JPRS ID: 10206 TRANSLATION PROCEDURAL QUESTIONS OF SETTING HEALTH SAFETY STANDARDS FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIO FREQUENCY RADIATIONS ED. BY B.M. SAVIN

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JPRS L/ 1.0206
22 Decemb.,.-r 1981
Translation
PROCEDURAL QUEST90N 3 OF SETTING HEALTH SAFETY STANDARDS
- FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIO FAEQUENCY RADIATI4NS
Ed. by
B.M. Savin
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JPRS L/10206
22 December 1981
PROCEDURAL DUESTIONS OF SETTING HEALTH SAFETY STANDARDS
FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIO FRE9UENCY RADIATIONS
Moscow METODOI,OGICHESKIYE VOPROSY GIGIYENICHESkOGO NORMIROVANIYA
ELEKTRO'HAGNITNYKH IZLUCHENZY RADIOCHASTONOGO DIAPAZONA in Russian 1979
PP 2-13 7
[Collected papers edited by B.M. Savin, Order of the Red Banner of
Labor Scientific Research Institute for Labor Health Safety and Occu-
pational Diseases of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow,
19791
CON1'ENTS
Annotation 1
Foreword 1
The Problem of Setting Health Safety Standards for Radio Frequency
Electromagnetic Radiations at the Present Stage 7
The Health Safety Substantiation of Approaches to Setting Standards for
Radio Waves 25
Methods of Study and the Evaluation of Experimental. Data in Setting
Health Safety Standards for Radio Emiseions 35
Methvds and Criteria for Evaluating the Results of Studies on Volunteers
in Resolving Questians of Setting Healch Safety Standards 43
~
The Tasks and Place of Clinical Research in Setting Health Safety
Standards for Electromagnetic Radio FrequPncy Fmissions 50
Information on the Addresses to the Seminar 56
Methods of Stsdy and F-valuation Criteria for the Biological Effect
of Electrical Fields at the Industrial Powe:r Frequency 68
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[Text] Annotation
The collection is primarily intended for scientific workers *'physicidns, biologists,
biophysicists, engineers) engaged in research in the field of nonionizing radia-
tions, in particular, those involved with the development of health safety stand-
ards for radio frequency electromagnetic emissions. Along with the history of
the field, also treated in the collection is the signi.ficance of the problem of
- setting health safety standards at the present stage of the scientific and engin-
eering revolution; differences in approaches to the evaluation of biological
effects are analyzed and procedural approaches tc setting health safety standards
for radio waves are also substantiate3, where these approaches are based on con-
cepts of the threshold nature of the harmful impact of a factor. Considerable
attention is devoted to the treatment of experimental, clinical-physiological and
public health ("industrial") study data and arguments concerning their signif-
icance in substantiating health safety standaids.
The materials contained in the collection encompass a brcad group of procedural
issues and will undoubtedly be of definite interest to persons engaged in setting
standards for other unfavorable environmental factors, as well as for instructors
in health safety specialty departments and public health physicians and industrial
patholugists.
Editorial Staff: K.V,Nikonova and T.F.Gomberg
- Foreword.
When solving ar.y scientic problem, questions of inethodology, as is well known,
are of primary importance. Just as a thoroughly thought out theory illuminates
~ the path of a scientific search, a refined procedure assures the success of any
experimental and theoretical investigation. In this regard, the problem of the
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biological effect of nonionizing electromagnetic radiations is no exception.
Moreover, by virtue of the complexity of the interpretation of various biological,
biophysical and physical laws, which govern the final result of an exposure, these
questions take on special importance within the framework of the indicated problem.
Tre collection offered to the readers contains a number of papers devoted to the
analysis of procedural questions of setting health safety standards for electro-
magnetic radiations (EMI) tEMR] at radi.o frequencies. Reports presented to the
All-Union Seminar on "Procedural Questions of Setting Health Safety Standards for
Nonionizing Radiations" (Moscow, 1977) were the basis for the collection.
The inadequate level of development of the questions indicated here is one of the
_ leading reasons for the sharp divergence in the values of the maximum permissible
levels (PDU) of radio frequency radiations which have been set in various nations.
At the present time, considerable phenomenological material has been accumulated
on the biologi_cal effect of radio waves. The organs, tissues, and systems which
are most sen.sitive to certain wavelengths have been ascertained. The clinical pic-
ture of disorders and lesions which occur in people systematically exposed to high
levels of microwave radiutions has been described sufficiently completel.y. Nonthe-
less, it is impossible not to note that up until recently, research on the problem
was conducted primarily with an eye towards accumulating individual facts. The
theoretical and procedural aspects of the problem were inadequately developed.
It is specifi.cally this which has to a considerable extent determined the occurrence
_ of two fur.damentally differing approaches to setting standar3s for electromagnetic
radio frequency radiations, in particular, the substantiation of the ultimate
permissible levels of microwave irradiation.
In the majority of western European nations and the U.S.,, health safety standards
are set by working from the concept of a purely thermal mechanism for the action
of microwaves, basing the work in this case on the thresholds of damage to so-
called critical organs -organs having the lowest level of vascularization and tre
- greatest sensitivity to a temperature elevation (the crystalline lens of the eye,
the cornea, testicles, etc.). The values of the ultimate.permissible irradiation
levels are calculated on the basis of simple thermodynamic computations. It is
assumed in this case that the quantity of heat liberated during dielectri,~, hsating
of tissues should be ten times less than that which tne human organism is capable
of absorbing in the form of radiative energy wit`+.out a continuous rise in body
temperature. In extrapolating for the entire body surface, this amounts to from
0.1 to 1 KW. Taking i.nto account the indicated values, the maximum permissible
level of energy flux density is set equal to 10.000 UW/cm2 for any time interval
with a duration of six minutes or more.
!n contrast to the majority of foreign countries, domestic public health safety
standards are based on concepts of the specific "nonthermal" effect of this kind
of radiation. Despite the fact that the starting concept for setting these stan-
dards is shared by the absolute majority of Soviet researchers, in the question of
_ which shifts in the status of physiological f.unctions of an organism can be
treated as an indicator of the harmful effect threshold of radio radiatior.s, the
opinions of the researchers diverge. Some authors feel that any reactions of the
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organism which occur as a response to the action of radio emissions can serve as
such an indicator, while others suppose that only reactions of health safety
significance are the indicatar for.the harmful effect thrpshold of radiations.
A consiaerable portion of the health safety standa.rds in force in the USSR ac the
present time was developed more than twenty years ago, when the biological effect
of radio waves had just started tQ be studied, while the principles of setting
health safety standards for a factor were extremeiy poarly developed. The existing
standards are in need of substantial correcticns and addenda. Undaubtedly, the
successful resolution of the problem of making existing otandards more precise and
incorporating corrections in them is possible only on the basis of the development
of a unified prucedural approach to the evaluation of the impact of a factor.
In recent years,.especially in the field of labor healtn safety, serious research
has been done on the development of the theoretical principles of making the
environment a healthy one. One of the leading principles of the theory of the
maxi-mum permissible levels for the action of various factors in the environment is
the concept of the effective threshold for the appropriate criteria of harmfulness.
As app:.ied to problems of setting standards for radio frequency radiations, the
resolution of the issue concerning the evaluation of the.importance of the dai:a of
special laboratories, clinical physiology and so-called.industrial studies is
likewise of substantial importance.: Numerous public health specialists and indus-
trial pathologists are- extremely critical of the possibility of setting the maxi-
mum permissible level for radio frequency, expecially micrnwave radiations, based
or.. the data obtained from studies gerformed on persons exposed to radiations under
industrial conditions, where there can be a successive exposure to various electro-
magnetic field intensities or even a combination of them with other factors.
Industrial studies do not usually a].low for a sufficiently precise accotinting for
the intensity, duration, conditions and other special features of the irradiation,
which are of greatest interest from the viewpoint of the problews to be solved.
In the literature, attention has already repeatly been devoted to rhe necessity of
an exceptionally careful approach to *he utilization of the results of these kinds
of studies. Moreover, it is impossible :,ot to note that over the course of a num-.
ber of years, there has been a trend towards exaggerating their significance, and
it is specifically zhis which has undoubtedly exerted a substantial influence on
the specific values of the maximum perieissible level of radio frequency radiations.
A detailed treatment of all of the questions enumerated above is given in the first
_ paper of the collection "The Problem of Setting Health Safety Standards for
Electromagnetic Radio Frequency Radiatic,ns at the Present Stage" (B.M. Savin).
The inadequate state of deve'Lopment of procedural approaches to the hea_1_th safety
evaluation of a factor a*_:d the principles of setting the maximum permissible
levels is the reason not only for the extremely sharp differences in specific
values of the maximum permissible level adopted in various nations, but also for
- the lack of a logical relationshig betweer. Fub?1ic health safety standards set in
the USSR for persons professionally exposed to a given faGtor, as weil as the
population. It is specifica?ly these questions which are treated in the second
paper "The Public Health Safety Substantiation of Approaches to 5etting Radio
Emissions Standards" (K.V. Nikonova and B.M. Savin). Approaches to establishing
the maximum permissible levels which standardize exposure parameters are also
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analyzed in it, as well as the requirements placed on health safety studiesj;
quesLions of the biological activity of exposures with various parameters are
also treated as well as the selection of health safety margin factors, ttLe extra-
polation of experimental data as aFplied to man and approaches to setting maximum
permissible exposures for various irradiation catagories.
By working fram the acknowledgement of the leading role of experimental studies
in substantiating the maximum permissible levels, it is extremely important to
resolve the question of study methods and evaluation criteria for experimental
data. The paper of A.G. Subbota and B.A. Chukhlovin is devoted to just this
question, in which the cons3derable personal research experience of the authors
is generalized.
Since setting the harmful effect threshold is related to the determination of
tho8e exposure parameters for which there is a trend towards a replacempnt of
purely adaptive processes byprocesses characterized by stress of compensatcry
functions, the question of evaluation crltexia for ascertained changes takes on
extremely great significance. The postulate advauced by the authors concerning
the "imperfection" of the so-called analytical (the definition of the authors)
- principle of comparing indicators before and after exposure is to a well-known
degree open to question. The latter, as is well known, is widely used in the
' study of the most diverse environmental factors. It turns out that an important
role should also be jet aside for this evaluation tecniGue in the case of radio
1 frequency electromagnetic radiations. Along with this, considering the poorly
pronounced biological activity of a factor, it is impossible not to admit as
substantiated the recommendation of the authors as regards the use of functional
loads, which make it possible to more successfully ascertai:i hidden changes
which occur. Original approaches co the evaluation of the harmfulness of a fac-
tor are treated in the paper, which provides for the study of the impact of
electromagnetic radiations on animals which are conditioned beforehand to another
factor or which suffer from some kind of illness or artificial breakdown in
regulator mechanisms (the synthetic princiole).
_ The paper by a group of authors (T.V. Kalyad, V.M. Nikitin and M.V. Shepelev) is
of undoubted interest from the viewpoint of substantiating the significance of
various research methods used in setting health safety standards for a factor;
the paper is devoted to an analysis of the requirements placed on the performance
of physiological-studies under industrial conditions, as well as in the laboratory
on volunteers. A large set of inethods was tested by the authors, at times
pxtremely complex ones, the most informative of which can be selected and recom-
mended for more wide scale application. As the main criterion in the evaluation
of the results of studies or. people, it is proposed that the r_riterian of func-
_ tiona.l accumulation be employed. Considering the importance of cumulative
processes, the use of the give.n indicator is enticing to be sure. Nontheless,
if one works from the concepts develaped by the authors in accordance with which
accumulation is understood to be any changes in the level of functioning of
physiological systems, then the indicated proposal raises a definite kind of
objection. It turns out that the rearraagement of a level of functioning in
general cannot be enuated with accumulation. .A rearrangement can be of an adapt-
ive nature and directed towards the equaljzation of external effects, since the
development of cumulative processes is evidence of the initial stage of disorders
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and that the organism is not coping with the load falling on it. From this point
of view, the possibility of using such an indicator as accumulation in studies on
volunteers is a cause for dQUbt.
The question of levels of functioning of the physiological systems of an organism
requires a special effort at greater precision. How is a new level of functioning
to be understood? Any changes in the indicators being studied or which have
definite attributes (quantitative or qualitattve), which distinguish them from
tiie preceding ones?
EvPrything that has been said attests to the necessity of further developing the
question of evaluation criteria for the results of physiological studies performed
on peaple.
As has already been indicated above, clinical studies are of great importance for
more precisely specifying the maximum permissible irradiation level. The priority
as regards the detailed investtigation of clinical inanifestations of radio wave
exposures, predominantly in the microwave band, undoubtedly belongs to Soviet
authors. It is shown that the most frequent clinical forms of disorders are:
vegetative dystonia, and as a special case, neurocirculator dystonia with diverse
disorders flf central and/or peripheral hemodynamics: neurasthenic and astheno-
neurotic syndromes; various degrees of tlhe extent to which vegetative-vascular
paroxysms are pror.ounced, etc. However, more or less satisfactory data on the
exposure levels to which these manifestations are related have been lacking up
to the present time. Moreover, the majority of researchers in the U.S. and a
number of western European r.ations deny the possibility af unfavorable conse-
quences from electromagnetic radiations in the cage of exposure to nonthermal
intensities.
= The paper of V.G. Artamonava and A.Ye. Vermel' is devoted to the problem of
clinical studies in the light of solving questions of setting health safety
- standards. For the purpose of making the ciinical, manifestations of electro-
magnetic radiation phenomena more objective and sttidying the immediate and
remote consequences of Exposure to EMR, it is expedient r.o perform studies in
accordance with specially developed programs. In this case, considerable atten-
tion should be devoted to the relatiunship between various changes in the health
- status of man with irradiation levels. The results of epidemiological studies
' are of special importance.
- Research in subsequent years should lead to the attaining of a greater mutual
- understanding among scicntists working in the problem area and to the elimination
of substantial differences both in the treatment of the clinical changes and in
the irradiation levels permitted at the present time by the standards 3f various
- countries.
In accordance with the wishes of the seminar participants, tihe remarks of its
participants in discussions of tiYe reports, as well as in the overall concluding
di.scussion, have been reflected in the collection (the review paper by I.P,
Sokolova and Ye.K. Lebed'). It turns out that the interested reader will become
fa~ailiar with the opinion of a number of leading specialists in the prablem area
concerning the individual questions which were touched on.
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Also included in the collection in somewhat abbreviated form is a report devoted
to methods of stcdy and evaluation criteria for the biological impact of elec-
trical fields at the industrial power frequency (B.M. Savin, M.G. Shandala, K.V.
Nikonova and Yu.A. Morozav), presented to the Soviet-American symposium on ultra-
high voltage electrical power transmission (Tashkent, 1978). An attempt was made
in the report based on an analysis of existing data ta reveal the reasons for the
contradictory nature of opinions of Soviet and foreign authors on the question of
the biological effect of a factor and procedural questions of performing experi-
mental studies on animals were discussed; the question of interpreting the results
~ obtained and approaches to setting standards for electrical fields at the indus-
- trial power frequency for various categories of persons is also treated.
The authors hope that the papers contained in the collection will promote the
working out of a single concept of the setting of health safety standards for
radio frequency electromagnetic emissions and will gratefully accept all critical
remarks and proposals related to the questions under study. They will all be
taken into account in compiling the procedural handbook which is planned ror
publication: "Procedural Recommendations for the Performance of S*_udies Which
Have the Goal of Substantiat.ing the Maximum Permigsible Level of Radio Frequency
Radiations".
Professor B.M. Savin
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THE PRUBLEri OF SETTING HL�'ALTH SAFEtY STANDARDS FOR RADIQ FREQUENCY ELECTP.OMAGNETIC
RADIATIOidS AT THE PRESENT STAGE
B,M. Savin
The problem of setting health safety standards for electromagnetic radio fre-
quency fields as a factor in an industrial setting and the residential environ-
ment has taken on special urgency in recent years.
The rapid development of radio communications, radar and television has led to
s the fact that a significant portion of the globe's population has come to be
subjected to electromagnetic radio frequency radiations. At the present time, it
- is difficult to find a sector of the economy or sphere of human activi.ty in which
a systematic expansion of the area of application of electromagnetic energy
would not be observed to accomplish the most diverse operations, from heating,
welding, melting metals, the heat treatment of lumber and plastics to the
creation of a high temperature plasma and the use of microwave oscillators in
moderr computers. The use of electromagnetic energy determines the possibility
- for creating fundamentally new types of-technologies and production processes.
It is specifically in this regard in line with the resolutions of the 25th CPSU
Congress that an important place has been set aside for the further aevelopment
of radio electronics and electrical power engineering in improving the technical
- level of production and providing for qualitative shifts in the development of
- all sectors of our nation's economy. This leads to an even wider dissemination
of radio engineering hardware and electronic instruments, for which even higher
powers will be characteristic as well as new frequency bands and generation
modes.
= To resolve the fuel and energy problem of the European area of tixe USSR and the
Urals, the ?Oth Five-Year Plan provided for placing long electric power trans-
mission lines at a yoltage of up to i,150 KV in service. This is responsible
for the special urgency o� questions of studying the biological effect of elec-
trical fields at the industrial power frequency, both from the viewpuint of the
influence of a factor on the human organism, as well as on fauna, flora and the
ecosystem as a whole. There are all the reasons to asgume that in the upcoming
10 to 15 years t:lere will be a further expansion of the number of persons system-
atically exposed in the process of their work activity to the effect of radio
emission levels of health safety significance. Along with those persons profes-
sionally involved with sources of electromagnetic radiations, an increasingly
greater contigent of nonprofessionals and the populace will be subjected to their
effects. In this case, the borderline between professional and nonprofessional
radiation levels will be erased to an ever greater extent. Even at the present
time, the irradiation levels for persons not involved in servicing radio engin-
- eering hardware prove to frequently be higher than the irradiat.ion levels of
professionals. The rise in the overall radio background will undoubtedly lead
to further ieveling of the differences in irradiation levels not only for the
indicated two groups of workers, but also for the population. This is respons-
ible for the necessity of ajoint developmental effort .for questions of indus-
- trial and public health safety.
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In the situation which has arisen, questions of preventing an unfavorable effect
of radio wave emissions take on special significance. It is not accidental that
one of the tasks assigned by the 25th CPSU Congress in the fizld of health safety
- is the development of new techniques and means of cambatting exposures to elec-
trical atid magnetic fieZds and radiations.
_ The major ways of preventing an unfavorable effect from a given factor are to be
considered the development of the maximum permissible level of radio frequency
radiations, as well as protective measures which provide for their strict
observance. It is specifically the health safety standards which are the basis
and the foundation for all preventive, sanitary and environmental protection
measures. It was towards this, in particular, that attention was turned at the
38th Session of the USSR Academy of Medical Sr_iences, devoted to questions of
the development of inedical sciQnce and the practical introduction of its results
in the 10th Five-Year Plan in light of the resolutions of the 25th CPSU Congress.
Health safety standards can be treated as an indicator of the status of the
development of one public health safety probiem or another. And if the specific
values of the maximum permissihle level are determined, primarilq, by the degree
of our knowledge of the effect of a particular factor and the level of heaith
~ standards theory, then the "set" of such standards is an indicator of the
extent to which the questions have been worked out f.rom the standpoint of prac-
tical interests. In this regard, the history of how the standards adopted at the
~ gresent time came to be is of definite interest.
The first temporary standards for,electromagnetic radiation:e in the radio fre-
quency band were adopted more than 20 years ago in our country. It must be neted
that during those years, the Soviet Union was the only nation in the world where
the level of permissible exposure to a factor was regulated in state policy. The
recommended standaids enconapassed a frequency range from 100 KHz to 300 MHz. In
1957, based on studies performed at the Institute of Occupational Diseases and
' Labor Health Szifety of t.he USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and the Military
Medical Academy imeai S.M. Kirov, standards were set for the centimeter wave-
length band (Table 1). In 1962, following a few additional, investigations,
these standards were Prproximated for the band of decimeter and millimeter wave-
lengths. In 1964, the standards were made more precise for tre 100 KHz to 300
MHz range and differential maximum pern:issible levels were established for the
fflllowing bands: medium and long waves, short waves as weli as ultrashort wave;s.
The maximum permissible level was made more grecise in 1971. It dealt with the
electrical component for the long and medium wavelength band (100 KHz to 3 Mliz),
- as well as the establishing of differential maximum permissible levels both with
respect to the electrical and magnetic components for the initial partion of the
VHF band (3250 MHz). Somewhat later, based on proposals of the Khar'kov Insti-
tute of Labor Health Safety and Occupational Diseasesy the maximum permissible
levels were determined for the 60 to 100 KHz band.
The developmental course of the absolute maximum permissible levels for the VHF
band over the period from 1955 to 1979 is shown in Table 2.
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FOR OFF[CCAL tlSE ONLY
TABLE 2
Values of the Maximum Fermissible Level of VHF Radiations in the
Period from 1955 through 1979
Years
1955 1964 1972 1979
- 30--300 MHz 30--300 MHz 30--50 MHz 30--50 IMz
5--10 V/m 5 V/m 10 V/m; 10 V/m;
- 0.3 A/m 0.3 A/m
- 50--300 MHz 50--300 MHz
5 V/m 5 V/m
It follows from the data in the table that over the indicated period (24 years)
- practically no signif icant cnanges took place in the values of the established
maximum permissible levels.
The same thing occured with the standards set for microwave band radio emissions
(Table 3). Approved for the first time in 1957, they practically did not change
. over this period of time. Only in later years were they made slightly more precise
- with corrections :.!hich involved the use of the indicated standards for the per-
- iodic irradiation of personnel from scanning antennas and the case of the combined
effect of_ microwaves and sof.t X-ray radiation and a high ambient temperature.
In 1976y ail of the maximum permissible levels which had been worked out before-
hand were incorporated in GOST 12.1.006-76: "SSBT, Electromagnetic Radio Frequency
- Fields. General safety requirements", implemented beginning 1 January, 1977.
The establishing of regulations for the maximum permissible electromagnetic radia-
tions in the radio frequency band has played an important part in improving the
work health safety conditions for persons working with radio wave sources in var-
ious sectors of the economy. Their impiementation promoted the elimination of
cases of occupational pathology related to ,exposure to a f actor. However, the
standards in f orce at the present time are in need of further refinement and need
to be made more precise. The majority of tiie established maximum permissible
levels was recommended during those years where the biological impact of EMR had
, just started to be studied, because of which, the question of adequate models and
= principles for extrapolating experimental data from animals to man was extremely
- poorly worked out. Technical progress led to the introduction of new frequency
_ bands and new radiation modes into the national economy, for which the existing
standards were not designed.
The constancy of the health safety standards noted above could be due to one of
the following circumstances: either the fact that the propQSed maximum permissible
levels were distinguished from the very start by a hieh degree of precision, or by
- 10 -
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APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/09: CIA-RDP82-00850R000500010004-1

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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
the fact that their further imgrovement did not receive the requisite attention,
_ or finally, by the fact that the possibility of successfully resolving the indi-
_ cated question was made sharply difficult by virtue of a number of factors of a
medical, biological and technical nature. Just.the f act alone that unified maxi-
- mum permissible levels were established for extremely wide frequency band, the
edge porzions of which liave pronounced differences in their biological effect,
places the rightfulness of the first of the propositions presented above in doubt.
For individual portions of a band, in particular, from 30 to 300 GHz, the stand-
ards were experimentally worked out to an insufficient degree and were essentially
extrapolated from the adjacent band. Moreover, while centimeter and especially
decimeter band radiations can reach vitally important organs in penetrating deep
into tissue, millimeter band emissions are practically completely absorbed in the
surface layers of the skin.
For the freauency bands from 1.5 to 30 MHz and from 50 to 300 MHz, the standards
for which should be set with respect to both the magnetic and the electrical com-
ponenes, standards have been set only for the electrical component. Along'with
this, it has been found in recent years that in the case of large dimengions of
a biological object, the energy contribution of the magnetic field component in
the HF and VHF bands can be signi�icantly greater than the energy contribution
of the electrical component of the field [1]. The amount of energy absorbtion
- by a body which is due to'the H field increases in proportion to the square,of
its linear dimensions. The latter Teads to substantial differences in the
amounts of magnetic field energy absorbtion.by the body of man and small animals.
Depending on the frequency band, other parameters of the external field being
the same, the differences in the energy absorbtion by biological objects o�
different geometric dimensions can reach one, two and sometimes even higher
orders of magnitude. Thus, while in the microwave band (above 300 MHz) the
averaae and maximum specific absorbed power in a human body is usually 2 to.15
times less than in the bodies of small laboratory ani.mals (rabbits, rats, mice),
in the region of lower frequencies (less than 100 MHz) the inverse relationships
are observed: a human body interacts with an external field some 5 to 30 times
more than the tiodies of small animals [2]. Moreover, these differences in the.
specific features of electromagnetic field energy absoxbtion were not taken into
account when substantiating health safety standards, although a significant por-
. tion of the maximum permissible level was established on the basis.of experiments
performed specifically on small laboratory animals. ,
It must also be noted that with the exception of the microwave band, the maximum
permissible levels are not differentiated with respect to time, so that unjusti-
fied difficulties are frequently created in their realization under industrial
- conditions. Huwever, even for this band of frPquencies, the established maximum
permissible levels are to a certain extent in contradiction with the general
biological laws governing the respor.se of an organism to such exposure. It is
not difficult to convince oneself of this with a comparison of the permissible
standards for the energy relationships at various exposure tntensities and dura-
tions. Thus, in the case of an eight-hour exposure to an electromagnetic field,
a value of 10 pW/cm2 has been set as the maximum value of the energy flux density;
for a two-hour exposure it is 100 uW/cm2; and for 20 minutes it is 1000 uW/cm2.
It is not difficult to calculate that the amount of incident energy will be
- 12 -
_ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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4,800 uW�min/cm2 in thz first case (10 uW/cm2 x 8 x 60 min); in the second case
it is 12,000 uW�min/cm2 (100 uW/cm2 x 2 x 60 min), and in the third case, 20,000
uW�min/cm2 (100 uW/cm2 x 20 min).
, Thus, the permissible energy exposure levels are not equal for the various energy
flux densities. Moreover, simultaneously with the increase in the value of tlne
energy flux densi.ty (an increase in the intensity of the effective factor), the
standard norms permit an increase in the total amount of incident energy, and
consequently, also in the absorbed energy. The contradiction cited above is
especially clearly manifest in the "Public Health Norms and Rules when Working
with Sources of High, Ultrahigh and Superhigh Frequency Electromagnetic Fields",
No. 848-70, which permitted the sequential exposure of workers to two levels of
electromagnetic flux densities: 10 uW/cm2 and 100 uW/cm2 and 10 uW/cm2 and 1000
- uW/cm2. In the latter case, the total amount of incident microwave energy on a
man during the course of a working day could reach 24,600 uW�min/cm2, which is
50 times greater than the amount of energy permitted in the case of exposure to
' a field with an energy flux density of 10 uW/cm2. It must be noted tt!at this same document sets the ultimate value of the energy
flux density for the populace at 1 uW/cm2. It is easy to compute that the
permitted amount of incident energy should not exceed 1,440 uW�min/cm2 in this
case over the course of a 24-hour day, and 480 uW�min/cm2 over 8 hours, which
is more than 50 times lower than is permitted for persons working professionally
with the given factor. For none of the factors for which standards are set is
there such significant differences in the maximum permissible levels established
for workers and the population.
Although GOST 12.1.006-76 "SSBT. Electromagnetic Radio Frequency Fieltis. General
Safety Requireuents also does not provide for a variant of sequential exposure
of workers at 3ifferent field intensities, nonetheless it is not free of substan-
tial contradictions as regards the quantities of permitted energy for various
worker exposure times in a microwave field.
Finally, it must be noted that some of the established maximum permissible levels
differ from foreign values by a factor of 1000 or more (Table 4). It is hardly
necessary to prove that with all of their stri,ctness in precluding the possibility
of damaging the health Qf man, the maximum permissible level should not be unjust-
ifiably stringent, since meeting them will entail unjustified economic expendi-
tures to implement protective measures and can be a break to further technical
progress. ,
~ The development of the international ties, which is accompanied by an ever wider
exchange of various equipment, including generators of electromagnetic radio
frequency emissions, is responsible for the special urgency of bringing the health
= safety standards closer together. The effective utilization of such equipment is
possible only under the condition that there are maximum permissible levels of
electromagnetic radiations as well as methods of evaluating and measuring them
which are close in value. This kind of standardization becomes vitally essential,
primarily for states which are members of the CEMA.
~ ' - 13 -
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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y
TABLE 4
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLV
" Comparative Characteristic5 of Microwave Exposure Levels
Permitted in Various Countries
- Country
Frequency Band,
GHz
NatuYe'ef the 'Maximum Permissible
Irradiation Level
USSR 0.3--300
Continuous
10 uW/cm2 for 8
hours
~ GDR
100 uW/cm2 for 2
hours
- Bulgarian
1000 uW/cm2 for
20 miriutes
People's
Intermittent
100 uW/cm2 for 8
hours
Republic
1000 uW/cm2 for
2 hours
Czecho- 0.3--300
Continuous
200 uW/cm2�hr
slovakian
Pulsed
80 uW/cm2�hr
SSR
Polish
0.3--300
Continuou.o
10 uW/cm2 for an unlimited time
People's
200 uW/cm2 for 8 hours
Republic
from 200 uW/cm2 to 10 mW/cm2:
_
T(hr)=32/(W/m2)2
Intermittent
100 uW/cm2 for an unlimited time
1000 uW/cm2 for 8 hours
from 1000 uW/cm2 to 10 mW/cm2:
-
T(hr)=800/(W/m2)2
U.S.
0.01--100
Any
10 mW/cm2 for an unlimited time
Holland
0.3--300
for intensities above 10 mW/cm2,
a dose equal to 1 mW/cm2�hr every
0.1 hr .
England
0.3--300
Any
10 mW/cm2 for an unlimited time
FRG
France
Canada 0.3--300 Any 10 mW/cm2 for an unlimited time
At intensities of from 10 mW/cm2
to 100 mW/cm2:
T(min)=6000/(mW/cm2)2
What has been said fully applies not only to the hardware used in various sectors
- of the economy, but also to various radio engineering facilities such as radio and
television stations, radar complexes, as well as high voltage power transmission
' lines. If for our country with its enormous territory, the question o= the place-
- ment of radio engineering facilities is already becoming quite acute, then it is
comp"letely understandable how acute it is in those countries where the population
density is high while the territory is limited.
- 14 -
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It would be erroneous to assume that the drawbacks cited above in the field of
setting health safety standards for radio frequency electromagnetic emissions were
the result of a lack of the necessary attention to the indicated problem. An
analysis of the subject area being worked on by the corresponding scientific staffs,
just as the publications, gives evidence to ;:he contrary. The sitiiation urhich has
arisen is due primarily to the underestimatioii of the significance of the theory
- of setting public health safety standards for nonionizing radiations, in particular,
questions of inethodology. The latter has been reflected in the lack of unified
criteria for the estimation of biological effects of radio wave exposures, in the
i.nsufficiently correct evaluation of the specific significance of the data of
experimental, clinical physiological and public health research in substantiating
_ the maximum permissible levels, as well as in the inadequate level of development
of the principles of extrapolating the data obtained in animal experiments to
humans.
_ The principle of quantizing portions of the electromagnetic radio frequency emission
spectrum from the standpoint of establishing the appropriate maximum permissible
levels and the principle of evaluating the biological effects of radio wave expos-
ures from the viewpoint of their health safety significance are of special impor-
- tance in the entire broad group of questions related to the scientific substantia-
tion of health safety-standards for radio wave exposures. As far as the first
' question is cor.cerned, it must be pointed out that the basis adopted at the present
time for the partitioning of electromagnetic radio frequency radiations into stand-
ard sections is essentially a technical classification, which is close in prinici-
ple to the classification structure of radio frequencies provided by the interna-
tional radio communications regulations (Tables 5 and 6). In both classificatians,
each of the bands differs from the preceding one by an order of magnitude. From
the viewpoint of engineering, this principle is of undoubted advantage, however,
from medical, biologic�1 and health safety standpoints, it cannot be considered a
reasonable one. Apparently, a more substantiated classification from the viewpoint
of problems of setting health safety standards for electromagnetic radiations is
one in which the basis would be the fundamental laws governing the interaction of
electromagnetic radiations wi.th a human body. In particular, if one bases the
work on a purely power engineering approach to the evaiuation of the influence of
- electromagnetic radiations, assuming that in the final_ analysis the bioYogical
effect is governed by the amount of absorbed energy and the specific features of
its spatia'_ distribution in various regions and structures of the body, it is an
undoubted fact that the quantization of the bands sho+ild be realized primarily
on the basis of the relevant indicators. The latter according to the data of
biological radiometrological studies, are determined to a considerable extent by
the ratio of the dimensions of the biological object and the wavelength of the
i incident radiation. The results-of the research which has been done provide a basis for assuming that
_ from the standpoint of the specific features of electromagnetic field energy
~ absorbtion, the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radio frequency emissions can
expediently be subdivided into three sections or regions, for which the standard
- setting methodology and principles should differ substantially. Electromagnetic
emissions at a wavelength considerably greater than the linear dimensions of a
biological object should be included in the first; those with dimensions consider-
ably Iess in the second, and in the third, those with a wavelength commensurate
- 15 -
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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- 16 -
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with the dimensions of a body or its individual parts. As app?ied to man, the
corresponding frequency regions are: for the first, < 30 MHz, far the second,
> 10,000 MHz and for the trird, 30 to 10,000 MHz. Characteristic of the first
region is the fact that the energy absorption level, and consequently the specific
- absorbed power falls off rapidly with a reduction in frequEncy, app�roximately
proportionally to the square of the frequency. A distinctive feature of the
second frequency range is the very rapid attenuation of electromagnetic radiation
energy when penetrating into tissue. In this frF:quency range, practically all
of the EMR Pnergy is absorbed in the surface layers of biological strucLUres.
The specific absorbed energy in the skin does not depend on the shape or dimen-
sions of the irradiated object. For the third range, which is intermediate in
terms ot the frequency, a characteristic �eature is the existence of a number of
absorption maxima, where a body seems to draw a field into itself an.d absorb more
energy than arrives at its cross-section. In this case, interference phenomena
are sharply pronounced, which lead to a sharp dependence of both tlie overall
- absorption and the distribution of the absorbed energy on the specific values of
th�B wavelenths, dimensions and anatomical structure of the organs and electrical
properties of-the tissues.
Unfortunately, up to the present time, the specific features of electromagnetic
field energy absorption and distribution considered above have not been reflected
to the requisite extent in the practice of setting health safeiy standards, in
- particular, when extrapolating experimental research data from animals to man.
' This is related to a consi.derable extent both to the inadequate amount of study
of the problem and to serious procedural difficulties in estimating electromag-
~ netic field energy absorption and distribution in biological objects.
In light of modern concepts of the possibility of the specific effect of electro-
~ magnetic radiations on an organism, it would apparently be incorrect to approach
the substantiation of the maximum permissible level5 exclusively from power
engineering viewpoints, it mnst nonetheless be supposed that the considerations
treated above are to be taken into account when developing the appropriate health
safety standards.
In dealing with the question of evaluating the biological effects of radio fre-
quency exposures from the viewpoint of their health safety significance, it must
be underscored that considerable phenomenological material has been accumulated
at the present time, which attests to the great diversity of the responses of the
organism to radio wave exposures. The biological effects occurring in thib case
can be manifest in the most diverse forms: from barely perceptible functional
shifts which fall withi.n the range of the resolving power of existing methods of
investigation up to clearly pronounced morphological disturbances which attest
to the development of an explicit pathology. While as far as organic disturb-
ances are concerned there are no differences in their analysis, and they are
treated by aIl researchers as a manifestation of radio frequency insults, as
regards the evaluation of biological effects which are manifest in the form of
shifts in the functional status of particular systems, much yet continues to
remain debatable. Some authors consider it possible to view any reactions of
an organism in response to radio frequency exposures as an indicator of their
unfavorable effect and to treat them as being of health safety significance [3],
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i while other consider it essential to differentiate the reactions occurri-Lzg in this
case into two independent groups: those r..flecting manifestations of radio fre-
quency sensitivity and those characterizing the development of radio frequency
damage [4]. The specific features of the treatment of reactions cunsidered abuve are detPi-
_ mined not sa much by differences in the mechanism of radio radiation action, as
- much as they are by diffErences in the methodological approach to the evaluation
of tYLe action of a factor. The latter have a fundamental influence on the contents
embodied in the concept "harmful action threshold", which, as is well known, is
the basis for the entire system of setting health safety standards (5].
_ Depending on the approach employed, the specific values of the maximum permissible
levels vary significantly, and the differences between them can reach several
- orders of magnitude. It is specificaily these questions which must be dealt with
in more detail, since they are spe,~ifically the ones of fundamental importance in
resolving questions of setting standards.
When evaluating the biological ef.Eects of radio frequency emissions, it is
essential to take into account both the specific features of a given factor and
the overall biological laws governing organism response to the action of various
stimuli.
As is well known, the basis for any biological reactions related to the action of
external stimuli is the property of everything living: irritability. This
property is manifest with the action of a particular factor in the occurrence,
amplification or attenuation of its activity, or in a structural change. The
extent to which these reactions are pronounced can vary in the widest possible
limits. It must be noted that the reactions themselves occur when the stimuli
reach definite intensities, which characterize,.the sensitivity t'nreshold of:a par-
ticular biostructure. The sensitivity thresholds of various biastructures to
exposure to specific stimuli differ substantially. Their absolute value depends
not only on the biological features and functional status of the biostructures,
but also on the physical properties of the stimulus, the time that it acts and
the rate of rise. The threshold intensity as a function of the exposure time to
a stimulus is characterized by a hyperbolic type curve and is expressed by the
- empirical foi-mula:
J = (a/t) + b,
where: J is the threshold-intensity of the stimulus;
t is the time that its acts;
_ a is a constant determined by the properties of the tissues;
b is the threshold for the case of unlimited exposure to the stimulus.
The dependence of thresholds on the rate of rise uf a stimuliis is expressed by an
exponential curve, which reflects the development of the accomodation processes.
= At the present time, considerable experimental material has been accumulated which
attests to the fact that the extent to which biological reactions are pronounced
with the action of radio frequency emissions obeys the laws described above [6].
Yt is specifically this which provides a basis for treating many biological
effects of radio wave exposure as a manifestation of radio wave sensitivity.
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Tr.eating the latter as a manifestation of irritability, it is necessary to study
in sonewhat more detail the physiological evaluation of radio frequency radiationc
as a stimulus. There is no doubt at all that the given irritant uelongs among the
group of physical stimuli. A more complex issue is the resolution ci the question
of its adequacy. If we work from the definition adopi:ed in physiology, in accord-
ance with which all stimuli are included among the adequate ones which, first of
all, act on a given biological structure under natural conditions and secondly,
for the perception of which the structure is specially adapted, and thirdly, the
sensitivity to which is extremely high in the structure, then there are a number
of reasons for treating a rather wide spectral range of radio frequencies as an
adequate stimulus, or one c_.ose.to it.
- Under the usual conditions of their exister.ce, the orgatiisms of animals and man
are constantly subjected to radio frequency emissions of a rather wide frequer_cy
range. It is known that a consideratile portion of the so-called natural electro-
magnetic radiation spectrum, which is one of the constant factors in the environ-
ment, is composed of radio frequency emissions. They are comprised of the radio
emissions of terrestrial, solar and galactic origin. While the intensity of the
latter is low, the intensity of the radiations related to processes occurring in
the earth's atmosphere, especially during thunderstorm activity, is quite signif-
icant: it can reach hundreds of volts per meter, while the frequency character-
~ istics of these radiations fall in a range from 10 Hz to 10 MHz [7],
A rather wide range of electroraagnetic emission fiequencies is of solar origin.
- The earth's atmosphere is a comparatively weak absorber of electromagnetic
radiations at a wavelength of fram 1 cm to 30 - 35 m. The level uf radio emissions
; related to processes occurring on the sun can exceed the natural radio back-
_i ground level by tens, hundreds and even thousands of times. Thus, in the process
I of evalutionary development, every living xhing has constantly come up against
the action of these kinds of radiations.
At the present time, considerable experimental material has been accumulated which
argues in favor of the fact that the natural electromagnetic background has '
exerted a definite influence on the development and vital activity of organisms,
and that organisms use natural electromagnetic radiations as a source of infor-
mation which provides for a continuous interaction with the changing conditians
in the environment.
Research results give evidence that the most diverse organisms, starting with
single cells and ending with man exhibit an exceptionally high sensitivity to
electrical and magnetic fields, the parameters of which are close tc the natural
parameters of the fields of the biosphere [8].
Various reactions occur in an organism with the actions of electroffiagnetic fields
of hundreds of thousands and even millions of times weaker than would be antici-
- pated if one worked from the concepts of a purely power engineering character for
the biological effects. The biological effects of weak electromagnetic fields
which are unexplanable from the standpoint of purely energy interactions with the
matter of living tissues can be understood from the viewpoint of their perception
by receptor systems, which in contrast to technical sensors, which transform
- ener.gy, react to a stimulus only as a starting mechanism.
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The data of comgarative anatomy and physiology attesz to tfie fact that many organ-
isms have special systems '(structures) adapted for thp percen�ion of electromag-
netic fields in the radio frequency range [9]. Their sensitivity to radio fre-
quency exposures is not inferior to the sensitivity of other Ferception systems
with respect to the action of adequate stimuli.
Many biological objects (fish, birds, insects) have well developed structural and
functional electromagnetic reception mechanisms, the senG4.lftvity of which to
electromagnetic fields is exceptionally high. Thus, for example, the electrical
receptoxs of fish react to low frequency electromagnetic fields with an intensity
of 10-6 V/m, and to high frequency fields with an intensity on the order of
4 � 10-1 V/m [10].
By working from the experimental data on the perception of electromagnetic fields
by animals, it can be supposed that they are represented to some extent in man -
also. Evidence in favor of this, in particular, comes from the results of inves-
tigations related to working out the conditional reflexes with the action of
extremely weak magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiations [8], as well as
_ data on the change in membrane permeability with exposure to an electromagnetic
field. As is well known, all receptor processes, regardless of which stimulus
(or factor) action determines them, are manifest as a change in the plasmatic
membrane permeability of the receptor. The absence of,subjective perception of
radio frequency emissions cannot serve as proof of the lack of reception. All
interoception is essentially undisputable.
_ However, it :nust be noted that biological structures experience the influence of
radio frequency electromagnetic fields not only from the environment, but also
those of "somatic" origin, i.e. not only those of an exogenic nature, but also
endogenic. In :he life activity process in all cells, organs and tissues,
electromagnetic fields constantly arise, the frequency spectrum of which, accord-
- ing to modern data, is rather wide and runs from fractions of a Hz up to a
hundred kilohertz-[11]. These fields are apparently completely adequate for
nerve structures. Thus, under natural conditions, biological structures constant-
ly experience the action of electromagnetic radiations, the frequency spectrum of.
which encompasses practically the: entire range of radio wavelengths: from
extremely long to microwaves; an excepticn is only the EHF frequencies - the
range of millimeter wavelengths.
If one agrees that radio frequency electromagnetic radiations cannot be treated
as a factor which by its nature is unusual for an argaaism, but are a stimulus
which is to a known extent even adequate (with the exception of their coherency),
then it must be admitted that it would be erroneous to treat any reactions of an
organism which occur as a rpsponse to exposure to this stimulus as a manifestion
of disturbances in organism activity.
The action of various environmental factars - light, sound, vibrations, acceler-
ations, high and low temperatures, changes in the gas medium - result in extremely
_ diverse reactions of an arganism. However, up to a definite stimuli intensity
level, these reactions are not treated as a manifestation of pathology. Thus,
a change in the position of the body relative to the gravitational field vector,
a drop in the partial pressure of oxygen when going uF in altitude, a change in
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the temperature of the Pnvironment er atmaspher'.c ion composition all lead to
the appearance of an entire set of reactions: achange in the rate a.nd depth of
respiration, the hemodynamic or heat exchange status, etc. However, if the issue
is not one of a sharply pronounced oxygen deficit ar significant changes in the
ambient temperature, then all of the indicated changes disappexr comparative'Ly
rapidly ;ollowing the cessation of exposure to the factor, something which pro-
vides a basis for treating them as a-purely physio"Logical phenomenon of an adapt-
ive and compensatory nature.
The accumulated experimental materials make it possible to treat many biological
effects of radio wave exposure specifically aQ a manifestation of irritability,
and not as a consequence of the development of pathological processes. It must
be noted that a significant portion of effects of a physiotherapeutic nature is
due specifically to these kinds of reactions. Apparently, we would be making a
definite methodological error if we did not attempt to differentiate these reac-
tions trom reactions which are characterized by the development of radio frequency
damage. Of course this can be done only with a solid scientific foundation for
the relevant criteria.
It is well known how considerahle the differences are in the levels of light
energy which cause visual perception and which lead to damage to the retina.
Under the most favorable conditions for light perception (with maximum eye adap-
tation to darkness), the sensitivity of the eye is close to the physicallq
ultimate sensitivity and amounts to about 1- 10-10 - 1- 10'11 erg/sec. Damage
occurs to th9 retina though when exposed to light having an energy on rhe order
of 4.18 � 10 erg/sec. Thus, the range of light intensities perceived by the
eye is on the order of 150 dB. The same governing ?aws are preserved as regardg
the action of other stimuli. Thus, the difference in perception.thresholds and
pain thresholds with the action of inechanical stimuli is about 160 dB. The
range of adaptive perception of sound stimuli is about 120 to 140 dB.
Thus, thE ranges of various stimuli intensities which fall within the zone of
adaptive perception, fall well outside the limits of 100 dB.
- The shifts in the functional status which occur in the range of intensities
indicated here, both within the bounds of the revelant afferent system and in
other systems of an organism are to be treated as a manifestation of organism
sensitivity to the given stimulus. A characteristic feature of the reactions
occurring in this case is their rapid normalization 'following the cessation of
stimulus action, the lack of cumulative effects as well as the development of
accomodation phenomena in the corresponding receptor apparatus. It is specific-
ally these kinds of effects which we frequently come up against when dealing with
exposure to low level electromagnetic radiations.
The boundaries of the range of adaptive perception of radio wave radiations, just
as for other sttmuli, are determined on one hand by the radio frequency sensitiv-
ity threshold of th2 corresponding percepti.on systems, and on thQ other, by the
damage thresholas of individual biological structures.
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J For some biological structures having a low sensitivity to a given type of
exposure, the radio frequency sensitivity and radio frequency damage thresholds
can coincidE, as a result of which, there can be practically no region of adap--
- tive perception o� radio frequency emissions. Along with this, it can prove to
- be quite considerable for struc:tures which have an extremely ].ow irritation
- threshold. Based on what has been presented, the entire spectrum of radio frequency emission
intensities can be broken down into three ranges: the subthreshold range, the
adaptive perception range and the damage range.
- In turn, the adaptive perception range is to be subdivided into three regions:
the indifferent region,.the region of active adaptation and the region of extreme
exposures. The first of them borders the subthreshold range (their separation
- boundary is the threshold of radio wave sensitivity), and the third borders the
damage.
Characteristic of the indifferent adaptive perr_eption region is the occurrence cf
- minimal functional changes which do not go beyond the limits of physiological
norms and which take place rapidly both during the immediate aftereffect period
and in the process of the exposure itself. Characteristic of the active adap-
tation region is the great extent to which the xeactions are pronounced and the
fact that they are sustained both during the exposure and during the immediate
aftereffect period. A distinctive feature of the region of extreme exposures is
the diversity of reactions, the preservation of func*.ional changes for and
~ extended time as well as the.development of phenomena of a cumulative nature.
Working from the principles of setting health safety standards for unfavorable
factors of the industrial environment which have been adopted in the USSR, in
accordance with which the primary importance is attributed to pronounced func-
tional changes in determing a harmful action, the threshold of harmful exposure
falls at the boundary separating the region of active adaptation and extreme
exposures. It can be characterized as that combination of standardized parameters
for which changes occur in an organism which are characterized by the presence of
one or a seC of the following attributes:
--A qualitative realignment of the course of vita'L processes;
~ --Any quantitative changes in the status of vital processes which go beyond the
i limits of fluctuations in the physiological norm, corresponding to the
~ specific vital activity conditions, and cause a reduction in the capability
~ of an organism of realizing normal compen3atory functions normal for its
volume tu equalize the unfavorable effect of other environmental factors or
unusual psychophysiological states;
--The development of phenomena of summing the precedir.g eYposure effects, which
have the nature of cumulative ones and which lead in the case of long term
exposure to the development of shifts in the statu5 of vital processes which
go beyond the limits of their permissible quantitative changes.
If one agrees with the gi�aen definition for a harmful exposure threshold, then
- it must be admitted that some of the established maximum permissible levels are
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- undoubtedly too low. Moreover, if overstating the maximum permi..ssible level con-
_ ceals the danger of damage, then their unjust3fied sCringency entails a completely
unsubstantiated expenditure of funds to implemEnt protective measures in addition
- to blunting the vigilance of inedical workers. The theoretical basis for setting health safety standards for radio freqnency
electromagnetic radiations today should be the radiobiology of nonionizing
radiatians, which at the present tines is already an independent field of know-
ledge, formed at the interface of two scientific disciplines: biology and rtidio-
electronics. Its task includes establishing the laws governing the response of
living systems (at various levels of their organization: cellular, systemic,organismic) to the dction of electromagnetic radiations - from quasistatic to
coherent optical band radiations. The following should be cited as independent
areas in it: the fiel3s of bioradiometrology and biophysics. The first, the
bioradiometrol.ogical, has the goal of establishing the laws governing the inter-
action of electromagnetic radiations with a biological object, in particular,
_ establishing the quantitative relationship between the incident and absorbed
electromagnetic energies, ascertaining the nature of EMR energy distribution at
various frequencies within a bio3.ogical object in light of the specif ic features
of the physical properties of the tissues forming it, as well as depending on
its geometric dimensions, shape, etc. The task of the biophysical area is esta-
blishing the laws governing the transformation of the biological substrate by
absorbed EMR energy to other kinds of energy as a function of the electromagnetic
radiation parameters, as well as ascertaining the specific features of the
occurrence of biophysical processes as a function af the amounts of 3bsorbed
energy. The lack of data on the biophysics of the primary interaction of EMR
energy aith biostructures sharply limits the possibilities of constructing a
modern scientific theory for the mechanism of electromagnetic radiation action,
because of which, substantiating the health safety standards takes on an empirical
- nature to a considerable extent. 'This in turns limits thP possibilities of
scientific prediction. The lack of information on the specific features of energy
absorption and distribution in a biological object narrows the signif icance of the
experimenral data abtained to the conditions of the specific experiment. It is quite
obvious that just as the lack of sufficiently complete data on the specific
sensitivity of an organism to the action of electromagnetic radio frequency
emissions, this creates exceptionally great difficultips in extrapolating the
data from animals to man.
In evaluating*the status of the problem of setting health safety standards for
radio frequency electromagnetic radiations, it is essential to deal with the
state of affairs in metrology, if only briefly.
_ It is difficult to overestimate the role of standard setting documents, which
as has already been indicated above, can be treated as an indicator of the state
_ of development of the problem. However, the realization of their requirements
depends in many respects on the monitoring capabilities. Unfortunately, the
. equipment produced by our industry does not maite it possible to implement agpro-
priate monitoring of the level of electromagnetic radiations. At the present
time, essentially only one type of instrument (PZ-9, PZ-13) is series produced
fcr the microwave band for wavelengths of from 1 m to 8 mm. It must also be
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noted that as applied to radiation conditions which exist in industry, as well as
the emissions generated by radio engineering facilities} the equipment which is
produced makes it possible to measure electromagnetic radiations with adequate
precision in approximately 10 to 20 percent of the cases. The equipment is not
designed f or measuring the near f ield carameters of electromagnetic radiations,
i,e.., at work positions for complex fields, in the case of irradiation from
antennas with a moving direction pattern, etc. Moreover, it is specifically
ttlese kinds of irradiation which are encountered extremely frequently in day to
day practice. Moreover, the equipment has a number of serious structural
drawbacks: the measurement precision is on the order of + 30 percent, it has
great size and weight, a small dynamic range and in a number of cases does not
provide for direct readout of the results, etc.
An important place in reducing unfavorable effects of nonioniZing radiations in
the upcoming 10 to 15 years should be set 3side for the development and design
of hardware for general and individual protection as well as effective systems
of protective measures for various groups of people.
It must be recognized as essential to improve public health law, as well as to"
create a network of laboratories to monitor radiation levels in industrial and
public facilities for the purpos e of providing for practical solutions to the
problem of protecting the environment against the unfavorable action of nonioniz-
ing radiations.
It must be noted that along with the necessity of providing protection against
exposure to nonionizing radiations, the question of the influence on man of
conditions characterized by a lack or reduction in the natural background have
taken on a well-known urgency at the present time. The answer to this question
should als o be abtained in the upcoming years.
The successful solution of all of the problems enumerated here is possible only
based on widescale research with the participation of specialists in various
fields.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
, 1. L in (;.C., Guy A.W. and Kraft L.H., "Microwave Selective Brain Heating",
- J. MICROWAVE POLdER, 1973) 8, No 3/4, pp 275-288.
- 2. Shtemler V.M., Kolesnikov S.V., "Elektricheskiye i magnitnyye svoystva
biologicheskikh tkaney" ["The Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Biological
Tissues"], in the book, "Fiziologiya cheloveka i zhivotnykh" ["Human and
Animal Physiology"], Vol. 22, ("Progress in Science and Engineering, All-Union
Scientif ic Research Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of the
USSR Academy of Sciences"), Moscow, 1978, pp 12-67.
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3. Gordon Z.V., "Voprosy gigiyeny truda i biologicheskoye deystviye elektromagnit-
- nykh poley sverkhbysokikh chastot" ["Problems in Occupational Hygiene and the
Biological Effect of Electromagnetic NPicrowave Fields"], Leningrad, "Meditsina"
Publishers, 1966.
4. Savin B.M., Devyatkov N.D., Yermolayev Ye.A., et al., "Printsipy issl edovaniy
biologicheskogo deystviya Lai4ovoln" ["Principles of Studying the Biological
- Effect of Radio Waves"], "Me:.u:?icheskoye posobiye" ["Procedural Handbook"],
Leningrad, VMA [Military Medical Academy], 1974.
5. Izmerov N.F., Sanotskiy I.V., "0 nekotorykh metodologicheskikh osnavakll gigiyen-
icheskogo normirovaniya fizicheskikh i khimicheskikh faktorov proizvodstvennoy
- sredy" ["On Some Methodological Fundamentals of Setting Health Safrety Standards
for Physical and Chemical Factors in an Industrial Fnvironment"], in the collec-
tion, "Metodologicheskiye voprosy gigiyenicheskogo normirovaniya pro izvodstvennykh
faktorov" ["Methodolagical Questions of Setting Health Safety Standa rds for
Industrial Factors"], Moscow, Scientific Research Institute for Occupational
Diseases and Labor Hygiene of the USSR Academy of Medical-Sciences;' 1976,
- pp 5-17. '
6. Savin V.M., Rubtsova N.B., "Vliyaniye radiovolnovykh izlucheniya na tsentral'nuyu
nervnuyu sistemy" ["The Impact of Radio Frequency Emissions on the Central Ner-
vous System"], in the book, "Fiziologiya cheloveka i zhivotnykh" ["Human and
Animal Phpsiology"], V ol 22, "Progress in Science and Engineering, Al1-Union
Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of the USSR Aeademy~>of Saiences"
Moscow, 1978, pp 68-111. �
7. Presman A.S., "Elektromagnitnyye polya i zhivaya priroda" ["Electromagnetic
Fields and Living Nature"], Moscow, "Nauka" Publishers, 1968.
8. Plekhanov G.F., Vedyushina V.V., "Vyrabotka sosudistogo uslcvnogo refleksa u
cheloveka na izmeneniye napryazhennasti elektromagnitnogo polya vysakoy
chastoty" "'The Output Response of the Conditioned Vascular Reflex in Man to
- a Change in the Field Intensity of a High Frequency Electromagnetic Field" ,
ZHURNAL VND imeni PAVLOVA [JOURNAL OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY imeni PAVLOV],
1966, vol. 16, rdo. 1, pp 34-37.
9. Bullock T.H., "Electromagnetic Sensing in Fish", in "Brain Interactions with
Weak Electric and Magnetic Fiel.ds", 1977, pp 17-22.
10. Protasov V.R., "Bioelektricheskiye polya v zhizni.ryb" ["Bioelectric Fields
in the Life of Fishes"], Moscow, Central Scientific Research Institute for ~
Fishing Industry Information and Technical Economic Reseafch, 1972.
11. Guddin B., "Vremennaya organizatsiya kletki" ["The Time Organization of a Cell"],
Moscow, Mir Publishers, 1966.
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THE HEALTH SAFETY SUBSTANTIATION OF APPROACHES TO SETTING STANDARDS FOR
RADIO WAVES . K.V. Nikonova and B.M. Savin
Setting health safety standards for electromagnetic radiations (EMI) [EMR] should
be based on precise knowledge of the physical parameters of a factor, the actual
conditions of human exposure to it as well as modern concepts of the mechanisms
of the biological action of rad'Lations in various frequency bands.
Assuring the safety of personnel subjected to the action of radio frequency
electromagnetic fields (EMP), requires setting the maximum permissible irradiation
levels for the entire radio frequency spectrum. At the present time, when there
- is still no sufficient quantity of data which reflects the iaws governing the
manifestation of the biological action of a factor as a function of its physical
' parameters, the basis for setting the maximum permissible levels can be materials
on the nature and expression of biological effects due to exposure 1to electromag-
netic radiations in a particular band or with a particular radiation mode.
The extrapolatian of requirements placed, for example, on the microwave band to
others is not altogether rightful, all the more if they differ substantially in
frequency. Such an approach was used, in particular, in the U.S. As is well
known, the American standard for irradiation in a frequency range of 10 MHz to
100 GHz is 10 mW/cm2. For lower frequencies, the maximum permissible levels were
obtained by calculations and were 200 V/m and 0.5 A/m. Such a conversion esta-
blishes only the physically equivalent quantities for the defined conditions
(specifically, plane wave conditions). Differences in the nature of electromag-
netic energy absorption and distribution as a function of radiation wavelength
(or oscillation frequency) are iguored in this case.
The computational method of determining the maximum permissible levels based on
the best studied band also cannot be considered a sufficiently correct one in
the case where differences in the frequency characteristics of the subbands are
formally taken into account. Accounting for the dependence of energy absorption
on the frequency oE the acting field cannot guarantee equality of the biological
effects with equal absorption, since the specific features of the interaction
of the radiation eYLergy with the biological object are not taken into account.
It is also completely obvious that by virtue of the differences in the mechanisms
of the action of high and low intensity electromagnetic fields, the maximum
permissible levels cannot be determined from computed data working from the
governing laws obtained by means of comparing the biological effects for various
frequency bands at high exposure levels (for example, based on the data from
determining the lethal effect thresholds). Calculations can be used only for a
rot,gh preliminary prediction. The basis for setting the standard for each fre-
auancy band at the present time should be experimental data on the harmful effect
tt--:ashold of radiations, taking into account the results of studies which charac-
terize the health status of persons exposed to a factor. The existing health
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safety standards are far from always based on the principles set forth above.
In a number of frequency bands, physiological reactions of an adaptive nature
have served as the basis for establishing the maximum permissible levels.
r .
All possible exposure parameters (intensity, duration, generation mode, condi-
tions and nature of the irradiation) should be maximally taken into account when
- scientifically substantiating maximum permissible levels. However, standards have
been set for only the radiation intensity in the 60 KHz--300 MHz bands. In the
300 MHz to 300 GHz band, the standards also take into account the duration of the
exposure along with the intensity. In this case, there is no functional relation-
ship between the parameters for which the standards are set. The lack of energy
agreement among the three levels for which standards have been set has been
repeatedly underscored in the literature. The traditional approach which has
grown up among us provides for utilizing tHe following as the standardized para-
meters of exposure intensity: the energy flux density (PPE), or the power density
(PM) in the 300 MHz--300 GHz band, and the field intensity of the electrical
(E) and magnetic (H) components of an electromagnetic field in a range of 60 KHz
to 300 Ngiz. Such an approach is based on the notion that the work positions at
SHF sources (300 MHz--300 GHz) are as a rule positioned in the radiation zone,
while in the HF (60 KHz--300 MHz) and VHF (30 MHz--300 MHz) bands, they are in
- the near field or the induction zone where there is no definite relationship
between the E and H field components. All of our work exgerience makes it�possi-
ble to state that these parameters are far from always suitable to us. In the
first case, when working with microwave sources under industrial conditions, it
is necessary extremely often to make measurements in the near or intermediate
fields (measurements in the direct vicinity of slots, leaky places in cabinets
and waveguide channels). Secondly, in the case of large radiating antennas, the
near field boundaries extend to a distant of 2a2/a (where a is the greatest
dimension of the radiating aperture and a is the radiation wavelength), which
in practice amounts to hundreds and thousands of ineters. In practice though,
people are frequently subject to irradiation from high-powered sources located
close together, or at points where there is an arbitrary polarization and
multiple interference. In al'L of these cases, just as in the case of irradiation
from several sources, evaluating the exposure based on tne energy flux density
(or the power density) is unsuitable. Thus, in particular, at close ranges from
sources, there can be strong electromagnetic fields with a low,or nonexistent
mean power flux.
Comparative measurements performed on a 26 meter parabolic antenna in the
conventional manner (using a waveguide with an open end and a power meter) and
using an instrument with an isotropic sensar have demonstrated that in the
case of a measurement using the first method, significantly understated results
are obtained [l]. As researchers from the American Bureau of Standards point
out, "The accepted concepts and standards for the level of nonionizing electro-
magnetic fields are quite satisfactory under definite idealized conditions.
However, such conditions are rarely realized at work positions or even in exper-
iments on irradiation" [2J.
As far as using the E and H component field intensities as the parameters for
which stanclards are set in the HF and VHF bands, then, without discussing the
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- issue of the difficulties of ineasuring the total E or H iTector, attention should
be turned to the fact that the presence of health safety standards based on two
parameters, expressed in different units (V/m and A/m), makes standards setting
insufficiently flexible, since it does not allow for changing the permissible
level of one component as a function of the presence or existence of the other.
As a result, the permissible energy loads on a human organism differ by thousands
- ,of times. Further, the measure (parameter) for which *he standard.is being set
should be tied rather closely to the mechanism of the harmful action. Since the
dangEr of irradiation is governed by the field inside the object, dosimetric
studies would have to be based on internal fields. However, the realization of
this approach does not prove to be possible at the present time. This accounts
for the understandable attempts at a compromise solution of the question. Thus,
H.P. Schwan, in coming to the conclusion that criteria based on the power flux .
level in the case of complex fields were unsuitable, proposed the current density
- ' in tissue as the standardized indicators [3]. Working from a base value of 10
mW/cm2 and the specific resistance of tissues at various frequencies, the author
derived the following values as the numerical safety criteria: 3 mA/cm2 for
frequencies above 10 MHz; 1 mA/cm2 for frequencies from 10 KHz to 10 MHz and
0.3 mA/cm2 for frequencies below 10 KHz. Other authors [4], believing that it
was not necessary to prove the fact that the biological effect of an exposure
-i is governed by the energy absorbed in the tissues, propose that the amount of
absorbed energy in watts per second or Joules per unit weight be used in the
~ safety standards.
It must be noted that the proposals contained in the indicated literature do not
exclude the necessity of ineasuring the external field, and consequently, in a
number of cases the possibilities of errors related to the measurement of the
energy flux density or the E and H component field intensity.
The proposal that the indicator of the amount of external field energy density
be usEd as the standardized parameter deserves serious attention [2]. It starts
from the prem'ises that there is a relationship between the 'danger of an exposure
and the energy absorption and that the level of the internal field is dependent
on the level of the external one. The propused parameter has a number of advan-
tages: first of all, it makes it possible to express the intensity of electrical,
magnetic and electromagnetic fields in the same units (energy per unit volume);
secondly, it makes comparison possitle with existing data on the energy flux
density (or power density), since the values of energy density are easily related
to those in simple plain wave fields; and thf.rdly, the given indicator can be
estimated by instruments with isotropic sensors by means of ineasuring E2, H2 or
the energy density of the electrical (uE) and magnetic (ug) fields directly.
The question of whether it is necessary to evaluate both components of the elec-
trumagnetic field or whether it is sufficient to measure one is of considerable
importance from the standpoint of estimating the near fields. S.J. Rogers and
R.S. King [5] believe that it is sufficient to estimate the electrical component,
since human tissue has the characteristics of a resistive dielectric, and it is
therefore sensitive to the electrical component of the field. P. Wacker and
R. Bowman [2] also feel that the parameters E2 and uE are the most suitable for
describing the potential danger of unperturbed fields. However, the authors
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make the reservation that the indicated parameters are inadequate in estimating
- reactive fields. According to the data of J. Lin, et al., the magnetic field,
especially in the HF band, can make a substantial contribution to electromagnetic
energy absorption by the human b ody, This makes it possible to speak of the
fundamental correctness of the app roaches adopted in the USSR which provide for
estimating both components in the case of near fields.
Exposures to pulse-modulated fields deserve special attention in the plan for
resolving questions af setting health safety standards.
H.P. Schwan [7J, in analyzing the reaction rates of systems to the effects of
forces generated by a field, came to the conclusion that a pulsed field cannot be
any more effective than a continuous one with the same average power. That is,
it is impossible to increase the probability'of field-force effects by means of -
pulses. Along with this, some phenomena, such as electromagnetic hearing; for example,
were related for a long time to the action of high peak powers [8]. However,
it was simultaneously shown that with a definite pulse width, the threshold Eor
the excitation of aural responses in man and cata is not governed by the peak
power, but rather by the quantity of energy going into each pulse [9].
- In papers by Soviet authors [10, 11], based on the comparative evaluation of con-
- tinuous and pulsed electromagnetic radiations with a pulse repetition rate of
hundreds of hertz, the great extent to which biological effects.are pronounced
with exposure to pulsed radiation is noted from a number of indicators. However,
the differences were not so signif icant as to make it necessary to introduce
differentiated maximum permissib le levels. Data were obtained by American
researchers [12] which attest to the great biological activity of pulsed electro-
magnetic radiations as comp ared t o continuous radiations at comparatively low
power densities (200 uW/cmz average; 2.1 mW/cm2 peak).
It turns out that at the present time when evaluating pulse modulated radiations,
it will be the most correct to as sign the ma3or signiffcance to average field
levels. It is not excluded that at definite peak gower values and pulse widths,
the maximum (peak) levels can make their own independent contribution to the
' biological effects of radio frequency exposures. In these cases, it cau prove
necessary to measure the average and the peak levels. Taking into account the
trends in the development of modern radio electronics, it is extremely important
_ to further improve the precision in the matter of the role in biological effects
of pulse width and amplitude, the ratios of the maximum and average field levels
at which the effects of the maximum levels exceed the effects of the average
1eve1 as well as the role of the pulse repetition rate. The clarification of
the indicated questions will make it possible to make the appropriate corrections
in the standards set with respect to the average level; as far as setting stand-
ards with respect to the maximum (peak) level, then it is-apparently expedient
to use it only in the case of one-time or infrequently repeating pulses.
As is well known, studies performed for the purpose of establishing safe
irradiation levels for man, as a rule, are complex and include the health safety
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evaluation of the conditions of exposure to a factor, the clinical physiological
examination of the health stat.us of.persons subjected to the irradiation and
- the experimental study of the biological effects due to the influence of electro-
magnetic fields in various fr-equency bands. Without posing the problem of clar-
fying the role and place for various kinds of studies in establishing the maximum
_ permissible levels,. we will only deal with the requirements placed on health
safety investigations.
It is specifically the health safety studies which determine the conditions
necessitating the setting of standards. Clinical and health safety parallels are
drawn based on their results, the correctness of the conclusions of which depends
in many respects on the quality of the health safety data. The results of health
safety studies are incorporated in the parameters of the experiment.
Based on what has bEen said, it is apparent that health safety studies should pro-
vide the most complete possible characteristics of the industrial environment
being studied. Their results should contain data on the radio frequency band,
the irradiation mode, the nature of the irradiation, the intensity, the duration
of the exposures on the presence and levels of other unfavorable factors (X-ray
radiation, unfavorable meteorological conditions, noise, chemical contaminants),
as well as on the conditions and level of intensity of the work.
Obtaining precise and detailed data necessary for resolving questions of setting"
health safety standards entails definite difficulties in a number of cases. Thus,
the environmental physiologist is not always able to evaluate all of the steps in
a production process or all of the ways the radiation acts on a person, not to
_ even mention the difficulties related to the unsatisfactory metrological support
for the studies which have the goal of determining particular parameters of radio
frequency exposures. Moreo�:er, as the results of analyzing the materials of
health safety and clinical physiological studies to substantiate health safety
standards for individual frequency bands of electromagnetic emissions over the
last 10 years, attention has been primarily devoted only to that factor which is
being studied and is considered the major one. All of the deviations ascertained
in the health status of workers are not always justifiedly linked to exposure
to that factor. In�this case, the possible role of other factors in the produc-
tion envirbnment is completely ignored. Such an approach can lead to serious
, errors. This is all the more true since clinical manifestations related to
! exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic radiations do not have any specific
; attributes.
~ Because of the nonspecific nature of the functional changes which occur with.the
i
' influence of radio waves on man, and the difficulties of establishing the etiolo-
gical role of the various industrial and every-day �actors in their origin when
working out the maximum permissible levels of electromagnetic radio frequency
emissions, a great role is assigned to experimental studies. In this case, the
question of extrapolating the data obtained in experiments on animals to man
becomes of exceptionally great importance. Uifferences in the reactions of
_ animal and human organisms to exposure to a factor can be due both to differences
in energy absorption and distribution and the specific features of the organiza-
tion and functioning of "critical" organs and systems. The biophysical studies
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and calculations of electromagnetic energy absorption by models of different sizes
and shapes [13] which have been performed at the present time make it possible to
derive coefficients for definite conditions and using them, derive equivalent
exposure levels for man and animals in.terms of energy absorption. As far as
the second factor is concQrned which determines approaches to the extrapolation,
- the species specific sensitivity, the question of its role in organism responses
to irradiation deserves considerably greater attention than has been devoted to
it up to the present time. There are only individual papers specially devoted to
the comparative evaluation of human and animal organism reactions to radio fre-
quency exposures. The purpose of the investigdtions of American authors [14] was
to search for an organism which could serve as a reference stanciard in studying
- microwave exposures. The reactions of dogs, rabbits, rats and various small
- organisms down to the simplest. ones were studied in this case. An organism which
woiild possess definite and reproducible characteristics in the case of microwave
_ irradiation was not found. A.G. Subbota and B.A. Chukhlovin [15], based on an
analysis of data in the literature as well as their own, came to the conclusion
that it is necessary to use predominantly large animals in experiments, where
the animals are comparable to man in terms of the geometric dimensions of the
body and the level of organization of the functional activity of the major sys-
tems. In the opinion of S.M. Michaelson, an answer to the question of whether
it is better to use many objects or one to two (and which ones) to predict
human reactions has as yet not been obtained; a systematic study of seueral
types of animals is needed. _ It goes without saying that special studies which make it possible to evaluate
changes. in functions while taking energy absorption into account are needed to
resolve the question of the comparative sensitivity and vulnerability to damage
of animals and humans. Only with sufficient knowledge of two factors - energy
absorption and sensitivity of individual systems of an organism - is it possible
_ to develop scientifically substantiated exCrapolation factors.
Along with questions of extrapolating experimental data when converting from
harmful effect thresholds to maximum per.missible levels, it is very important
to also solve the problem of the value of exposure margin of safety factors.
The purpose of introducing the latter, as is well known, is assuring the relia-
hility of health safety standards. As applied to various physical and chemical
factors in the industrial environment, the value of margin of safety coefficients
will fluctuate from a few units up to 100 or more.
No serious research of an experimental or theoretical nature has been done to
determine health margin of safety factors as applied to radio frequency expo-
sures. However, individuaP proposals have been put forward on the given ques-
tion. Thus, in 1974, it was proposed for the entire microwave band, where
exposure intensity is estimated in power density :inits, thaz a health margin
of safety factor of 10 be used, as is most frequently employed in public health
safety practice. For lower frequency bands, where the intensity of electromag-
netic fields is estimated by the intensity of the E and H components, working
from the same factor of. 10 and acknowledging that biological effects are due
to energy, aifiargin of safety factor of /1-0 = 3 was proposed. Sowever, taking
into account the fact that workers may simultaneously be exposed to both elec-
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trical and magnetic fields, the opinion was advanced that it is expedient to
increase this quantity by a factor of ~ times, i.e., whPn setting the standard
for a factor with respect to the E or H field intensity, it was recommended that
a health margin of safety factor of 5 be established.
In the opinion of V.A. Zhuravlev*, the cumulative level of radio frequency effects
in an organism should be adopted as the criterion for determining the value of
health margin of safety factors on analogy with other areas of setting health
safety standards. Experiments performed to compare the total energy of fractional
lethal doses and a one-time dose as well as an analysis of data in the literature
allowed the author to come to the conclusion that microwaves have a small cumula-
tive capacity, and to propose the following as the specific values of the margin
of safety factors for a single threshold dose for man: for professionally
exposed persons - 10; for nonprofessional exposure during production - from 20
ta 50; and for the F^pulace - 100.
We are inclined to believe that the health margin of safety coefficients should
be differentiated taking into account the exposure categories (professional, non-
professional, exposure of the population) and the biological effectiveness of the
exposure. The latter can be determined from the frequency characteristic of the
radiation, as well as the generation conditions or the conditions of irradiation
of an object. ,
There is doubt that it is correct to use a cumulative indicator as the main
danger criterion, since radio waves have a poor cumulative effect, because of
which it is difficlilt to anticipate substantial differences based on this test
with differeni: exposure characteristics and.:since the governing laws obtained at
the lethal dose Ievel hardly reflect the actual danger of a factor under indus-
trial conditions. It turns out that at the present time, the use of the chronic
effect threshold for systematic exposures and the acute effect threshold for
one-time exposures is the most justified at the present time as the main danger
criterion. The following should be taken into account as supplemental indicators:
the ratio of the acute action threshold to the chronic action threshold, which
characterizes the development of effects of a cumulative nature, as well as the
rate of rise of the curves which reflect the dependence of the biological eff.ects
' on the intensity and time of an exposure.
Exposures to continuous and pulsed (with a pulse repetition rate of more than
100 Hz) microwave radiations in a frequency range of 500 MHz to 10 GHz can be
- considered to be the most well studied. The results of analyzing experimental
data on the characteristics of biological effects of the indicated exposures
makes it possible to consider their use justified when the standard is set for
a health safety margin factor of 10 for professional groups. It is expedient
to estimate the danger and the selection of the health safety margin factors
when setting standards for microwave radiation in other frequency bands and expo-
sure modes based on the indicator of their relative biological efficiency (OBA)
[RBE]. The.latter should be expressed as the ratio of the harmful effect thresh-
hold for the exposure for which the standard is being set to the harmful effect
threshold of the most well studied microwave radiation. For'frequency bands and
*See Page 103 [62] of this collection.
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exposure modes characterized by a Yigher biological efficiency (RBE > 1), it is
recommended that higher safety margin factors be employed, and vice-versa, for
lower efficiencies (RBE < 1), lower safety margins be used. It turns out in this
case that the differences in the biological efficiency of exposures. is to be
considered substantial and requiring differentiation of the safety margins which
are introduced if the differences in the harmful effect threshold amount to a
factor of no more than 3. Smaller differences are actually incorporated in the
possible experimental error. For the same reason, absolute values of the health
safety margin factors should not be less than 3. T_he possibility of utilizing the given proposal when substantiating the maximum
permissible levels for electromagnetic radiations at a frequency of less than
300 MHz, or another approach which takes into account the specific features of
the parameters for which standards are being set, requires further theoretical
and experimental work.
The authors consider it expedient to use unified approached to setting standards
for radio frequency emissions for.various categories of persons, and taking
_ into account the comparatively poor biological efficiency of a factor, consider
supplemental safety margin factors of 2- 3 to be sufficient for nonprofessional
exposures and 4- 5 sufficient for the population. What has been said'in no
way precludes the possibilities of finding and using other procedural approaches.
The issue can involve, for example, modeling under experimental conditions the
particular features characterizing groups of personnel for which standards are
being set. However, the main methodological princtple should be observed in all
cases which provides for the use of the appropriate harmfulness criteria in
setting the health safety -standards. Health safety standards being set for .
- various categories of persons should not be a set of quantities which are not
related to one another, where these quantities reflect the specific features of
approaches to the substantiation of maximum permissible Yeyels in institutions
for various specialties. They should follow from the overall laws governing the
interaction of radio frequency electromagnetic radiations with biological
objects.
It Is obvious from what has been said that the process of experimentally substan-
tiating the maximum permissible levels is composed of the following steps:
--E�ialuating the functional status of critical organs and systems under conditions
vf acute and chronic exposure; .
--Determining the harmful effect thresholds: the acute effect threshold and the
chronic effect threshold based on an analysis of the data obtainc:d;
- --The extrapolation of the data obtained on animals ta man, i.e., the determina-
tion of the harmful effect thresholds for man;
--Substantiating the health safety margin factors;
- --Proposals for the standard values, which follow from the results of the experi-
mental study.
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For final reconmendation, it is necessary to IDake corrections which follow from
an analysis of the data on the health s-atus of the irradiated contingents of
persons. It stands to reason that such data can be obtained by means of clinical
environmental physiological comparisons under conditions where it is possible to
- make such comparisons and where the data being obtained meet the requirements
placed on the materials used for resolving issues of setting health safety stan-
dards.
It must be stated that as a result of acumulating the scientific data, in the
- future we will be able to predict the biological effects of electromagnetic
radiations in new frequency bands and under new exposure conditions. To make
health safety standards predictable is an important goal, of special importance
. in the age of the scientific and technical revolution. To achieve this goal, it
_ is essential to do fundamental research into the dependence of biological effects
on the parameters of exposure to a factor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Klascius A1., "Microwave Radiation Hazard Around Large Microwave Antennas",
AMER. INDUSTR. HYG. ASSOC. J., 1973, Vol 34, No 3, pp 97-101.
2. Wacker F., Bowman R., "Quantifying Hazardous Electromagnetic Fields: Scientific
Bases and Practical Considerations", IEEE TRANS. MTT, 1971, MTT-19, No 2,
PP 178-187.
3. Schwan H.P., "Microwave Radiation: Biophysical Considerations and Standards
Criteria", IEEE TRANS. BIO. MED. ENG., 1972, BME-19, 4, pp 304-312.
4. Henny J.C., Tancy M., "Studies of Biological Iiazards from High Power HF Band
Transmitters", in "Biological Effects and Health Tmplications of Microwave
Radiation, (Aymp. Proc.)", Richmond, Virginia, 1969, pp 66-69.
5. Rogers S.J., King R.S., "Radio Hazards of the MF/HF Band", NONIONIZING RADIATION,
1970, 1, 178-179.
6. Lin J.C., Guy A.W., Johnson C.C., "Power Deposition in a Spherical Model of Man
Exposed to 1- 20 rgiz Electromaguetic Field", IEEE TRANS. MTT, 1973, MTT-21,
pp 791-797.
7. Schwan H.P., "Interaction of Microwave and Radio Frequency Radiation with
Biological Systems", IEEE TRANS. MTT, (Special Issue on Biological Effects of
Microwaves), 1971, MTT-19 (2), pp 146-152.
8. Frey A.H., Messenger R.J., "Human Perception of Illumination with Pulsed Ultra-
high Frequency Electromagnetic Energy", SCIENCE, 1973, Vol 181, pp 356-358.
9. Guy A.W., Taylor E.M., Ashleman B., Lin J.C., "Microwave Interaction with the
Auditory Systems of Humans and Cats", in "Proc. of the IEEE G-MTT Microwave
Symp.", Boulder, Colorado, 1973, p 321.
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10. Gordon Z.V., Tolgskaya M.S., "Nekotoryye sravnitel'nyye materialy o deystvii
- otdel'nykh diapazonov radiovoln v rezhimakh impul'snoy modulyatsii i �
nepreryvnoy generatsii" ["Some Comparative Data on the Action of Individual
Radio Frequency Bands in Pulse Modulation and CW Modes"], in the book, "0
biologicheskom deystvii EMP radiochastot" ["On the Biological Effect of Radio
Frequency Electromagnetic Fields"], Scientif ic Research Institute for Occupa-
tional Diseases and Industrial Hygience of L-he USSR Academy of Medical Sciences,
- 1968, pp 167-170.
11. Lobanov Ye.A., "Vliyaniye khronicheskogo vozdeystviya impul'snykh i nepreryv-
nykh desyatisantimetrovyk1.1� vol.n na uslovnoreflektornuyu deyatel'nost' belykh
krys" ["The Impact of Chronic Exposure to Pulsed and CW Ten-Centimeter Wave-
lengths cn the Conditioned Reflex Activity of White Rats"], GIGIYENA TRUDA I
PROFZABOLEVANIYA [INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES], 1966, 10,
pp 7-11.
12. Frey A.H., Feld S.R., Frey B., "Neural Function and Behavior: Defining the
Relationship", ANNALS OF N.Y. ACAD. SCI., 1975, Vol 247, pp 433-439.
13. Shtemler V.M., Kolesnikov S.'J., "Osobennosti vzaimodeystviya elektromagnitnykh
poley s bioob"yektami" ["Specific Features of the Interaction of Electromag-
netic Fields with Biological Objects"], in the book, "Fiziologiya cheloveka i
zhivotnykh" ["Human and Animal Physiology"], Vol. 22 (Progress in Science and
Engineering, All-Union Institute of Seientific and Technical Information of
_ the USSR Aeademy of Sciences), Moscow, 1978, pp 12-67.
14. Michaelson S.M., "The Tri-Service Program - a'Tribute to George M. Knauf
IEEE TRANS. MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, MTT-19, pp 131-146.
15.'Subbota A.G., Chukhlovin B.A., Vybor metodov issledovaniy i printsipy otsenki
eksperimental'nykh dannykh pri normirovanii radioizlucheniy" ["The Choice of
Research Methods and Principles of Evaluating Experimental Data in Setting
Standards for Radio Radiations"], in the collection, "Metodologicheskiye
voprosy gigiyenicheskogo normirovaniya neioniziruyushchikh izlucheniy"
["Procedural Questions in Setting Health Safety Standards for Nonionizing
Radiations Moscow, Scientific Research Institute of Occupational Diseases
and Industrial Hygiene of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, 1977,
PP 28-31.
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METHODS UF STUDY AND THE EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA IN SETTING HEALTH
- SAFETY STANDARDS FOK RADIO EMISSIUNS
A.G. Subbota and B.A. Chukhlovin
Experimental data which characterize the threshold levels of the unfavorable
action of a factor are of considerable importance in substantiating the health
safety standards for radio frequency electromagnetic fields (IIMP). It must be
noted that up to the present time, the question of the organs and systems which
are the most sensitive to exposure to a given factor cannot be considered finally
resolved, something which naturally makes it difficult to select adequate methods
of study. In the beginning of the 1960's, a number of American. authors, wolking
from concepts of the thermal mechanism of damage, numbered the crystalline lens
of the eye among the most sensitive organs to exposure to electromagnetic fields,
_ in particular, in the microwave band. For this reason, they recommended opthal-
moscopy as well as the determination of ascorbic acid content and glutamine in
the cryst;alline lens as the most informative procedures [1].
In the opinion of the majority of Soviet authors, the greatest sensitivity to the
given kinds of radiations is exhibited by the' central nervous and cardiovascular
system. The unfavorable effect of a factor has been estimated based on indicators
for a change in the functional status of specifically these systems [2].
It should also be pointed out that many authors have studied the status of a
number of other systems rather deeply (digestive, hematogenesis, endocrine, etc.)
as well as individual vital activity indicators for an organism. An analysis of
published litPrature provides a basis for thinking that among the research
methods being used, only a few are sufficiently informative for purposes of
setting standards, where some of them can be used only for limited species of
experimental animals. Thus, for example, to substantiate the maximum permissible
levels of electromagnetic microwave r3diations, it is expedient to perform
experiments in the form of chronic trials with large animals, in particular using
dogs, for which the vital important organs are located at approximately the same
depth as in man [2]. To evaluate the status of the higher nervous activity, the
use of I.P. Pavlov's method of conditional reflexes is justified (recor3ing
symmetrical reactions), while for the cardiovascular system, it is necessary ta
determine the arterial and venous pressxres, as well as take electrocardiograms
and kinetocardiograms.
The methods of I.P..Pavlov and Heidenhain of studying the secretor function of
the stomach using ventricles, as well as the evacuator motor activity of the
stomach and the absorption of some substances in an isolated loop of intestine
are rather sensitive exposure to radio waves.
Gas exchange indicators studied using Doug las--Holden' s method can also be treated
as informative ones, as well as certain kinds of exchange: carbohydrate (based
on the blood sugar level and reactions to the sugar "load"), protein (based on
the content of overall protein or protein fractions in blood serum), mineral
exchange (based on the K, Na, and Ca content in blood serum, Ca in tissues), etc.
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= Biochemical techniques directed towards the study of hormones primariiy responsi-
- ble for the mobilization of energy reserves and the adaptation of an organism to
- extreme exposures have become rather widespread in recent years. In the opinion
of a number of authors, hematogenesis status indicators (the overall clinical
analysi:; of the blood, the study of the osmotic resistance of erythrocytes)
and the biological immune protectioii system of an organism (phagocyte activity
of neutrophyls, blastotransformation of lymphocytes, the level of the immunolo-
gical response to an antigen stimulus) can also be informative [2]. To ascertain
the mutagenic action of radiations, special cytogenetic techniques using blood
cells, bone marrow, the epithelium of the cornea of the eye, etc. are finding
application.
To estimate the overall status of an organism, such indicators of vital activity
as the reproductive capability (fertilization, fetal development, fertility, and
the characteristics of progeny), a change in body weight, as well as the ability
- of the irradiated organism to train to handle physical loads have also been
studied [3-5].
However, it must be emphasized that even correctly chosen methods still do not
fully guarantee the correctness of the scientific research to substantiate the
maximum permissible radiation levels. No less important real,ly but an even more
complex issue is the question of selecting criteria for evaluating research
results. Because of the fact that when an organism is exposed to radio emissions,
as a rule, two to three types of reactions develop - physical and pathological -
the question of which of them is to be the governing factor in setting the health
safety standards for exposure takes on sgecial significance. At the present timQ,
no one any lpnger has any doubt that adaptive reactions cannot be used for setting
standards for electromagnezic radiations, since they characterize only the radio
sensitivity and are more evidence really of the presence of the reserve capabili-
ties of maintaining homeastasis in the organism. It can be considered that the
basis for establishing standard levels should be those reactions which go out-
side the range of usual physiological fluctuations in the homeostasis process.
In this case, it is necessary to take into account the fact that with repeated
irradiations, the development of adaptation phenomena may be observed with
respect to the exposure, where this development is manifest in the gradual
attenuation of changes in step with the repetition of the electromagnetic expo-.
sures.
As applied to the central nervous system, the main health safety indicator for
the unfavorable impact of a factor is to be considered a disturbance of higher
nervous activity. In this regard, the task of an investigator engaged in deter-
mining the threshold levels of the harmful effECt of electromagnetic fields on
the central nervous system should be reduced to establishing the values of the
intensities and time parameters of the radiation exposures for which disturbances
occur in the conditioned reflex activity. In this case it is necessary to use
a rather wide assortment of stimuli, which are perceived by different analqzer
systems.
It is significantly more difficult to determine the initial attributes of func-
tional disturbances in the blood circulation system, since up to the present time
there has been no clearcut experimental model for cardiovascular illnesses
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TABLE 1.
- The Disadaptlve Effect of Centimeter Wavelengths (a = 12.6
cm;
- "Luch - 58" Equipment) from Data of a Study of
Arterial Pre
ssure
(AP) in Rabbits Adaptpd to IR
Radiation with an
Energy Flux
Density
of 350 mW/cm2
~
Signifi-
Arteria'_ Pres-
cance of
Number
sure Drops
the Differ-
Conditions of the Trials of
Over 2 Hours
ences When
Remarks
Trials
mm Hg, M� m
Compared to
the Background
P
Series 1
Starting data (3 days of 15
4.9 � 0.5

observation)
lst and 3rd IR Radiation
sessions with an energy
flux density of 350 mW/cm-.
Rectal temperature rise of
about 1.1� C 15
15.3 � 1.8
< 0.01

- 4th - 6th sessioa's of IR Rad-
iation exposure at the same
�
parameters 15
4.7 � 0.7
> 0.5
Adaptation to
IR Rays
8th-10th sessions of IR Rad-
iation with the same para-
- meters, for 1 day prior to
each of them, irradiation at
centimeter wavelengths (energy
flux density = 1 mW/cm2, a=
12.6 cm, 30 min. exposure) 15
17.6 � 2.3
0.01
Disadaptation
Series 2
Starting data (4 days of 2$
4.0 � 1.3

observation) .
lst-4th sessions of IR Rad- 28
19.0 � 1.8
< 0.01

iation with the same parameters
.
5th - 8th sessions of IR Rad- 28
6.1 � 0.6
> 0.25
Adaptation
iation with the Zame parameters
9th - 12th sessions of IR Rad- 24
19.5 � 2.4
< 0.01
Disadaptation
iation. Each of them was pr.e-
= ceded by microwave irradiation
with an energy tlux density of
- 50 mW/cm2 (a = 12.6 cm; exposure
of 30 min.). Interval of one
day. _
Notes: 1. The value of the arterial
pressure gradients
characterizes the peak to
peak value of the swings o
f the arterial pre
ssure in the
carotid artery
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characteristic of man when he is exposed to radio emissions. Based on an analysis
of data in the literature, it can be thought that the most substantial in this
case are persistent electrocardiogram changes, which attest to the presence of
myocardial hypoxia, in conjunction with overall hemodynamic changes. Functional
changes whir..h disappear rapidly are to treated as a manifestation of the radio
wave sensitivity of the organism.
The harmful effect indicators of radio frequency emissions on the digestive sys-
tem can be such changes as long-term depression of gastric juice liberation in
the nervous reflex phase,'dissociated disturbances of the acidification and
digestive strength of the juice, as well as a reduction in the absorptive
_ capability of the intestine (based on the level of glucose absorption). These
kinds af changes can be treated as a manifestation of a singular gastric neurosis.
An objective indicator of the unfavorable influence of a factor on the biol.ogical
immune protection mechanisms of an organism is a persistent reduction in the
phagocyte activity of neutrophyles, a slowdown in the blastotransformation of
lymphocytes, depression of the organism's capability of antibody formation,
as well as a decrease in the bacteriocidal properties of the blood, etc.
Among the biochemical indicators, decisive significance should be assigned only
- to those which confirm the corresponding clinical picture. In and of themselves
in isolation they cannot serve as a criterion for an unfavorable effect, taking
into account the pronounced variability of manv of them in the vital activity
process of an organism [6].
Depression of gas exchange indicators, disturbance of endocrine regulation, etc.
should also be considered sufficiently informative for the determination of harm-
ful effect thresholds of, e:lectromagnetic radiations on an organism. �
Thus, serting the threshold levels for harmful exposure to electromagnetic fields
should be based on the estimation of a set of indicators for the change in the
functional status of a number of systems of the organism. However, it must be
noted that the solution of this problem, which is based on the analytical prin-
ciple of comparing indicators obtained before and after an irradiation exposure,
cannot be treated as the optimal one. As drawback to the indicated approach
is the fact that in this case, the internal processes.which take place in the
irradiated organism are not revealed. .
Experience with experimental work shows that more complete information on the
effect of electromagnetic fields can be obtained when using a different principle,
which can be designated the "synthetic" principle. The latter provides for the
study of the particular indicators against a background of exposure to extreme
factors, with the influence of which the system being evaluated is brought to
the upper limit of its functioning. Under natural conditions, such kinds of
ch,anges occur in the thermal regulation system. When it is hot, this system is
loaded in one direr_tion, and in a cold (in the winter), it is loaded in the
other. Against the background of substantial differences in the stress on this
system, an'additional load on it because of exposure to an electromagnetic field
will be accompanied by unequal shifts in its functional status indicators, some-
thing which makes it possible to estimate the degree of the unfavorable impact
of a factor.
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- where it is measured every 30 minutes for 2 hours. The radiation
exposure occurred in the interval between the first and subsequent
measurements.
2. M is the mean arithmetic value of the arterial pressure gradients arld
m is the mean arithmetic error.
3. The Student-Fisher t criterion was used.
As is well known, the initial functional status of an organism depends not only
on seasonal temperature fluctuations in the environment, but also on previously
sustained illnesses, the degree of training for physical loads and the like. In
this regard, when setting the harmful effect thresholds for electromagnetic
fields; it is extremely important to correctly simulate the actual situation of
multiple factor exposures in the experiment.
The following two experimental schemes were used successfully in our research.
In the first case, an animal which was trained to any extreme factor (heat,
physical loads, etc.),.was subjected to a low intensity electromagnetic field,
and then again exposed to the extreme stimulus, to which the organism had been
- previously adapted. In this case, it was established by how much the previously
acquired immunity of the organism to this stimulus was disrupted by the electro-
magnetic field and how long traces from the electromagnetic irradiation remained.
Trials on dogs demonstrated that when exposed to an electromagnetic field with
an intensity of one mW/cm2, the disruption of the adaptation to a high temperature
environment can continue for up to three days. .
Similar results were obtained in trials using rabbits, which were trained to high
temperatures by means of infrared rays. The results of these studies are cited
in Table 1. It can be seen from the table that the loss of adaptation effect as
regards arterial pressure.is quite distinct. The data cited here are~indirect
evidence that microwaves actually have a nonthermal effect. If they were to cause
only a thermal effect, just as infrared rays, the elevated resistance to high
temperatures which was achi.eved should have been preserved (there would have been
a positive transfer of the adaptation to microwave heating). However, as follows
from the data given in the table, no such phenomena were observed. Similar
effects were detected in trials using rabbits, adapted to microwaves at a differ-
ent wavelength (Table 2), as well as with dogs. For the latter, electrocardio-
grams, respiration and rectal temper.ature were recorded in addition to the
arterial pressure [7]. The data of Table 2 show that the immunity developed to one wavelength is not
accompanied by increased immunity to another. On the other hand, when exposed
to decimeter wavelengths, a decrease in immunity is observed. Thus, radio
waves in this band disrupt adaptive responses developed for exposure�to centi-
meter wavelengths. The latter provides a basis for stating that the mechanism
for their action and the response of the counteraction differ for each of the
indicated wavelength bands.
A second variant of the experiments provided for conducting studies on animals
with an artificially disrupted activity of the regulator mechanisms or after
the animals had sustained some kind af illness. The results of these kinds
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of trials, performed on dogs who sustained radiation illness, are cited in Table 3.
It can be seen from the table that the microwave exposure not only reproduces
some of the radiation sickness symptoms, but also causes additional changes: in
the form of trophic disturbances (ulcers) in the region of the knee and foot jointis.
FOR OFFtC[AL USE O1VLY
TABLF 2. The Disadaptive Effect of Decimeter WaveZengths (X = 60 cm; "Volna"
Equipment) from the Data of a Study of the Arterial Pressure in
Rabbits Adapted to Centimeter Wavelengths (a = 12.6 cm; "Luch-58"
Equipment)
Conditions of the
Trials
Arterial Significance
Number Pressure of the Dif-
of Gra3ients ferences when
Trials over 2 hr Compared with
mm Hg, M+Tn Backgr.ound, p.
Remarks
_ Initial data (4 days of 20 6.7 + 4 - Background
observation) -
lst-4th sessions of cm wavelengths (a = 12.6 cm;
energy flux density = 20 23.4 + 2.3 < G.O1
= 50 mW/cm2; 30 min ex- - ~
posure). Rectal temperature
rise of 1.3� C
9th-llth sessions of cm
wavelengths with the same
15
6.8 + 0.6
> 0.5
Adaptatl-on
parameters
12th - 15th sessions of cm
wavelengths with the same
parameters. For one day
before each session, irrad-
iation with dm wavelengths
20
11.5 + 1.2
< 0.01
Slight dis-
(A = 60 cm, energ flux
~
-
adaptation
, 30 min
density = 1 c.^.W/cm
exposure)
16th - 19th sessions of cm
wavelengths of.the same
parameters, for 30 min
before the session, irrad-
iation with dm wavelengths
20
33.8 +2.8
< 0.01
Pronounced
(energy flux density =
2)
W/
1
-
disadaptation
m
cm
21st - 22nd sessions of cm
wavelengths with the same
parameters; prior to each of
them, irradiated by the same
10
6.4 + 0.8
> 0.5
-
cm wavelengths with an energy
flux density of 1 mW/cm2,
- -40-
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TABLE 3.
Specific Features of the Impact of Microwave (X = 10 cm; Energy
- Flux Density = 5 mW/cm2; 30 Minute Exposure) on the Organism of
a Dog Which Has Sustained Radiation Sickness
After an R-ray Rad-
After iation Dose of 200 r
~ Indicators Back- Micro- Peak of Significance
Being ground wave Ir- the Rad- 3 months Micro- of the Differ-
Studied radiation iation Later wave Ir- ences When
- Sickness radiation Compared
P
1 2 3 4 5 6 2-4 4-6
Conditioned motor reflexes:
a) Latent per- 2.8 3 45 7.2 56.2 0.01 0.5
iods in sec
b) Number of
hits on the 3.2 3.4 1.4 3.2 0.2 0.01 0.05
pedal
- Conditioned
secretion
refl.exes (quan-
tities in 14.4 18.2 5 16 6.4 0.01 0.5
drops)
Maximum arter-
ial pressure, 139 143 147 138 148 0.01 0.5
mm Hg ' .
Number of 9,250 6,810 2,250 2,540 4,450 leukocytes
_ Trophic dis= Sores in
turbances the region
of the knee
and foot �
ioints
. Note: Each figure in columns 2- 6 is the average of five trials.
As has been shown in the studies of various authors, some of the symptoms of
previously sustained illnesses can reoccur in dogs with an artificially induced
- myocardial infarct, which was achieved by means of tying off one of the coronary
arteries or by etidocrine system.insufficiency which was created by removal of
the hypophysis or the thyroid gland. It is obvious that the partial reoccur-
- rence of a previously sustained illness (or function insufficiency) should
also be treated as an indicator of a damaging effect.
The question of the threshold levels for the unfavorable action of radio fre-
quency emissions is closely related to the estimation of the significance of
exposure parameters, and primarily, to the intensity (P) and duration (T) of
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the irradiation. As was shown in paper [8], the same effect can be observed with
substantial differences in the intensity, but with different exposure durations.
Achieving different effects as a function of the exposure intensity and time
occurs when the following conditions are observed, defined by the formula:
T = W/kP
Where T is the exposure time in minutes;
W is the incident energy density, mW�min/cm2;
P is tt:e radiation intensity, mW/cm2;
k is an experimentally determined coefficient which shows how many times
the radio wave efficiency increases with an increase in the energy
flux density.
The circumstances treated here attest to the necessity of both standardizing
the conditions for the performance of experimental studies and working out
unified criteria for estimating biological effects, without which it is impossi-
ble to have a sufficiently rigorous substantiation of the threshold levels of
the unfavorable effect of radio frequency electromagnetic radiations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Carpenter R.Z., et al., "Biologic Effects of Mi.crowave Radiation with Particular
Reference to the Eye", Pror. 3-d ant. Conf. Meet. Electron., London, V01. 3,
p 401.
2. "Vliyaniye SVCh-izlucheniy na organizm cheloveka i zhibotnykh" ["The Impact of
Mic-rowave Radiations on Human and Animal Organisms"], edited by R.I. Petrov,
Leningrad,"Meditsina", 1970.
3. Gorodetskaya S.F., "Funktsional'nyye i morfologicYieskiye izmeneniya polovykh
organov samtsov belykh myshey pri vozdeystvii SVCti polya" ["Functional and
Morphological Changes in the Sex Organs oic Male White Mice Exposed to a Micro-.
wave Field"], in the book,"Gigiyena truda i biologicheskoye deystviye EM poley
radiochastot" ["Labor flygiene and the Biological Effect of Radio Frequer.c;
Electromagnetic Fields"], Moscow, Scientific Research Institute of Labor.Hygierv?,
and Occupational Diseases of the USSR Academy of Mecidal Sciences, 1963,
PP 25-26. ,
4. Gusarov D.V., "Vliyaniye SVCh-polya na fizicheskuyu trenirovannost' eksperi
~ mental'nykh zhivotnykh" ["The Influence of a Microwave Field on the Physical
Training of Experimental Animals"], VMZh [MILITARY MEDICAL JOURNAL], 1971,
3, pp 61-66.
5. Lobanova Ye.A., "Vyzhivayemost i razvitiye zhivotnykh pri raznoy intensivnosti
i dlitel'nosti vozdeystviya SVCh" ["Animal Survival Rate and Development for.
riicrowave Ex,posures of Different Durations. and Intensity"j, TRUDY NII GIGIYENY
TRUDA I PR4FZAVOLEVANIY AMiJ SSSR [PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES OF THE USSR ACADEMY
OF MEDICAL SCIENCES], No 1, Moscow, 1960, pp 61-64.
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METHODS AND CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING T�HE RESULTS OF STUDIES ON VOLUNTEERS
IN RESOLVING QUESTIONS OF SETTING HEALTH SAFETY STANDARDS
T.V. Kalyada, V.N. Nikitina and M.V. Shepeleva
Studies of the physiological laws governing the interaction of the organism of
man and electromagnetic radiations should occupy an important place in solving
the problem of the biological effect and substantiating the maximum permissible
levels of nonionizing radiations. _ The study of these laws will make it possible to estimate the biological effects
of the action of a factor at the level of a quite complex, high}.y organized
biological system, such as the human organism. Some authors believe that the
property of perceiving weak electromagnetic fields occurs only at the level of
complex, highly organized biological systems, and it is possible that this
property is fully manifest only in the human organism [1]. The study of the
biological effect of electromagnetic fields on the human organism has the
advantage that its results in resolving questions of setting health safety
standards can be used directiy without any corrections related to the extrapo-
latian to man of experimental data obtaiued with animals.
The experimental study of the biological effects of low intensity electromagnetic
fields makes it possible to ascertain the physiological systems most sensitive
to electromagnetic fields in various portions of the spectr.um and establish
the threshold values of the radiation parameters for various reactions of an
organism.
- Under conditions of long term exposures, which is possible only at low irrad-
iation intensities, it is possible to trace the development of shifts of an
adaptive and cumulative nature, which can be manifest, in particular, by a
change in the level of functioning of individual physiological systems. The
study of the genesis of functional changes in the human organism with the
, action of electromagnetic radiation or in combination with ot:Ler factors in .
the industrial environment makes it possible to compare thE concept of possible
paths for the development and the nature of formation of aosiption reactions,
as well as clinical manisfestations related to the exposure to the factor.
This in turn serves as a good basis for the development and organization of
a system of prophylactic measures directed towards preventing the unfavorable
- effect of electromagnetic radiations.
An extremely limited amount of research drawing on volunteers has been done at
the present t.ime to study the biological effect of radio frequency electromag-
netic emissions.
Some of them are related to the determination of the threshold levels of micro-
wave radiations whichcause a perception of heat in man. It has been determined
that with exposure to 10 cm wavelength waves, this effect occurs at 10 mW/cm2
[2], and with exposure to 3 cm waves, at 1 mW/cm2 [3].
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Visual, aural, tactile and other effects caused by radiation have been des-
cribed [4]. N.I. Matuzov, in studying the area of the projection of the
blind spot and adequate optical chronaxy in the case of microwave irradiation
aC an intensity of 1 mW/cm2, noted an elevation in the irritability of the
visual analyzer [4]. S.F. Libikh later demonstrated that lower intensities
caused an expansion of the scotoma while higher doses caused a contraction [5].
Scund perception with the action of microwaves has been described in detail 'uy
a number of authors [6]. A similar effect has been observed with exgosure to
lower frequency electromagnetic fields at 60 Hz to 15 KHz [7]. When min have
been irradiated with a microwave field at an intensity of 1 to 3 mW/cm , a
disruption of coordination of movenents has been noted [8]. When studying
reactions to a moving object (RDO), it has been determined that microwave
irradiation with an intensity of 1 mW/cm2 increases the reaction precision,
something which can be viewed as a stimulating effect of weak microwave energy
doses. Extremely interesting is the fact that changes in the indicators for
rR:ponse to a moving object show an onset only after four to five days of
_ exposure. The same thing has been observed when studying the hemodynamics of
volunteers with dosed exposure to microwaves [9]. In this case, irradiation at
an intensity of 1 mW/cm2 has led to an increase in almost all hemodynamic indi-
cators (with the exception of pulse pressure and systolic volunie). The effect
of radiation with an energy flux density of 3 mW/cm2 caused a reduction in the
_ indicators being studied. In the case of combined exposure to microwave and
VHF electromagnetic fields, no changes were detected after 5 exposures, but
after 10, the depressive action of the factor was noted. Also noted was a rise
- in the extent to which biochemical cha.rkges were pronounced in step with the
increasing number of exposures [10].
In the authors' own research, in the case of exposure to el.ectromagnetic fields
of low intensity, no substantial shifts in the reactions being studied were
noted in the first four to five days of irradiation. Only in subsequent days
was a realignment of functions at a new level of activity noted.
Some researchers in the case of inadequate repetition of the exposures have not
obtained reliable measurements, and in a number of cases have drawn the insuffi-
ciently substantiated conclusions that low intensities are biologically insig-
nificant.
The results of published research attest to the fact that different systems of
the organism respond to the action of a factor in different ways. Thus, a
study of functional shifts in the blood system of man in the case of microwave
irradiation (1 mW/cm2) established that after the first exposure session,
phagocytosis intensity fell off. When the number of exposure sessions was
increased up to 5 to 10, as well as during the aftereffect period, the studied
indicators for irradiated animals did not differ from the control values.
Studies of the gas exchange status of volunteers exposed to microwave irradia-
tion at an intensity of 3 mW/cm2 demonstrated that in the first days of expo-
- sure, oxygen consumption increased among the test subjects. In step with the
repetition of the exposures (seven days), the response reactions smoothed out.
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This served as the hasis for concluding that there was adaptation to the action
of the factor. However, after 9 to 10 sessions of irradiation, just the opposite
- reaction was observed, i.e., a decrease in oxygen utilization [11].
The results of many years of industrial experimental research, performed in the
Leningrad Institute of Occupational Diseases and Labor Hygiene have demonstrated
- that the study of the interrelationships between the physiological functions of
man and a physical factor in the industrial environment can be accomplished both
_ under actual production conditions and in a laboratory experiment with simulated
production variations of the exposure or variations specified by the theoretical
studies. Physioingical studies of man, in our opinion, should be b3sed on para�-
clinical research techniques which have become widespread in med3cine. Even the
term "paraclinical" emphasized their integral relationship with conventional
clinical investigation techniques. The use of these techniques under conditions
of human labor activity has expanded the possibilities for evaluating the func-
tional status of an organism working under conditions of the unfavorable action
of factors in the production environment. In choosing the methods for func-
tional studies, one should work primarily from the clinical manifestations of
exposure to a factor and the nature of the pathology. The major feature of the
procedural approach in evaluating functional changes is the comprehensive
nature of the studies, which makes it possible to establish the presence, nature
and extent to which deviations in the functions being studies are pronounced.
In this case, the choice of the specific research methods is determined primar-
ily by the task posed by the research. Thus, for example, the frequent task of
estimating the reactions of any one system makes it possible to more deeply
investigate the choice of adequate methods which thoroughly reveal the functional
activity of this system. Tasks of a wider scope require the choice of inethods
which make it possible to evaluate the functional status of the systems most
sensitive to the action of a factor, where these systems are functionally inter-
related.
Physiological investigations should be carried out in different variants, both
under conditions of relative quiet and under conditions where functional loads
are applied to more fully evaluate the system being studied. In this case, to
obtain comparable data,*the studies should be performed under strictly identical,
standard conditions.
' The analysis of accumulated material obtained as a result of evaluating the
_ functional status of an arganism working under conditions of exposure to elec-
tromagnetic fields attests to the expedi.ency of performing these kinds o�
studies and makes it possible to note the major requirements placed on their
. performance. For physiolugical studies in a production environment. it is
necessary to carefully select both the main and control groups of sub,jects.
The work conditions of the groups being compared should be identical in terms
of the nature of the work process, and the characteristics of the industrial
- environment with the exception of the electromagnetic factor. The conformity
of the groups should be observed both with respect to such indicators as sex,
age, length of service, etc. The study should be performed on healthy persons,
and in the same seasons of the year if the work is carried out over a number
of years. The groups of study subjects should be segregated according to
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various attributes, such as for example, frequency band, irradiation conditions
and intensity, the combination of exposures, etc.
On of tYLe major trends in the study of the functional status in the organism of
workers is to be considered the statistical physiological assessment of the
various homeostatic systems of the organism, i.e., the evaluations of the levels
of their functional activity, which are produced during the process of environ-
mental exposure, including the exposure to the factor being studied.
The functional systems under study can be physiologically characterized by
- means of determining their indicators recorded in various ways prior *o the
start of the work process under conditions of relativ e quiet. For a deeper
- assessment of the functional capabilities of the physiological systems being
studied, adequate functional loads should be employed.
When performing such research, sufficiently large contingents of workers under
conditions of exposure to electromagnetic fields and appropriate control groups
have been selected, something which has made it possible to comparatively eval-
uate the data obtained in different groups with various lengths of service and
to characterize the dynamics of the functional realignment of the systems of
the organism in the process of exposure to the factor being studied.
From standpoints of modern physiology, the transition of physiological systems
from one functional level to another can, on one hand, in the case of adaptation,
be accompanied by increased performance of the functional system, and on the
other, by a reduction in its performance as a result of fatigue and functional
exhaustion.
Physiological studies of workers can also be accomplished during the execution ,
of production operations during the course of a work day. It is well known that
the work process generates a definite dynamic stereotype, characteristic of
various professional groups. In those cases where the production activity is
realized under conditions of unfavorable exposure to a particular factor in the
production environment, one can anticipate disturbances of tYe developed stereo-
type or the one being developed. .
A third extremely important t~ke~s iundereconditionseoftirradiation areacapablems�
As our research has shown, wo
of changing the diurnal periodicity of their physiological functions.
Experimental studies using low intensity electromagnetic fields on volunteers,
nct previously exposed to radio waves, guarantee complete exposure safety, and
consequently, the permissibility of a detailed study of the factor.
Persons included in a laboratory experiment should be practically healthy. The
preliminary assessment of the physiological indicators of the functions under
study provides for a rather homogeneous selection of volunteers according to
typological features and adequacy of the reactions to the procedures being
employed and the experimental situation.
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The first step in an experimental study consists in extinguishing the orienta-
tion reactions and the adaptation of tha test subjects to the experimental con-
- ditions. This period continues for no more than five days. The extinguishing
of tie orientation reactions is determined by the relative stability of the
indicators being recorded. This step should be executed in precise time wise
accord with the experimental model. The next step in the investigations, being
a continuation of the first, should provide for the capability of a comparative
assessment of the parameters being studied with imaginary and real irradiation
of various test subjects.
Concurrently with the major experimental group, the research is performed on
persons not exposed to irradiation, i.e., only with imaginary exposure to the
factor. Such control is especially expedient during long term experiments and
_ has the goal of ascertaining the presence of cumulative effects. In this case,
the duration of the research with exposure to the factor being studied should
be no less than 20 days. Such a formulation of an experimental study makes it
~ possible to ascertain the threshold values of electromagnetic fields based on
the criterion of functional accumulation of a biological effect, which is of
great importance in substantiating standard values.
Each experimental study should be performed during definite hours, under
strictly monitored, fixed meteorological conditions, while maintaining the
specified irradiation parameters. Each experiment begins with a preliminary
20 to 30 minute adaptation of the test subject to the microclimatic conditions
in the laboratory should be optimal. Then, the physiological parameters of the
functions being studied are recorded in a definite sequence so as to avoid
possible functional loading by one method on the sequentially recorded indicators
for another function. Repeated recording of the indicators is accomp_lished in
. aset sequence: immediately after terminating the radiation and during the
recovery period. The daily exposure is determined in each specific case either
by the industrial.time wise models for the irradiatYon or by the theoretical
tasks of the research. Investigations of physiological systems can be carried
out during the irradiation process. In this case, to avoid artifacts when
recording indicators, it is necessary to preclude the possibility of contact
between the metal sensors and the human body during general irradiation or
with parts of the body exposed to local electromagnetic fields.
Based on an analysis of data in the literature and experience with their own
research, the authors consider it possible to recommend the following methods
for functional studies of volunteers:
--Electroencephalography;
--Methods of evaluating various analyzer systems (visual, aural, temperature);
--Psycho-physiological tests;
--Mechanical cardiography;
--Rheoplethysmography;
--Occlusion and simple plethysmography;
--Study of heat regulation, etc.
To assure the compatibility of work results, not only the procedural approaches
to the performance of industrial and experimental studies should be standard-
ized, but also the set of physiological instrumentation used in them.
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Up to the present time, no unified principles have been developed for evaluating
the impact of an environment, including electormagnetic fields, on functional
systems of an organism. It is well known that the physiological substantiation
of the recommended maximum permissible level of industrial environmental fac-
tors should be based on definite physiological criteria. One of these criteria,
in our opinion, when evaluating the threshold effect of electromagnetl.c
fields in experimental studies on volunteers can be the cumulative biological
effect which is manifest in a change in the level of functioning of the systems
of the organism which are most sensitive to long term exposure.
When resolving questions of setting health safety standards, the results of
experimenta.l research must be interpreted correctly, for which it is essential
to compare them with data in the case of imaginary exposure and with control
group data, as well as with the data obtained from practically healthy persons
during industrial observations, with the obligatory comparison to clinical
manifestations of exposure to the factor.
- BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Presman A.S., "Elektromagnitnyye polya i zhivaya priroda" ["Electromagnetic
Fields and Living Nature"], Moscow, "Nauka" Publishers, 1968, pp 9-11.

2. Vendrik A., Vos J., Comparison of the Stimulation of the Warmth Sense Organ
by Microwave and Infrared", J. APPL. PHYSIOLOGY, 1958, 13, 435.
3. Hendler E., Hardy, "Infrared and Microwave Effects on Skir_ Temperature
- Sensation", J. TRANS. IRE MED. ELECTRONICS, ME-7, 1960, V. 31, l, p 43.
4. Matuzov N.I., "Izmeneniye vozbudimosti zritel'nogo analizatory u lyudey pri
vozdeystvii mikrovolnami" ["Change in the Irritabilitq of the Visual Analyzer
- in Persons Exposed to Microwaves"], BYULLETEN' EKSPERIMENTAL'NOY BIOLOGII,
[BULLETIN OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY], 1959, Vol. 48, 7, p 27-31.
5. Libikh S.F., "Funktsional'naya mobil'nost' setchatki glaza pri vozdeystvii
na cheloveka SVCh-polya" ["Functional Mobility of the Retina with Human Exposure
to a Microwave Field"], in the collection, "Voprosy biologicheskogo deystviya
SVCh elektromagnitnogo polya" ["Questions of the Biological Effect of a Micro-
wave Electromagnetic Field"], Leningrad, 1962, pp 30-31.
6. Frey A., ufluman Response ot Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic Energy", NAVAL
RES. REV., 1963, 16, pp 1-4.

- 7. Wiske G.; Human Sensivity to Electric Fields", "Biomedical Science.
Instrumentation", N.Y., Plenum Press, 1963, 1, 467.
8. Pivova-;:ov M.A., "Vliyan;-e SVCh-polya malykh intensivnostey na nekotoryye
analizatory cheloveka" ["The Influence of a Low Intensity Microwave Field on
a Some Human Analyzers in the collection, "Voprosy biologicheskogo deystviya
SVCh elektromagnitnogo polya" ["Questions of the Biological Effect of a
Microwave Electromagnetic Field"], Leningrad, 1962, pp 35-36.
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9. Fofanov P.N.,"Ob izmeneniyakh gemodinamiki u cheloveka pri vozdeystvii SVCh
elektromagnitnykh voln" ["On Changes in the Hemodynamics of Man with Exposure
to Microwave Electromagnetic Waves"], in the collection, "Gigiyena truda i
biologicheskoye deystviye EMV radiochastot" ["Industrial Hygiene and the
Biological Effect of Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Waves"], Scientific Re-
search Institute for Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases of the USSR Academy
of Medical Sciences, Moscow, 1968, pp 161-162.
10. Syngayevskaya V.A., Sinenko G.F., "Aminokislotnyy sostav krovi lyudey i zhivot-
nykh posle oblucheniya sverkhvysokochastotnymi elektromagnitnymi polyami"
["The Amino Acid Composition of the Blood of Persor.s and Animals Following
Exposure to Microwave Electromagnetic Fields"], in the collection, "Vliyaniye
SVCh izlucheniya na organizm cheloveka i zhivotnykh" ["Impact of Microwave
Radiation on Human and Animal OrganYsms"], Leningrad, 1966, pp 57-65.
11. Listova N.M.,110 roli shchitovidnoy zhelezy v izmeneniyakh gazoobmena pri vozdeys-
tvii EMV radiochastot" ["On the Role of the Thyroid Gland in Changes in Gas
Exchange with Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Waves"], Scientific
- Research Institute for Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases of the USSR
Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow, 1968, p 89.
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THE TASKS AND PLACE OF CLINICAL RESEARCH IN SETTING flEALTH SAFETY STANDARDS
FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIO FREQUENCY EMISSIONS
V.G. Artamonova and A.Ye. Vermel'
The impact of radio frequency electromagnetic fields on the human organism has
been studied for a long time, though changes in the functional status of organs
and systems in people exposQd to a given factor nonetheless are frequently
treated far from the same way by various authors. The reason for this lies,
on one hand, in the inadequate knowledge of the'mechanism for the action of
electromagnetic radiations, and on the other hand, in the absence of unity in
the intzrpretation of the reactions observed in this case.
As is well known, the basis for establishing the maximum permissible levels of
radio frequency exposures is the ascertaining of the harmful threshol3s. In the
USSR, deGisive importance is attributed in this case to functional changes, in
contrast to a number of foreign countries where the major role is assigned to
morphofunctional disturbances. .
Noting on the whole the'definitive achievements of domestic medicine tn the
study of the clinical picture of radio frequency exposures, it is nPcessary to
note at the same time that a whole series of questions relatfng to the problem
continue to remain insufficiently worked out up until now.
In analyzing the literature devoted to the study of human organism reactions to
exposure to low-intensity electromagnetic fields, attention is drawn to the
extraordinarily large number of search investigations directed towards ascer-
taining both the clinical shifts and the changes in the individual laboratory
indicators. The estimated indicators also include those such as subjective
reactions to the irradiation, status indicators �or the higher nervous activity
and cardiovascular system, digestive organs, kidneys, endocrine organs, as well
as the organs of vision and hearing. The influence of electromagnetic fields
on EEG's and EKv's, gastric secretion, the morphological composition of the
blood, individual biochemical indicators, immunity status, reproductive function
and the overall morbidity has been described in detail [1-6]:
It must be noted that the clinical significance of the data cited in various
- papers is not of the same value. A significant number of the ascertained
shif'ts cannot be treated solely as a manifestation of pathology. Some of
thEm can be treated as responses to an external stimulus (the electromagnetic
field), i.e., belong among the indicators of radio sensitivity, or themselves
� reflect the development of phenomena of an adaptive nature.
Undoubtedly, a characteristic feature of the development of radio damage is
the occurrence of functional disturbanees in the central nervous systeur,,
- in particular, the hypothalamus,and in reticular formation. These disturbances
are manifest as clinical syndromes, which vary in frequency and tha extent
to which they are pronoxinced, but are close to each other in essence and number
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among neuroses with varying degrees of vegetative disorders [4]. This includes
vegetative dystonia (and as a special case, neurocirculator dystonia with
various disorders of central and peripheral hemodynamics), as well as neuras-
~ thenic or astheno-neurotic syndromes, differing degrees of vegetative-vascular
paroxysms and some others.
Despite t'ne unanimous opinion of domestic clinical specialists and physiologists
concerning the functional nature of the disorders enumerated above, various
_ researchers do not give the same interpretation to ttie physiological reactions
and clinical syndromes which develop in persons exposed to radio waves. It must
- be pointed out that even in the question of the rightfulness of the concept
"r3dio frequency illness", there are various points of view. In essence, there
are no uniform diagnostic principles for the detectable changes, there is no
clear cut understanding of the timewise pathology of the impact of an electro-
magnetic f ield on the human organism, ann public health and safety cor.ditions
as well as the influence of other factors in the industrial environment on the
health status of people working when exposed to electramagnetic fields are not
always correctly taken into account.
Everything that has been said causes well known difficulties in comparing data
obtained by different researchers, since there are no overall criteri.a for
estimating the observed clinical reactions, and reliable demonstrations of the
j relationship of these reactions to the influence of the factor being studied
are frequently lacking. As an example of the not altogether successful treat-
ment of the detected clinical changes, one can refer to the review published
in 1977 devoted to the influence of microwave band electromagnetic fields on
the human cardiovascular system [7]. In this review, such phenomena as the
~ "mtiting of heart sounds, the shifting of its boundaries and systolic noise"
i are cited as proof of the negative impact of an electromagnetic field on the
~ cardiovascular system. All of the enumerated attributes are not proof of
; cardiac pathology. They are encountered with a very high frequency among
~ healthy people, and moreover, ascertaining them is of an extremely subjective
i nature. The use of such criteria leads the author to an extremely free treat-
; ment of the concept of myocardial dystrophy and to an arguable explanation of
' the influence of electromagnetic fields on vascular tone. It is also no
accident that some foreign authors point out that the drawbacks to the work
_ of Soviet researchers are the �tlimited statistical analysis of the collected
data, the lack of adequate control and quantitative evaluation of the material"
[8]�
It follows from what has been said that an important task of clinical research
_ at the present time is the creation of a standardized system of examining
" people exposed to electromagnetic radiations, and the development of uniform
principles for evaluating the reactions of the human organism to the indicated
exposure.
_ Along with this, the successful resolution of numerous clinical problems proves
to be possible only given a combining of efforts by clinical specialists In
- various institutions in our country, i.e., with the organization of widescale
clinical research within the framework of a unified comprehensive program.
This program should make it possible to resolve the questions posed above in
a comparatively short time, and in particular, to collect a maximum of informa-
- tion and make the interpretation of the obtained data objective.
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These kinds of clinical studies are widespread at the present time and assist
in the operationally timely solution of many complicated problems. It was
specifically because of thz clearcut manner in which cooperative research was
set up in the U.S. that they were successful in their time in solving many
problems of berylliosis in a short period of time. Wide scale international
clinical studies are underway in our time. For example, the effectiveness of
various chemotherapy schemes for certain neoplasms as well as the epidemiology
of caa-diovascular illnesses, etc. is being studied in the plan of the Soviet-
American medical program.
Since the creation of a standardized system of examining workers is of decisive
significance in the conduct of cooperative research, it is exceptionally import-
ant to establish the critical organs and systems which are the most sensitive
to electrotaagnetic radiation esposure, as well as to choose the main clinical
and laboratory indicators which objectively reflect human reactions to the
action of the factor being studied.
To assure the capability of comparing data obtained under different industrial
conditions, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of radio
frequency emission as a whole with all other factors in the production environ-
ment. In this regard, the parameters of the electromagnetic exposure and
frequency range, nature of the radiation (continuous or pulsed), nature of the
exposure (constant, intermittent; overall, local), the intensity, duration as
well as the possibZe impact of other production factors (noise, X-ray radiation,
the temperature factor, labor intensity, etc.) and those of a nonproduction
nature (social and everyday living conditions, etc.) must be indicated in the
public health and environmental physiology characteristics which are obligatory
_ for any occupational pathology and clinical investigation.
As has already been noted, the interpretation of clinical shifts which take
place under the influence of low intensity electromagnetic fields poses
definite difficulties. The developing functional changes on the part of the
- central nervous system, which are manifest in diverse neurotic syndromes, 30
� not have any kind ot specificity, while their appearance is one of the most
frequent responses to the action of multifarious stimuli of an exogenic and
endogenic nature. As is well known, the development of a neurosis can be the
consequence of conflict situations i.n domestic life and in production, as well
as exhaustion, unfavorable meteorological conditions, intercurrent in3ections,
the result of exposure to diverse physical or chemical factors, etc.
Naturally, the lack of specific radio wave damage marker criteria among the
cited clinical reactions makes a precise etiological diagnosis of the observed
functional changes difficult. Along with this, it has been noted that these
changes, which are usually of the same type, occur oniy among workers who have
a long length of service and are exposed to electromagnetic radiations at
levels exceeding the maximum permissible levels.
The careful dynamic observation of the test contingent of persons and the choice
of the appropriate control groups of people working under similar conditions,
_ but not exposed to electromagnetic fields, are of great importance in understand-
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ing the role of radio frequency emissions in the development of particular
clinical reactions.
Taking into account the nature of the physiological reactions and the clinical
shifts which develop, it is necessary to select the most informative research
techniques when creating a standardized system of inedical examination of persons
subjected to electromagnetic radiations. In this case, it is expedient to break
them down into obligatory and facultative. To'oe included among the first is
the detailed clinical examination (by a neuropathologist, therapist and oculist).
Working from the specific features of changes in the nervous system when exposed
to radio frequency electromagnetic fields, special attention must be devoted in
the clinical status to ascertaining the attributes of vegetative dysfunction.
In this regard the data on patient history should contain information on the
ability to endure unfavorable microclimatic exposures (cold, heat, a stuffy
room), accelerations (trips in a car, swing, hammock, boat), the extent to
which vegetative reactions are pronounced in the case of agitation (nasal.vaso-
motor lability, hyperhydrosis and hypothermia of the hands, heartbeat), with
the precise time when these disturbances appeared (starting in youth or in later
years; the months).
Attention should be devoted to the presence or absence of vegetative shifts
during the neurological examination: in the dermal vascular response to
mechanical and chemical stimuli, sweating, and studied data on the orthoclino-
static reflex. To more precisely specify the status of the higher functions of
the central nervous system and make thP neurotic and asthenic manifestations
objective, it is�expedient to conduct studies of the bioelectric activity of
the cerebrum (EEG) using functional laads as well as study the'reaction thr-esh-
olds of a number of analyzer systems. The extent to which vegetative vascular dystonia is spread among persons exposed
to electromagnetic fields determines the necessity of studying overall (central)
and regional (cerebral) hemodynamics. In developing.programs, it is necessary
to precisely specify the specific methods recommended for investigating various
hemodynamic indicators (mechanical cardiography, isotope studies, dye tracing,
rheoencephalography, etc.). The measurement of arterial pressure in the
brachial arteries, the determination of the size of the vessels in the fundus
of the eye and EKG examination are to be numbered among the obligatory methods
of studying the cardiovascular system.
Besides those included among the obligatory methods, one should also include
the description of the status of the transparent media of the eyes, the study
of lipid exchange and the study of the morphological composition of the blood.
The set of facultative tests can be determi-ned by the specific features of each
production environment, the scientific interests of the researcher and the
possibilities for using particular techniques. These can include the study of
a series of biochemical indicators, the evaluation of the.hormonal status, the
status of the organism's immunological activity, etc. When selecting both
the obligatory and facultative tests, one must take into account the possibili.ty
of using them during mass studies. The analysis of the data obtained requires
the observance of a strictly correct approach.
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One of the important tasks of clinical research is the study of the remote
consequences of long term exposure to low intensity electromagnetic fields.
The high frequency of functional neurological disturbances, in combination with
vegetative dystonia in the form of disturbances in the regulation of vascular
tone and extracardial functional disturbances, makes it necessary to carefully
study the prognosticative significance of the indicated disturbances and their
role in the origin of certain general somatic illnesces: 'primarily hypertension
and chronic ischemic heart disease, as well as the impact of long term expo-
sure to electromagnetic radiation on the development of certain involutional
processes, including cataractogenesis. These questions, and in particulat, the
role of the physical factor being studied in the development of hypertension
and coronary pathology are discussed in our literature [9-10]. However, the
conclusions of these papers are still to treated only as preliminary, since
they are based on a comparatively limited amount of clinical data. The clinical
study of the remote consequences of exposure to electromagnetic radiations is
- of exceptionally great importance at the present stage, primarily for checking
the substantiation of existing health safety standards and the effectiveness
of the prorective measures being taken.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Vliyaniye SVCh-izlucheniy na organizm cheloveka i zhivotnykh" ["The Impact
of Microwave Radiations on Human and Animal Organisms"], edited by R.I.
Petrov, Leningrad "Meditsina" Publishers, 1970.
2. Ginzburg D.A., Sadchikova M.N., "Electroencephalography Data from Long Term
Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields", in the book, "0 biolo-
gicheskom deystvii EMP radiochastot" ["On the Biological Effect of Radio
Frequency Electromagnetic Fields"], Moscow, Scientific Research Institute
- for Labor Hygiene and Occupational Diseases of the USSR Academy of Medical
. Sciences, No. 3, 1968, pp 30-33.
= 3. Glotova K.V., Sadchikov M.N., Kochanova Ye.M., "Serdechno-sosudistaya sistema
pri vozdeystvii mikrovolnovogo oblucheniya" ["The Cardiovascular System with
Exposure to Microwave Radiation"], in the book, "Serdechno-sosudistaya sistema
pri deystvii professional'nykh faktorov" ["The Cardiovascular System in the
Case of Exposure to Industrial Factors"], Moscow, "Meditsina" Publishers,
1976, pp 129-152.
4. Drogichina E.A., Sadchikova M.N., "Klinicheskiye syndromy pri vozdeystvii
razlichnykh diapazonov radiochastot" ["Clinical Syndromes with Exposures to
Various Radio Frequency Bands"], in the book, "0 biologicheskom deystvii elek-
- tromagnitnykh poley radiochastot" ["On the.Biological Effect of Radio Frequency
- ElectromagrLetic Fields"], Moscow, Scientific Research Institute for Labor Hy-
giene and Occupational Diseases of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, 1964,
pp 105-109.-
5. t-falyshev V.M., Kolesnik F.A., "Elektromagnitnyye volny sverkhvysokoy chastoty
- i ikh vozdeystviye na cheloveka" ["Superhigh Frequency Electromagnetic Waves
and Their Effect on Man"], Leningrad, "rieditsina" Publishers, 1968.
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6. Tyagin N.V., "Klinicheskiye aspekty oblucheniya SVCh diapazona" ["Clinical
Aspects of Microwave Band Irradiation"], Moscow, "Meditsina" Publishers,
1971.
7. Medvedev'V.P., "Serdechno-sosudistaya sistema cheloveka pri vozdeystvii
elektromagnitnogo polya svprkhvysokikh chastot" ["Human Cardiovascular System
with Exposure to a Microwave Electromagnetic Field"], GIGIYENA TRUDA I PROF-
ZABOLEVANIYA [INDUSTRIAL HYGiFNE AND OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES], 1977, 1, pp 18-22.
8. Michaelson S.M., "Biological Effects
Implications of Microwave Radiation"
pp 35-58. .
of Microwave Exposure", in "Biological
(Symp. Proc.), Richmond, Virginia, 1969,
9. Lysina G.G., "Kliniko-fiziologicheskiye sdvigi pri radiatsionnom i radiovolnovom
professional'nykh vozdeystviyakh" ["Clinical and Physiological Shifts with �
Occupations Radiation and Radio Wave Exposures"], MEDITSINSKAYA RADIOLOGIYA,
1975, II, pp 50-54.
10. Medvedev V.P., "Serdechno-sosudistaya sistema u rabotnikov umstvennogo truda
pri khronicheskom vozdeystvii elektromagnitnogo polya SVCh" ["The Cardio-
vascular System of Workers Doing Intellectual Labor in the Case of Chronic
Exposure to a Microwave Electromagnetic Field"], Doctoral Dissertation,
Leningrad, 1973.
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INFdRMATION ON THE ADDRESSES TO THE SEMINAR
I.P. Sokolova and Ye.K. Lebed'
Some 39 persons took part in the discussion of the issues raised at the
seminar concerning the methodology of setting health safety standards for
nonionizing radiations. It is appropriate to present tihe opinions of the
rather large group of scientists on the most urgent questions of the problem
under discussion. -
The problems posed for environmental physiology science in light of the resolu-
tions of the 25th CPSU Congress and the 16th USSR Trade Union Congress were
reflected in the address of deputy chief public health physician of the USSR,
candidate of the medical sciences A.P. Zaichenko, in which the importance of
a more rigorous scientific substantiation of maximum permissible levels was
underscored in light of rapid scientific and technicnl progress. The author
of the paper especially emphasized the necessity of taking into account the
time factor'when setting standards, thp importance of bringing the viewpoint of
specialists in occupational and public health safety closer together for the
- purpose of developing unified standards which take into account both occupational*
and nonoccupational exposure. This same question was reflected in the speech
by professor M.G. Shandala, in whose opinion "It is.impossible to establish
regulations for nonoccupational exposure without knowing occupational conditions,
- and vice versa". M.G. Shandala believes that all environmental factors can be
broken down into two groups: those inherent in nature and the fundamentally
new ones. In the case of the former, he considers it necessary to evaluate
not only excess exposure which leads to definite reactions of an organism, but
also underexposure, which is likewise fraught with various unfavorable conse-
quences. In evaluating such factors, it is proposed that three levels be
; established: opY.imal, ultimate (or maximum) permissible and the minimum neces-
_ sary. In speaking about the responses of an organism to exposure to electromag-
netic factors, the author singles out four zones: the zor.ie of primary (or evolu-
- tionary) adaptation; the zone of compensator reactions or secondary adaptation;
_ the zone of reparative regeneration and the zone of pathology.
M.G. Shandala feels that the maximum permissible Zevels for occupational expo-
- sure should fall in the range of compensator reactions,.and for the irradiation
of the populace, it should fall within the range of primary adaptation.
In the opinion of professor B.M. Savin, such an agproach is not a real one given
the hardware state of the art. The maximum permissible levels for the populacE
should go beyond the range formed by the natural background, since otherwise we
will not in essence be able to do anything which adds to the natural exposures.
For this purpose, a more detailed study of the range which M.G. Shandala called
the zone of compensation is necessary. This range can be extremely great and
change depending or. age, health status, etc. B.M. Savin also indicated the
necessity of a speciiic determination of the reactions, the threshold of which
will be the basis for setting the maximum permissible levels, once again under-
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scoring the fact that in this case, simply an action threshold or sensitivity
threshold cannot be used, since the latter completely depends on the sensitiv-
ity of the stucly methods employed.
Doctor of the medical sciences A.G. Subbota turned the attention of seminar
participants to the fact that nonionizing radiations encompass an enormous
range of the electromagnetic spectrum, and that only a few bands have been
studied sufficiently well at the present time out of this entire spectrum. This
is evidence of the necessity of organizing wide scale research in the radiobio-
' logy of nonionizing radiations. The author of the paper noted fundamental diff-
erences between radio frequency electromagnetic emissions and other factors in
the environment:
--Limited penetration into tissues, which leads to the fact that all of the
shifts via the mechanism ofchiasma of the afferent paths are directed towards
opposite portions of the central nervous system and are realized on the side
of the body opposite to the irradiated side; this is evidence of the necessity
- of taking into account the worst case exposure variant in the physiological
plan along with the irradiation parameters when developing standards;
--The impossibility of using a number of nhysiological methods which require
; contact between metallic elements (for example, electrodes) and the body
of man or animals, as well as the change in field distribution in the organs
as a function of the direction of irradiation;
--The impossibility of extrapolating data in a nwnber of cases from animals to,
man because of differences in the geometric dimensions of the bodies and the
species differences in physiological functions.
Professor Z.V. Gordon turned attention to the fact that the term "radiobiology"
as applied to nonionizing r:Adiations is not a successful one, since it is
traditionally related to ionizin; factors. She underscored the lack of health
safety standards in a number of nonionizing radiation bands and the necessity
of a more differentiated setting of standards for the radio frequency range.
In this case, Z.V. Gordon grants that the laws which have been sufficiently
well studied in one band (for example, the dose dependence of biological effects)
must be extrapolated to others, since the engineering cannot wait while we
"go through" all the bands.
The address of V.S. Blumental was devoted to the question of the health safety
evaluation of intermittent exposures. The author feels that breaking exposures
down into cont.inuous and intermittent without indicating the pulse width and
repetition rate parameters does not make it possible to determine the true
degree of danger of the latter. Moreover, determining the type of irradiation
(continuous or intermittent) requires in a number of cases that special
oscillographic analyses be made of the field. A procedural approach to esti-
mating radar emissions, based on an accounting for the energy characteristics
of the field and organism reactions to the intermittent nature of the exposure.
The concept of effective intensity is introduced for this purpose:
Peff = PavgY(K)g
where: Pavg-is the average value of the intensity of the intermittent irrad-
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y(K) is a factor which takes into account the organism reaction to the
intermittent nature of the exposure, and which depends on the pulsation
coef f icient K: K= a m/aavg l, Where am is the magnitude of the periodic
responses of the organism in the steady-state mode when a pulsed field
acts on it; a avg is the magnitude of the organism response when inter-
mittent radiation acts on it, the carrier frequency and average intensity
of which are similar to the corresponding parameters of the pulsed field.
The determination di the coefficient Y requires the performance of special
medical and biological studies.
The following are essential for the instrumented determination of irradiation
levels using the proposed approach:
- --The measurement of the average value (over the exposure period T) of the
intensity Pavg'
--Measuring the level of the instrumentation response to the pulsed action of
the field, PM;
- --Sequentially determining: K= Pm/Pavgl Y(K) and Peff � pavgY~K).
An intrument is needed for the measurement of P g which has inertial properties
which are chosen from the condition Oav$ ? T/a,awhere a is the permissible
value of output signal pulsation.
An instrument is needed for the measurement of Pm, the transfer function of
which is similar to the generalized transfer function of the organism.
In view of the fact that a number of the circuits of the instruments cited here
coincide, in particular, the RF, amplifier and readout circuitry, it is expe-
dient to design one all-purpose instrument, which correspondingly has two
operational modes.
An analysis of the dependence of the average and effective intensities on the
duty-cycle of the irradiation for different values of the relative pulse width
(T/0) shows that with a reduction in the pulse width, the values of Peff
approach the average intensity, and with an increase, they approach the peak
value.
To determine K and Peff, it is necessary to know the time constant of 0. Since
this parameter characterizes the dynamic properties of an organism, it should
be determined on the basis of the corresponding medical and biological data.
- In the opinion of candidate of the physical and chemical sciences V.M. Chibrikin,
estimating the intensity of an electromagnetic field based on the energy density
could be used if a therma2 mechanism were the basis for the biologicai effect.
It seems more correct to the author to speak af specific effects or resonance
ones. From the viewpoints of acknowledging the resonance mechanism of an
exposure, the utilization of a dasage approach in setting standards is thz
subject of critic�ism, since not only the energy characteristics of an exposure
are important, but also its timewise distribution and the possibility of
matching the biological rhythms of an organism. In doubting the expediency of
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estimating the total field energy (Utot.), V.M. Chibrikin devoted attention to
the differing aensitivity of biochemical reactions to E and H fields: biochem-
ical processes which are of an ionic nature respond to an electrical field,
and those of a radial nature, react to a magnetic field. In dealing with the
question of extrapolating experimental data, the author emphasized the nonuni-
- formity of the comparison of exposures on animals of different kinds by virtue
of the differences in the depth of energy penetration.
Can.didate of the biological sciences V.M. Shtemler turned the attention of
seminar participants to the fact that at the present day, the energy interac:tion
of electromagnetic fields with an organism are the most obvious. From this
viewpoint; it is rightful to speak of a uniform mechanism for the action of
E and H field components, since any alternating magnetic field, in accordance
with the law of electromagnetic induction, induces an electrical eddy field
in body tissues which should interact with tissues in accordance with the same
laws as an ordinary electrical field at the same frequency. Another matter is
that the magnetic component of an electromagnetic field can in principle cause
some specific effects which are due to the magnetic interactions themselves,
with which one must also deal. In particular, it has been demonstrated theoret-
ically and experimentally that it is possible for constant and low frequency
magnetic fields to influence the rate of free radical reactions in chemical
systems. However, the biological role of these kinds of interactions in the
radio frequency band remains unclear at the present time.
In evaluating the cyciical nature of exposures witti respect to the circadian
rhythms of the organism, V.M. Shtemler noted that it can be of importance if'
any one system or any one reaction is analyzed. In practice though, the issue
is one of many systems and reactions, the rhythms of which do not coincide,
and for this reason, it is as if the response of the organism as a whole is
the resultant of the exposure of numerous systems.
V.M. Shtemler emphasized that the comparison of exposures to electromagnetic
fields for animals of different species is rightful if one works not from the
external field, but from the internal fields created in the biological object.
Based on the data of American researchers, the author of the paper calculated
the irradiation parameters in electromagnetic fields of different frequencies,
which provide equal average values of the internal electrical field, current
density and absorbed energy for man and animals of different kinds (see the
Table).
! Candidate of the medical sciences V.A. Zhuravlev in his address noted the
existence of substantial differences in the set standard levels for radio
emissions adopted in different countries. These differences reach three to
four orders of magnitude. The author noted that the principles of determining
the duration of microwave irradiation based on integral values of the incident
energy (CSSR, Polish People's Republic), as well as setting norms for inter-
mittent exposure (Polish People's Republic) deserve attention. In the opinion
of V.A. Zhuravlev, pronounced but reversible functional changes should be
the basis for the developnent of max3.mum permissible levels. By assigning
great significance to health safety margin factors in setting the maximum
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TABLE
The Exposure Parameters Necessary to Provide for Equal Values of the
- Internal Electrical Field, Current Density and Absorbed Energy Density
in the Body of Man and Certain Animals .
The Calculation for Equivalent Spheroidal Models of Man and Animals
a) Energy Flux Densities for a Plane Electromagnetic Wave, in mW/cm2
The Direction of the E Field Is Parallel to the Long Axis of the Body
Average
Dog,
Rabbit,
Rat,
Mouse,
Frequency,
Man, 70 kgq
32 kg
3.0 kg
0.32 kg
0.02 kg
,
MHZ
170 cm
90 cm
40 cm
20 cm
7 cm _
20; Quasistatic approx-
6
3
0
5
5.3
8.~
imation range
1.0
.
.
70; Maximum absorptian
1
0
7.5
18.0
18.5
30.0
for man
.
130; Maximum absorption
0
1
0.53
2.0
2.7
4.7
for a dog
.
300; Maximum absorption
0
1
0.57
0.13
0.24
0.67
for a rabbit
.
600; Maximum absorption
0
1
0.85
0.26
0.04
0.23
for a rat
.
1,700; Maximum absorption
1
0
4
0
0.12
:
0.02
for a mouse
1.0
.
.
10,000; Quasioptical
0
1
0.9
0.45
0.17
0.06
approximation range
.
* Calculation made from the data of
"Radiofrequency Radiation Dos
imetry Hand-
book (Second Edition
by C.H. Durney, C.C.
Joirnson,
P.W. Barbe
r, et al., ,
1978, Departments of
Electrical Engineering and Bioengineering,
the Univers-
ity of Utah, Report
SAM-TR-78-22.
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TABLE, continued
b) The "Isolated" E Field Intensities
(V/m) in
the Quasistatic
Approximation
Frequency Range 20 MHz)
~
_ Exposure Conditions
Average
Dog
Rabbit
Rat
Mouse
Man
Long axis of Free Space
1
2.27
2.38
2.14
2.71
man and animal
parallel to Subject on a
the E field conducting
plane
1
2.51
2.65
2.34
3.10
Long axis of Free Space
1
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.95
man and animal Subject on a
perpendicular
conducting
to the E
field plane
1
0.89
0.88
0.90
0.85
~
Long axis of Free Space
1
11.4
11.4
11.4
11.4
' man para11e1
Subject on a
to
E field,
conducting
while animal
perpendicular plane
.
1
28.5
28.5
28.7
27.3
Long axis of Free Space
1
0.190
0.198
0.178
0.225
man perpendi- Subject on a
cular to E conducting
field, while plane
1
0.078
0.083
0.073
0.097
animal parallel
c) The Isolated H-Field Intensities
(A/m) in the Quasistatic Approximation
FreQUency Range (1 20 MHz)

Average
Exposure Conditions
Man
Dog
Rabbit
Rat Mouse
-
Identical orientation of the
-
long axis of man and animal
1
1.06
2.3
5 12
in the H field
Long axis of man parallel to
H field, while animal
1
0.75
1.65
3.5 8.5
perpendicular
'
Long axis of man perpendicular
to H field, while animal
1
1.5
3.25
7 17
-
parallel
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permissible levels, he believes that the Ievel of cumulative radio f.requency
effects in an organism should be taken as the criterion for determining the
values of the latter. His own research and analysis of the literary data in
this field showed that microwaves have a small cumulazive capability, which
- indicates the possibility of employing safety margin factors in a range of from
- 2 to 10.
- I*� ascertaining three major exposure categories (occupational, nonoccupational
in the working zone and irradiation of the populace) and admitting the necessity
of setting microwave radiation standards based on a uniform threshold dose for
man, V.A. Zhuravlev proposes that the following health safety margin factors be
used: 10 for occupation311y exposed persons; from 20 to 50 for nonoccupational
irradiation in industry; and 100 for the populace.
In entering the discussions on the report of A. G. Subbota and B.A. Chukhlovin,
"The Choice of Study Methods and Principles of Evaluating E Xperimental D ata
when Setting Radio Emission Standards", professor M.I. Rudnev emphasized the
fact that when working out the maximum permissible levels of radio emissions,
changes of a functional nature are to be taken as the basis, where methods of
studying integral indicators, such as, for example, behavioral reactions and
the like should occupy first place in the set of experimental methods.
In giving a positive assessment of t1a proposals of the conferees, the author
of the paper considers it expedient to devote more attention to the study of
the status of hormonal functions, the cardiovascular system and remote conse-
quences. He also underscored the necessity of further work on questions of the
_ significance of various organism reactions and the quantitative evaluation of
the ascertained changes.
Professor A.A. Kasparov in his address emphasized the importance of standardizing
procedural questions when working out health safetiy norms. He devoted special
attention to evaluation criteria for the harmful effect of a factor. He recalled
that such criteria in toxicological practice are the extent to which the devia-
tions are pronounced, the stability of the changes and tt�e presence of hidden
changes which are ascertained by means of functional loads. Professor A.A.
Kasparov emphasized that the most acceptable approach to nonionizing radiat'Lons
must be determined on the basis of analyzir_g existing data, and also noted the
~ importance of creating a regulating document for working out the maximum permis-
sible levels.
Doctor of the medical sciences B.A. Chukhlovin supported the proposal of A.A.
Kasparov concerning the necessity of working out procedural recommendations.
This document car. be written on the basis of existing procedural guidelines
using materials obtained in recent years. In the opinion of B.A. Chukhlovin,
a careful analysis of existing data will make it possible to makQ a substantial
contribution to the resolution of such questions as the selection of research
methods, precisely specifying the concept of "harmful action threshold" as
applied to exposure to radio radiations, setting a differentiated standard as
a function of the frequency characteristics of a band and exposure time as well
as extrapolating experimental data from animals to man.
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Professor M.G. Shandala, in emphasizing the tiody of research to be used in
ascertaining the threshold levels of a factor, noted that to establish the
adequacy of inethods, the understanding of the mechanisms of a factor is of
great importance. Professor M.G. Shandala feels that the set of inethods
recommended by the conferees is suitable only for special categories o'L persons.
. However, when the issue involves the population, the regulating of radiation
for persons in various age groups and of different health status, then some .
othercriteria are nEeded to evaluate the harmful action of a factor. The
author believes that a special i.:solution of the question of using the setting
- of communal health standards in practice for the health safety margin factors
is also needed.
Candidate of the medical sciences F.A. Kolodub underscored the fact that changes
in the exchange processes are the basis for the structur:sl and functional
_ changes which are interpreted as signs of harmful exposure to electromagnetic
_ emissions; among these changes, a disturbance of the energy exchange is to be
put in first place. F.A. Kolodub considers it important to estimate the level
of macroergic [sic] compounds, and the intensity of oxidation and phosphoryla-
tion processes. As far as protein exchange is concerned, changes in it, as a
rule, are evidence of far advanced stages of disturbances. Preformed ammonia
; can be used as an integral indicator in this case. The auttior of the paper
~ cited nucleic acid content, the overall level of enzymes, testosterories as well
as indicators which characterize the function of the vegetative nervous system
as important biochemical indicators.
I.P. Los' turned the attention of seminar conferees to the importance of devel-
oping predictive methods of studying nonionizing radiations, which requires the
gathering of rather precise information at the present stage, where this infor-
mation characterizes the biological impact of electromagnetic emissions. He
also noted that in research using low intensities, the duration of exposure to
a factor is of great importance. The author of the paper shared the results of
his own work which is directed towards finding integral parameters which charac-
terize the biological activity of radio frequency exposures. In this regard,
indicators for the rate of recuperative processes and the probability of
occurrence of deviations were treated based on the data from an analysis of
the variability of the individual functions which were studied.
V.D. Vatutin emphasized the necessa.ty of standardizing not only the methods of
studying biological indicators, but also the methods of irradiating animals.
Working out the requirements placed on the technical hardware for experiments
should be accomplished taking into account the specific features of specific
radio frequency bands. Such standardization is important from the viewpoint
of the possibility of comparing the results of studies by various authors.
In speaking on the report of T.V. Kalyada, V.N. Nikitina and M.V. Shepeleva,
"Methods and Criteria for Evaluating the Results of Studies on Voluns,;eers
when Resolving Questions of Setting Health Safety Standards", professor B.M.
Savin dealt with the issue of the site of observations of volunteers included
in other studies when substantiating maximum permissible levels. He does not
share the viewpoints of authors concerning the simultaneous conduct of experi-
mental research on animals and on volunteers. Such a formulation of the ques-
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tion, in his opinion, is possible only in those cases where there is already
a sufficient amount of data which makes it possible to estimate the degree of
danger of one exposure or another. And an experiment on animals, in which
obtaining data on safe level.s of a factor is assured, should precede studies
on volunteers. The goal of the latter should be to check the safety of the
values recommended as the maximum permissible levels and to ascertain the spe-
cific features of reacticns to exposure of the human organism to a factor.
Professor B.M. Savin then turned the attention of the conferees to the fact that
it is impossible to put an equal sign between the realignment of a functional
_ level in general and a cumulative effect. A realignment may even be expedient
~ which is directed towards equalizing external effects. Whereas a cumulative
effect means that the organism is tot coping with the load impinging on ita
that there is no recovery after periodic exposure to a factor, the accumulation
of various shifts with time is observed. The transition from adaptation to a
cumulative effect occurs where the realignment becomes extreme. There is doubt
as ta the ability to study such shifts in man. This is evidence of the fact
that the question of criteria for evaluating results obtained in studies on
, volunteers requires serious procedural preliminary work.
The seminar participants showed great interest in the clinical questions of
the problem. Candidate of the medical sciences M.N. Sadchikova in her report
_ characterized the dynamics of clinical manifestations of exposure to a factor.
She demonstrated that for persons working in the production shops of radio
electronics enterprises with intensities of up to several milliwatts per
- square centimeter, there was no pathology in the initial years. Hypotension
and bradycardiya were notsd in this case on the part of the cardiovascular
system. However, after 7 to 10 years, despite a fundamental improvement in
working conditions, illnesses began to manifest a.mong these persons, where
- the diseases are characterized predominantly by the sympathotonic d:trection of
the vegetative reactions. The vegetative vascular changes were retained among
_ the patients after the work was stopped, but as a rule, they were no longer
accompanied by paroxysmic manifestations. The author of the paper verified
the fact of the occurrence of ischemic heart disease among a numbe: of workers
and in a few individual cases, myncardial infarct. However, it was not possible
te completely relate these cases to exposure to the factor. M.N. Sadchikova
- feels that it is correct to speak of diagnosing an illness related to exposure
to radio frequency electromagnetic emissions as an independent nosological
- un3.t "radio frequency disease".
- Doctor of the medical sciences A.M. Vyalov shared his opinion that in occupa-
tional pathology, it is not expedient to use the term "r.eurosis", which modern
science understands to be of psychogenic origin and due to an unfavorable
social situation or neuro-emotional stresses, and that it is better to speak
of neurosis-like states. He also noted the inhomogeneity of the clinical data
from a symptomatological viewpoint, and the somewhat artificial distribution
of the symptomatology with respect to def{nite symptoms. A.M. Vyalov called
for a more careful analysis of the clinical symptomatology for the purpose of
defining a single syndrome characteristic of radio frequency esposures, some-
thing which wi11 make it possible to more adequ3tely assess the health status
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- of workers. He defined the presence of changes in the vegetative nervous system
as the* most characteristic attribute of occupational pathology, where neurotic
reactions are in first place in the c ase of situational exposure.
Doctor of inedical sciences A.Ye. Vermel' feels that the term "neurosis-like
state" proposed by A.M. Vyalov is not a successful one, since such a diagnosis
should be b ased only on knowledge that the patient worked under conditions of
exposure to electromagnetic radiations in a particular band, and since the
symptomatoiogy related to exposure to the factor completely conforms to the
clinical picture of neuroses. The author of the report devoted to problems of
clinical studies in setting health safety standards for radio frequency electro-
- magnetic emissions does not agree either with proposal of singling out an
illness related to electromagnetic radiation exposure as a;1 independent
- nosological form -"radio frequency disease" - since the issue involves known
- illnesses of a polymorphous etiology, where the factor we are considering can
also be guilty in the occurrence of the 3isease along with others. He states
- that an illness cannot be called an independent disease which does not have
- an independent pathogenesis as well an independent clinical picture and specific
marker criteria.
In the opinion of candidate of the medical s ciences K.V. Nikonova, the investi-
; gation of the fate of hypertensive s tates in the clinical picture of radio
-j exposures is proble.n No. 1, on the solution of which the fate of our health
safety stand ards depends to a conside rable extent. She turned the attention of
~ seminar parti cipants to the fact that at high exposure levels for a factor, only
_ hypotension occurred. The the hypotensive reaction is also a characteristic
- feature seen in the data of experimental studies, since hypertensior has been
i noted in experiments predominantly either with thermal electromagnetic radiation
intensities or as a short term transi ent phase. The observation that special
; studies do not ascertain any definite dependeYZCe of frequency and extent of
~j hypertension cases among workers using microwave sources on the intensity of
' the exposure. Consiciering the nonspecific nature and wide dissemination of the
changes under discussion, the clarification of the question of their relation-
~ ship to working conditions for various categories of specialists is an important
; clinical problem.
~ Professor Ye.V. Gembitskiy noted the importance of solving procedural questions
- of setting health safety standards fo r radio emissions. Attributing great
importance to studies on volunteers, h e supported the opinion put forward by
B.M. Savin concerning the procedure for the developmental work: f;Yst the
experimentation on animals to establish the harmful exposure thresholds and
_ only thereaf ter, the studies on mau. Analyzing the situation which has arisen
with the recognition of the pathology related to ehposure tn the factor, in the
USSR and related to its denial abroad, Ye.V. Bembitskiy noted the existence of
significant p rocedural difficulties wh en studying the impact of electromagnetic
- emissions on an organism. Is there radio wave disease or not? This question
is proving agonizingly difficu]t to solve for two reasons: 1.. There is no
specific symptomatology; 2. The patho logical symptoms are not clearly drawn.
This question requires careful preparation and treatment in a special symposium.
The author af the paper does not support the term "radio frequency illness" and
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the singling out of all cases of illnesses as independent nosological unit; he
- is a supporter of syndromological diagnosis. Ye.V. Gembitskiy emphasized that
- despite the arguable nature of the terminology, the question of the possibility
of the occurrence in workers using microwave sources of disturbances of the
functions of the nervous, cardiovascular-and other systems of the organism is
beyond doubt. He feels that in the report of V.G. Artamonova and A.Ye. Vermel',
the following three directions for clinical studies are justified as the major
- ones: ascertaining early premorbid forms; studying remote consequences; ascer-
taining the impact of a factor on the course of other illnesses (hypertension,
ischemic disease, stomach ulcers). He thinks that the scheme proposed in the
paper for the conduct of investigations can be taken as the basis. Ye.V
- Gembitskiy also turned attention in his address to the fact that the use of
the concept "rad.io sensitivity" and "radio vulnerability", carried over from
the radiobiology of ionizing radiations does not have adequate bases in the
- case of nonionizLng factors.
A number of foreign colleagues, cooperating with Soviet specialists in the
field of standardizing approaches to the environmental physiological evaluation
of nonionizing radiations via CEMA channels likewise became familiar with the
seminar materials. The GDR representative, national coordinator for the indi-
cated efforts, doctor Ju. Kupfer familiarized us with their opinion. He noted
that the materials of the seminar were accepted with approval. He underscored
the importance and timeliness of holding the seminar in connection with the
existence of fundamentally different approaches to the estimation of the
danger of the factor in various nations. Doctor Ju. Kupfer pointed out that
_ characterizing radio frequency exposures only in terms of the parameter of
intensity is inadequate and it is necessary to take into account the time andconditions of the exposure as well. He noted that in setting standards for
numerous phqsical and chemical factors, a dosage approach has proved itself
well and that at the present time, there are all the reasons for discussing
t�e possibility of utilizing it in setting standards both for microwaves and
for other lower frequency electromagnetic fields. Doctor Ju. Kupfer warmly
_ supported the idea of coming up wirh procedural recommendations for the
performance of studies having the goal of substantiating maximum permissible
- levels. He feels that the recommendations should include the requirements
placed on the conduct of both experimental and epidemiological investigations;
they should set the regulations for the conditions under which experiments are
conducted and the approaches to extrapolating experimental data to man as
applied to various frequency bands, as well as contain a program for processing
biomedical data by means of modern computer hardware. In conclusion, doctor
Ju. Kupfer expressed confidence that the seminar and the decisions it worked
_ out will promote an increase in the mutual understanding and a coming together
= of the points of view of scientists of various nations concerning the question
of estimating the danger of both radio frequency and other bands of nonionizing
radiations.
The material presented in this paper attests to the fact that a number of
extremely important issues was raised at the seminar concerning the methodology
for setting health safety standards for radio frequency electromagnetic emis-
sions. Differing points of view exist at the present time concern.ing a number
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of them. It appears that the exchange of views at the seminar will promote
greater closeness in the viewpoints of specialists working in the problem
area and the development of unified approaches to setting standards for the
factor.
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METHODS OF STUDY AND EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR THE BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRICAL
FTELDS AT THE INDUSTRIAL POWER FREQUENCY
B.M. Savin, M.G. Shandala, K.V. Nikonova, and Yu.A. Morozov
The problem of the biological effect of industrial power frequency electrical
fields (EP p/ch) is taking on increasingly greater importance.
The rapid development of electricdl power engineering and bringing larger ultra-
high voltage (SVN) power systems on line with lengths of tens of thousands of
kilometers provide the basis for treating the electrical fields they produce
as a factor which takes on ecological significance.
The existing data attest to the fact that industrial power frequency electrical
_ field can exert an unfavorable influence on the human organism and the environ-
ment. This governs the necessity of setting regulations for the exposure to
~ the factor. The inadequate degree of study of the biological impact of indus-
tris1 power frequency electrical fields and the lack of rigorously substantiated
healti: safety standards sharply increase the difficulty of planning ultrahigh
voltage lines and substations. The lack of scientifically substantiated
design standards in turn can lead to the creation of electrical power trans-
mission lines (LEP's) which are ecologically dangerous or to an unjustified
increase in their cost.
Assuring human and environmental safety from the unfavorable impact of industrial
_ power frequency electrical fields becomes an especially acute problem because
of the planned placing in service of the 1,150 KV and higher power lines. The
resolution of the question of the ecological safety of the power engineering
facilities of the immediate future depends to a significant extent on the results
of inedical and biological research.
The problem of the biological impact of industrial power frequency electrical
fields has a number of iiidependent areas which provide for the study of the
influence of the factor on the human organism as well as flora, fauna and
ecosystems.
Methods of studying and evaluation criteria for the biological impact of indus-
trial power frequency electrical fields are treated in this paper, where these
methods and criteria are employed in.substantiating the maximum permissible
levels (PDU) for the action of a factor on the human organism.
In accordance with data from the literature,
frequency electrical fields to which a human
30 KV/m at the present time. A further rise
and the increasing working voltages may lead
the exposure levels, which if special protec~
may reach 40 KV/m and more.
-68-
the intensity of industrial power
can be exposed is already reaching
in the capacities of power systems
to an even greater increase in
tive measures are not implemented,
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The resolution of issues related to the study of the impact of industrial power
frequency electrical fields on man was started as early as the 1960's in USSR
because of the mastery of 500 KV electrical power transmission. During these
years, Soviet authors performed a number of investigations, the result of which
was zhe establishing of the first health safety standards in world practice
which set regulations for the exposure level to industrial power frequency
. e].ectrical field for warkers [1-2].
TABLF 1.
Health Safety Standards in Force in the USSR
Electrical Field Intensity,
KV/m
Less than S
From 5 to 10
From 10 to 15
Permissible Exposure Time of Personnel
During a 24-Hour Day, in Minutes
Unlimited
No more than 180
No more than 90
' From 15 to 20 No more than 10
I From 20 to 25 i1o niore than 5
The maximum permissible levels for electrical fields which are in force in the
USSR, for fields generated by industrial power frequency currents at voltages
of 400 KV and hisher. are �iven in Table 1.
For the remainder of a working day, the electrical field intensity should not
exceed 5 KV/m. At field intensities above 25 KV/m, a provision is made for the
use of special protective gear. -
The research materials taken as the basis for the existing health safety stand-
ards have been repeatedly reported at international forums and have caused
great interest among foreign researchers [3]. Along with this, a number of
critical remarks have been put forward. In line with the tasks of this paper,
the indicated materials which have been supplemented with work in later years
will be analyzed in comparing the data of foreign authors for the purpose of
ascertaining the reasons for the contradiction in the opinions on the question
of the unfavorable impact of industrial power frequency electrical fields.
It is completely obvious that the studies performed in the 1960's cannot pre-
tend to a final and exhaustive resolution of the question, since their conclu-
sions were based on the use of a comparatively limited number of inethods. They
were basically devoted to an evaluation of the health status and the status of
individual physical functions of the personnel servicing high voltage power
installations and subjected essentially to an aggregate of production factors.
_ In studies on people, the health status evaluation was made using the data of
a questionnaire and a medical clinic examination of workers using a number of
clinical and laboratory methods.
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_ As a result of examining the health status of more than 300 persons, Soviet
authors determined that persons servicing ultrahigh voltage substations and
open wire lines (VL) complained about headaches, irritability, increased
fatigue, sleepiness, disturbance of the memory and attention, pain in the
region of the heart, a reduction in sexual potency, etc. [4-5].
Various kinds of changes in the regulation of vascular tonus and heart activity
have been described (6). A change in the content of hemoglobin, reticulocytes,
neutrophyls ar tendency towards leucopenia with pathological graininess of the
neutrophyls, monocytosis, moderate thrombocytopenia as well as retardation of
the erythrocyte sedimentation rate have been noted in studies of the peripheral
blood [2, 5, 6]. According to the data of V.D. Dyshlovoy and V.S. Kachura [4],
a reduction in the production of male sex hormones of both testicular and
adrenal origin was found in persons with a changed sex function.
Based on the results of a medical clinic examination of a portion of those
persons involved in servicing ultrahigh voltage electrical facilities, changes
in the functional status of the central nervous and cardiovascular systems were
diagnosed, where these changes are manifest ir the form of vegetative vascular
- dystonias and more rarely as a neurasthenic syndrome. It was noted that for
the Fersonnel of 500 KV substations, the indicated distvrbances were encountered
more often than among workers at 330 KV substations.
It has been noted in a number of papers that the ascertained ch3nges are pro-
nounced to a moderate extent and are of a reversible functianul nature [6].
A clinical geneological examination performed on 200 families of 330 KV to
- 750 KV substation and line service workers did not reveal any changes which
could be related to the effect of the industrial power frequency electrical
fields based on such indicators as the ratio af sexes in the progeny, spontan-
eous abortions, stillbirths, or inherited diseases [4].
The physiological investigations performed by a number of authors in the course
of a working day using a set of inethods which allow for the evaluation of the
functional status of the central nervous and cardiovascular systems, vieual
analyzer, thermoregulation, etc., found changes among personnel of ultrahigh
voltage substations in the indicators which characterize memory and attention,
an increase in the sensr,motor reaction time, an elevation of the olfactory sens-
itivity thresholds, a decrease in the frequency of heart contractions, a retard-
ation of intracardial conductivity and a change in vascular tonus [7-9].
Similar data attesting to the presence of functional disturbances among workers
exposed to industrial power frequency electrical fields were subsequently
obtained by Spanish author F. Fole [10], who noted among workers shifted over
to servicing a new 500 KV substation complaints of headaches, dizziness,
fatigability and nausea. A reduction in the frequency of heart contractions,
physical endurance and an increase in arterial pressure was found during an
objective investigation. However, the small population of .*.ne observed group
(8 to 9 people) raises justified doubts as to the representative nature of
the material obtained.
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Along with this, a whole series of authors from the U.S. and Western Europe in
studies on persons exposed to industrial power frequency electrical fields both
under industrial conditions and in everyday life did not obtain any data which
attest to the unfavorable effect of the factor.
W.B. Kouwenhoven, et al. [ll] published the results of examining the health
status of 11 linemen (a power line voltage of 345 KV) exposed to "high intens-
ity" electrical fields. Of the 11 workers who were under observation for
42 months, 4 worked without protective gloves. The examination did not
reveal any changes in indicators characterizing the status-of the emotional
sphere, cardiovascular or motor systems, or the visual analyzer. Only among
2 men were deviations detected in the sperm characteristics. The lack of
pathological changes in the given contingent of persons was confirmed in later
years by M.L. Singewald, et al. [12].
E. Malboysson [13] made an examination of the health status of 84 workers of
138 KV - 400 KV transformer substations and 76 linemen. Besides the physician's
examination, the examination included a questionnaire, clinical and laboratory
studies (chest X-ray, electrocardiography, blood and urine analysis, the deter-
mination of sugar content in the blood, as well as cholesterol, triglycerides,
urea and uric acid), and analysis of the morbidity with the time lost as
unfit for work. As a result of a comparison with the data of a control group
(94 linemen on low voltage open wire power lines), a higher frequency of
deviations from the norm was found among the substation workers as regards the
digestive, motor and nervous systems. In the opinion of the author, the differ-
ences in the frequency of the changes in the motor sphere and digestion were
related to differences in age and diet. The question of the relationship of
high frequency of complaints of headache to working conditions requires further
clarification. Including t:at there is a lack of pathological changes among
the persons examined, the author emphasizes that the time the examined per-
sannel worked close to the 400 KV equipment was quite short (on the order of
15 minutes per work day).
K. Busby, et al. [14] using a questionnaire did not find any unfavorable
influence of 765 KV open wire lines on people or large cattle on 18 nearby
farms. M.V. Strumza [15], in comparing two groups of the population (525 persons in
all), one of which lived at a-distance of 25 m from 200 to 400 KV power lines,
while the other lived at a distance of more than 125 m, did not find any
significant differences between the groups in the frequency of seeking medical
assistance or using medications. An analysis of the papers cited here is evidence of the existence of the well
known contradictory nature of the data obtained by specialists in different
countries in evaluating the health status of persons exposed to industrial
power frequency electrical fields. However, it is difficult to compare the
results of these studies by virtue of the substantial differences in the
~ exposure levels as well as in the health status study methods and evaluation
criteria. The ul*.rahigh voltage substations in the USSR differ structurally
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from similar substations in the U.S., Canada and a number of other countries.
The use of comparatively low supports holding high voltage equipment is
responsible for the higher electrical field intensities in the working zones.
In terms of the work conditions, servicing personnel are constantly on site
at substations. The changes in the health status noted in the papers of .
Soviet authors concern primarily 500 KV substation personnel, where the elec-
trical field intensity at individual points in the working zone can reach 25
to 29 KV/m.
As far as the data of W.B. Kouwenhoven, et al., are concerned, they apply to
personnel servicing 345 KV power lines and using protective suits in this
case. The data of E. Malboysson were obtained on persons subjected to short
- term exposure to the fields of electrical installations at voltages of 138 to
400 KV.
In dealing with the research methods, it must be noted that the possibility of
using the frequency of see?cing medical assistance and consumptKon of inedications
as the main indicators characterizing health status is extremely disputable.
The data of a questionnaire are an insufficiently objective indicator also.
Differences in the results of investigations can also be related to the use
of differing criteria for healtN status evaluation of the persons examined.
Thus, Soviet authors fix their attention on functional changes, while the
authors of other countries focus on pathological ones.
A definite drawback to wQrk of a clinical and physiological nature is the lack
of satisfactory data on the environmental physiological characteristics of the
conditions of exposure to a factor, without which it is impossible to correctly
evaluate the material obtained. Usually, data only on the power facility
voltage or on the maximum possible field intensity in the work zone is cited
in the papers, which cannot be characteristics of the actual exposure to which
a person is subjected. In this case, the possibility of the influence of spark
discnarges and capacitive currents, besides the electrical fields themselves,
is not analyzed. Even less attention is devoted to other factors in the environ-
ment (the microclimate, noise, toxic substances, atmosperic ionization, spe-
cific features of the production process), although the biological activity of
some of them can be higher than that of the industrial power frequency electrical
fields. The significance of.some research is reduced because of the lack of
data on the health status of the contingent of persons being examined when they
arrive for work and on the dynamics of the ascertained changes, as well as
because of a lack of similar data for corresponding control groups.
What has been attests to the necessity of the further development of clinical
- and physiological studies, refining their organization and improving the
methodological level. An important role in evaluating the bio:logical impact
of industrial power frequency electrical fields belongs to research of this
kind, since it can provide information on the direct human long term chronic
exposure to a factor at levels encountered in practice. However, to perform
this task, their conclusions should be based on the study data for a suffic-
iently large contingent of persons with a rigorous metering of the electrical
field exposure levels and the possible influence of other environmental factors.
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The obtained data should be compared with examination data for corresponding
control groups and evaluated in the plan for determining the clinical signi-
- ficance of the ascertained changes.
In working out the problem of the biological impact of industrial power fre-
quency electrical fields, experimental studies should occupy an important
- place. This is governed by the possibility of studying the ;solated influence
of industrial power frequency electrical fields under experimental conditions
for specified exposure parameters. It turns out that when studying a factor,
the clinical manifestations of which are so disputed at the present time, the
ex~nerimental approach to the solution of the problem is of especially great
importance. Widescale experimental studies on the biological impact of ina:.strial power
frequency electrical fields are just now expanding in the USSF.. In this regard,
we shall consider tlie results of work which has been done up to the present
time.
T.Ye. Sazonova studied the influence of industrial frequency electrical fields
on the process of'the formation of a complex motor stereotype and the performance
j of automated work using 23 volunteers [16]. The results of the study showed
that the exposure level characterized by an intensity of 16 KV/m and a duration
of 2 hours causes threshold changes in the precision of work performance. At
exposure intensities of 32 and 64 KV/m (a 20 minute exposure), along with a
reduction in the precision of work performance, a degradation of the overall
sense of well being of the test subjects, a change in ttie pulse rate, as well
as in the arterial pressure and peripheral blood were noted. The ascertained
shifts were of a functional nature. Rapi3 and tatal normalization of the
indicated functions began following the termination of the electrical field
exposure.
Yu.D. Dumanskiy, V.M. Popovich and I.P. Kozyarin made physiological studies of
34 vulunteers under natural conditions with 330 KV and 750 KV open wire power
lines. The following were studied in this case: the functional status of the
central nervous system (operational memory volume, capability of concentrating
the attention, electroencephalography), thermoregulation, work capability,
electrocardiograms, certain indicators characterizing the status of exchange
processes (blood glucose content, as well as urine and residual nitrogen) and
nonspecific immunity (lysozyme and complement titer, and bactericidal power
of the blood). As a result of the studies which were done, no statistically
significant changes were found in the functions which were studied witi expo-
sure to electrical fields with an intensity of 5 KV/m (G hours each over a
period of 6 days) and 12 KV/m (for 30 minutes each 3 times a day for a period
of 6 days). In the case of exposure to electrical fields with intensities of
15 to 16 KV/m (for a period of 6 days, 30 minutes each 3 times per day),
complaints of the test subjects of headaches, fatigue and irritability were
noted. Deviations were also recorded in the individual indicators being studied,
whicl: did not go outside the range of physiological fluctuations and which
alloa the authors to speak only of tendencies towards changes. In this case,
the possible influence of other environmental factors cannot be excluded.
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~
The staff of the Kiev Institute of General and Public Hygiene imeni Marzeyev
also conducted a set of experimental studies on animals. The biological
impact of industrial power frequency electrical fields at intensities of 5,
3, 1, 0.5 and 0.1 KV/m with around- the- clock irradiation and 15, 7, 4, 2, and 1
KV/m in the case of daily exposures of 2 hours per day was studied using
- rats and rabbits for a period of 4 to 4.5 months. A large set of experimental
methods was used in this case (weight dynamics, electrocardiography, electro-
encephalography, cholinesterase and sulfhydryl groups in the blood, the dynamics
of the absorption and secretion of 1131 by the thyroid, the thyroxine binding
power of blood serum, the residual nitrogen and urine in the blood, the 17-
ketosteroids, catecholamines, Na+ and IC+ content in the urine, the phagocyte
activity of leucocytes, the lisocyme and complement titer and the bactericidal
power of the blood, the morphological picture of the organs and tissues, etc.).
For animals subjected to around-the-clock exposure to electrical fields with
intensities of 1, 2, and 5 KV/m, changes in the functional status of the cen-
tral nervous system were noted, which the authors concluded based on the dynam-
ics of a number of indirect indicators (a reduction in cholinesterase activity
and sulfhydryl group content in the blood) and the bioelectric activity of the
- brain [18], as well as shifts in indicators characterizing the activity of
- certain endocrine glands - the thyroid and adrenals [19].
After 4.5 months of around- the- clock exposure to an electrical field with an
intensity of 5 KV/m, disturbances of the reproductive power of rats were
observed, which were manifest in a change in the estral cycle among the females
and the sperm characteristics o� the males, as we:."1 as poor fertility of the
progeny, and an increase in the number of weak individuals and those having
developmental anomalies among the progeny [20].
In the case of a 2-hour exposure to electrical fields, changes in the functional
status of the central nervous and endocrine systems, as well as in the indica-
' tors characteri'zing exchange processes occurred at field intensities of 7 and
15 KV/m [21].
It should be noted that the data cited here, obtained under conditions of long
term chronic trials, deserves the most serious attention, although additional
improvements are needed. In particular, the procedure for the group radiation
of the animals (without the isolation of separate individuals) does not allow
for a precise evaluation of the actual electrical field levels to which each
animal was exposed. An analysis of the data obtained for individual groups of
animals attests to Lhe necessity of further studies, taking into account spon-
taneous fluctuations in the indicators being investigated, as well as the
evaluation of.the ascertained changes.from the viewpoint of their significance,
etc.
A work which was a targeted study to ascertain the nature of changes in human
cells exposed to industrial power fraquency electrical fields is generating
a great deal of interest [4]. In experiments iising cultured human embryo
fibroblast-like cells and peripheral blood lymphocytes, the nature of the
growth in the cultures, the state of the chromatin of Che interphase nuclei,
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the nucleus and cytoplasm ultrastructure, the mitotic activity of the cultures,
and the rate of DNA, RNA and protein synthesis were studied. The existence of
~ changes in a number of the studied indicators was established at electrical
field intensities of 50 to 200 KV/m.
In experiments on mice, the authors noted a depression of behavioral reactions
when the animals were located in a field with an intensity of 50 KV/m and
higher, as well as a drop in the fertilization rate and a decrease in the
birth rate. The characteristics of the progeny born from individuals exposed
to an electrical field with an intensity of 50 KV/m attested to the disruption
of embryogenesis processes, which was manifest in a change in the ratio of
the sexes, an incz-ease in the frequency of stillbirth cases and developmental
monstrosities.
At the present time, the data cited here can be treated as preliminary. When
continuing the research, it ~s necessary to observe stricter requirements on
the conditions for the performance of the experiments. The basis for such a
conclusion is the sma11 number of observations, something which is especially
important when the tests eniployed by the authors are characterized by a pro-
nounced variability in the indicators. There can also be errors in evaluating
the field intens:ity levels when performing the work, which is related both to
the group method of irradiating animals and to difficulties in monitoring the
field when working with cell structures.
In recent years, the number of publications on questions of the biological
effect of industrial frequency electrical fields has increased in the U.S.
and Western Europe. In analyzing this literature, attention is drawn to the
well known contradiction in results obtained by different authors. In individual
cases, a contradictory nature of the conclusions follows from studies by the
same authors. Table 2 lists the literature in which no biological effec.t of
industrial frequency e-lectrical fields was found. The literature where the
authors observed changes in some of the particulai'human or animal functions
being studied is shown in Table 3. A comparative analysis of the indicated
materials, taking into account both the number of papers and the volume of
investigations reflected in each of the tables makes it possible to state with
a sufficient basis that industrial frequency electrical fields cause biological
eFfects for certain exposure parameters. Thus, the fact itself that there is
a biological effect of industrial power frequency electrical fields is beyond
doubt and follows from the work of both Soviet and foreign authors.
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TABLE 2.
Literature in which No Influence of Tndustrial Power Frequency
Electrical Fields on the Indicators (or Functions) Being
Studied
Was Found
Subject of the Study.
Indicators (or Functions)
Author
Experimental Conditions
Being Evaluated
Results
= Kepnen,
1964 People, 50 Hz, 7.5,
EKG
No influence
12.5 and 27 KV/m;
found
15-30 min.
Johanson
, People, 60 Hz,
Subjective percep-
The same*
et al.,
1973 100 KV/m (the actually
tions
effective field)*
Veyyesteynas, Rabbits**, 50 Hz,
Cardiac overshoot, fre-
The same
Viola, e
t al., 80 KV/m, from several
quency of heart contrac-
1975
min. up to 500 hours
tions, arterial pressure
Shefer,
Rats, cats, 50 Hz,
EEG, muscle tonus
No pronouncQd
Sil'ni,
1977 80 KV/m
changes de-
tected***
Kantone,
Rats, 50 Hz,
Spermatogenesis,
No influence
Kinwald,
et al., 100 KV/m, 30 min.
embryogenesis
detected
- 1975
and 8 hours each
-
over a period of
48 days
Kruger,
Chicks, 60 Hz,
Weight dynamics
The same
Giarola,
3.6 KV/m
1972
Wittke,
et al., Chicken eggs, indus-
Embryogenesis
The same
1977
trial frequency,
1.5 and 5 KV/m
River, 1
976 Bacteria, fungi;
Culture growth and
The same
50 Hz; 10, 50 and
number of,mutations
200 KV/m
Notes:
*The 100 KV/m intensity was given taking into accoun* the
field distor-
tion introduced by the biologi
cal subject. Individual test subjects
noted unpleasant perceptions which the author related to weather
conditions.
*
*'Lne studies were performed on
anesthetized rabbits.

*The detection of EEG changes w
ere related to vibratfon of
the fur
cover; in the muscle tonus - t
o being in confining teflon
chambexg.
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TABLE 3.
Literature in which Industrial Power Frequency Electrical Fields Were
Found to Influence the Indicators (or Functions) Being Studied
Subject of the Study; Indicators (or Functions)
Author Experimental Conditions Being Evaluated Results
1 2 3 4
Hauf R. ,
1976;
_ Hauf G.,
1974
Weibel,
_ 1975
Kantz,
1951
People; 50 Hz;
1-20 KV/m, up to
3 hours
Tsere*e"li,
Malaguti,
1976
Sil'ni,
1976
LeBar,
Andre,
1976
People; 50 Hz;
6 KV/m for three
min., 2 times
People; 50 Hz;
100 KV/m
Dog, rabbits, rats;
50 Hz; 100, 80 and
25 KV/m, from several
min. up to 500 hours
Cats, rats; 50 Hz;
60-80 KV/m for
6-16 hours
Rabbits, rats; 50 Hz;
50 KV/m 24 hours;
70 hours for 5 days;
8 hours each f or a
period of 30-100 days.
Reaction time; blood,
EEG, EKG, frequency cf
heart contractions,
arterial pressure,
Quick's test.
Reduction in reactiion
time; 'r.crease in num-
of leucocytes, reti-
culocytes; slight
changes in EEG activ-
ity*
EKG, EEG Reduction of alpha
rhythm frequency;
increase in the num-
ber of beta waves
Thresholds of taste, Changes in the thresh-
smell, hearing and olds of the analyzers
touch studied
Cardiac over.snoot,
freqt�ency of heart
contractions, arterial
pressure, blood morpho-
logy and biochemistry,
reprflductive function.
Dogs: increase in
frequency of heart
contractions when the
electric field was
turned on and off;
decrease in hemoglo-
bin and erythrocyte
content; tendency to
neutrophylysis;
Rabbits**: tendency
to elevate arterial
press�lre ;
Rats: tendency to
neutrophylysis; re-
duction in sexual
activity of females
during short term
exposure.
EEG, EKG, respira-
tion, skin and rectal
temperature
Food consumption,
growth, 'alood mor-
phology and biochem-
istry, reproductive
power
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Zncrease in frequency
of heart contractions,
reductian in ampli-
tude and frequency of
EEG waves; change in
thermal regulation*
Rabbits: leucocytosis
with relative lp.npho-
penia (100-day expo-
sure); increase in
urine content in
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TABLE 3,
cont.
1
2
3
~ 4
~
blood (24 hour expo-
sure) ; elevatled Ca
-
content and reduced
sugar content in the
blood (If 0 hour expo-�
sure) ;
Rats: increased urine
content in the blood
(100 day exposure)
Meda
Rats, mice, guinea
Blood, EEG, EKG
Neutrophylysis, lym-
,
1974
pigs; 50 Hz;
phopenia, lengthening
100 KV/m, 18 hours
af the P-R interval
d
and the QRS complex
ay
per
Strumzha
, kats; 50 Hz; 17
Embryogenesis
Reduction in weight
1970
KV/m
of progeny
Shpitka,
Rats; 50 Hz;
Behavioral reaction
Change in the react-
1969
50-70 KV/m
time
ion time
Fisher
RatE; 50 Hz;
Frequency of heart
Reduction in frequency
,
Weibel,
0.05 and 5.3
contractions
of heart contractions
Richter,
KV/m; 15 min.;
1976
2, 10, 21 and
50 days
Knicker-
Mice; 60 Hz;
F.mbryogenesis
Reduction in weight
- boker,
160 KV/m;
of progeny
1967
1,500 hours
Notes:
*Attention is drawn to the
fact that the detected
changes do not go
beyond the limits of physi
ological variations.
**The study was performed on
anesthetized rabbits.
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The next conclusion which can be drawn based on an analysis of the material
cited concerns the b iological activity of the factor. A majority of the data
contained in the tab les is evidence of the fact that at intensities of prac-
tical interest, an industrial power frequency electrical field has a weak
biological effect. This follows from the slight dependence of the biological
effects on the exposure intensity, as well as the lack of effec*s amc,ng a number
of studied sub;ects, even at high field intensities. In this regard, the ques-
tion of evaluating the significance of the observed effects takes on special
importance. It seems that the differences in the conditions under which the
experiments are perf ormed and the'differences in the treatment of the observatioti
results are the major reasons comprising the basis for the existing contradiction
in the opinions on the question of the unfavorab le impact of the factor.
The question of the necessity of a more rigorous scientific substantiation of
health safety standards has been brought up at the pre~;.nt time in the USSR,
just as in a number of other nations in the world. Because of this, it is pro-
posed that extremely serious attention be devoted to procedural questions
related to the conduct of studies in subsequent experimental work. In particu-
lar, when irradiating experimental animals in the electrical field of a capa-
. citor, it seems necessary to take into account such factors as electrical field
- inhomogeneity in r.he edge region of the capacitor and mutual shielding of
' objects which are close together.
Measurements of the current flowing through a biological object which were made
with an experimental test stand in the Scientific Research T_nstitute for Occu-
~ pational Diseases and Labor Hygiene of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences at
exposure leve ls of up to 300 KV/m and spacings between the capacitor electrodes
; of up to 80 cm, shoied that a substantial amplification of the effective elec-
j trical field acting on an o',-~jecr can occur in those cases where the spacing
~ between the capacitor plates proves to be comparable to the vertical dimensions
of the object being irradiated. Thus, with a ratio of the indicated quantities
; of 1.5, the current f lowing through an animal increases 'by approximately 50 per-
cent as compared to conditions where the ratio of the spacing between the capa-
' citor plates to the vertical dimension of the animal is greater than 3. A
, furLiier reduction in this ratio (less than 1.5) leads to a rapid exponential
' rise in the current through the object where the value of the undistorted field
between the p lates is kept constant. As far as the mutual shielding effect is
concerned, it has a substantial impact at spacings between animals on the order
of 1 to 1.5 of their effective diametcx. In this case, there is a reductien in
the current through the object by 20 to 40 percent. Where direct contact
' between the animals is possible, as in the case where they are placed in a
- common container, the mutual shielding effect can prove to be even greater.
The next factor which must be taken into account is the orientation of the bio-
logical object relative to the E field vector. The possibility of placing
- animals both paralle 1 and perpendicular to the E vector while maintaining a
horizontal position of the bod-y which is natural to them can be assured by using
capacitors, the electrodes oi which are set up both horizontally and vertically.
Exceptionally itiiporiant in the substantiation of health safety standards is the
: questinn of interpreting the results of experimental studies. There are two
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extreme points of view at the present time, with which it is impossible to
agree. Some authors do not at all differentiate tteeffects which attest to
the physiological changes and which characterize the unfavorable effect of the
factor. Zn this case, any change is equated to an unfavorable one. Others
exhibit extreme caution and are inclined to.judge the biological effect of
industrial power frequency electrical fields only on the basis of the presence
or absence of proaounced pathological changes.
It seems expedient to approach the evaluation of the biological effects related
to exposure to industrial frequency electric fields from the viewpoints adopted
at the present time in environmental physiology science and approved for the
study of other unfavorable environmental factors, including electromagnetic
ra-iiations in other frequency bands.
Studies have been carried out in recent years in the USSR on the development
- of the theoretical principles of making the environment a healthy one, including
setting health safety standards. One of the basic principles of the theory of
of maximum permissible levels (PDU) for exposure to various environmental fac-
tors is the concept of the threshold nature o.f an effect given the appropriate
criteria for harmfulness. In this case, indicators of any organism reactions to
the particular exposure cannot be employed as the latter. Such an approach
would place unsubstantiated requirements on protective measures, which are
dif_ficult to carry out from an economic viewpoint and would complicate technical
- progress.
In standing on the principles of environmental physiology science in the field
of setting standards for various unfavorable factors in the environment, it
must be remembered that at tre present time, the harmful effect threshold of a
factor should be taken as the criterion of injury. The harmful effect threshold
is to be und-irsto,::i as that exposure level at w�hich significant changes in the
physiolo.gir_al functions of various organs and systems occur in the organism,
where these changes have the danger of becoming pathological ones.
A more detailed interpretation of the harmful effect threshold is given in the
paper of B.M. Savin [22].
In the experimental substatiation of health safety standards, questions of extra-
po?ating data obtained in experiments on animals to man are of great importance.
Differences in the reactions of animal and human organisms to exposure to indus-
trial power frequency electrical fields can be due to both differences in the
dimensions and shape of the body as well as the specific features of the organi-
`J' za*_ion and functioning of organs and systems. The resolution of the question
of the comparative sensitivity and vulnerability of animals and humans requires
special research. A necessary condition for the correct extrapolation of data
from animals to man is knowledge af the mechanisms of the interaction of indu:;-
trial power frequency electr.ical fields with biological objects. It must be
said, however, that this question has still been studied insufficieutly.
_ In the literature, the effect of electrical fields on an organism is related on
one hand to displacement currents induced in a body by the external electrical
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field, and on the other hand, to the action of local fie13 intensities on
cutaneous tissues. Depending on the significance of e4ch of the indicated
mechanisms, the approaches to extrapolation can differ substantially. It the
decisive factor in the development of biological effects of industrial frequency
electrical fields is the current, then the extrapalation of data should be made
taking into account differences in the density of the current flowing in the
bodies of animals and man. The specific features of the body shape of man and
animals are responsible for the fact that with the same unperturbed field
intensity, a large current will be induced in a human body (a more elongated
shape) than in the bodies of many species of animals. Because of this, the
use of higher exposure ].evels in experimental studies on small animals than
those which may be of practical interest is altogether justified. It is appa-
rent that the approach which takes into account differences in the spatial dis-
- tribution of the current in human and animal bodies is more precise and univer-
sa1. However, practical realization of such an approach is difficult at the
present time because of the lack of the appropriate methods. If the biological
eff.ects though are related to local field intensities, the extent to which they
are pronounced will depend substantially on the degree of difference in the
hair coat and the specific features of the development and functioning of the
receptor apparatus of the skin.
Species differences in the vital activity of the human and animal organisms also
have to be taken into account when extrapolating experimental data. When choos-
ing experimental models, attention must be devoted to the ecological features,
as well as the specific features of development, regulation and functioning of
individual systems which are inherent in a particular species of animal. The
medical and biological indicators being studied in an experiment can be deter-
mined from the principle of selecting either the most important organism function
or the systems which are the most sensitive to exposure to the factor. Such
systems can include the central riervous system, cardiovascular system and the
blood. There are also reasons for a more detailed study of the immunobiological
indicators and genetic effects. As far as the set of research methods employed
in an experiment, it is apparently not expedient to limit it to any specific
recommendations. It must be pointed out that while any of the most sensitive
methods can be used in the study of the effective mechanisms of a factor, the
methods used in substantiating the maximum permissible levels should provide for
obtaining information on the health safety significance of the exposure. In this
case, changes in such important vital activity indicators of an organism as the
lifespan, developmental and growth dynamics, normal volume of compensator capa-
bilities of an organism with respect to exposure to unfavorable environmental
factors as well as the normal volume of work capability and psycnological func-
tions should be numbered among the manifestations of a harmful effect.
- Along with questionsof extrapolating experimental data in making the transition
from harmful effect thresholds to maximum peru-issible levels, an exceptionally
important question is the issue of the value of the health safety margin factors,
_ the purpose of the introduction of which is to assure reliability of the health
safety standards.
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Since an industrial power frequency electrical fie1d has a low level of biolo-
gical activity, when stardards are set for it foz� professional groups, values of
the nealth safety margin factors on the order of 2 to 3 will be adequate.
The question of the necessity of also introducing additional coefficients for
other categories of persons (not occupationa].ly exposed to industrial frequency
electrical fields as well as the population) can be resolved based on the results
of studies of the nature and extent to which biological effects are pronounced
for various intensities and durations of exposure to factor. In this case,
it must be kept in mind that persons of the most diverse age groups and diverse
health status can be exposed. We will note that there are data in the litera-
ture which attest to the differing sensitivity of healthy and sick organisms
to exposure to industrial power frequency electrical fields [23].
Research was done in the following major areas by USSR scientific iiistitutions
during 1978-1980 for purposes of working out the maximum permissible levels of
exposure to industrial frequency electrical fields for various categories of
persons:
--Health safety evaluation of conditi-ons of exposure to 50 Hz electrical fields
and power facilities for various contingents of persons;
--Studying the health status of workers when exposed to industrial frequency
electrical fields; --Working out the principles for simulating electrical field exposure under
experimental conditions;
--The experimental study of the biological effect of industrial frequency elec-
trical fields for the purpose of obtaining data on the characteristics of
biological effects at the level of various organs and systems; establishing
the dependence of biological effects on the geometric dimensions and species
specific features of an organism; substantiating the principles for extrapo-
lating data from animals to man; determining the harmful effect thresholds
for various exposure durations and substantiating the health safety margin
factors as applied to various contingents of persons and conditions of expo-
sure to a factor;
--Studying the primary mechanisms fer the interaction of industr;al frequency
elec':rical fields with biological objects.
It can be stated that as a result of conducting the indicated studies, new data
will be,obtained on the biological impact of industrial power frequency electric-
al fields, which will allow for making a definite contribution to the resolution
of questions of setting health safety standards for a factor and protecting the
environment.
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8. Sazonova T.Ye., "Fiziologo-gigiyenicheskaya otsenka usloviy truda na ORU-400 i
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l
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pp 15-16.
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