JPRS ID: 10384 USSR REPORT ENGINEERING AND EQUIPMENT

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/10384
.
12 March 1982
USSR Report
ENGINEERING AND EQUIPAAENT
,
(FO110 2/82)
~

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13
JPRS I,/10384
12 March 1982
USSR REPORT
ENGINEERING AND EQUIPMENT
(FOIIO. 2/82)
CONTENTS
AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE
Practical Aerodynamics of Hel,icopters..............................
1
MARINE AND SHIPBUILDING,
'Dock-Ship' Tran:3fer Sqstem
6
Unmanned Free SubmerEibles
9
DNCLEAR ENERGY
Design and Tests of Thermal Emission Fuel Elements
13
PJeutron Radiation of Spent Uranium-Thorium Fuel
17
Regulating Energy Distribution of Reactor in Second Unit of
Beloyarskaya Atomic Power Station................................
21
Organization of Fuel Utilization at Kola Atomic Power Station......
30
Methods �or Calculating Gas Liberation and Estimating Danger of
Explosion.in Radiation-Chemical Apparatus With Water Coolant
or Biological Shielding..........................................
37
Abstracts of Articles in Co1lection 'RADIATION SAFE'1'Y OF AES...... .
39
NQN-NUCLFAR ENERGY

' Power Eugineering in Space.........................u...............
46
Turbogenerators IIsiag Supercilnductivity............................
48
- a- (IIS - USSR - 21F S&T FOUO]
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riin vrria..IwL uJr, uIVLY
INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY r
Adoption of Typical System for Enterprise Management . . . . . . . . . 51
Abstracts From Machine Building Symposium 55
Deslgning Systems for Automatic Handling of Miniature Items........ 63
HIGH-ENERGY DEVICES, OPTICS AND PHOTOGRAPHY
Heavy-Ion Accelerators 68
Collection of Papers on Charged Particle Accelerators, Part 1...... 70
Collection of Papers on Charged Particle Accelerators, Part 2...... 79
- Robust Detection and Ranging Devices 87
FLUID MECHANICS
Numerical and Analytical Methods for Solving Prablems in Mechanics of Continuous Medium 91
. Particulara of Shock Wave Structure for Underwater Explosions
of Spiral Charges................................................. 95
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS �
Oscillations and Stability of Mechanical Systems 104
Load Capacity and Dynamic Properties of Mechanical Systems......... 111
Dynamics of Radiating Gas '120
Kinetostatics of Three-Dimensional Mecluinisms 123
TESTING AND MATERIALS
Radiational Damage to Housing Steel of Water-C,,qled Water-
Moderated Reactors 125
Measuring Oscillators in Nuclear Electronics 128
Using Liquid Fuels at Law Temperatures 131
- b -
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AERONAUTICAL Ar7D SPACE
UDC 629.735.45 (a?)
PR4CTICAL AERODYNAMICS OF HII,ICOPTER3
1-icscow PRAKTICHFSKAYA AZRODINAMIKA VERTOI,ETOV in Russian 1980 (signed to press
16 Oct 79) PP 2, 282-384
[Annotation and table of contents from book "Practical Aerodynamics of
Helicopters", by Vyacheslav Fedorovich Rotnasevich and German Alekseyevich Samoylov,
Voyeaizdat, 13,000.copies, 384 pages]
[Text] Annotation
The book considers the aerodynamic characteristics, special featuros of helicopter
design, stability and controllability, as well ra the maneuvering a,nO.. itloting
properties, and special featurds of helicopter behavior and the teci;.llque of pilot-
ing for various modes of fly'Lng and maneuvers.
The book is intended for flying personnel of VVS [Military Aerial Forces], PVO
[Antiaircraft Defense] and VMF [Military Ma,rine Fleet]. It ma.y be recommended to
students in militar.y aviation schools and flying personnel of the Ministry of Civil
Aviation. TABLE OF CQNTINTS
introduction
Page
5
Chapter 1. Ba.sic characteristics and apecial features of
helicopter aerodynamics 20
1.1. Aerodynamic d.esign of helicopters -
1.2. Aerodynamic characteristics of helicopter rotors 30
1 Rotor propulsion and factars affecting it 31
Set-up angle (pitch) nf rotor 32
Space factor of rotor 34
Peripheral velocity 37
Shape af vane and profile 40
Flying velocity w+
1
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av~~ va�rawrfL VDG VIrLI
TABLE OF CCNTMTS
. Page
Purpase of norizontal and vertical pivots
51
�
Flywheel motion of vanes
53
Reverse camber of rotary cone of rotor
56
Stroke regulator �
58
- 1.3.
Aerodynamic characteristics of basic garts of helicopter
59
Fuselage
_
Aerodynamic characteristics of the fuselage
60
Win$
64
Aerodynamic charact eristics of wing
65
5tabilizer
68
Aerodynamic characteristics of stabilizer
69
.
Tailfin
73
-
Aerodynamic characteristics of tailfin
74
Tail rotor
7(
Aerodynamic characteristics of tail rotors
77
Chassis of helicopters
82
1.4.
Helicopter control systems
83
Control characteristics
91
Chapter
2. Power installations of helicopters
96
2.1.
Purpose and arrangemerit of power installations
-
2.Z.
-aigine operating modes .
103
, 2.3.
Opezational limitations'of GTD [Gas Turbine Lhgine]
and their causes
i05
2.4.
Ba,sic operating characteristics of helicopter GTD
108
Throttlino characteristics
104
_
iiigh-altitude characteristics
111
Velocity characteristics
t15
L+'ffect of atmospheric corditions on the GTD characteristics
-
2.5.
Unstable engine operating modes
121
Compressor stalling
-
Off-design operating modbs of free turbine
125
2.6.
Joint operation of rotor and pewer installation
126
Chapter
3. Stabil:Ity and Controllability of the helicopter
132
3.1.
General information
_
Schema.tiza,tion of helicopter mation in flight, equa,tion
of motion
_
_
3asic concepts of stability and controllability
141
3.2.
Longitudinal stability and controllability
153
_
Static characteristics of stability along the angle of
incldence
_
3pecial features of :zelicopter controllability along the
incidence angle (pitch)
158
~ 2
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TA13LOP CF CUNTIIJT3
Page
Statlc characteristics of stability with change in
velocity of flight
161
Special features of longitudinal centrollability with
change in velocity cf flight
164
Stability of longitudinal motion of hellcopter
166
3�3� 3ide stabilitjr and controllability
171
3tatic stabilit characteristic along slide angle
(path stability~
172
Static- stability characteristics along the bank angle
(transverse stability)
174
Stability of side motion
175
Special features of stde controllability of helicopter
176
5pecial features of controllability when flying with
slidin-
179
3.4. Special features of balancing the helicopter
181
3�5� ilse of automatic devices in helicopter control systems
188
Special features of piloting with an automatic pilot
193
Chapter 4. :ielicopter flight mo3^.s 197
4.1.
Required and availa'ale propulsions
and rotor powers
198
4.2.
Vertical .fli;ht modes
208
ciovering
-
Conditions and special features
of hoverlng
209
Vertical lift
218
Conditions and special fPaturea
of vertical lift
219
Vertical descent
221
Conditions and special features
of vertical descent
222
4.3.
Horizontal flight
227
Range of velocities and heights of
helicopter flight
229
First and second modes of sustained horizontal flight
237
Conditions and special features of
a horizontal flight
242
4.1+.
Ascent along a sloped trajectory
245
Conditions and special features of
ascent
246
4. S.
' Descent along
a sloped trajectory
249
,
Conditions and special features of
descent
250
Conditions and special featurea of
RSNB CMode of
Rotor Autorotation]
252
Chapter 5. Naneuvering and piloting of helicopter . 257
5.1. N~aneuvering characteristics and operational limi-tations -
Gyforess and flight limitations in manerverin 3 259
G-force .range of single rotor helicopter 267
3
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. � ...�.~ai v,Ja. V1, %L1
TABLE OF CCKTLNTS
5.2. Horizontal maneuvers Acceleration and deceleration of helicopter
Turning
5�3� Vertical maxieuvers
Diving
Steep climb ' 5�4. Spatial maneuvers
Spiral
stall turn
Steep climb turn
5.5. 3pecial features of maneuvering nnder maximum conditions
Spontaneous descent of helicopter
Spontaneous turning of helicopter
Helicopter spin
Spontaneous increase in norma,l g-force on helicopter
when maneuvering
Spontaneous tilt of helicopter due to loss of
effectiveness in transverse control
Chapter 6. Distance and duration of helicopter flight
6.1. Concepts and principlea of calculating the distance and
duration of f1:Ight
6.2 . Available fuel reserve 6.3. Iiourly and kiYometer fuel consumptions, d'lstance of
horizontal flight
6.4. Effect of basic operational factors on distance and
duration of flight
Effect of flight velocity
Effect of flight altItnde
Ef'fect of flying weight of helicopter
&fect of wind
fffect af rotor speed,
Chagter 7. Take-off a,t1d landtng of helicopter
7�1. Special features of moving the helicopter on the ground
and operation3l limitations
7.2. ;pecial features of helicopter take-off and operational
limitations
.-Ielicopter take-off
Plane ta.ke-off
4
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Page
271
276
287
289
296
299
300
303
306
309
313
315
319
321
325
333
336
339
342
345
346
348
349
350
356
360
364
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TABL23' OF CfVTIWTS
7.3. Special fPatures of helicopter landing and operational
limitations
Helicopter landing
Plane landing
Land.ing in the mode in rotor autorotation mode
_ Special features of landing~.with a side wind
Supplement. Basic tactical-technical data on helicopters
. Bibliography
CCPYRIGHT: Voyenizdat, 1980
2291
CaO, 1$61/109
5
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Page
365
366
370
373
377
380
381
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MARINE AND SHIPBUILDING
unC 629.i2.002.28.00i.24i 539.4
'DOCK-SHIP' TRANSM SYSTEM
MoscoW 3I3TNMA P',~TQW1Y~ "~_g(~pN� in Ru$sian 1981 (signed to press
29 Dec 80) pp 2-49 128-129 EAnnotation, foreword, table of contents from bocHl"Dock-ship' Transfer System",
by Vitaliy Antonovich Topchiy, Izdatel'stvo "Sudoetroyeniye", 800 copies, 129
pages] .
EText] Annotation
Launching ships by using transfer (la,unching) docks is related to solving the prob-
lem of launching safety, the strength of the ship, the doek arid movable components
of the launching devices. Calcula.tions of the strength o"' the transfer dock-ship
system di:ifer considerably from those made for raiaing the ship ta a floating
dock; launching from a sloped longitudinal building slip etc.
The book gives the general characteriaties of dock-ship system componenta at all
stages of launching. TheoreLtical bhses are given for calculating the strengths of
the components of this system (by the f inite element, Ritz and Rordyumov
methods). Use of the finite element met.hod to solve the static indeterminacy
of the dock-ahip transfer system is illustra,ted by e,xamples.
The book is intended for design engineers and plaaners of shipbuilding enterprises,
and it ma,y be useful to students of shipbuilding wz and wz departmenta.
Foreword.
Launching medium water displacement ships from building slips by floating repair
docks or Prom transfer (launching) doaks especially made far this purpose is widely
used in domestic and foreign ahiph-tilding. At present, domestic design organiza-
tions and shipbuilding enterprises have a conaiderable aamunt of experience in-de-
signing and operating la,unching complexes with transfer docka which makes it pos-
sible to achieve all the advantages of their use and to determine the best methods
and facilities for safe la,unching.
Information on the indicated experience in ecientific-technical literature, in'
paxticulax, that obtained in recent year$, Qannot be coneidered sufficient. In a
number of fundamental paperst devolied �to ship launohing, apecial features of
launching complexes with transfer docks are considered in the design aspect, or
6
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mentioned only in general terms which may be due to the trend toward specific
topics in the papers, as well as the positi.on occupied until recently by the ust
of transfer docks and a number of other methods for launching ships. In periodi-
cals devoted to launching sb3.ps, there is very little information on pzoblems and
methods for inauring the strength of the ships, the transfer dock aad other com-
ponents of the complex with this type of Ia,unching. This paper presents methods
for calcula.ting the transfer dock-ship aystem and gives a number of recornmendations
on implemnting practical calculations on the strength of this system's components
with aim of filling the above-mentioned blanks to a certain degree.
The design fea,tures of la,unching complexes with transfer docks (number and rigidity
of the dock supports, presence and type of hydraulic system of the ship-aarrying
train etc.), the essential.changes in the proceas of la,unching,external forces and
the interaction conditions between the dock and ship predetermine the necessity of
considering several calculation arrangements of the transfer dock-ship.system which
leads to the necessity of using various methoda within one calcula.tion; for exam-
ple, at the basis of which lie power methods, reduction of.thg problem to calcula-
ting beams on an elastic ba,se and other method.s using similar problems (raising
the ship to a dock, launching from a longitudinal building slip etc.)for the
solution. This circumstance, along witta the necea3ity of making a series of cal-
culations even within the limits of one launching period, determined the selection
of the finite element method,. one of the most perfect and universal methods for
calculating complex ship designs, as the basic method, devoid of the above-men-
tioned inconvenience.
This paper provides a minimum amount of data on this metbod needed: #'or practical
calculations of rod structures which rep.resent the transfer dock-ship system, and
recommendations axe given for the prepaxation of initial data, decoding the calcu-
lation results according to programs prepaxed for the "Minsk-32" computer.
Making approximate calculations of the transfer dock-ship system may be useful and
efficirt at the initial stages of the launch at the launch complex of the enter-
prise. Methods of these calculations presented in this book ma,ke it possible to
obtain rela.tively simply and quickly the necessaxy data for the speaial features
of operation of the launching syst'em at vaxious stages.
The author expresses his gratitude to staff xorkers of the "Con$truction Mechanics
Department of the Komsomol'sk-on-Amur" Polytechnical Institute, Y. D. Zhestkaya
and N. A. Taranukha, who made a series of calculatione, the results of which were
used in the book.
Tabla of Gontents
Foreword Page
3
Chapter 1. Launching ships by transfer docks and groblems of insuring the strengths of the ship dock and movable
components of the launching devices 5
1. Certain special features of la,unching ships by transfer docks 5
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Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1. (continued)
2.
General deformation characteristic of the transfer
dock-ship systsm. Volume and content of strength
calculations
U
Chapter 2. Determination of interactifln reactions in the
tranafer dock-ship system by the finite element .
method (FEM) '
24
3.
Basic FEM relationships'as applied to the calculation of
transfer dock-ship system
24
4.
Calculation of the transfer dock-ship system by finite
�
dlement method on the "Minsk-22" computer. Preparation
of the initial data. Decoding results of calculationa
42
5.
Certain features of checking component strength of the
-
transfer doc?,-ship system
47
6.
'
Example of calculating the tran$fer dock-ship system by
the finite element.�. method on the "Minsk-22" computer
51
Chapter 3. .Strength calculations when Iaunching ship by ship-
caxrying train equipped with hydraulic system 58
7. Features of using hydraulic systems when launching by meana
of transfer docks. Calculation scheme 58
8. Ecample of calculating the transfer dock-ship system when
using the group hydraulics of the ship-carrying.train 72
Chapter 4. Approxima,te calculation of the transfer dock-ship system 78
9. Basic relationships of approximate methods for calculating
the transfer dock-ship system 78
10. Ca,lculation of dual support transfer dock-ship system. .
Case of transfer dock with three supports �`100
li. Approxima,te calcula.tion of single suppart transfer dock-ship
system 109
Conclusion lis
Appendix 116
Bibliography . 126
BQPXRIGHrs Izdatel'stvo "Sudostroyeniye", 1981
- 2291
CSDi 1861/89
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h'UR OF6'ICIAI. USE ONI.Y
UDC 629.127.4-52
UNMANNED FREE SUBMERSIBLES
Leningrad AVTOMATICHESKIYE PODVODNYYE APPARATY in Russian 1981 (signed to press
10 Feb 81) pp 5-6, 219-221
[Annotation, authors' preface and table of contents from book "Unmanned Free Sub-
mersibles", by Mikhail Dmitriyevich Ageyev, Boris Anatol'yevich Kasatkin, Lev
Vladimirovich Kiselev, Yuriy Gennad'yevich Molokov, Vladimir Vasil'yevich Nikiforov
and Nikolay Ivanovich Rylov, Yzdatel'stvo "Sudostroyeniye", 3100 copies, 224 pages]
[Text] An examination is made of planning and design of free submersibles, mo-
tion control in hydrophysical measurements in a water stratum, exploration of
bays and searching for sunken objects under conditions of complicated bottom re-
lief. The authors show the functional makeup and structure of control systems,
methods of navigation and makeup of navigational exploration equipment.
Information is given on the shipboard complex and marine equipment for data pro-
cessing. Development of the Skat unmanned free submersible is summ,arized, and
an analysis is made of a nwnber of original problems that must be solved in de-
signing submersibles.
The book is intended for specialists engaged in developing free submersibles and
their systems. Authors' Preface
The field of submersibles had its inception comparatively recently, and is cur-
rently going through a developmental stage. Submersibles that have been developed
in the past are quite diversif'ied. Some of them have become widely known, and
- development on�them is continuing. In addition to vehicles for which, figurative-
- ly speaking, "the principal source of information is the headligbt", more and
triore recognition is being given to unmanned submersibles, or underwater robots
as they are often called. This is no accident; unmanned submersibles have many
advantages that have been proved in practice, and preaent-day advances in tech-
. nology, especially in electronics, as well as the new research metYlods'that they
have engendered, are a good basis for their further development.
Judging from the persistent but isolated reports of the survey information press,
such vehicles are being ititensively developed and used outside the Soviet Union
in a wide range of underwater work.
9
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Among unmanned submersibles, an important part is played by self-contained, self-
- propelleii vehicles with programmed control that are automatic facilities for study-
ing the ocean.
- Tao principal distinguishing features character.ize unmanned submersibles: absehce
of a connecting cable to the surface vessel, and small overall dimensions. In
- themselves, these features are not yet advantages, but they can be turned into
advantages if the "brain" concentrated in the small space of the vehicle iw equip-
ped with such functions as would to some extent compensate for the absence of
a connecting cable. .
During operation, the automatic submersible�has limited capabilities for human
communications, and therefore it must carry a set of devices that'ensure normal
= operation, accumulation of information, and self-preservation in extreme sirua-
tions. This complex must include:
information-neasurement devices (including navigational) that form a representation
� of the ambient environment and state of the vehicle;
a control system that perceives and processes information and transmits control
commands;
actuating devi.^_es that realize the commands of the control system;
facilities for at least intermittent human communication (input-output and communi-
cation devices).
With respect to their properties, urnanned vehicles can be classified as under-
water information robots that comprise a separate class of submersible robotic
systems. This circumstance, which is substantiated from general procedural prin-
ciples in the book by V. S. Yastrebov et al., "Podvodnyye roboty" [Underwater
Robots], Leningrad, Sudostroyeniye, 1977, is of great importance for consideration
of fundamental problems of designing both the autonomous systems and the vehicle
as a whole.
Experience in development of automatic vehicles is still.rather sparse; many of
their capabilities are so far not being used to solve tixgqn.t problems of investi-
gation of the ocean. Automatic vehicles that belong to the f irst generation of
robots are functionally simple, their actions can be rigidly programmed. However,
even such devices that are unperfected in many respects can be successfully used
in many underwater 3obs. Recently the idea has been formulated and implemented
of changing to multipurpose vehicles with adaptive behavior, the control structure
and desigr conf irming to unified requirements that ensure the most efficient oper-
ation when there is a change in the external conditions and internal state of
a vehicle. In our opinion, the time has come to generalize available knowledge
and experience in the development of unmanned free submersibles. That is the
idea behind this 'book.
The initial material for the book has mainly been results of research on the Skat
and Skat-geo vehicles done at the Institute of Automation and Control Processes
of the Far Eastern Science Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as well as certain ideas aimed at further improvement of these vehicles.
10
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Collectives uf two laboratories at the Institute took part in developing the vehi-
- cles: the laboratory of underwater vehicle systems, and the laboratory of navi-
_ gation and control spstemr. The authors thank workPrs at t-izese laboratories,
as taell as a11 who helped make this book possible.
This is a multiplan book, since the problems involved in developing automatic
vehicles are also multiplan. In addition, some of these problems are characterized
by unconventional formulation of goals and so far do not have f inal solutions.
This has obviously had its effect on the content of the book, and is responsible
for some of its shortcomings. The greatest claims may be brought against the
style of exposition of individual chapters, which are wirtten in "different lan-
guages" due to the very diverse nature in a physical sense of the problems that
are considered. For example, the second chapter, which deals with general princi-
ples of constructing vehicle control systems, is written in the language of compu-
ter technology with its attendant terminology. The third to fifth chapters examine
problems on motion control and navigation, using mathema.tical methods of the theory
of regulation and random processes. The sixth chapter gives a rather detailed
description of the design of the Skat vehicle (this chapter is somewhat reminis-
cent of an engineering description).
The book does not reflect all aspects of development of unmanned submersibles,
but only those that have seemed to us to be the most important, and to which the
literature has given little attention. For example, no consideration has been
given at all to ensuring strength of hu11s of deep water vehicles, hydrodynamics,
power engineering, manufacturing technology and so on. For all these questions,
the reader can address himself to known works, in particular to the monograph
"Proyektirovaniye podyodnykh apparatov" [Design of Submersibles] by A. N. Dmitriyev
(Leningrad, Sudostroyeniye, 1978), that has become a reference on the sub3ect.
The authors thank the reviewers, Professor, Doctor of Technical Sciences V. S.
Yastrebov and Professo.r., Doctor of Technical Sciences I. B. Ikonnikov, who made
some valuable comments on improving the manuscript. The authors are especially
grateful to Candidate of Technical Sciences G. K. Krylov, who did considerable
scientific editing of the work.
Contents
page
Preface
3
Authors' Preface
5
Chapter 1: State of the Art and Outlook for Development of Unmanned Free
Submersibles
7
1. Designation-and types of unmanned free submersibles
7
2. Underwater jcbs handled by unmanned free submersibles
11
3. Some problems of designing on board systems of unmanned free submersibles
18
Chapter 2: General Structure of Systems of Unmanned Free Submersibles
25
4. Principle of design of unmanned free submersibles
25
_ 5: Information relationship between systems
31
6. Organization of programmed control
40
Chapter 3: Motion Control of Unmanned Free Submersibles
51
7. Organization of vehicle motion
51
8. Reference program trajectories
55
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9. Motion control in exploring anomalous fields
10. Motion control close to the bottam with complex relief
Chapter 4: Dynamics of Underwater Vehicle
11. Equation of motion. Hydrodynamic characteristics
,12. Stabilization of motion velocity
13. Depth controllability
14. Stabilization and motion stability in the vertical plane
15. Course stabilization system
Chapter 5: Navigational Support of Operation of UndeYwater Vehicle
16. Methods of navigational support and vehicle makeup 17. Range-finding systems. Particulars of hqdroacoustic navigation
18. Methods of processing range-finder navigational information and
accuracy analysis
19. Signal reception from pulsed hydroacoustic navigational system
20. Data processing 'and complexing of autonomous and hydroacoustic
navigational systems
Chapter 6:� The Skat Unmanned Free Submersible 21. Experience in developing and us.ing the Skat vehicle
22. General characteristics of Skat-geo vehicle, makeup and designation
of its systems
23. Vehicle design and configuration
24. Construction and interaction of principal systems of the vehicle
Conclusion
References CUPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Sudostroyeniye", 1981*
6610
CSO: 1861/71
12
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69
83
88
88
58
99
108
123.
127
127
131
143
155
165
176
176
191
197
~202
215
217
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_.M ,
NUCLEAR ENERGY
vnc 62i . 039. 54s
DWIGN AND 7MTS OF TMMMAL IIMI,SSILK RM ROM1TS
Moscow PROYIICTIROVANIYE I ISPYTANIYA TERM+OF~'I7.3SICKNYKH TYELDV in Russian 1981
(aigned to press 2 Dec 80) PP 29 4-5t 96
[Annotation, introduction and table of contents from book "Design and Teats of
Thermal Eaisaion F5.ie1 Elements", by Vladimir Ivanovich Berahatyy, Vladimir
Aleksandrovich Mayevskiy, Yiktor Vasil'yevich Sinyavshiy and, Valeriy Geront'yevich
Petrovskiy, Atomiadat, 980 copies, 96 pa,gea]
[Text] . Annotation
The book considers engineering aspects of creating power generating channels (~GK)
of the basic unit of the thermoemission rea,ctor=generator. Ba,sic attention is
given to the design and teclinology of ma,nufacture of the BC~{ and the loop channel,
optimiza,tion of geometry and calculation of the ~7QC and loop channele, rea,ctor loop
inatallation, methods for carrying out all tests and investi,gation stages, the
- analysis of test results and causes of chaxacteristic changes and failures.
The book is intended for engineers and staff personnel working in the area of
~ direct conversion of energy and nuclear power. It will be useful to instructors
, ancY students of engineering-physical and power vus.
Two tables. Fifty-one illustrations. Bibliography containa 91 titles.
Introduction
The last several decades were characterized by intensiva investigations and the
practical implementation of nsw electric poxer sources basW, on direct (without
machines) conversian of thermal to electrical energy. .
Thermoemission power,installa,tions have certain advantagea, especially if they axe
used as independent sources of electrical power higher thaxl several kilowatts.
These a.dvantages are mainly simplicity of eriergy conversion and the possibility:of
operating the power installation at high operating temperatures aad at the high
bottom temparature of the thermodynamic cycle, which is a necessary condition far
operating space power installations where expenidable heat of the thermodynamic
cycle may be removed only by radiation IIJ.
13
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Vaxious types of thermoemission power installa,tions are being considered.: sclar
and isotopic (low power [2]), and high temperature superstructures a,dded to the
usual electric power p].ants and AF5 which make it possible to increase plant effi-
ciency to 50yb E1-33. However, the a.d.vantages of thermoemission conversion (TEP)
are demonstrated, to the greatest degree when they are located d3rectly in the
core ' the nucleax fission rea,ctor, for which purpose the TEP are combined
with the fuel elements into a aingle thermoemission fuel element. In the USSR,
such a thermoemission fuel element is mora frequently called an electrogenerating
channel (EGK), while single, series connected TEp are called electrogenerating
elements (XGE). A rea,ctor c o r e a s s emb 1 e d. .f r om s u c hM together with regu-
lating devices and a system for assuring the composition of the i.nterelectrode
medium and heat removal forms a thermoemission reactor-converter (rea,ctor-generator)
in which not only hea,t is generated, but the entire cycle of converting the heat
energy liberated, as a reault of nucleax fission of uranium into electrical energy,
is implemented. Practical steps on creating power installations of such a type
were initiated by and, under the direction of I.I. Bondarenko, culminated in
successful tests, in the USSR, of the "Topa,z," the first reactor-converter L4, 51
in the world.
One basic problem in creating such an installation is the development of an effi-
cient and reliable EZ [6]. Since it is impossible, under la,boratory conditions,
to provide actual conditions for operating multielement EGK, the main stage of their
development became the loop test of BGK in reseaxch reactors where all specific
problems relateii to the creation of a long-term operating EGK are studied, includ-
ing the stability and reproducibility of the power chaxacter~stics, state of the
electrod.e surface, strength of the electrical insulation etc.
EGK reactor tests, in their turn, required, solutions of a number of additional
problems in connection with ma,king these tests, such asi developing a loop cha,n-
nel for EGK tests [1, 4-6], creating universal reactor loop installa,tions with gas-
vacuum, thermal and eleatric systems and, in a number of cases, also modernising
the core of reseaxch reactors [7], developing methoda for making prerea,etor,
reactor and postreactor tests, as well as methods for monitoring and diagnostics
of EGI{ a,nd the loop channel systems. The solution of the indicated problems is
comparable in its complexity to the creation of the thermoemission reactor-converter
itself.
5everal monographs [8-10] as well as textbooks [2,1] and popular public,ations were
published in the USSR on problems related to thermoemission energy conversion.
However, all these papers were devoted to the basic study of the thermoemission
converter as a laboratory device and they, with the exception of pa,pers [1,2],
practically do not touch on the engineering aspects of crea,ting thermoemission
power instal'La.tions. There is no infarmation in these papers on experimental fin-
ishing-off o:F the 'DGK, including design, aalculation and methods for testing the
thermoemissicin of loop cha,nnels and the eystema,tized. r~,nalysis of obtained results;
such information is contained only in individual uncoordinated articles and inac-
cessible reports of vaxioua reseaxch organizations.
With this book, the authors axe attempting, even though partially, to ma,ke up for
the existing deficiency.
14
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Basically, the book describes resulta obtained by the authors themselves; however,
published materials of other authors, which could be expounded upon from the same
positions, were utiliaed.
Tne limited size of the book made it impossible to include a number of section8,
for example, on technical diagnostics, automation of the loop experiment etc.,
which will be s;lstematized in the book, "Principles of Engineering Diagnostics of
Thermoomiasion Flzel Bl,ements." The authors intend to write this book in the very
near future and it will be a logical continua,tion of this b.ook.
Since the thermoemission method ha,s recently become a subject of broad investiga-
tion, it still has no set terminology in this axea,; however, in writing about this
ma.terial , the authors attempted to follow recommena,ations in 'the ha,ndbook
"Thermoemission Conversion of Ehergy" (Moscow, 1971), prepared by the International
Communications Group on TEP.
All criticism with regaxd to the stated material, style of pre8entation and the
cited results will be gratefully received by the authors.
The authors express their gratitude to Ye. M. Strel'nitskaya for her help in
sha.ping the manuscript. Table of Contents
Page
Introd.uction
y.
Chapter
1. Special fea.tures in converting energy in thermo-
emission EGE and multielement 3Z
6
1.1.
Basic characteristics of thermoemission XE
6
1.2.
Characteristic features of EQC
12
- Chapter
2. Designs and manufacturing technology of thermo-
emission DGK and loop channels
15
2.1.
Basic design-structural problems of EQC development .
15
2.2.
Design features of 30 and EGK of varioua types
19
2.3.
Design of loop channels
24
2.4.
Manufacturing technology of thermoemiesion AGE and 3QC
28.
Chapter
3. Principles of calculating thermoemiesion loop channel
34
3.1.
Dpti;na,l geometrical dimensions of thermoemission elements
34
3.2.
Calcula,tion of current-voltage curves and thermal fields
of thermoemission 30
37
3�3
Calculatingcurrent-voltsge:cutves�of mu].tielementEGR andprofiling
EGE lengths in accordance with height of M
39
3�4.
Ttiermal calculation of the heat removal system,
thermoatat and other units of the loop channel
41
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Table of Contenta
Page
Chaptar 4. Fea,tures of loop installations of research nuclear
reactors for testing thermoemissionfuel -elements 44
4.1. Purpose and composition of lcwp inatallation 44
4.2. Thermohydraulic and gas vacuum system of the loop - installation . tys
4.3.. ELectrical circuit of loop installation . 4$
4.4. Measurement of basic technological characterlstics of
loop channel 52
Chapter 5. Methodology and technique of ma.king loop tests of.
thermoemission fuel elements 56
5�1. Ba.sic stagea of reactor tests of thermoemiasion loop
channels 56
: 5.2. Rea,ctor teats and inveatigations of special prototypes
of loop channels 56
5�3. Vacuum preparation of DGK and loop channel 57
5.4. Loa.ding loop channel into the reactor and unloading it
from the reactor . 58
5�5� Start-up of BGK, change in power, planned stop 59
5.6. Methodology of making investiga,tions during rea,ctor
tests of DGK 60
5.7� Features of making life tests of EGIC 63
Chapter 6. Analysis of basi.c results of reactor tests of thermoemission fuel elements 65
6.1. General results of teats 65
6.2. Effect of cesium vapor pressure on DGIC cha,racteris'tics.
Transfer from diffusion mode of operation to the
dischaxge mode 66
6.3. Effect of collector temperature on 37 characteristics 72
6.4. Effect of thermal power and emitter temperature on DGK
chaxacteriati.cs. Ftill efPiciency of EGK 73
6.5� Anoma,lous current-voltage curves 79
6.6. Resource change in power chaxacteristics and basic changes and failures of BGT, 3GI{- and loop channel designs 83
Bibliography 91
CDPYRIGHI': Atomizdat, 1981
2291
CSDi 186i/86
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UDC 621.039.51:621.039.667.9
NEUTRON RADIATION OF SPENT URANIUM-THORIUM FUEL
Moscow ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA in Russian Vol 51, No 2, Aug 81
(manuscript received'23 Jun 80) pp 125-126
(Article by N. S. Shimanskaya]
[Text] Considerable interest has recently been manifested in the thorium fuel cy-
cle. The use of thorium in high-temperature and other power reactors is attxactive
primarily from the viewpoint of long-term support of nuclear power enqineering with
relatively inexpensive fuel. Moreover, U-233 is accumulated in the fuel in this
case, which can be used along with U-235 and Pu-239 as the �issionable component
after regeneration. Economic estimates also inacate the prospects of the thorium
cycle [1].
One of the eomplicating factors upon regeneration of spent uranivm-thorium fuel
and subsequent use of the produced regenerate may be the high le.vel of hard y-radi-
ation caused by'accumulation of U-232 and its dscay psroducts [2]. From the view=
point of predicting the expected rac]iation situntion, it is of interest to also
have available data on the neutron radiation of thfs fuel--its intensity and ener-
gy spectrum. So far as we know, there are not yet any corresponding experimental
aata.
Yield of Neutron Radi,ation of Speat (Ta02-ThO2)-Fuel With Different Burnup and
Different Coolinq Time After Unloading From the Reactor, 103 Neutrons/s�kg U-Th
SRro-
)
roA (2) -
P~ ae.
o
i
2
I a
a
so
013 ,
0,505
0,453
0,442
9.499
0,437
0,493
0,5
1,22
1,11
i,l0'
1,09
1,09
1,09
. 0,8.
10,6
8,47
7~90
?,87
�7,38
8,73
1,0.
2514
21,0
i9,7,~
i9,0
1811
18.2
Key:
l. Burnup, fifa
tvydr years
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An attempt was made in this paper to obtain the required estimates by calculation
for the initial stage of the thorium cycle when the accrued operating time of thE.
U-233 oczurs in uranium-thorium fuel. The results of quantitative analysis of
irradiated spherical fuel elements of type AVR were used in this case [3]. ;'he
initial Th-232, U-235 and U-238 content in the fuel element was 81.9, 16.8 rsnd
1.3 percent, respectively. The extent of fuel burnup varied from 0.29 to 1.02
fifa.* The Th-232, Pa-231, U-232-236 and U-238, Np-237, Pu-238-242, Am-241, Am-243
and Cm-242 and Cn-244 content was determined upon analysis.
The yield of neutran radiation and its energy spectrum were calculated similar to
how this was done in [4, 5] for spent U02-fuel. Based on interpolation of the val-
ues of the individual nuclide content for four selected burnup values w(w = 0.3,
0.5, 0.8 and 1.0 percent fifa), the partial yields of spontaneous fission neutrons
and neutrons of the (an)-reaction in oxygett were determined. The values of the
total neutron yield Yn are given in the table. Curves that characterize the ratio
of contributions of the most important neutron emitters for (U02-Th2)-fuel with
burnup of 0.5 and 1.0 fifa and variation of these contributions as the cooling af-
ter irradiation increases are presented in Fiqure l.
10~ r�
~ 2JBpu . . 10~
J 10= Z~Op~ 133-138~
~ 1 U !0'~
U,
14471397#1pu l0~
i 141~ Y42Cm .
0 12345ti7@D!0
a
Key:
t4yCm
?38p~
?42Cm
13711
o f Z 3 4 5 6 7 t&d,zod
b (2)
Figure 1. Partial Contributions of Individual Nuclides to Neutron Yield of
Spent (U02-Th02)-Fuel with Burnup of 0.5 (a) and 1.0 fifa (b) and
Their Dependence on Cooling Time After Irradiation. The initial
mass composition of the fuel was 81.9 percent Th-232, 16.8 percent
U-235 and 1.3 percent U-238
1. Neutrons/s�kg U-Th
2. tvyd, years
An increase of Yn with burnup for freshly unloaded fuel (tvyd = 0) corresponds to
the function Yn z w3�3, which essentially coincides with the function found for
uranium fuel [4]. The exponent for cooled fuel is somewhat less and varies in the
range of 3.3-3.0 for cooling of 0-10 years.
With burnup up to 0.6 fifa, the determining factor is the contribution of Pu-238
and the neutron radiation of Cm-244 begins to predominate gradually with high
*
Ratio of the total number of fissions in the fuel to the initial number of fis-
sionable nuclei (editor's note).
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burnup. The partial yields of individual nuclides for uranium-thorium and uranium
fuel at similar values of burnup differ very strongly. The total yield of neutrons
Yn also differs by approximateiY t::o orders. It is obvious that this is explained
by the different initial composition of the fuel, primarily by different percentage
content of U-235 and U-238 in it. The fraction of U-238 is approximate'ly 97 per-
cent in the WER [water-moderated, water-cooled power reactor] fuel anfi this value
is approximately one-half as much for AVR fuel. The contribution of reactors in
U-235 that lead to formation of Pu-238 is accordingly considerably greater in AVR
fuel and the neutron radiation of Cm-244 begins to dominate only with high burnup
and the relative constribution of Pu-238 neutrons decreases. Z'he thorium itself
and the nuclides fozmed during its irradiation in a reactor do not produce signif-
= icant neutron radiation. The partial neutron yields of U-232 and U-233 with burnup
of 0.8-1.0 fifa do not exceed 1 percent of the total yield Yn. Accumulatinn of
nuclides of the U-232 decay chain increases slightly--by 3-5 percent--with the
same burnup Yn.
Figure 2. Energy Spectri of Neutron Radiation of Spent (U02_Th02)-Fuel With
Burnup of 0.5; (1), 1.0 (2) and 1.0 (3) fifa and En = 2.35, 2.17
and 2.21 MeV, respectively. For curve 3, tvyd = 10 years
KeY =
1. MeV
The initial content of U-235 and U-238 will determine the neutron radiation intens-
ity of spent uranium-thorium fuel even in the case of a closed thorium cycle.
Thus, accordinq to our estimates one can expect that the neutron yield at tvykh = 0
will comprise approximately 9.4�103 neutrons/s�kg of U-Th for fuel with initial
ratio of Th-232: U-233: U-235: U-238 = 92.4: 2.4: 4.7: 0.5 [6] and burnup of
approximately 1.0 fifa for the eqilibrium cycle of the htgr reactor in which re-
generated uranium and U-235 make-up are used. The presence of U-233 in the fuel
and the accumulation of U-232 with repeat utilization of uranium regenerate in the
reactor have essentially no effect on the neutron radiation intensity of the spent
fuel.
Calculations showed that the energy spectra of neutrons also vary considerably with
an increase of burnup (Figure 2). The energy spectrum of neutron radiation of U02-
Th02 fuel varies appreciably even after it is unloaded from the reactor. The rela-
tive contribution of neutrons of (an)-reactions increases over time and the hard-
ness of the spectrtian increases. We recall that the neutron spectrum of uranium
fuel of power reactors, on the contrary, softens as cooling time inereases [5].
19
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' fn, MJB /~.y
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The use of uranium and thorium carbides in the thorium cycle instead of uranium
and thorium oxides should not result in appreciable variation of the level of neu-
tmn radiation of the fuel since the yield of (an)-reactions on thick targets of
UC and U02 differs by no more than 30-50 percent at Ea = 5.0-6.5 MeV [7, 8].
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Protsenko, A. N., ATOMNAYA TEKHNIKA ZA RUBEZHOM, No 1, 1978.
2. Yurova, L. N. et al, ATOMIIdAYA ENERGIYA, Vol 45, No 1, 1978.
3. Wenzel, U. and A. Monteiro dos Santos, in_ droceedings of the Fourth Inter-
- national Transplutonium Elements Symposium, Amsterdam-New York, N.-H. Publish-
ing Company, 1976.
4. ahimazlskays, N. S., ATONNAYA ENEFtiGIYA, VOl 49, No 5, 1980.
5. Shimanskaya,'N. S., loc. cit.
6. Hebel, L. et al, REVIEW OF MODERN PHYSICS, Part 2, Vol 50, No l, 1978.
7. Liskien, H. and A. Paulsen, ATOMKERNENERGIE, Vol 30, 1977.
8. West, D. and A. Sherwood, Neutron Yields from (an)-R,eactions in the Light
Elements, Report AERE-R 9195, 1978.
COPYRIGHT: Energoizdat, "Atomnaya energiya", 1981 6521 CSO: 8144/096
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UDC 621.039.50
REGULATING ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF REACTOR IN.SECOND UNIT OF BELOYARSRAYA
ATOMIC POWER STATION
Moscow ATONNAYA ENERGIYA in Russian Vol 51, No 2, Aug 81
(manuscript received 7 Jul 80) pp 91-95
[Azticle by 0. L. Bozhenkov, V. G. Dunayev, N. A. Kuznetsov, I. A. Luk'yanets,
V. V. Mal'tsev, P. T. Potaperilco, V. N. Sarylov, E. I.'Snitko,, Ye. V. Filipchuk and
A. G. Sheynkman]
[Text] Operation of AMB reactors o� the Beloyarskaya AES imeni I. V. Kurchatov
(BAES) demonstrated the econc,:aic effectiveness of nuclear superheating of steam
that has now achieved furthez developneent in the project of the RBM-KP [1]. Equal-
ized energy distribution and opti.mum ratio of outputs for production and superheat-
ing of steam in the thermal balance must be aaintained fn the core when operating
power reactors of the givea type. Therefore, the experience of solving these prob-
lems with respect to the existiaig reactors of the BAES is also useful when working
out effective control alqorichms for the RBM-KP.
An algorithm for oontrollinq the positions of the control mds (RS) at steady
pewer levels for the AMB-200 rsactor has now been proposed which ensures the best
equalization of energy distribution in the sense of the selected entire function.
with a given set of production restrictions.
Fostulation of the problem. Charg:ing of the AMB-200 inciudes 998 production chan-
nels (TK): 732 evaporative channels (IK) and 266 superheating.channels (~K) and
the latter are located in the center of the oore-, alternatinq*rows'with the IK. A
total of 78 control rods is also located in the reactor core.
Controlling the operation of the reactor requires that a strictly specific ratio
of output of the superheating and evaporative circuits be provided (ff = NpK/NIK =
= const) and that the energy distribution Q(r) equal throughout the core radius be
maintained [2]. This is achieved in practice by physical profiling: by a corre-
spondinq arrangement ox the TK with different uranium and RS enrichaent and also
by�profilinq the fuei burnup through the reactor radius. 'The core is conditionally
dfvided according to the arrangement of the TK into four concentric zones charac-
terized by qiven mean values of the neutron multiplication factor k2i for physic:al
calculations.
Under operating conditiens, TK recharging and uraninm burnup are selected so tliat
the.mean values of ka,i in each isolated zeqicm correspond to the given values at
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the end of the operating interval (prior to fuel recharging). An attempt is made
to maintain deviation of the mean values of the multiplication factrir from the
given values [A]wi = kwi - kgi (i = 1, 4)] at a minimum level coiTesponding to
redistribution of the submerged lenqth of the control rod during the period be-
tween recharging [2]. Perfornv,ng this operation in practice is related to the
need for operational analysis of a large wlume of information that characterizes
the actual state of the reactor. To eliminate possible erroneous actions'of the
operator and to increase the reliability and quality of control at this level, a
computer can be used, allocating to it the function of advisor to operational per-
sonnel in optimum management of the production process. According to regulatfons for reactor operation, the goal of control can be reduced
, to minimizing the compoaents of vector AQ(r) = Q(r) - QO(r) that characterizes
deviation of the actual energy distribut3on Q(r) from energy distribution QO(r),
clearly detexmined by the given distribution of the multiplication factor k,04(r).
The validity of this approach follows from the fact that the coefficient of non-
uniform energy distribution assumes a minimum value for a given length of the op-
erating interval of a reactor between recharges of the TK and for a system of con-
ditions that determine its completion (average burnup of unloaded fuel and
retention of criticality at full power with equilibrium xenon content when all the
control rods are removed from the core), if the energy distribution re,mains con-
stant from the beginning to end of the operating cycle [3].
Reliable heat,dissipation from the core that guarantees the absence of emergencies
due to deterioration of heat transfer must be provided during operation of a reac-
tor at power close to maximwn. For example, the temperature of the fuel element
jackets must not exceed the maximum permissible value [4]. Therefore, the follow-
ing production restrictions are introduced in AMB reactors by the temperature of
superheating steam at the autput from them for PK and by the margin.to maximum
output for IK. Taking this into account, the problem of controlling a reactor in
which the best equilization of energy distribution is achieved during the entire
interval between recharges can finally be formulated as one of finding the compon-
ents of the control vector (movements of the control rods) that pirovide the best
approximation to energy distribution QO(r) while conforming to production
restrictions. Mathematical model of the reactor. The specifics of the problem of stabilizing
steady energy distribution permits one to use linearized equations with respect to
slight deviations (perturbations) from steady values of parameters when construct-
ing the mathematical model of a reactor. In this case the reactox can be regarded
as a control object in combination with the integral regulator of total output.
Its mathematical model can then be represented in the form of a static transfer
matrix found on the basis of experimental data [5].
Workers of NPO [Scientific production association] Energiya, A. Anikin and A.
Oveshkov, determined in November 1977 on the reactor of the second unit of the
BAES how the control rods influence the energy distribution and steam temperature
_ at the output from the PK by moving individual control rods and by recording the
established values of DPZ currents and steam temperature corresponding to these
movements. The results of these experimenta were used by them in constructing the
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mathematical model of a reactor on the basis of physical calculation for the prob-
lem of optimization of energy distribution.
A different approach, the basis of which is the harmonic model of the�neutron field
of a reactor, was used in this paper to describe a reactor as a contx+ol object.
The most typical spatial harm4nics of the neutron field excited during movement of
the control rods had to be determined to work out this model. For this purpose,
the authors of this paper carried out experiments in October 1978 on the AMB-200,
during which they recorded the readings of the DEZ and thermocouples at the output
of the PK when indiqidual control rods and groups of control rods (from two to four
rods simultaneously) were moved. The results o� these experiments were also used
in this paper to calculate the coefficients of the transfer matrix of a reactor
used in determining the optimum movements of the control rods.
The method of processing the experiments reduced to the following. Relative changes
of the output of the channels being monitored were calculated by DPZ readings mea-
sured before and after the control rods were moved. The increase of the nuetron flux
density at an arbitrary point of the core was represented in the form of a linear
combination of approximating functions of given type with accuracy sufficient for
practical purposes that describe the more typical harnanics for the reactor under
consideration as the first radial and the first and second azimuth. The effect of
higher harmonics was taken into account by adding the weighting functions of the
control rods calculated on the basis of physical calculation. Moreover, the har-
monics mentioned previously were excluded from the weighting function.
The amplitudes of the approximating functions were calculated by the least squares
method from the condition of best approximation of the approximate distribution at
control ?oints to experimental data. The coefficients of the transfer matrix of
the reactor were determined from the values of amplitudes and the known type of
approximating functions found in this manner. It was also taken into account that
the automatic control rods for total output may excite the first radial and second
azimuth harnonics during operation of the disturbing actions. A check of the ade-
quacy of the developed model to experiment showed that the mean square deviation
of energy distribution found in experiment and on the model comprises approximate-
ly one percent when the same control rods are moved.
Formalization of the problem. Algorithm for.calculations. The practical suitabil-
ity of linearized models to describe a reactor as a control object in steady modes
permits one to use effectivie mathematical methods of linear programming theory
when working out optimum control alqorithms. Some versions of this approach to
- the problem of optimum control of energy distribution for domestic reactors were
first considered in [6, 7]. Solution of the pmblem of formulating the energy dis-
tribution profile using the standard simplex method in the sense of the minimum
coefficient of margin to maximum power was suggested in [6]. .
Unlike [6], an entire function determined by regulation of AMB reactor operation
and that characterizes the maximum modulus of deviation of the actual enargy dis-
tribution from the given distribution is used in this paper and the heat engineer-
ing restrictions are taken into account so that equalization of energy distribu-
tion is achieved while retaininq the given level of heat engi.neering reliability.
Moreover, a more effective algorithm of the modified simplex method was used when
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working out the computer program which made it possible to reduce the calc '.ating
time by approximately an order of magnitude when compared to [6].
Let us select vectors Q and QO of the production channel output of the core as
components Qi and Qi'with actual and gi.T�en energy distribution. To eliminate ex-
treme requirements on-the capacity of the internal storage of the computer, by
analogy with [6) let us divide the core into p polycells with number of production
channels in each of them Mp and let us determi.ne the mean output of the production
channel for each polycell at the actual and given energy distribution: .
-
M r - - - -
i p 1VI
Qp = Wp ~j Qt, QP = ~yp ~Q{, P = 9, . . . , P.
Variation of the deviation of inean output of the production channel of each polycelZ
from its value at qiven energy distribution is written as a function of the control
vector on the k-th.control step with regard to equation (1) in the form
n M
Q(k) _ jl(pk-1) p i P
Ap -QP-f- M~, }..,i Q(k-!)aI/) aPtk), (2)
fa! {a~ .
p=1, P, ,
where aij are the coefficients of the static matrix of the reactor inodel, dpJk) is
the reactivity introduced by the j-th control rod at t_1e k-th control step ad- n
is the number of control rods.
Thermophysical calculations and operating practice show that selection at maximum
output of the AMB-200 is essentially not affected by the IK for which the safety
factor to maximum output of the channel Kz exceeds 1.3 [4]. This permits one to
take into account the heat engineering restrictions of type
Zi (1 + ~ aijaP"') +
imf ='f~!
^ Nu
! f) ~ Ns
~'i2 ~n~~2 Q(kt- ait-N~~~ Q~k-')a1j) 8P$k)