettlement and to give assistance to newcomers.
It set out the le~al, bilateral relations between the r.ewcomer and the kolkhoz
6 ~
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(an enterprise for the production of agricultural products) and established a
series of benefits for the ne~comers. Families which resettle in kolkhoz s
and sovkhoz s are paid a one-time grant of 100 to 300 rubles for the head
of the family and 35 to 80 rubles for each member of t~i~ family, depending
on the territory in which the resettlement takes place.
Large benef its are stipulated for people who relocate to work in the regions of
the Far North, which are characterized by difficult Weather conditions. The benefits
are set out in the IO February 1960 Ukase of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme
Soviet "Concern~}g Regulat'on of Benefits for Persons Working in the Regions of
the-Far North."1~ In ordEr to attract and keep blue- and white-collar personnel
in the northern regions of the USSR, these people are given supplements to the
monthly wage, and they are granted living space at their place of work ~?hile
retaining living space in their former place~of residence for the entire period
that the labor contract is in effect. Actual expenses related to maving the
employee and a ~ember of his camily bo the work area and to the former place of
residence are rei.mbursed. Preferential treatm~nt in the calculation of
service length for old age or invalid penion benefits is given: one year of
work in the areas of the North is worth one year and six months: old-age pensions
are given to men at age 55 and to women at age 50 if they have worked no less than
15 calendar years in the regions of t~je Far North. ,The right to additional
leave of 18 working days is granted.l
Other legal acts, which pr~vide for the organized recruitxnent of manpower and
its movement to specific regions are also in effect.
The legal norms, which regulate migratory processes, can be divided into two
typess
1) norms which regulate certain aspects of organized migration: such as transfer
related to the planned distribution of graduates of variQUS educational insti-
tutions; organized recruitment; work transfer; agricultural resettlement. These
norms are reflectied in sueh legal acts as the 6 May 1953 decree of the USSR Council
of Ministers '~oncerning Procedures for Conducting the Organized Recruitment of
Workers"17 and the 19 September 1969 decree "Concerning the Distribution of
Persons Who Have Completed Graduate Studies W'hile Taking Leave from Production,"18 ~
and the Statute Concerning a'Procedure for Conducting Job Placement in
the RSFSR for Youth Who Have Not Received a Secondary Education, which was
confirmed by a decree of the RSFSR Council of Ministers on 21 April 196919 and
other acts;
2) norms which regulate specific migratory streams, which estaDlish their direction
and intensity. Norms of this kind include, for example, those established
by the 27 March 1954 decree of the USSR Council of Ministers and the CC CPSU
"Concerning the Further Improvement in the Cotmtry�s Grain Production and the
Development of Virgin and Fallow Lands."2~ '
In addition to the norms which directly influence migration, there are quite a
few legal norms whose influence on the migratory movements of the public is
mediated by economic, psychological and other factors. The publication of this
kind of legal norm does not aim to regulate migration, however,it does have a
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L' V a~ vr l t~+ ltit+ uJ L v1~ L 1
regulatory effect on the public, especially on "unorganized" migrants, who
comprise at the present time an absolute majority of the migrants.
The effectiveness of any given legal norms whi~h influence or regulate
migration is not characterized by a high degree of stabiliry. While the 30's
and 40's saw large strearr?s of migrants moved in~ an organized manner to the
eastern regions of the country, the SO's and especially the 60's and 70�s
have seen a drop in the role of organized migration. There has been a sharp
red uction in the tendency to direct manpower through organized recuitment: in
1951-1955 organized recruitment was responsible for the placement of 2,833,000
people throughout the country, but in 1966-1970 it was responsible for the
placement o� only 573,000. During the same period ~ricultural resettlement within
the RSFSR declined from 111,000 to 56,000 families,
As a result of the fact that the proportion of ~organized resettlements in
present-da5- mi.gration is growing, organizational measures to regulate migration
are begi.nning to lose their significance and the significance of sotio-economic
levers is increasing. For this ~eason direct regulation of migration must
be replaced with i.ncreasing frequency by i.ndirect measures, and this must be
taken into account when working to improve the state and legal management of
these socio-demographic processes. These include legal norms, which create beneficial
conditions for specific union republics, regions, nationalities or social groups
in order to resolve national, economic and other probl~ms. For example, the publi-
cation of a legal act concerning increases in purchase prices for any given
agricultural products for the purpose of stimulating production growth increases
the incomes of producers and reduces the migratory outflow from rural regions
which produce the given item, even where there is an excess of manpower and
incomplete employment of the rural population.
The improvement in the standard of living of the Soviet people in the USSR as
a whole throughout all of its regions has reduced the drawing power of r~settlement
benefits and influenced the acclima~ization rate of the newcomers i_r, the new
place; it has also increased the return migratory flow. As a result there 'has
been a slowing down of the growth of population in the count~y's eastern regions,
althcugh the natural increase of the population there is ~�elatively high.
There has also been a reduction in the scale and intensity of the migratory
streams,22 and what is most upsetting is the large scale which nonrational
migration has assumed.
Streams of migrants are leavi.ng Siberia, the Urals and the Non Black Earth
Zone, i.e., the regions, which are experiencing a shortage of labor resources,
and they are heading to a significant degree to the republics with superfluous
labor resources. The mig ration in the Central Asian republics is particularly
non rational in terms of it^ level and direction. The high rate of natural
- increase in the villages here has already resulted in superfluous manpower,
which would be sufficient not only to meet the personnel needs of all the indus-
trial facilities of these republics but also to help in the development of Siberia
the Far East and other labor-short regij~zs of the countries. But util~zing
this surplus manpower is not so simple. In Ta~ikis.tar.,. for example, where
for every 100 people entering pension age during the llth Five-Year Plan, there
are 322 people entering the working age bracket, the local population s~:pplies
only 34 percent of the industrial personnel requirements of the republic's major
8
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facilities. The rest are newcomers, mainly from the labor-short regions of
the RSFSR, where for every 100 people leaving the workin~ age bracket there
are only 85 entering that bracket.
Ir~ his report to t'.?e 26th CPSU Congress L.I. Brezhnev saids "In Central Asia,
in a number of regions of the Caucasus there is a surp~us of manpower
especially in th~ cowztry~ide. And this means that it is necessary to work
more energetically to attract the population of these places to the developmer~t
of the country's new territories. And, of course, to develop here the production
which is necessary for the national economy, and to expand the training of
skilled workers of the ~ndi8e~ous nationality, especially rural youth. " 24
All this provides evidence of the timelir.ess of tha work to improve legislation
aimed at p~oviding manpower for new construction project~ and development areas.
The existing legislation establishes additional rights and benefits for those
people who move to the development regions, regardless of where they come from:
i.e., whether they come from regions Which have an acute shortage of labor
resources or from regions with a labor surplus. Further, the economic development
needs of the rural localit~es of the Non Black Earth Zone or Central Asia
require a different kind of relation to those departing the village. Legislation
must stimulate migration from the labor-surplus regions ~nd lower the rate of
migrational activity of the population in the labor-deficit regions, i.e., it
must regulate migration with consideration for t:~e interests mt on].y of the
regions which receive the migratory streams (new construction sites, development
regions) but also of the regions from which these �people are departing. ,
The task of the legislation is to contribute to the opti.mization of the migratorv
- streams, i.e., to bring them into line with the requirements of the socio~~conomic
development of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and of each of the constituent
republics. This, in turn, presupposes the ~ppearance of factors which inf luence
the intensity and direction of migration and for consideration of them in legal acts.
It should be said that there is no unan imity of opinion among scholars who are
studying the reasons far migration. A multitude of reasons are given, including
some which are most unsuitables For example, 0. Atamirzayev and A. Atakuziyev
claim: "The traditionally weak texritorial mobility of the local popu25tion
is a specif ic feature of the demographic development of Central Asia. Former
nQmads are described as having "traditionally weak territorial mobility?"
There is a widely held opinion that the mai.n reason for the weak migratory
activity of the Central Asian population is the fact that the natives of the
Central Asian republics have an inadequate mastery of the Russian language.
Without denying the dependence of migratory activity on the level of knowledge
of the Russian language, primary or decisive aignificance shauld not be given
to this factor. In recent years (60's--70's) the number of scientific workers,
candidates and doctors of science in Central Asia has increased primarily among
- the indigenous population. But doeG a scientific occupation require any
less kno~aledge of the Russian language than work in industry, where the
number of work~rs is increasing mainly as a result of newcomers?
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rvn urrt~te~u, u~r, UNLT
The first profound analysis of the reasons and factors in migration was carried
out at the end of the last centu~ry by V.I. Lenin in th~ am~k "T~p bPVal~~imant
of Capitalism in Russia," where migratory praeessea we~e vieWed against an enormous
multi-faceted body of factual material; Lenin revealed the patterns evident
in these processes, their dependence on socio-economic factors and the influence
of migration on the individual.
V.I. Lenin saw the main re.sson for resettlement in the various socio-economic
conditions at the place of departure and the place of settlement. "Workers flee...
from 'semi-free' labor to free labor. It would be a mistake to think that this
flight amounts exclusively to a movement from a densely populated to a sparsely
populated place....Workers leave some places in such large numbers that a
shortage of workers results in these place~, a shortage which is eased by the
arrival of workers from other places... the departure of workers expresses the
aspirations of workers to go where conditions are better. This aspiration will
become completely comprehensible to us if we recall that in the region of
emigration, a region in which people pay their debts with work, the wages of rural
workers are especially6low, while in the region of immigration... wages are
incomparably higher."~
Thus V.Io Lenin saw the reasons for migration primarily in the socio-economic
conditions of the life of the population in the various regions. V.I, Lenin came
to this conclusion while analyzing the migration of the population against the
general background of the socio-economic position of the state; he proceeded
from the premise that the migratory processes of a specific region cannot
be understood without taking into account the migration of the population, the
reasons and factors in other regions and in the state as a whole. These Leninist
tenets have not lost their theoretical and practical significance in our times,
despite the fundamental socio-economic transformations which have taken place
in the state.
T'~e 26th CYSU Congress emphasized the need to even out social differences on
a territor ial scale and directed attention to the fact that the cultural and
1 ivi.ng conditio ns of people's lives are not the same in the various regions
of the country. And it is precisely these differences which frequently complicate
the situation with regard to labor resourcgs in a number of places. The imple-
mentation of a program to develop Western Siberia, the BAM (Baykal-Amur Mainline)
zone and other places in the eas'tern part of the country has increased the flow of
population to these areas. However, people frequently prefer to go from north
to south and from east to west, although the rationa~~distribution of product-i~z
forces requires movement in the opposite direction.
"It is sometimes claimed," L.I. Brezhnev says in his report to the 26th CPSU
Congress, "that it is sufficient to increase wage supplements in Siberia, in the
Far East and in the northerr.. regions and people will not leave these places.
Supplements, of course, are necessary. However, the problem cannot be solved
in this manner alone. A person leaves, let us say, Siberia, most of ten not
because he doesn't like the cli~nate or the wages are too low but because it
is more difficult to find accomodation there or to put his child in a kindergarten
or because there are few cultural centers. That is why we are planning to speed
- up construction of living space and of the entire socio-cultural complex in '
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these regions during the current five-year plan, as well as improve the
supply of consumer goods to the population here."28
In recent years a number of works have appeared which contain a serious analysis
of migratory processes, their causes and factors, with consideration for Lenin iat
ideas. The fo.llowing authors have written works which should be .included in
this categorys T.I. Zaslavskaya, V.I. Perevedentsev and L,L. Rybakovskiy, etc.29
A majority of scholars correctly believe that the migratory currents, their
direction anci intensity are determined pri.marily by inter-regional differences
in the conditions of life and labor.
The passport and residence permit system is an important administrative-legal
regulator of migration. In this regard, the universal provision of passports
to the USSR population should contribute to the optimization of migratory
currents. Previously, a rural resident's desire to obtain a passport coul~"~.
be satisfied, as a rule, only if he moved to a city~
Contradictions between the individual's developmental level or needs and the
conditions for meeting these needs in a given location exert a large influence
on the migratory behavior of citizens.
Among other factors which, while influencing the level of comfo�rt, the state of
hPalth and the intensity of labor, affect migration, one can name natural-c limatic
demographic (age-sex structure of the population in a given region), communication
(knowledge of Russian as the language of intercourse between nationalities),
ethnic, psychological and other factors.
T.I. Zaslavskaya proposes dividing all the factors which influence the migration
of the rural population into three groups, taking as the basis the degree of their
governability: 1) ungovernable natural-geographic factors-conditions; 2) directly
ungovernable, but indirectly regulable factors-conditions--demographic, social,
ethnic, social-psychological; 3) directly regulable factors-regulators, which
include regional differences in the level of prices for goods and services,
the differences in wages and other sources of income, the volume of the housing
stock, the condition and se~vices provided to buildings, the size of capital
investment, etc. 30 It is thought that this ki.nd of classification of migration
factors according to the degree of governa~bility could well be applied not
only to migration of the rural population but also to migration in general.
The law may influence most effectively the third group of factors.
However, legal norms influence the second and even the first group. Specifically,
the labor, pension and other benefits which are granted to people who work in
regions with unfavorable climatic conditions may lessen the negative effect of
climatic factors.
The measures established by law to increase the welfare of the Soviet people
(increases in wages, pension and labor benefits, etc.) are sometimes introduced
not to the entire country all at onae, but rather stage by stage, beginning with
the regions havi.ng the most unfavorable cli.mate. It would be advisable to strengthen
the effect of this principle in law for the purpose of optimizing migration.
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A comparative analysis of the indicators of the population's living standards in
various areas, as well as an analysis of the direction and intensity af mi.gratary
outflow and ~nflux makes it possible to establish the following patternt
- territories which lose population because the number of those depar~ing exceeds
the number of those arriving are inferior in terms of all indicators for living
standards to those territories which have a positive balance of migration. In
those union republics which have a reduced intensity of migration the average
size of deposits to savings banks, trade turnover and the volume of household .
services is 25 percent greater than in republics which have a higher intensity
of population migration. Within the fraluework of the largest union republic,
the RSFSR, this pattern is easily traced on a regianal scales in Western Siberia,
which is losing population, all of the main indicators for the standard of living
are lower than in the Far East, which has a positive balance of migration.3l
In comparing the inc~me of kolkhoz members of the Non Black Earth Zone in the
postwar decade with the rate of the migratory exodus from the village, a clear
inv~rse r~lationship can be establisheds the lower the income, the higher the
r ate of departure. The extremely high emigration rate has led in the final
analysis to the depopulation of this region. The need for effective legal and
economic measures aimed at improving conditions in the Non Black Earth Zone
became obvious. An important role in the solution of this problem wa played
by the decree of the CC CPSU and the USSR Council of Ministers "Concerning Measures
for the Further Development of Agriculture in the Non Black Earth Zone of the ~
RSFSR," which stipulated a series of serious economic and legal measures, aimed
at ensuring a high rate of agricultural development in the Non Slack Earth Zone
and its infrastructure.32
Improving conditions in the Non Black Earth Zone, and especially improvi.ng the
demographic situation, requires improvements not only i.n the legislation but
also in the socio-economic policies with regard to the given region. This was
given serious attention in the decisions of the 26th CPSU Congress. The congress
emphasized the need for the Non BZack Earth Zone of the RSFSR to carry out as
rapidly as possible the construction of residential buildings, roads for cars,
social and cultural facilities and other public buildings.
The migratory activity of the population differs to a significant degree along
etl~mo-national lines o
The Russians, Belorussians, Ukrainians and the peoples of the Soviet Baltic
republics have the highest rates of migratory activity and the peoples of
Central Asia and the Caucasus have the lowest rates. There is a five-fold
difference in the highest indicator of migratory activity (Russians with 6.7 percent)
and the lowest (I.3 percent among the Turkmen ians and Uzbeks).34
An analysis of the 1959, 1970 and I979 census figures shows that a certain tendency can
be detected toward a change in the national structure of the population in the
union republics, a change i.n the direction of strengthening "national linkage."
In the majority of the union and autonomous republics tk~ere has been an i.ncrease
in the proportion of people of indigenous nationality. This process is explained
not only by differences in the natural increase i.n the indigenous and non-indigenous
population, but also to a certain degree by the nature of the migration.
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Am~~ng a majority of the indigenous nationalities there has been a reduction in
the proportion of persons residing outside "their own" republic. For example,
during the period between the two population censuses (1959-1970), the propo35ion
of Armenians residing outside the Armenian SSR fell from 56 to 38 percent.
The desire to live in one~s own republic can clearly be explained by a number
of reasons as well as by the fact *,hat representatives of the indigenous nationality
find it easier to improve their :;ocial status.* In nearly all the union republics
the proportion of people of indigenous nationality among undergraduate and graduate
students, scientific personnel, specialists with higher education, .management
level personnel, as well as among deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the union
republic has become greater than in the population at large, and the proportion
of the population of noni.ndigenous nationality has become smaller. At the same ti.me
the portion of nonindigenous population among industrial workers has become
significantly greater than in the population at large and the proportion of the
indigenous population has become smallero The RSFSR constitutes an exception;
here the proportion of indigenous nation~~ity among industrial workers is
greater than in the population at large.
The 26th CPSU Congress noted that the developmental dynamics of a large multi-
national state like the USSR give rise to many problems which require the careful
attention of the party. The composition of the pop ulation i.n the union republics
is multi.national. "It is natural," emphasized L.Io Brezhnev, "tha,t all the
national groups have a right to the necessary representation in their party and
state organs, given, it goes without saying, strict consideration of 'he ability
and the ideological-moral qualities of each person. In recent years there has
been a significant increase in the number of citizens of nonindigenous nationality
in a number of republics. These people have their own specific needs in the area
of languager culture and daily life. The central committees of the communist
~ parties of the republics, as well as the kraykoms and obkoms must delve~ore
deeply into these issues and propose ways to resolve them in good time.
The regulation of migration is carried out both on the national scale of the USSR as
well as within the framewo�rk of the union republics. The comprehensive management
of a territory, including its social and demographic development,can be easily pro-
vided for within the framework of a union republic which is small in area and
population such as the republics of the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Soviet Baltic
area. But as for the RSFSR and the Ukrainian SSR with their complex demographic
situation, their acample shows the need for the reorganization of territorial ~
management, in order that territories which are equivalent in their demographic and
socio-economic characteristics have equal rights in resolving issues of demographi~
and socio-economic developmento It would seem that in this regard the Western
Siberian economic region, and especially the Non Black Earth Zone, should have
much more, but certainly no less right than, for example, such union republics
as Kirghizia, Estonia and othexs. Incidentally, these regions do not have
their own territorial administration. This, clearly,is one of the results of
~r As so
ologi
al studies have shown, when young people born of mixed marriages
choose their nationality, they prefer the indigenous one, li.nking this to oppor-
tunities for social growth. See SOV. ETHNOGRAFIYA, 1969, No S, p 84.
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the fact that management of Lhe enormous territory of the RSFSR is far from perfect.
Concentrating the management of a broad range of problems at the very top of such
a large republic as the RSFSR abviously has exhausted itself to a very significant
degree.
The 26th CPSU Congress esnphasized that the organizational structures of government
will n~~ tolerate stagnation. They must be brought into line with changing economic
tasks.
The optimization of migration is .the process rf reducing demographic expenses
to obtain a balance of migrati~~, which is in accordance with the planned require-
ments of the national economy. The effective management of migration pr�ocesses
for purposes of optimizing them depends on the comprehensive consideration of
_ factors which influence migration,not only in the legal norms, and the solution
of orgaziizational issues, but also in the conduct of socio-economic and national
policy of the Soviet state.
In the light of what has been said, there is merit in the proposal of V.I. Pereveden-
- tsev concerning the need to develop indexes for the standard of living and
indexes for the living conditions of the population.40 Legal acts concerning
benefits for people working in certain regions must be applied with consideration
- for these indexes, which should be calculated regularly for various territories.
The decisions of the 26th CPSU Congress make it mandatory for the planning
organs to stipulate top-priority, preferential construction of livi.ng space
in regions with a shortage of labor resources. Implementation of these deci.sions
requires expansion of labor b2nefits and wag~ supplements in places with inadequate
labor resources; determined consistency in the introduction of labor, housing,
pension and other benefits and the increasing of wages according to regions,
taking into account the local demographfc situation; it also requires regional
adjustment of purchase price policy, tax and budget policy, etc. Further, the
greater the labor shortage in a region, the better will be the Tiving conditions
of the people theres the greater the inadequacies of the village's labor supply,
the faster will the village approach the city in terms of standard and conditions
of li�e; in labor-short regions the infrastructure must be developed at an
accelerated rate, etc.
The implementation of the 26th CPSU Congress decisions undoubtedly will
contribute to the rationalization of migratory flow.
In addition L~ the above-named measures aimed at regulating migration in various
regions, the congrzss set down a number of general tasks, the solution of which
will contribute to the optunizati.o~n of migratory processes on a national scale
of the entire USSR. They include:
overcoming the substantial differences between the city and the countryside,
bringing the labor payments of kolkhoz merabers closer to the wages of blue-
and white-collar workerss
improving the life of the population in all republics and rayons of the country)
balancing the existing and newly created jobs for workers with labor resourcesj
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ensuring fuller satisfaction of the population's needs in the neWly developed
regions with difficult natural conditions;
improving the regional regulation of wage.41
2. The effect of the law on labor resources
In his report to the 26th CPSU Congress L.I. Brezhnev sayss "In the 80�s an
attitude of thrift and economy toward labor resources is acquiring particular
significance. This is a complex matter requiring the resolu~~.on of many problems
of an economic, technical, social and educational nature."
The problem of labor resources has a great multitude of aspects, including
legal ones. Suff ice it to~say that a whole branch of law, labor law, is devoted
to aspects of labor re sourcesj they also come under legislative systems concerning
social insurance, social maintenance, health care, etc.
The examination here will consider mostly those aspects of the problem of labor
resources which are linked to one degree or another with demographic processes;
further, most of the attention will be devoted to issues for which the theoretical
and practical solution do not seem to be optimal. The link between labor resource
problems and migratory processes was studied above; for this reason primary
attention will be given to its links with other demographic characteristics of the
populations the birth rate, the age-s ex structure, etc., as well as the possible
legal effect on the optimization of quantitative and--in a lesser measure--qualitative
characteristics of labor resources.
The primary labor rights and obligations of citizens have found their embodiment
and further development in the Constitution of the USSR, the constitutions of the
union and autonomous republics, which contain a number of articles relating
to the legal regulation of this issue. The Soviet Constitution, which is a
genuine manifesto of liberated labor, guarantees to all citizens the right to work,
rewarded in accordance with its quantity and quality, the right to chose a
t rade, occupation or job in acoordance with one's vocation, abilities and
vocational training and education (Article 40). This right is ensured by
the socialist system of economic management, by the steady growth of production
forces, by free vocational instruction, by increases in labor skills and the
instruction for new specialists, and by the development of a system of vocational
orientation and job placement. The citizens' right to work is matched by their
corresponding obligation to labor conscientiously in their chosen area. According
to the constitution, evasion of socially useful labor is incompatible with the
principles of socialist society (Article 60).
The constitution declares that the Soviet state concerns itself with improving
the conditions and protectian of labor, with reducing and eventually eliminating
heavy physical labor (Article 21); it contributes to the erasing of differences
between mental and physical labor (Article 19); it sets as its goal the expansion
of real opportunities for applyi,tig the creative forces, abilities aa~d gifts of
its citizens for the all-around development of the personality (Article 20);
it carries out a policy of increasing.wages and real incomes of working people
on the basis of labor productivity (Article 23).
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The constitution guarantees suitable working conditions and the right to rest,
which is ensured by a work week which is not to exceed 41 hours, by paid vacations
which are granted annually, etc. (Article 41). The right to rest, health care
and housing create optimal opportunities to restore the ability of citizens to
Work and facilitate their active labor.
Labor legislation, in }~articular the Foundations of Legislation C oncerning Labor
and the labor Code, exerts a legal influence on people in order to serve the
interests of production, specifically, it contributes to the growth of labor
productivity, to the growth in the effectiveness of public production, and
to the strengthening of labor discipline. It also serves the .interests of the
employee by establishing a high level of working.conditions, comprehensive
protection of the labor rights of blue-and white- collar workers.43 For example,
Article 53 of the Foundations of Legislation Concerning Labor and the corresponding
articles in the labor codes place upon the administration the responsibility for
organizing correctly the labor of blue-and white-collar employees, of creating
all the conditions for the growth of labor productivity, for ensuring labor and
production discipline and for improving the conditions of labor and everyday life.
The rational use of labor resources is ensured by practically the entire system
of labor law norms, which are aimed at increasing labor productivity, strengthening
labor discipline and struggling against losses of work time.
The socialist economic system possesses all the necessary preconditions for the
most complete and effective use of society�s labor potential. In the years of
Soviet authority there has been a fundamental change in the composition and
quality of labor resourcesf there has been a dramatic rise in the level of their
education, both general and specialized, i.e., the level of vocational skills.
Unemployment was eliminated and the level of employment, especially of women,
has increased. The conditions of labor and its legal protection have chanped
unrecognizably. At present the Soviet Union is one of those countries which have a
low rate of industrial injuries. The legal position of the working person
has become completely different--he is the master of his own country who
possesses all rights and participates in the management of the affairs of state,
society and the labor collective.
At the same time new problems of labor resources have appeared; the 25th and 26th
CPSU congresses have pointed out that these problems have become worse.44
In the Ilth Five-Year Plan the growth of labor resources in the Soviet Union
is slowing down somewhat, and in the subsequent period it will even be reduced
over a large area of the country.
This can be explained mainly by the fact that beginning in the 80's the
working age population will receive reinforcements from young people born in
the 60's and the folloWing years, and their generation, as is we11 known, is
characterized by a low birth rate. ~
However, while the birthrate in the USSR as a whole has dropped, it has increased
in a number of republics= while the increase in the population in certain republics
has been reduced, it is growing in others, intensifying the problem of labor
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resources, inasmuch as their natural increase is especially high in the republics
with surplus labor resources and extremely low in thex~ublics with a labor
deficit. Table 2 shoW the dynamics of the ~,birthrate for three five-year plans
(the republics are in descending order for this indicator for the period I970-1974).
Table 2
Average Annual indicators for Birthrate of the Population in the Union Republics
(The level for 1955-1959 = 100)*
Republic 1960-1964 1965-1969 1970-1974
USSR as a whole 96 81 85
~~~ik SSR 126 157 185
Uzbek SSR 122 132 154
Turkmenian SSIt I21 126 140
Kirghiz SSR I13 124 140
Estonian SSR 100 96 Y10
Latvian SSR 102 94 I02
Azerb~i~an SSR 121 113 101
Kazakh SSR 111 97 100
Georgian SSR 107 96 95
Lithuanian SSR 103 93 93
Armenian S~R 106 89 89
Moldavian SSR 95 82 88
Ukrainian SSR 91 83 87
Belorussian SSR 91 74 73
RSFSR 88 67 71
*Source: Ryabushkin, T.V., Dadashev, A. 2. "Trudovyye resursy: effektivnost�
ispol'zovaniya" (Labor Resourcess Utilizatioi~ Effectiveness), Moscow, 1977, p 12.
The same number of 1 abor resources can have differing labor potential, depending
on the sex-age struc ture and vocational-skill parameters. In the republics with
a low birthrate the proportion of people i~ pre-work and working age is falling and
the proportion-of pre-pension and pension_age people is ri,si.ng. This i~ reflected
not only in the intensity of labor, but also in the loads which tne non-working
population impose an the working population, on the needed increases in the
social consumption funds. The differences in these indicators for the various
republics continue to grow.
The low birthrate in the large cities, especially in Moscow and Leningrad, i~ the
cause of a constant shortage of labor resources. The shortage is made up by
migrants, the so-called limited ones= the growth in their numbers creates a
number of additional problems of housing, as well as legal problems. All this
is evidence that without careful consideration of demographic characteristics
of the population it is impossible to compi~e plans for the economic and social
development of the Soviet state, for elaboration and cbnfirmation of the
Law Concerning the S tate Budget and a number of other legal acts.
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rutc urr l~lt~. uar. unLx
A reduction in the rate of natural increase of labor resources and the worsening
labor shortage over most of the USSR, especially in the RSFSR, resulting from
the reduction in the birthrate, non-rational migration, the growth in the
number and proportion of pensioners and work-aged persons who are stud,ping,
the reduction in the work week, the increases in vac.:tir,:. time~ etc. require a
search for additional sources of manpower, and the dev~lopment of organizational
and legal measures to reduce the shortage of labor resources.
To these measures may be added measur-es aimed att 1) increasi.ng the natural accretion
of labor. resources; 2) changing legislatively the limits of the working age;
3) development of legislation which contributes to bringing into public
production pension-aged people, as well as people engaged in housework
(in republics where the proportion of such people is high); 4) optimization of
migration; 5) reduction of manpower needs and more rational utilization of
manpower.
Just as the fall of the birthrate in the 60's will be reflected in the size
of labor resources in the 80's, the birthrate of the generation which is currently
in its .maturity determines the growth of population size and the labor potential
which our state will have in 15-20 years. Th~s is one more reminder of the close
ties between various demographic features of the population.
The fundamental means of legal influence on the natural increase of labor
resources in the future can be found in a system of legal and economic measures
which stimulate the~birthrate over most of the territory of the USSR, and espe-
cially i.n the republics which have an extremely low birthrate and a large
deficit of labor resources (RSFSR, the Ukraine, Latvia). The top-priority
i.mplementation of such measures i.n regions with a low natural increase in population
will be in line with the decisions of the 26th CPSU Congress concerning incentives
for raising the birthrate, taki.ng into account the demographic situation of the
region.45 ,
bcpanding the rights of working mothers by granting them additional leave for
pregnancy, childbirth and care of minor children, as well as expanding the
right to work part-time, etca undoubtedly will intensify the problem of labor
resources today, but without these measures the labor shortage of the future
cannot be eliminated,
The female work force is not merely one component of the labor resources, it is
a special part of them. This circumstance requires reflection in the law concerning
the foundations of economic and social planning, as well as in the plans for
economic and social development. At the present time the planning organs do
not compile special plans for the utilization of women's labor. It would seem
that it is essential to plan the use of womenrs labor in the national economy in
order to ensure the most rational possible distribution of workers within and
among economic sectors.
*In the last 20 years the average work week in industry has been reduced by 7,8
hours; leav~ time has been increased by 2,4 working days, and paid maternity leave
for women has been increased by 35 calendar days. As a result of these socio-legal
measures the annual fund of working time in industry alone has been reduced by
nearly 1 millic~n man years. See: Ryabushkin, T,V., Dadashev, A.Z."tlkas. soch.," p 12,
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Of course, certain difficulties arise when .planning w~men's labor. This is
expressed primarily tn the fact that one can speak only c~~r.ditionally about
the need for women's labor in individual production processes, ina.st~uch as
production does not does not experience a specific demand for women workers
in the majority of cases. For this reason the task of planning women's labor
co,nsists in discovering the best opportunity for applying it at any given
production sectors and in establisl~ing which part of the total demand for
labor resources in those sectors which permit female labor can be satisfied
by this application.
It would be useful to include in such plans issues concerning the distribution
of labor resources as well as measures related to their training and retraf.ning
with regard to char~giTg requirements of the national economy for women's labor.
Sociological-economic research should help with with this planning. It is
extremely important for plans to be backed up by a program of socio-domestic
measures inasmuch as they may contribute to changing the quality and quanity of
female labor.
Improving the legislation concerning women's labor consists of ensuring the
fullest possible correspondence between the nature and conditions of labor on
the one hand anc: the specific and psycho-physical characteristics of women on
the other hand; it must also provid~fl for optimization of labor conditions,
which make it possible to combine in the best way the labor in the public
sector with motherhood and other family obligations. ~
There is every reason to think about compilir.g a list or positions and occupatiot~~
which make pref.erential use of female labor. These lists can be compiled by
the soviets of people�s deputies with consideration for the demographic and
economic structure of a given region. Lists of thi.s kind, reconmended to
the administration of enterprises and institutions, could ease the lack of balance
in the utilization of male and female labor, rahich exists in certain regions.
For example, in the mining city of Vorkuta~ there is a shortage of manpower
in the mines at the same time that quite a few men are woxking in the service
sphere, where they could definitely be replaced by women,who have difficulty
finding work here.
A large influence on the size of labor resaurces, as well as on their quality,
is exerted by legislation concerning labor, social insurance, pensions,
health care, education, eta, and espQCially by the legal nortns which are
ai.med at increasing the level of material well-being, and of the physical
and spiritual development of citizens. We shall consic~er the most important
of these norms in relation to the quantity and quality of labor resources.
The e~ctent of labor resources is determined not by the size of the state's
, population, but rather by the number o� citizens of working age, which depends
on the upper and lower limits of working age,which are determined by law.
Article 74 of the Fundamental Legislation of the USSR 3nd of the union republics
concerning labor, defines the minimum working .age of Soviet citizens as 16, .
and in certain circumstances 15 years of age. The law prohibits people from
bringing into the sphere of labor activity those per,sons who have not reached
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working age. The lower limit of the working age was established in law
with consideration for the physical and intellectual level of adolescent
devetopment. ~
Today, in light of the process of acceleration and the labor shortage, there
have been calls in the literature, including the widely read periodic press,
and more and more frequent references to the need to expand .opportunities
to use the labor of adolescents who have reached their 15th birthday, and in
certain cases, those who have reached their 14th birthday. The authors of
these proposals argue that it would be advisable to use high sehool students
in their last years to work in the service sphere during school holidays and
during the year in certain circumstances, which would be strictly regulated by.
law,
The question of whether to use the labor of adolescents is not so much a
matter of the worsening labor shortage as it is one of how to increase the
role of labor education for adolescents, of making them acquainted with labor.
And it is the adolescents them selves. and their parents who are concerned
to have moderate participation ~y adolescents in the working worlda it is
they who often appeal to the committee on the affairs of minors to allow
a 14-year old to work but who are rejected because it is forbidden by law.
It should be remembered that adolescents, who for one reason or another have
quit school before the age of 16 and who cannot (by law) be accepted for work,
frequently swell the ranks of young offenders.
Thus, life frequently dictates the need for a reduction of the minimum
working age specified in the law.
The paradox is that this li.mit, which has remained in the law unchanged since
the adoption of the first Labor Code of 19I8, is in�fact being raised. A larger
and larger number of young men and women are starting their worki.ng lives af ter
they complete specialized secondary or higher education, i.e., when they are
between the ages of 19 and 23. From year to year there is an increase in the
number and proportion of the population of working age which is in school
Suffice it to say that during the period from 1959 through 1970 the number
doubled.46 The itnplementation of the 20 June I972 decree of the CC CPSU
and the USSR Council of Ministers "Concerning the Completion of the Transition
To Universal Secondary Education of Xouth and the Further Development of the
General Education School,"~~ which called for rnandatory 10-year education,
increased the proportion of working-aged people engaged in studies; this
reduced the extent of labor resources because with the start of compulsory
schooling at age seven, it could not be completed before the age of 17
and adolescents begin working later than the age stipulated in the Foundations
of Labor Legislation a~ the minimum working age.
In 1970, about 20 percent of eighth grade graduates (800,Q00 teenagers) went into the
labor force, but in I975 only 3 percent (less than 150,000) did. In 1975
97 percent af eighth grade gradu~tes continued their studies in general educa-
tion schools and in other educational instituti,ons which provide secondary
education.48
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Without calling into question the correctness and timeliness of introducing
, compulsory 10-year education, there are grounds for.doubting the wisdom of
increasing the minimum working age from 16 to 17. A resolution of the contra-
diction between the legally established miminum working age and the opportu:iities
to realize it can be found in amending the legal norm which establishes the
age at which compulsory education begins for school children.
As is well known, compulsory ins~ruction of children in the USSR began at age
eight until 1943. An 8 September 1943 decree of the USSR Council of Pebple's
Commissars introduced compulsory instruction of children beginning at age
seven, which continues to this day.49 The rapid growth of the intellectual
level of today's children, many of whom learn to read and write before they
start school, often in kindergarten, makes it possible to put on the agenda--
with the participation of educational and health care organs, of course--the
issue of whether to lower the age of mandatory schooling for children from
seven to six years of age, This kind of minimal school-starting age has
been established in many foreign countries, and in a number of states it has
even been reduced to five. If instruction is started at six, teenagers will
f inish a 10-year education at 16.
Shifting children to universal, compulsory schooling ~eginning at age six
was discussed at the 26th CPSU Congress. "Create the preconditions for a
gradual transition to instruction of ehi ldren beginning a t age six in preparatory
classes of general education schools,"SOthe Aasic Directions note.
To a certain degree the extent of labor resources and in even greate~ measure
their quality depends on the upper, maximum limit of the age bracket which includes
those capable of working, or more accurately, the working age.* We have every
reason to be proud of the fact that Soviet legislation stipulates a pension age
which is lower than thaL in the capitalist countries; moreover, it is lower
for both men and women. Soviet pensioners are very y~ung. In acco rda.n.ce
with Article 15 on the establishment and payment of state penisons51, the
old-age pension for men begins at age 60 and for women at age 55. For blue-
and white-collar workers who are engaged in heavy work or work under harmful
conditions, the pension is granted under preferential circumstancess men
receive it at age 50-55 years and women at 45-50 years:the pension is also
granted on prefer,ential terms to women who have given birth to and raised
five or more children (Article 16 of the Regulations). The pension is
granted for life, regardless of the the person's ability to work (Article 23).
Receipt of a pension does not mean the loss of the ability to work, but
rather the acquisition of the right to lead a restful life, while receiving
material support from the public funds.
Improvements in pension provisions and reductions in the pension age have as
their result a sharp increase in the number of pensioners, and this, naturally
cannot help but be reflected in the extent of labor resources,
~ "
B, Ts. Urlanis suggests that the pEnsion age should be coasidered to be the
non-taorking age, without calling it the "incapable of work" age because most
pensioners are people who are capable of work.
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~ie have in our country the means to give a job not only to all persons of
working age but also to pensioners~ Pensioners can be and are a substantial
source of reinforcements for the labor force inasmuch as many of them are
capable of working, do actually work and can work. According to data from
the I970 census, 4.5 million people (1,7 million men and 2.8 million women)
were continuing to work beyond pension age.in the USSR. According to the
calculations of B. Ts. Urlani~, Ebased on tables of life expectancy) men
receive pensions for an averape of 17 years at the present time and women
an average of 25 years.
Improvements in the social welfare system and the legal position of pensioners
in the USSR contribute to ever greater participation in the public production
process on the part of people who reach pension age. This isa substantial
source of labor reso~irces for the national economy and it will facilitate the
easing of the labor shortage, since the largest proportion of pensioners live
in the republics with labor shortages. In 1965, 12.5 percent of old-age pensioners
were employed in public production, while in 1975 the figure was already 24.3 per-
cent. Of these people 90 percent received a full pension as well as their wages.
Fifty-four percent of employees who were granted a pension on general grounds
continued to wo k, while 72 percent who were granted a pension under preferential
terms did" so.'~2
The number of working pensioners can be significantly increased by improving
the legal norms which regulate the conditions under which pensioners are
employed: by expar_ding the right to retain all or part of the pension without
remuneration for sick days ; the right to work a shortened day or a reduced
work week; the right to work at home; special rules to protect the labor of
pensioners, taki,ng into account their age and health status. Important incentives
for enlisting the labor of pensioners were set dowr_ i.n the 11 September 1979
_ decree of the CC CPSU, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet and the USSR
Council of Ministers "Concerning Material Incentive Measures to Encourage Pensioners
to Work in the National Economy."53 It stipulates that working pensioners shall
reta ir~ all or part of their pensions, as well as the most favorable possible
~aorking conditions for people of pension age; it will also substantially expand
~ensioners� interest in continuing to work in the national economy upon reaching
pension age. In particular, the employee according to the decree, has the
opportunity, upon reaching pension age to continue working in his old position,
while supplementary work seniority, oUtained after reaching pension age,
gives him the right to a larger pensi.on when he does retire. Under this
system a person remains in his own labor collective and continues to perform
his usual work.
Specialized research has shown that the reduction in work capacity of middle-
aged people is linked not so much with a reduction in their skills so much as
with a reduction in the intensity of their work. For this reason the legislation
established ~hat in order to use pensioners' labor more effectively enterprises
have the right to employ people in the older age groups part-time.
In addition to material incentives to recruit the labor c+f pensioners, it is
advisable to establish in law moral incentives as well; the practice of finding
jobs for pensioners can be improved.
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A substantial source of ~einforcements for the labor force can result from
efforts to recruit other people, especially women employed at home, for
public production. This problem, like many other similar problems, requires
a regional approach to its solution. In the republics which have a low birth-
:ate and, consequently, a low natural increase of labor resources, nearly all
Won~n who are of working age are engaged in studies or in public production.
It is obvious that here a certain reduction in the rate of employment makes
sense in orde~r to increase the birthrate and that it would be advisable to
incorporate tt~is into the plan for the economic and social development of
the republic (region).
In the republics of Central Asia and Trans-Caucasia, as the population census
- has shown, there is a high proportion of women who work inside the home; moreover,
in the Central Asian republics there is a tendency for this proportion t~ grow.
For.example, in the Turkmen SSR the number of people engaged in homemaking.
amounted to 16.8 percent of the total labor resources in 1975, in comparison
with 14.4 percent in 1971. And by the end of 1976 from 16 to 24 percent of all
labor resources in KirgYn~zia, Turkmenia, Georgia, Armenia, Ta~ikistan ~~d
Azerbaijan were engaged in domestic and personal secondary economy. The
leaders of Gosplan in certain republics, Tajikistan in particular, in order
to save themselves from the necessity of p erforming complex work on the
utilization of existing labor resources, excluded mothers with many children
-(and in the Central Asian republics the majority of women have many children)
from the indicators for labor resources, inc easing in this way the level
of employment of the republic's population.5~
Freeing women who work inside the home and recruiting them for.public production
presupposes the solution of an entire complex of socio-economic and legal
prob7.ems, including: expansion of women's right to work a reduced day or
reduced work week, the right to work at home and improvement of vocational
education. Recruiting women for public production requires the expansion
of the network of preschool institutions for children and improvements in
their operations. In his report to the 26th CPSU Congress L.I. Brezhonev
specifically pointed to the need for expansion of this network and improvements
in the operat~gns of preschool institutions and schools with after-school
daycare, etc.: in order to improve opportunities for combining productive
work for women and motherhood. The resolution of this problem is urgent and
in those republics with hi.gh levels of female employment, the number and quality
of children's preschool facilities is far from answering the needs of all families.
Economists have made proposals worthy of attention regarding the use of WZ and
tekhnikum students who are in school full-time, as well as older high-school
~tudents, in the service industries, especially in busy periods. The labor
legislation in this case should be supplemented by legal norms which determine
the conditions for the use, duration and payment of such labor,
It is thwght that the reserves for reduction in the losses of work time due
to temporary work disability have not yet been exl:austed. In this regard
it is difficult to overestimate the significance of Article 42 of the 2977
USSR Constitution, which establishes the right of citizens to health protection.
The constitution calls for the development and improvement of public health
and safety measures, the implementation of broad preventive measures,
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rvn urr i~irw u~~, v~vi.i
the development of scientific investigations aimed at preventing and lowering
disease rates and at ensuring that citizens have a long, active lite.
There are grounds for agreeing with V.N. Danilenko on the inadvisability of the
legislatively established procedure for granting unpaid leave for.inability to
work due to domestic trauma (five days) and abortion (10 days)o A'certificate
~ of illness should be the only document which provides evidence of temporary
inability to work and freedom from work.
At a ti.me when the increase of labor resources is mini.mal, it is essential to
reduce the labor deficit primarily through improvements in the rationality and
utilization efficiency of existing resources. For this reason the 26th CPSU
Congress set as one of the main tasks the raising of labor use effi~~ency and
set out an entire complex of ineasures aimed at achieving this end.
Saving labor is the most important~aspect of the rational use of labor; this
saving may take such forms as combi.ning trades, performing the duties of absent
employees, reducing the number of personnel while increasing prod~ction indi-
cators, operating several machines simultaneously, establishing labor norms for
hourly employees, eliminating rushes and slow downs in production and others.
All these measures are being carried out in order to save human labor, and
to increase the output of every employee, having created for him the conditions
and opportunities for doing the work of several employees.
Let us examine more concretely certain of the forms of labor savings and the
effect of the law on them. The combining of trades provides significant labor
savi.ngs; how2ver, it has not yet become widely used. One of the reasons for this
is the inadequacy of the legal regulation. The combining of trades is still the
object of. strict legal regulation. Before 1965 the comb ining of trades was
permitted only by the S tate Committee on Labor and the All-Union Central
Trade-Union Council; subsequently this right was passed to the enterprises.
But even now, if an organization does not enjoy the rights of an enterprise,
then introducing the procedure far combining trades requires permission from
the USSR ministry or the Council of Ministers of the union republic. Rather
substantial limitations on combining trades exist for engineering and technical
personnel and other white-collar employees. Under certain circumstances, com-
bining trades may result in unfavorable consequences for the employee, for
example, it may result in loss of the right to a preferential pension for old-age.60
All these facts provide evidence of the need to improve the legal norms which
regulate the opportunity to combine trades, and further, the 26th CPSU Congress
pointed directly to the fact that one of the conditions for ensuring the growth
of employees wages would involve improving sk.ills and combining trades.61
Legal norms aimed at stimulating labor contribute to increasing labor effective-
ness and labor savings; they inc.lude supplements and bonuses on top of wage
rates and scales for. combining occupations by scientific and technical
personnel and other white-collar workers, for simultaneous operation of
more than one machine, for the performance of duties of absent workers and
other incentives for increasing the efficiency of human labor and saving it.

_7
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Labor effectiveness depends largely on norming the work. Labor law is called
upon to consolidate the procedur.~ for evtabltAh~n~ ar?~i rpvt.pwin~ thp r~arm~
for labor, which would be beneficial to the enterpriees, the employees and the ;
stateo Although the existing legislation grants to the enterprise suffici~ntly
broad rights to review labor norms, these rights are still not utilized to
the fullest extent.62
Freeing manpower by in creasing labor productivity is one powerful way to
optimize the use of labor resources. One of the legal methods for resolving
this problem is to put into law norms which stimulate the concern of enter -
prises and institutions in freeing manpower as a r~sult of technical progress
and the scientific organization of labor.
It is still not uncommon for enterprises to be interested in hidden surplus~s
of manpower because inadequate labor intensity on the part of employees in a
number of sectors makes it possible to produce a redestribution of manpower
within the enterprise which is insupportable from the economic as well as the
legal point of view. This is one of the reasons for the slow dissemination
of the Shchekinskiy method of operating enterprises, which has proved its
effectiveness: 326 enterprises in the USSR which operate according to the
Shchekinskiy method have increased the volume of output which they r~~n produce
while lowering the total number of industrial-production personnel. 3
Two factors will contribute to the broader application of this method: ths
legal establishment of the conditions for its use and the clarification
of the functions of the appropriate ministries and departments i.n introducing it.
Qn April 11 1978 the State Comtnittee on Labor and Social Questions of the
USSR Council of Ministers, USSR Gosplan, the USSR Ministry of Fi.nance and the
All-Union Central Trade Union CounGil approved the Procedure for the Application
of the Shchekinskiy Method of Improving Labor Organization and Material Incen-
tives.64
However, ~his document does not resolve many uaportant issues. It is inevitable
that i.n addition to general problems, more specific problems will arise. For
, example, who should ensure job placement fQr citizens who have been let go ?
Clearly, the resolution of this problem should come under the jurisdic#ion .
of the local organs for the use of labor resources, who should be given
the opportunity to learn i.n good time about the number of employees being
laid off, their education, vocational training, age, sex, conditions for
transfer to another job, etc.
As a result of the fact that la~id-off workers, both blue- and white-collar, can-
not always be placed in jobs in the same field or requiring the same skills,
it is necessary to have legal guarantees they will be provided for materially
not only while they are bei.ng placed in jobs but also during a period of
necessary retraining. It is obvious that there must be discussion of how to
organize a centralized system for the training and skill upgrading of,laid-off
workers and to determine the authority of the various state organs in resolving
this problem.
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L Vl\ Vl l' il+l~aL U~1: V1~L1
It is advisable to establish more concretely in the law i.ncentives for laying
off employees, and specifically to stimulate the material interest of the labor
collective in freeing manpower by granting greater rights to directors of .
enterprises and institutions, to the heads of assembly lines and department
he~tls in the distribution of obtained wage savin~s to other members of the collec-
tive. In order to limit the growth of the number of blue- and white-collar
workers employed in oblasts which are experiencing an acute labor shortage,
the oblispolkoms should be granted the right to establish by process of
elimination the maximum luaits for the number of employees for enterprises
located within the oblast.
The decisions of the 26th CPSU Congress are aimed at this kind of approach to
the problem. They say: "In the European part of the USSR and in the Urals
the further development of industry should be accomplished mainly without
increasing the number of employees."65
Reducing the number of people employed in agriculture would help to free
agricultural enterprises from functions which are not natural for them,
including the provi sion of material and technical supplies, the sale of
products, c.,nstruction, re p~r of equipment, etc. These functions would be
transferred to the appropriate sectors of the national economy (to industry,
transport, trade, etco),
According to data from Gosplan USSR the number of blue- a.nd white-collar workers
in total for the plans of enterprises exceeds the estimated by 1.5-2 million
people; this creates a formal shor tage of manpower and i.ncreases labor turnover66
(one of the forms of nonrational migration). The need arises not only for more
careful planning, but possibly.for introducing legal responsibility for overstating
the number of blue- and white-collar workers.
~The problem of increasing the effectiveness of labor resource utilization is
directly linked to the rationalization of the use of working tune. Many enter-
prises and organizations still have large losses of working titne due to
infractions of labor discipline, and the participation of blue- and white-collar
workers in meeti.ngs, study sessions, sports competitions during working hours.
Not the least of those factors which i.nfluence the violation of labor discipline
is drunkennesso About half of the absenteeism and other infractions of working
conditions at enterprises are the result of a� predilection for alcohol. According
to the data from a number of sociological investigations, labor productivity
at enterprises is reduced by 20-30 percent on Monday after holidays and
paydays. Total elimination of drunkenness would increase labor productivity
by about 10 percent.6~ A 19 Jun.e 1972 ukase of the Presidium of the RSFSR
Supreme Soviet "~oncerning Measures to Increase the Struggle Against Drunkenness
and Alcoholism"68 and corresponding ukases of the presidiums of the Supreme
Soviets in the other union republics grant to enterprises broad rights to
combat this evil. However, by no means do the management and public organizations
in all places use to the fullest extent possible the means granted to them
for influencing people who abuse alcoholic beveragesa One way to resolve
this issue is to improve the legal norms which regulate labor conditions, as
we11 as the ways in which they operate.
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A serious obstacle to the rational use of existing labor resources is personnel
turnover, which results in the loss of a large number of man-days. An importar?t
role i.n keeping personnel is played by the public personnel departments, which
work with the trade unions to eliminate individual reasons for dismissalo Lacal
legal acts, adopted by management and FZhIIC ~actory-plant or local committee7
are aimed at reducing personnel turnover; they include, for exatnple, a collective
agreement containing a special section on improving labor con ditions and a
number of other legal acts. In order to reduce personnel turnover it is
advisable to extend to workers and white-collar employees the right to
supplements for length of service, beginni.ng with'three-years of uninterrupted
tenure at one enterprise or organization; moreover,~it is to be taken into
account not only when paying the yearly bonus payment. For the same purpose,
and also to reduce the time spent on job placement for citizens it is advisable
to create a single information-inquiry system regarding the needs of enter-
prises and organizations for manpower; this system would use modern means of
communication and information processing. In short, it is necessary to have a
system of legal measures, which include improvement in the entire complex of
socio-economic conditions and a stronger role for the labor collectives in
the struggle to increase personnel stability and reduce staff turnover.
Other social factors also have an important role to play in keeping personnel
at their positions. For example, one of the reasons for personnel turnover,
especially in labor-short areas, is dissatisfaction with housing or social
conditions, or public facilities, this often results from delays in i.mnlementing
plans for the development of the infrastructure. The 25th CPSU Congress
noted that not all enterprise managers gave the necessary attention to improving
living and working conditions of blue- and white-collar workers. "It is
necessary," said LoI. Brezhnev, "to provide strict monitori.ng to ensure that
resources for the social development of enterprises, cities and villages is
used exactly as specified, fully and withi.n the established time period.
Local reports on the opening of new industrial facilities usually do not
indicate what has been done for those who will work there, that is, how much
housing has been built, how many kindergartens, libraries and dispensaries
there are. Let us agree to consider such reports as operational only if the
program of housing and public construction specified by the plan for that
facility has been fulfilled as well."69
Another important task is the search for effective legal measures capable

_ of preventing ministries and agencies from allowing delays in the opening and
operation of housing, personnel training facilities, children�s facilities
and other social and public facilities relative to the deadlines for the
opening of production facilities. Another step which would contribute to a
reduction in personnel turnover and an easing of the labor shortage would be to
grant to.oblast organs the authority to veto the construction (at any stage)
and development of industrial enterprises within their oblast, if this con-
struction and development is not accompanied by the appropriate development
of the infrastructure. At present not one single enterprise receives
permission for construction (the ispolkom does not give permission to obtain
the land) if the plan does not include measures for development of the infra-
structure. But it is well know.?.i that ministries and agencies, orice they have
obtained approval for the plan, often throw all their strength behind the
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fulfillment of the plans for the construction of the production unit, without
giving the necessary attention to the plans for the development of the infra-
structure. Gra~ting the right of veto to the ispolkoms will undoubtedly
play an important role under such circumstances in ensuring the fulfillment
of the plans for socio-cultural and residential-public service construction
in a given area. This proposal is completely in accordance with the idea
expressed in the constitution--of strengthening the role of the local soviets
and of expanding their rights.
With regard to realization of this constitutional idea, sup.port should be
given to a proposal, mentioned in the press, to the effect that the oblast
soviet should be granted the right to include in its budget up to 10 percent
of the above-plan profits from enterprises and economic organizations which
come under union and republic jur~sdiction; these funds would be used to
expand the socio-cultural construction in the oblast, including the countryside.~~
On the one hand, this right will increase the interest of the local soviets
in increasing the thrift, effectiveness,the profitability and growth of profits
made by enterprises and o~ganizations located within the area of the soviet,
and, on the other hand, it will e~cpand the soviets' potential to develop the
infrastructure, which, in turn, will lower the outflow of migrants and ease the
labor shortage.
A proposal by M.I. Piskotin concerning expansion of the rights of local~~ies to
ensure the comprehensive development of the territory deserves support.
It is necessary to relieve the top of the need to consider issues which can
be resolved locally; this is particularly applicable to the problem of
preparing and distributing persoruiel.
The literature contains frequent references to the fact that personnel turnover
and non-Yational migration can be the result of disproportionate, unbalanced
development of cities with an overwhelming number of "male" or "female" enter-
prises, cities of textile workers, for example, who are usually women. It is
clear that that there is now a need for legislation to make it mandatory for
ministries and departments which are building enterprises of this kind to
link their construction plans to the demographic situation in the republic
or the rayon of construction, ensuring opportunities for the optimal use of '
both male and female labor.
On 4 October 1980 Gosplan USSR approved the methodological directives on the
development of the system for the development and distribution of production
forces, Which calls for the siting of production forces with consideration
for labor resources based on demograp~c calculations.72
The turnover of agricultural personnel can be explained by the effect of various
economic and legal factors, which at first glance have no relation to this
phenomenon. As an example one can cite the norms which establish the purchase
prices for various agricultural products. If the price for a crop which is
dominant in a given area is not high enough to compensate for the expenses of
production, this is inevitably reflected in the incomes of farms and workers.
Under certain conditions a faetor of this kind may become a sufficiently strong
stimulus for the migration of working people to other regions of the country
which are more favorable in this regard.
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The need to implement measures to keep personnel in their jobs and to lower
the turnover of manpower were noted in the decisions of the 26th CPSU Congress.~
The non-rational distribution of labor resources throughout the national
economy constitutes a serious problem. For exatnple, a significant portion of
the young people in the x~p ublics of Central Asia and Tran~Caucasia remains
to work in agriculture, where there are even without these people reserves
of manpower, at the same time that the shortage.of industrial workers in these
areas, especially in the republics of Central Asia, is eased due to newcomers
from regions which are experiencing inadequate labor resources.
Naturally,regional problems of labor resources, like other demographic problems,
must be solved in a differentiated manner. In particular, the easing of the
shortage of labor resources requires the elaboration of economic and legal
norms, which ensure an accelerated rate of socio-economic development for
- those regions, which are short of working hands, in order to ensure that
the level of wages, the opportunities to increase income as well as improve
living conditions are no worse in the labor-short regions than they are now
but are rather higher than they are ~ the labor-surplus regions. For this
reason the 26th CPSU Congress decisions called for the introducti~~ of
- rayon coefficients for the wages of blue- and white-collar workers ; with
regard to the Non Black Earth Zone they pointed to the need to build at an
accelerated pace residential buildings, car roads, socio-cultural and
public service facilities.~s
Among the top-priority economic-legal measures which are capable of optimizing
the demographic situation in labor-short regions, one can name the intro-
duction of preferential tariffs for transportat ion, everyday and public
serivices, supplements for wages depending on length of service, and forced
construction of residential accomodatione The question of hiPher norms for
the proportion of profits to be allotted for socio-cultural measures and the material
incentive fund in given regions must be studied. In short, the greater the
shortage of labor there is in a region or union republic, the higher must be
the rate of socio-economic development incorporated into the program,
In this~regard it is difficult to agree with the Scientists from the Uzbek
SSR, who suggest that the accelerated rate of socio-economic development must
not only be retained in the labor-surplus regions of Central Asia, it must.
even be increased. They see the only opportunity for employing the rapidly
growing population of Central Asia in programs to increase the number of jobs,
especially in the villages of Uzbekistan, where the size of the population is
growing with particular speed, and they conclude that "the rate of economic
growth in Uzbekistan will continue to be rapid in the future."76
In this case the authors have digressed from the constitutional provision
that the USSR economy constitutes a single national economic complex, which
encompasses all the sec tors~ of production, incl uchng labor resources within
the country (Article 16). Spending enormous amounts of capital investment
on the creation of a large number of new jobs just to employ the labor-surplus
population of certain regions while there are labor shortages in other regions
is at the very least inadvisable.
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r~ux ur�r�lc~w U~~; UNLY
The reduction in the quantitative growth of labor resources can and must be
compensated for by an improvement in their quality, by a general increase in
the level of skills, and by improved preparation for socially useful work by
young people. Improving the level of education and skills not only compensates
for a reduction in the quantitative increase in the population, it also eases
social migration, the transition from one social group to another. Further, it
should be kept in mind that in social migration, as in territorial migration,
it is possible to have non-rational trends, for example the transition of
an engineer or research officer into blue-collar workers because of inadequacies
in the norms which regulate payments for labor.
The foundations for the legal regulations to increase ~he level of education and
skills of the population, to improve the quality of labor resources are estab-
lished in the norms of constitutional law. The constitution contains a number
of articles which provide for the development of general and specialized
education of the population. The i.mportance of these articles is indisputable
as a result of the urgency of the qualitative aspects of the development of
labor resources, aspects which have grown under conditions of the scientific-
technical revolution. This applies primarily to the constitional provision for
growth in the level of the general and vocational education of the population.
The constitution establishes the right of citizens to receive an educatione
this is ensured by free tuition for all types of education including higher
education, as well as by the implementation of uni~ersal, compulsory education
at the secondary level for y~nung people, and by the broad development of
vocational-technical, specialized secor~dary and higher education on the basis
of an organic link between instruction and life or production; by the development of
correspondence and night-school education, by the granting of state stipends
and benefits to students; by free school textbooks, by the opportunity to receive
school instruction in one's native language and by the establishment of the
conditions for self education (Article 45).
If by the term education we understand not only systematic instruction, oriented
toward mastering a certain body of laiowledge, but also the upbringing of inembers
of society the acquisition by them of certain skills, habits and norms of
behavior,7; then it should be acknowledged that not only Article 45, but other
articles of the Constitution as well, have a direct relation to the right of
citizens to receive an education. For example, Article 40, which declares
the right of citizens to labor, indicates that this r~ght is ensured by free
vocational education, by measures to raise labor skills and i.nstruction
for new specialists, by the development of a system of vocational orientation.
Article 46 declares the right of citizens to enjoy the achievements of culture,
and emphasizes that this right is ensured by universa7, access to the treasures
of domestic and world culture which are held by the state and social funds; by
the development of cultural-educational institutions, television and radio,
book publishing and the periodic press, by the network of free libraries, by
the expansion of cultural exchanges with foreign countries. '
The constitution guarantees to citizens the freedom of scientific, technical
and artistic creation; this is ensured by the widespread development of
scientific research and work to invent and improve new production methods,
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as well as the development of literature and art (Article 47). These articles
testify to the constitutional guarantees of free and comprehensive spiritual ,
and intellectual development of the individual and people as a whole.
In addition to the constitution, the legal norms concerning education, both
general as well as vocational, are contained in legislation conern ing public
education and in labor legislation. For example, Article 2 of the Fundamental
Legislation Concerning Labor declares the right of blue- and white-collar
workers to free vocational training and and skill upgrading; articles 84 and
85 call for a broad system of benefits for employed students; this contributes
to a great savings in human labor; articles 184-200 of the Labor Code of the
RSFSR provide.blue- and white-collar workers with the conditions to obtain
theoretical, specialized economic knowledge and knowledge of other types.
Every year the .ranks of the employed population are increased by people
with an ever higher level of education. In 1959, the average worker had
attended six years of school, while in 1970 this indicator had increased to
8.4 years, and in a number of industrial sectors this indicator was approaching
10 years among the workers in certain some i~?portant fields.78
In his report to the 26th CPSU Congress L.I. Brezhnev emphasized that at present
three-fourths of the workers have a secondary (complete or incomplete) or
- higher education, and that there has been significant improvement in the vocational
training o~ the younger generation of the working class.79
At the present time a good system has developed for the training and upgrading of
the skills of personnel employed at many industrial enterprises, in construction
and agriculture. Schools have been established to teach advanced work methods,
and they enroll about 3 percent of the total number of industriai workers; a
significant role is also played by courses to teach workers allied tradeso
The system of vocational instruction for personnel is of great interest;
it opens up for young people the prospects of growth, and it contributes to
the stabilization of personnel,
With the introduction of compulsory IO-year education the role of the school
in the labor upbringing of young people has increased, The 22 December 1977
decree of the CC CPSU and the USSR Council of Ministers "Concerning Further
Improvement in the Instruction and Upbringing of Pupils in General Education
Schools and Their Preparation for Work"$~ points out the need for a decisive
turn around by the secondary school toward labor upbringing and education, to
the formation of an informed attitude toward the choice of a vocation by
young people and toward the mastery of work skills in the chosen field of work.
The strengthening of programs to train and orient young people vocationally
while they are still in school, as stipulated by this decree, has great
significance inasmuch as the overwhelming majority of school graduates
go to work.
The proposal of S.A. Ivanov should meet with agreement; he refers to the need
to improve certain legal norms, which regulate the vocational training and
retraining of personnel. According to existing legislation, for example,
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workers who have finished production training, including those at evening
vocational and tectmical schools, and who have attained the necessary skill level
are offered work in accordance with the qualification obtained and the rank
accorded (See 186 of the RSFSR Labor Code). But for a worker who has completed
higher education or specialized secondary education while working, the
qualificati,onwhich. was obtained can only be taken into account for advancement
within the service (Article 83 of the Fundamentals of Legislation Concerning
Labor), and this can hardly be justified.
Speeding up the process of raising the educational level of the population
presupposes a need to improve the structure of the training for specialists
~ by bringing this training more in line with the personnel needs of the
- national economy and the region (in cases where the training is not conducted
in Russian). In particular, the literature contai.ns references to the
fac t that Soviet engi,neers, the total number of which is more than three-fold
greater than the number in the USA (wh~.le the output of engineers is five-
fold greater than in the USA)82, spend 3A to 60 percent of their working time
on duties which do not require higher or sometimes even secondary education.83
As a result, the time and resources spent on training engineers do not entirely
justify themselves. There is a similar situation with highly qualified
specialists in other fields. However, sometimes engineering functions are
brought down to a level at which the people dealing with them do not have
engineering or .any special - training at all, and this substantially holds
back the development of tech~ical progress. Both are typical instances of
non-rational social migration. This takes place fr~quently because there
are many unresolved problems in wage and salary issues.
While there is a shortage of labor resources,it is not rational to spend the
resources and extended time period on training an engineer and then use him
as a technician or worker. The legal norms which regulate the use of highly--
qualif ied specialists must be improved by defining more clearly the conditions
under which highly-qualified specialists must perform work in all cases which
is appropriate to their education. The specialist must not only possess the
knowledge, but must apply it.* The law must establish the criteria for the
limits to be observed in applying the labor of employees in ~ given profession
_ dependi.ng on the level of their training. It is essential to increase the
legal responsibility of the management.of.enterprises, institutions and
organizations for the utilization of personnel in,accordance with their
education.
Now, when illiteracy has been elimiated in our country and man datory complete
secondary education has been introduced, the number of specialists with higher
education per capita is an important indicator of the qualitative development
of the population in the USSR and in its constituent republics. In 1970
the number of persons with higher education increased (in comparison with 1939)
5o3-fold in the USSR, including 4.9-fold in the RSFSR, 5-fold in the Ukrainian SSR
*As M.Io Ska~�zhinskiy writess "A person who is trained as an engineer but does not
perform the duties of an engineer, inevitably loses his ~kills; research has
established that every year he loses approximately 10 X oF his skills." See
Skarzhinksiy, M.I:'Kvalifikatsiya i trud inzhenera; p. 80,
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8.2-fold in the Turknienian SSR, 9-fold in the Uzbek SSR, 9.7-fold in the
Ta~ik SSR, and 11.7-fold in the Kirghiz SSR.84 If the union republics are
arranged on a descending scale of the number of persons with a higher
education am~ong the urban population, the picture will be as followss
1970 for every 1,000 persons above the age of ten with higher education: 5
Republic Urban Rural
Georgian SSR 121 27
Armenian SSR 89 16
Azerbaijan SSR 70 14
Belorussian SSR 66 12
Moldavian SSR 66 11
Latvian SSR 65 14
Estonian SSR 63 18
~Jkrainian SSR 63 . 11
Uzbek SSR 62 18
Lithuanian SSR 61 8
RSFSR 61 14
Kirghiz SSR 58 19
Kazakh SSF S1 17
Tajik SSR 51 14
Turkmen SSR 48 17
The RS SR, which in prerevolutionary times had one of the highest levels of
education, n~w has one of the lowest rates despite the fact that it has within
its area the USSR Academy of Sciences, numerous scientific-research institutes
of national significance, as well as W2's which train specialists with
higher education for all the union republics. It is curious that the 1970
all-union census data show that the proportion of city dwellers over 60
who had higher education is high in the RSFSR: only the Georgian~and Armenian
republics exceeded the level of the RSFSR for this indicator. With each
younger generation the RSFSR is giving way to a larger number of republics,
and it is in last place for the proportion of y~oung people in the 20-29
year age bracket who have higher education, leaving behind by an i,zsignificant
margin only the Ukrainian and Kirghiz republics.86 According to data from
the 1979 all-union census, the number of people with secondary or higher
education per capita of the employed population is lower than the union-wide
indicator in the RSFSR, the Baltic republics, the Belorussiait and the Moldavian
republics, while the republics of 1~ans~aucasia and Central Asia are above
the national indicator.8~ The level of higher education is higher for the
indigenous population than it is for the non-indigenous.
The figures cited above provide evidence of the effectiveness of the benefits
and privileges established by the state and by the law to ensure a rapid rate
of socio-cultural development in previously backward peoples. But at the
same time they speak of the need which exists under present conditior,s t~
observe very strictly the constitutional principle of equal rights of citizens
among all spheres of economic, social, political and cultural life,
regardless of nationality, as well as the constitutional provision that a
union republic is the state of all the nationalities and ethnic groups that
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1
populate it and that the USSR embodies the unity of the entire Soviet people,
and brings together all the nationalities and ethnic groups for the joint
building of communism. It is important to avoid the threat of the creation of a
neW inequality between nationalities.
The territorial distribution among the regions and union republics of specialists
~ith higher education is not adequate to the development requirements of
the economic regions. Regiona-such a8 the Western Siberia
and Sastern Siberia, which are important from the viewpoint of economic
potential,ha~ve proved to be provided with specialists possessing higher
education at a rate which is~one-half that of the TYanscaucasian economic
rayon.
A change in certain legal norms which regulate relations in the sphere of public
education would contribute to the optimization of migratory currents and to
the more rational use of labor resources, In particular, attention has been
devoted Erequently to the fact that the use of surplus labor from the villages
of Central Asia is complicated by the language barrier, the inadequate
knowledge of the Russian language. The Found ations of Legislation of the
USSR, and the union republics concerning public education, which was adopted
in 1973, contains Article 20, entitled "Language of Instruction," which sayss
"Pupils in the general education school are ; granted the opportunity to
receive instruction in their native language ~r in the language of another
people of the USSR. Parents or people substituting for ther~, have the right
to choose for the children according to their wishes a school with the cor-
responding language of instruction. In addition to the language of instruction,
pupils, if th8y desire (�emphasis mine--G.L.) may study the language of ancther
USSR people. 8 The last part of this article (the previous legislation did
not have this) also applies to the Russian language, which the law suggests
n,ay be studied but does not have to be, depending on the desire of the pupil.
A paradoxical situation is created: a pupil does not receive a school leaving
certificate if he has not mastered to the necessary degree English, German or
another foreign language, because the study of a foreign language is mandatory
but the study of Russian is not mandatory, although it is considered compulsory
in the schools 'of a number of foreign countries. ~
Z~o different rights have obviously been mixed up here: the ri~ht of citizens
to have their children instructed in their native language--that is indispu*able,
and the right to determine a program of instruction, whether a given subject
shall be compulsory or optional. This right belongs to the state and not to
individual citizens. In contrast to the languages of the other peoples of the
USSR the Russian language has broader social f~mctions. It is not only the
language of a nationality, but it is still the language of communication
between nationalities as well as an international language (one of the
official UN languages, the language of CFMA, etc.)
Given the shortage of labor resources and the non-rational nature of a signifi.cant
portion of the territorial and social migration, it has become obvious that
there is a need to strengthen the use of planning in resolving problems related
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labor resources, including issues of territorial.and industrial allocatian af
labor. A great deal of attention Was devoted to this issue at the All-Union
Scientific and Practical Conference on Labor Resources, organized in 1978 by
the USSR State Committee on Labor and the USSR Academy of Sciences.89
Strengthening the use of planning nrinciples in the management of labor resources
will provide a large benefit in combination with measures to monitor the use
of manpower. The monitoring functians were forme::ly carried out by labor
organs, but they amounted, as a rule, to: episodic checks on individual
issues, an.d they were carried out by various organs without the necessary
coordination.
At present the monitoring functions have been entrusted to the USSR State
Committee on Labor and Social Questions, the republic committees on labor and
their local organs; the latter have been giv~n responsibility for finding reserves
within production units, industries and the territory under their jurisdiction
to increase the effectiveness of manpower utilization, as well as to develop
proposals to put them into practice.
. The organizationalprinciples, the jurisdiction and the function of the monitoring
have been defined by the Temporary Regulation Concerning State Monitoring of
the Use of Man~ower which was approved by the State Committee on Labor on
12 September 1978.9~ According to the regulation, the labor organs check
on the activity of enterprises, organizations, ministries and agencies with
regard to the rational use of labor resources, the correspondence between
the number of blue- and White-~collar workers and the number specified by the
plan, as well as the normso The organs also check on the plans for social
development of the collectives,also on how the labor of women, pensioners and
young people is being utiiized and on which measures are being taken to
reduce personnel turnover and the stabilization of labor collectives.
Thus the development of labor resources and their extent are influenced by
the norms which come from the most varied types of legislations from labor and
kolkhoz legislation, from legislation concerning health care, pensions and
other factors. The effect of these norms is i.nterlocking~and at times it
!nay have a secondary result which is not always desirable. For example, the
legal norms which are aimed at improving the quality of labor resaurces, and
the level of their education and skills, can lead to a reductian in the working
age. Bringing women into public production on a broad scale, which is ensured by
the constitutional principle of the equal right of inen and women to work
and its remuneration, meets social interests and contributes to the incre ase
in the extent of of available manpower, but it can influence the birthrate
and the level of future labor resources. For this reason, when improving legal
norms which influence the quantity or quality of labor resources, it is essential
to take into account both their direct effect and their indirect-�-sometimes
negative influence--keeping in mind not only the immediate goals and results, but
also the possible future consequences. At the present stage the process of
improv ing legislation which one way or another influences the development of
the national s economy, including its labor re~sources, requires ever broader
cooperation amor.g legal experts and economists.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel�stvo "Nauka", 1981
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