JPRS ID: 10178 USSR REPORT LIFE SCIENCES BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

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JPRS L/ 10178
10 December 1981
IJSSR Re ort ~
~
LIFE SCIENCES ~
BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
CFOUO 17/81). ~
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JPRS L/10178
10 December 1981
USSR REPORT
LIFE $CIENCES ~
- BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
(FOUO 17/81)
CONTENTS
HUMAN F'ACTORS
Substantiating ~'rocedure for Investigating Individual Decision
Making Characteristics in Conflict Situations 1
Dependence of Strategy of Search for Decision on Type of
Thinking 10
Psychophysiological Description of Fatigue Based on
Activation Indicators 19
_ Cohesion as Factor of Group Efficiency 32
Investigation of Situational Social Attitudes of Polar
~ Explorers 41
Fifth Yrianagement Psychology Seminar 50
Scientific-Practical Conference on MGU School of Psychologq...... 55
Research Methodology in Engineering and Labor Psychology......... 58
PSYCHOLOGY
Emotional Regulation of Verbal Behavior 93
Book on Urgent Problems of Paynhology of Personality ReviE~wed.... 105
Monograrhs on Pro~ective Methode in Pereonality Study Reviewed... 108
Fourth All-Union Coordinating Conference on Problems of
Socialist Competition 112
- a- [TII - USSF. - 21a S&T FOUO]
FOR nFF'T('fAi. iJ.CF (1Ni.Y ~
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Seminar on Problems of Social-Psychological Tr~ining 114
Sub~ects of Dissertations for Degree of Candidate of
Psychological Sci~nces 11~ .
Information on Authors of 'VOPROSY PSIIQiOLOGII'~ July-August
1981.~ 119
Young Paychologists Hold Regular Conference 122
Author List for 'VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII'~ May-June 1981...~......... 124
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HUMAN FACTORS
SUBSTANTIATING PROCEDUKE FOR INV~STIGATING INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
CHARACTERISTICS IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS _
Moscow VOPROSY PSIK!?OLOGII in Russian No 4, Jul-Aug 81 pp 127-131
/Article by A. N. Kovalev/
/Text/ It is well known that at the present stage of the scientific and technical
revolution mankind's power and technical equip.ment greatly exceeds its capacity for
making prompt and substantiated decisions /7/. The use of mathematical methods and
modern computer hardware in the problems of man's decision making in various, in-
cluding conflict, situations is a promising way of eliminating this disproportion.
~ The. appearance of the mathematical game theory, which studies formal riecision making
models under conflict conditions, was a natural stage in the development of inves-
tigations in this area. ~
The limiting possibilities of this theory are clearly outlined /1/. One of its
limitations is the fact that, when the real behavior of people carrying out their
activity in accordance with the infinite diversity of their needs is modeled within
the framework of the game theoxy, the psychological rules of this activity are ei-
ther ignored completely, or are taken into account in a generalized manner, on the
average, whereas the "application of general psychological rules to life should al-
ways be mediated by tha knowledge of individual differences" /12/. On the other
hand, psychology, which has long included decision ma.king problems in the sphere of
its interests, cannot bypass the positive experience accumulated with the formal-
logical approach to the investigation of decision ma.king processes in conflict sit-
uations, in particular with the use of computers for the solution of various prob-
_ lems pertaining to this area. At the same time, it is appropriate to note that an
active involvement of computers in the process of man's decision making, along with
expanding his intellectual capabilities, at times leads to certa~n changes in the
"style" of human thinking by includin& in its structure operations, the possibility
�or the performance of which is offered to man by computers, because "not the de-
~ termining tendency, that is, goal (beginning and end), determines the entire course
and structure of the process, but the average moment. T'he properties of the tool
are the functional center and they determine the entire course of processes, their
- change and so forth. The entire specificity of behavior is determined by the aver-
age member of the instrumental act" /2/.
rn the basis of the expressed view, turning directly to the problem o.f development
- of a procedure �or an experimental investigation of individual decision making
characteristics in conflict situations and, at the same time, taking into account
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the significant potentiala of games in the modeling of such situations, as well as ~
the role and possible functions of computers in their resolution, we considered it ~
advisable to include a computer in the experiment, formulating it in the form of a
game between man and computer. The introduction of a computer into an experimental
siti~:ation makes it possible to solve a number of diverse problems, whose concreti--
zaticn depends on the goals and canditions of the experiment. By means of it it is
possible to create a"problem environment" imitating conflict conditions. It can
act in the role of man's assistant and opponent and.makes it possible directly in
the course of the experiment to immediately change its conditions depending on the
resuits and to vary the methods of training th~ tested individual (in ''adviser" and
"instructor" modes) and the computer's "strength of the game" (in the "opponent"
mode) and so forth.
The inclusion of a comput~r in the experiment also makes it possible to solve the
problem of an objective recording of the characteristics of behavior of the tested
individuals during the game for the purpose of detecting their individual charac-
teristics in the subsequent analysis. The package of applied computer programs
(the Alisa automated logir.al game system) designed for games between man and com-
puter, which was especially developed at the laboratory for mathematical modeling
o� mental processes of thz Scientific Research Inatitute of General and Pedagogical
Psycl~ology of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, includes ? dossier system
for every tested individual, where ob~ective data on the tested individual, the
moves and answers of the tested individual and the computer, the time spent on
thinking them out and r_he elements of the dialog between man and computer are re-
corded. At present work is done on the furthc:r expansion of the capabilities of
the Alisa system. Its organization envisages the extraction of information from
the computer memory in various combinations and print-out for a subsequent anal-
ysis of r.he data files unif ied according to the criteria of interest to the exper-
imenter--methods of the game, its time parameters, the type of thinking of tested
individuals, their age, sex and education and so forth.
Since a game always represents a conflict of personalities and antagonism between
_ characters, the selection of a computer as man's game partner also has the advan-
tage that it makes it possible to fix at a permanent level the characteristics of
one "personality" (computer) for the purpose of creating the same experimental con-
ditions for all tested individuals, at the same time, giving the experimenter wide
possibilities of varying these characteristics in accordance with the specific pur-
poses of the experiment.
The selection of a computer as a tool of investigation was only the first step in
the development of the procedure o~ interest to us. The next step consisted in the
solution of certain individual problems, that is:
1) sel.ection of specific models of eonf lict situations (games) most suitable for
the investigation and recording of individual decision making characteristics;
2) performance of preliminary experiments for the purpose of determining the pos-
sibil.ities of the procedure for detecting the characteristic features manifested by
various tested individuals in the course of the game;
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3) preliminary classification of individual characteriscics according to the
stages of a conflict activity.
The results of the solution of the indicated problems are briefly presented below.
1) When selecting games, we tried to reflect the following ~haracteristic features
in the model of a conflict situation:
a) its specific duration and the need to establish a sequence of specific opera-
tions (perhaps even one-type operations) for its resolution;
b) changeability of the situation in the process of its resolution and the need to
take into aecount the results of previously performed actions;
c) the need for decision making under conditions of uncertainty in combination with
- the possibility of applying logical actions for reducing it;
d) a sufficient diversity of final situations denoting a victory in this conflict;
e) a sufficient diversity of ways of attaining a victory and their nonequivalence.
f) the possibility of attaining a victory at any stage of the conflict, including
the initial stage.
Furthermore, the following condition was made: Ttie game should min~mally affect
the specific habits or professional experience of the tested individuals.
As a result of an analys3s of various games, three out of the set of variants of
the logical game "Symbols" representing modifications of the Master-mind game known
in our country by the name "Bulls and Cows" were selected as the first model of a
conflict situation meeting the enumerated requirements /3/. In general form the
"Symbols" game can be described as follows. A set containing n various elements
(figures, letters, symbols, concepts and so forth) is announced to both partici-
pants in the game ("opponents"). Each participant secretely from the other must
make from them an ordered sequence containing m elements (in general there are no
constraints on n and m). The task of the participants ~is to determine the sequence
tiiought of by the opponent in a minimum number of moves. The moves are made in turns.
Each move consists of the "trial" of one participant and the "answer" that another
participant gives to this "trial." Any ordered sequence of m symbols forming part
of the announced set of n elements selected by the participant in the game is a
"trial." Two numbers are the "answer." The first (number of "bulls") is equal to
- the number of elements of the "trial," which in the held place and type coincide
with the elements of the sequencethoughtof and the second ~number of �tcows") is equal
to the number of elements of the "trial" forming part of the sequencethought of, but
not coinciding with them in place. The participant who f irst got the answer--m
"bulls," zero "cows"--is cor.sidered the winner. The "Symbols" game is finite. How-
ever, the number of personal moves (strategies) in it is C=nm, which offers the ex-
perimenter wide possibilities of varying the conditions of the game for the purpose
of disclosing the characteristics of behavior of the tested individual in the range
from the finite to inf inite game, which the "Symbols" game seems to man with a
growth of m and n.
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In the first two selected varianta of the game f igures served as elements of the ~
announced set: for the first variant n1=5, for the second variant n2=10 and for ;
both variants m=5. A repetition of the same figures in the number thought of was
prohibited and the use of zero in a high order was permitte3. In such f orm the se-
lected variants of ttxe "Symbols" game maximally approximated the "Bulls and ~ows"
game. It can be easily seen that the probability P1 of accidentally guessing the
nun~ber thot~ght of during the first move for the first variant is inverse to the num-
ber of permutations of 5 elements, that is, P1=1/5!=1/120. For the second variant
this probability is inverse to the number of permutations of 10 elements taken 5
at a time, that is, P1=1/ASlo=1/30240. There are rules making it possible to sharp-
ly increase (up to a unit) the probability of accidentally guessing the number
- thought of with the subsequent move. However, as the experiment showed, no ,~ested in-
dividual used these rules, even when they were explained to him by the experimen-
ter. The tested individuals tried to reduce the uncertainty of the situation in
another way, using various methods, in which logical steps and intuitive guesses
were combined.
The inclusion of a computer in the experiment also made it possible to realize a
third variant of the "Symbols" game, in which at the beginning of *_he game the com-
puter does not at all "think of" a specific sequence of symbols, but gives the
tested individuaL according to a program previously fixed by the experimenter in
the f~rm of answers~ inGtructions for specific subsets of the set of answers pos-
sible with the given trials o~ the tested individual. This means that for any
sequence of trials of various tested individuals the seqtience of answers Oi for
each of them will appear the same (f or example: 01=02; 02=02; 03=02; 04=21; 05=21;
06=50. Here the f irst f igure of the answer means the number of "bulls" and the
second, the number of "cows"), which creates the same initial situation f or all the
tested individuals and provides especially "pure" experimental conditions f or a
comparative study of the game strategies used by man. It is appropriate to note ;
that, in practice, the realization of ~uch a game variant without the help of a
computer is impossible. '
2. A total of 49 tested individuals aged 17 to 53 participated in the preliminary
experiments. A total of 145 records characterizing the game process of the tested
" individuals in si.x experimental series devoted to various aspects of the investi-
gation were obtained. The detection of the methods and techniques of the game
used by the tested individuals was the main problem in the first series (25 experi-
ments with 12 tested indivi.duals), which was preliminary and was ccnducted without
the participation of a computer. The same problem (incidentally) was solved in
the remaining f ive series, but against the background of other goals. Three ser-
ies were devoted to a clarification of the characteristics of the process of the
game in its above-mentioned three variants, one series was a control seri:.s (two
zested individuals with different types of thinking, five sets with each) and the
sixth series was devoted to an attempt to correct in individual tested people the
errors characteristic of them and to form in them elements of the theoretical type
of thinking. In this section we will dwell. only on a brief description of the
characteristic methods and techniques of the game used by the tested individuals,
which were dieclosed in the experiment.
The number of moves in a set in all the series ranged from 2 to 25. Such a di-
_ versity of the "length" of a set was clearly dependent on the methods and tech-
- niques of the game used by the tested individuals. The replacement of one
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element (f igure) in the next trials of the tested individual was the simplest.
This is a reliable method of detecting the unknown set X(number thought ofl , but,
using it, the tested individual arrives at a solution comparatively s1ow1Y. The
method of replacing several figures in the next trials is "quicker." However,
- here the tested individual runs the risk of encountering a multialternative hypoth-
esis, but the selection of one alternative without a sufficient basis often leads
- to a prolongatian of the game. The tested individuals using this method can be
divided into two groups depending on the time spent on considering a move. An in-
vers~_on of the figures left in a trial accompanying the replacement is a variant
of this technique. The method of constructing the unknown number on the basis of
an analysis of as complete a set of hypotheses aspossible is considerably differ-
- ent from these techniques of substitution of elements {replacement of figures).
Furthermore, a s.ingle tested individual, who had extensive experience irc the game
and was familiar with the machine algorithm of conducting it, demonstrated a meth-
od totally uncharacteristic of man and more auitable for realization cz a computer,
completing th~ game in 1 hour and 25 minutes with only six moves, making only 38
s~ipport records and effectively reducing the sorting of the remaining 30,202 num-
bers orally on the basis of simple logical considerations.
A stable use of any one method mostly leads to a prolongation of tl-~e game, as
their alternatian leads to its shortening. The use by the teated individuals of
some very simple rul~es of the game als~ contributes to this. However, not all the
tested individuals "discover" them for themselves and, having discovered them, do
not always use them.
In fac t, the determina tion of characteristic methods and techniques and the de:ec-
tion of typical errors of the tested individuals represent the preliminary stage
in the analysis. The analysis proper begina with the advancement and check of
- hypotheses on the causes of the observed phenomena, that is, change iu methods,
appearance of logical errors, domination in the tested individuals of certain char-
acteristics in the process of the game and so forth. Here it is possible to make an
attempt to reconstruct the course of reasoning of the tested individual. However,
owing to the ambiguity of the cauaea of a certain action, the resuits of such at-
tempts are also distinguished by an ambiguity. Hence the need to analyze.the ex-
perimental material at least at two qualitative levels. T.he described level of
analysis, giving the investigator only the initial material for a classif ication of
the characteristic features manifested by the tested individuals in the course of
the game, at the same time, suffers from a lack of principles f or its substantia-
tion and explanation.
3. The next, qualitatively new level of analysis is connected with the superposi-
~ tion of distinctive psychological coordinates on a sufficiently variegated picture
of the methods and techniques of the game and their combiuations and alternation in
time. In order to do this, we will f irst examine some approaches t~ the solution
of the problem formi.ng the basis for the "Symbols" game as illustrated by its mo-
dification "Bulls and Cows" with m=5 and na10, which, basically, was used in our
experiment. Any sequence of 5 nonrecurrent figures in accordance with the condi-
tions of the game are in a certain relationship with each of the 30,240 numbers,
whicti can be thou~;l~t of jn its examined variant (we will designate this initial set
by the symbol M). For example, the aequence 01234 with the number 43,210 is in
the relation one "bull," four "cows" (conventionally 14), in the relation 00 with
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the number 56,789 and in the relation 50 with itself. These relations can be con-
sidered models of all the possible relations existing between other real objects. ;
Then the finding of the unknown number in this game, in fact, represents the sin-
gling out, from the set of objects similar to it, of a certain object, which, as it
is investigated, is revealed in ever newer, previously unknown Yelations. The ays-
tem of these relations represents sn important criterion of the unknown ob~ect. To
reveal this system till the end meane to determine this object. In fact, if the
answer 01=b1k1 (we will designate this relation with the symbol Ai) is received to
the first trial of the tested individual II1=alblcldle1, this will mean that the un-
known number enters a certain subset Mlc M, each element of which is in the xela-
tion A1 with the trial II1. Similarly, if 82=b2kz (secon3 relation Az) is the an-
swer to the second trial II2=a2b2c2d2e2, this will mean that the unknown number en-
ters the subset M2~ Mp, each element of which is in the relation A2 with the trial
IIz and so forth. From this it is possible to determine the optimum way of finding
the system of relations A1i Az, Ak representing the significance test of the
unknown number. Having received the answer O1 to the trial II1, it is necessary to
determine the aubset M1, after which the trial IIZ should be selected not arbitrar-
ily, but only from the elements of the subset Ml. Having received the answer 02,
it is necessary to determine the corresponding subset M2c M1 and the trial II3 should
be selected only from its elements and so forth. Obviously, with such a method of
i selection of next trials the power of the subsets hll, Mz... will decrease, whic.h
ultimately, will lead to the unknown number, to which the system of relations (sig-
~ nificance test) A1, Az, will correspond. This method formed the basis for
the algorithm of operation of~e computer acCing as man's opponent in the game.
The experiment showed that the computer most often determined the number thought of
by the person in f iv~e or six moves (whereas the person did this in 9 or 12 moves,
on the average), which, even if indirectly, confirms the optimality of this algo-
rithm (of course, owing to fully understandable reasons, this algorithm is beyond
the poweL of man's "unequipped" intellect. However, its use by means of a computer
can serve as one of the examples of the effect of a tool (computer) new for man on
the "style" and structure of his thinking activity, which was discussed above).
i
1'h.is is the essence of the first approach to this problem. In our opinion, it re- ;
flects the understanding of the totaii;y of trials in ~ game as a single whole.
Viewing the next moves of a game as a series of unconnected problems is quite the
opposite to this method. The tested individuals' methods of conducting a game ac-
_ tually observed in the experiment in all their diversity lie between these extreme
approaches. With the exception of the above-mentioned single case of a"machine"
solution o� a problem by atested individual, we did not observe an "integral" approach
to it . At the same time, during the most unsuccesful game by a tested individual he con-
nected at least three or four moves into a single system (apparently, there is no
need to demonstrate that the unification of two moves as a minimum in a system is
a necessary cundition for a nonrandom aolution of a problem).
It is easy to perceive a direct relationship between the singled out appxoaches and
the theoretical and empirical types of thinking described in the literature /6/. It
is well known that theoretical thinking "is realized by means of a substantive ab-
- straction (singling out by means of an analysis of cognizable phenomena of the re-
lation initial for them) and a substantive generalization (presantation of a num-
ber of phenomena as a system on the basis of the necessary connection)" /9/ in con-
trast to empirical thinking, of which formal abstractions and generalization are
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characteristic. In theoretical thinking a separate phenomenon appears as an e1e-
ment of a certain system of phenomena, which makes it possible to single out the
- general principle of solution of a problem. In case of the same types of prob-
lems this principle mak.es it possible to solve "on the spot" all similar problems.
For the empirical type of thinking even the same types of problems seem relatively
independent and new.
A comparison of the two extreme approaches to a problem with characteristic aspects
of theoretical and empirical types of thinking, which were described a~ove, deter-
mined our selection of the principles of the theory of two types of thinking as the
principles of classification of the obtained experimental material and its substan-
tiation and explanation. The correctness of our selection is confirmed by the data
in the literature on various approaches to the solution of problems by r~resenta-
ti~es of the indicated types of thinking in various age groups /5/ and /8/, includ-
ing those pertaining to one of the versions af the "Bulls and Cows" gaane with m-4
and n=10 obtained as a result of experiments with sen~.or schoolchildren /4/.
Thus, the use of the experimental ~ethod proposed by us, whose basic characteristic
is the inclusion of a computer in a game as man's opponent with a subsequent anal-
ysis of the data obtained on the basis of the theory of substantive generalization,
makes it possibie to hope for the detection of individual decision making charac-
teristics in conflict situations and for their explanation with the characteris-
tics of the type of thinking. At the same time, the further trend in research
can be determined on the basis of the following considerations.
The detection of the characteristics of thinking of two extreme types (empirical
and theoretical) in training and problem solution was the object of many investi-
gations in the area of typology of thinking. Numerous works stress the need for a
- purposeful formation of the theoretical type of thinking /6/, /11/ and so forth.
At the sar,ie time, V. V. Davydov also talks about its spontaneous formation, point-
ing out that it is not formed in everyone and, if it is formed, then with "consid-
erable flaws" /6/. Various thinking defects in adults with their~ontaneously
formed types of thinking were investigated in a number of works /5/; /10/ and so
forth. Our experiments have shown that only a negligible number of tested indi-
viduals from the beginning and end of a game follow methods characteristic of the
theoretical type af thinking, whereas many of them, along with the use of the ba-
sic components of theoretical thinki.ng (analysis, reflection and an internal plan
of actions) during some moments of a game, manifest themselves as typical "empiri-
cists." A reverse process was observed in some tested individuals. Beginning a
game as "empiricists," they gradually arrived at the elements of theoretical gene-
- ralization. Tite totality of these data makes it possible to set the task of in-
vestigation of individual characteristics of the "intermediary" type of thinking
in conflict situations, in which, in our opinion, a significant number of the tes-
ted individuals participating in the experiment should be included, and, along
with a study of the conditions of formation uf the theoretical type of thinking,
to make an attempt to detect the conditions under which its disintegration occurs.
Hypothetically, it can include a limitation of the time for a game as a whole and
for its every move separately, division of attention, increase in the volume of
the material that must be retained in memory at the same time, increase in the ob-
jective and sub~ective difficulty of a problem, sub~ectively evaluated degree of ,
the opponent's counteraction (his strength) and some other factors. In general
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~
form the experimental research on this plane can be characterized ~s the task of '
determining the level of the type of thinking on the scale "empirical"--"theoret-
ical" and the stability of this level depending on the effect of sub~ective and
_ objective factors.
~
BIBLIOGRAPHY
_ 1. Ventsel', Ye. S., "Issledovaniye Operatsiy. Zadachi, Printsipy, Metodologiya"
/Operations Research. Tasks, Principles and MethodologY/, Moscow, 1980, 208
pages.
2. Vygotskiy, L. S., "From Record Books," VESTNIK MOSKOVSKOGO UNIVERSITETA. PSI-
KHOLOGIYA, Series 15, 1977, No 2, p 89.
3. Gik, Ye., "Bulls and Cows (Game)," NAUKA I ZHIZN', 1978, No 2, pp 150-151.
4.. Goncharov, V. S., "Investigation of the Decision Making Process Depending on
the Type of Thinking," in the collection "Peikhologiya Formirovaniya Lichnosti
i Proble~ Obucheniya" %Psychology of Formation of Peraonality and Problems ~f
Trainin~/, edited by I. V. Dubrovina and D. B. E1'konin~ Moscow, 1980, pp 36-
41.
5. Gurova, L. L., "Psikhologicheskiy Analiz Resheniya Zadach" /Psychological Anal-
ysis of Problem So~.vin~/, Voronezh, 1976, 327 pages.
6. Davydov,_V. V., "Vidy Obobshcheniya v Obuchenii" /~?pes of Generalization in
Trainin~/, Moscow, 1972, 423 pages.
7. Davydov, V. V., "Basic Problems of the Psychological Study of Management Proc-
esses." in the collection "Aktual'nyye Problemy Obsh~hey Sotsial'noy i Pedago-
gichesk~ Psikhologii" /Urgent Problems of~General Social and Pedagogical Psy-
cholog~/, Moscow, 1980, pp 5-15.
8. Davydov, V. V., Pushkin, V. N. and Pushkina, A. G., "Dependence of the Devel-
_ opment of Thinking of Junior Schoolchildren on the Nature of Training," VOP~OSY
�StKHULOGII, 1972, No 6, pp 124-132.
9. Zak, A. Z., "Structure of Methods for the Determination of the Level of Devel-
opment of Theoretical Thinking in Schoolchildren." in the coliectiori "Issledo-
vaniya po Problemam Vozrastnoy i Pedagogicheskoy Psikhologii" /Investigatians
of Problems of Age and Pedagogical Paycholog~/, Moscow, 1978, pp 26-31.
10. Podgoretskaya, N. A., "Izucheniye Priyemov Logicheskogo Myshleniya u Vzroslykh"
/Study of the Methods of Logical Thinking in Adults/, Moscow, 1980, 149 pages.
11. "Psikhologiya Obucheniya i Vospitaniya ~Voprosy Organizatsii Formiruyushchego
- Eksperimenta). /OUzornaya Inforznatsiya/" %Psychology of Training and Educa-
tion (Problems of Organization of the Forming bcperiment). /Survey Informa-
tion//, Issue 5, edited by V. V. Davydov and A. K. Markova, Moscow, 1978, 43
pages.
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12. Teplov, B. M., "Foreword to the Collection "Problemy Individual'nykh Razli-
chiy" %Problems of Individual Differences/, Moscow, 1961, pp 3-5.
COPYRIGHT: "Voprosy psikhologii". "Pedagogika", 1981
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~
DEPENDENC~ OF STRATGCY OF SEARCH FOR DECISION ON TXPF OF THINKING ~
Moscow VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII in Russian No 4, Jul-Aug 81 pp 132-136
- /Article by V. S. Goncharov/ ~
- /Text/ The investigation of the process of a search for a decision is of practical
' importance from two aspects. On the one hand, the study af the patterns and prin- ~
cipl~es of a search for a decision is generated by the need for optimization of mana-
gerial labor, whose proportion ~in the total volume of occupational activity grows .
constantly. From this point of view the search problem, which lies in the selec- .
- tion of acceptable or optimal decisiona, f orms the basie for decision making. In
this connection the problems of study of the procesa of a search f or a decision are
included in the probZems of investigations of decision making /5/ and /7/. ~
On the other hand, the study of how man searches for a decision is generated by the
need for improvement of computer programs. As is well known, a computer search for
a decision, as compared with a search made by man, i,s still less economical. It is ~
connected with the sorting of a large number of variants and alternatives. A clar-
ification of effective principles of a sear~h for a decision in man for the purpose
of Cheir realization in machine programs is an important research task.
The process of a search for a dec3sion is characterized by a specific strategy.
The strategy represents the form of a search and the method of iCs organization.
Both the�strategies af a machine search realized in computer programs and the stra-
tegies characterizing_a_search and decision making in man are now studied inten-
sively /5/, /9/ and /11/.
Clarification of the dependence of the atrategy of a aearch for a decision on the .
type of thinking is the object of our inveatigation. The eatablishment of such a
dependence can expand the ideas of the poasibilities of the two methoda uf orienta-
tion in reality and demonstrate the advantage of one over the other.
The investigation was conducted in two stages. A diagnosis of the type of thinking
according to especially developed methods was made at the f irst sCage. The charac-
teristics of a search for a decision in tested individuals with a different type.of
thinking were studied by means of the game method at the second stage.
Before turning to a description of~ the methoda diagnosing the type of thinking, we
will dwell on some theoretical principles forming the basis for the division of
thinking into two types and for the construction of diagnostic methods.
1Q
,
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The teaching of two types of thinking is developed in the works of V. V. Davy-
dov and his associates %2/. V. V. Davydov singles out two types of th~.nking--
empirical and theoretical. Empirical thinking is charaeterized by the fact that
it reflects objects from the aspect of their external manifestations and conneC-
- tions. Empirical thinking represents a"method of obtaining and utilizing sen-
sory data by people possessing the faculty of speech... /2; 266/ and its basic
function "lies in the classification of sub~ects and in the construction of a
firm scheme of def initions" /2; 179/. In contrast to empirical, theoretical
thinking is considered thinking "reflecting the internal connections of ob,jects
and the laws of their movement" /2; 176/. Theoretical thinking has the area of
objectively interconnected phenomena f orming an integral system as its special
content. Theoretical thinking is characterized primarily by a special type of
generalization, to which the process of analysis as a specific component of the-
oretical thinking leads. Theoretical analysis is an "analysis, which, being per-
formed on some one specific event or one problem, at the same time, discloses the
internal conn~ction forming the basis for many particular manifestations of this
event or this problem. Owing to ~hiss man seemingly "generalizes a certain range
of events and problems on the spot" /2; 1847. Generalization through a long com-
parison of aimilar facts and their gradual unification into a certain category is
characteristic of empirical thinking.
The characteristics of the described types of thinking are clearly re~vealed duX-
_ ring the solution of a number of the same types of problems. With the theoret-
ical method of solution an analysis of the ccnditions and requirements of one
problem of a certain category makes it possible to disclose the general principle
of solution of all the problems of this category and then right away to correctly
solve all the remaining problems. With the empirical method man solves each sub-
sequent problem through trials and errors as a relatively new and independent
problem.
Three basic companents are differentiated in theoretical thinking: analysis,
reflection and internal plan of action. A theoretical analysis of the content
of a problem represents the process of singling out the principle of the general
method of its solution, which then seemingly is transferred to the whole cate-
- gory of such problems "on the spot." Reflection lies in the sub~ect's use of
his own method of action and in an examination of the basis for it. An internal
plan of action is man's ability to act "mentally," ensuring the planning and
perFormance of actions without the use of external supports.
To detect the presence or absence of an analysis, a series of the same types of
problems, from the nature of solution of which it is possible to judge the sin-
gling out by the test~d individuals of its general principle,was used. The prob-
lems were made up according to the principle of increasing difficulty. Anagrams
(anagram is a word transformed through a rearrangement of the letters forming it)
were selected as pr.oblems. The following series of anagrams was offered to the
tested individuals:
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1) J1BI40 4) EP~~ 7) O~CP?N~IPH
2) PAS~I 5) P14~~'1d 8) 7II'BYEINAK ~
3) YfIICC 6) AII~IPPH 9) FBI~T~ ~
. ~
The following problem was given: "According to these anagrams to finii the words ~
from which they are formed." .
These anagrams were obtained from some words.through a.place change of two neigh-
boring letters in pairs. If the tested individual solves each such problem as a
new one, not singling out the general principle of their structure, this indicates
an orientation to their external, unessential criteria. However, if the tested
individual discovers this principle during the solution of one or two problems and
then immediately and correctly uses it during the solution of all the other prob-
- lems, this means that he analyzed the first problems and during the solution of
the remaining ones leaned on the f ound initial relation of their condition.
Two methods were devised for the detection of reflection. The f irst was a modifi-
cation of th~ method used by A. Z. Zak /3/. Each of the methods represents three
single-type problems, which the tested individual is asked~to solve. The problems
~ are.made up so that the first and third have a common method of solution. The sec-
ond problem differs from'them in the method of solution. After a successful solu-
tion of all the problems the tested individual is asked to classify them. The . ~
problems were selected so that they presupposed a classification both according to :
their external criteria and according to the method of solution. If the tested in-
dividual determined that the met~od of~solution of the first and thir3 problems
was common and the second differed fr.om it, he made the following classification
~ according to the method of problem solving. Such a classification points to the
presence of reflection. Otherwise the classification was made on the basis of the ,
external criteria of the problems, which were detected through a�comparison of ,
their conditions. Such a classif ication shows'the absence of reflection. ,
The first method of detecting reflection was.made up from the following problems:
~ ) ~gI',iTF~['_ I'~BpC~IC (four moves)
~ 2) g(~3XQI,y~ 33~IIBmTII~i~f (four moves)
_ . 3) KEMQOBNP MQCTHPOB (four moves)
- ~ At first the tested individual must transform in four moves the initial arrange-
- ment of the letters (group of letters arranged in the left part of the sheet) into.
the final arrangement (group of letters arranged in the right part of the sheet).
A mutual rearrangement of two letters so that they change places is a move. Next
the tested individual is asked to select one of the fo~.lowing views and to sub-
stantiate his selection:
1) All the problems are similar.
2) All the problems are different.
3) The first and second problems are similar.
- 4) The second and third problems are similar.
5) The second and third problems are similar.
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The second method of disclosing reflection represents the following three problems:
1) Misha ie heavier than Slava {~(~o is the heavieat?
Borya is heavier than Misha
2} Katya is darker than Vera ~o is the darkest?
Vera is darker than Nina
, 3) Nadya is more cheerful than Zina y,mo is the most cheerful?
Lyuda is more cheerful than Nadya
- As in the first method, the tested individual at f irst is asked to solve these
problems, answering the questions raised in them. After that the tested individual
decides which of the next three views is correct:
1) .All the problems are similar.
2) All the problems are different.
3) One problem is different from the other two.
To reveal the level of development of the internal plan of action, a method made
up of three problems of increasing diff iculty was used. A quick and correct solu-
tion of problems of the second and third degree of difficulty can indicate a high
level of developmen~ of the internal plan of action corresponding to the fourth and
f ifth level (according to Ya. A. Ponomarev) /6/. However, the solution of the
problem of the f irst degree of difficulty alone points to a low level of develop-
~ ment of the internal plan of action coxreaponding to the third level (according to
Ya. A. Ponomarev). In the offered assignments the tested individual is required
in a specific number of moves to arrange the letters in the same way as the figures
stand, that is, the same letters should be arranged in the squares where the same
figures are. A simultaneous mental shif t of any two letters is taken as one move.
Students in lower courses of the Moscow Oblast Pedagogical Institute imeni N. K.
Krupskaya, students at the Smolensk Pedagogical School and seniors at the school
No 10 in the city of Mytishchi (a total of 73 people) participated in the testing
of the described m~thods. The test results showed the suitability of the developed
methods f or a division of the group of tested individuals into groups depending on
the nature of solution of the given problems.
Seniors at Moscow schools and staff inembers and graduate students at one scientif-
ic research institute took part in the basic series. In all 60 people were ex-
amined in this series.
According to the resulta of the examination Che tested individuals that partici-
pated in it were divided into three groupa. Teated individuals who aucceasfully
fulfilled the aseignments in respect to all the methoda and, thus, revealed the
presence of analysis, reflection and a developed internal plan of action, u~ade up
the first group including 18 people. This group was conventionally called the
group of "theoreticians."
Tested individuals that did not fully per�orm the assignments for analysis and ~
- reflection and showed an unstable solution of the assignments f or the internal
plan of action formed the second group consisting of 32 people. This group re-
ceived the conventional name of a group of "empiricists."
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1fie ~third group of the tested individuals conaiating of 10 people included tested ~
- individuals who partially solved the given problems. The tested individuals of
this group did not reveal a stable analysis or reflection and showed a different
c~egree of formation of the internal plan of action.
For a clarification of the characteristics of the search for a decision in the
tested individuals of .the three given groups the game method was used. Games of a
varying content and~ame problems are widely used :Ln the investigation of man's
thinking activity /8/ and /10/. They create conditions for conducting a search in
maximally expanded forms an3 make it possible to f ix its complex time and space '
- dynamics.
- The "Bulls and Cows" game was selected for the purpose of our investigation. The
- game consists in a.correct guess by one player of the number thought of by another ,
player with the smallest number of moves. A four-digit number is thought of in
such a way that all the figures in it are different. In every move the guessing
person names a certain number, which aleo has four digits and different figures.
The partner compares the number he thought of with the one mentioned.and reports
the number ot "bulls" and "cows." A situation when the numbers thought of and
mentioned have common figures standing at the same places is called a"bull" in
this game. If common figures stand at different places, this is a"cow" /1/.
'i'he experiment �aas conducted by means of a computer. The computer "thought of " a
number and advised the tested individual of the answer to his next move. Communi-
cation between the tested individual and the computer was carried out through a
specia3 terminal device. ~
The unknown number in the "Bulls and Cows" game can be represented in the form of
an ordered set M={a, b, c, d}, which is a subset of the set N={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 0}, Mc~N.
- For purposes of investigation we decided to confine ourselves to an examination of
games with the initiaZ situations 0-1 and 0-2 (0 "bull," 1"cow" and 0"bull," 2
"cows"). These initial situations are the most indef inite in the game. The prob-
lem of a search for the elements of the set M from these initial situations is
most difficult. ~
As an analysis of the obtained materials ehowed, substantial and most signif icant
- differences in the strategies of a aearch for a decision in various groups of tes-
ted individuals are revealed during the opening of the games. Subsequently, only
the characteristics of a search for elements M during the opening, in the first
three moves, were examined. This number of moves ia auff icient in this game in
order to obtain the first unambiguous conclusions on the bel.onging of specific
elements N to.the set M. We will confine ourselves to an examination of the search
for the elements forming part of M, digreasing from a search for the place of these
elements in M. The obtained experimental material makes it possible to single out
_ three types of search strategies during the opening of a game.
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Strategy A. A search for elements M is conducted without the establishment of
their connection with each other. The relation H=K, where R is the total number
of "bulls" and "cows" in response to a given mo~�e and H is the number of figures
di this move transferred to the next move, is an expression of this strategy. On
the whole, the search according to this atrategy from the examined initial situa-
tions (0-1, 0-2) can be presented in the iorm of search trees (f igures 1 and 2).
~ The values H=K are indicated in the tree nodee.
~ ~
~ .
0 1 2 3 4.
3 4 2 3 4. 0 I 2 3 4 2 3 4
Figure i
~ ' 2 ~
~ 2 3 4
2 3 4 0 I 2 3 4 0 I 2 3 4 2 3 4
Figure 2
The following excerpts f.rom the records of the experiment with the tested individ-
ual T. K. are an example of this strategy:
9541-02 2354-01
1264-01 5610-01
3475-01 7589-02
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_ ~ ~
Strategy B. A search for the elementa of the aet M ia made through the establish- '
ment of a single connection among them. ~.'he equality H=3 is the expression of
this strategy. The replacement of one alement of this move, when the response to
the next move is changed, presupposes a clarification of the belonging of both the
_ replaced and replacing element to the unknown set. A strictly disjunctive connec-
tion established among these elements is the basis for this strategy. Examples of
the described strategy are given in the excerpts from the records of the experiment '
with the tested ind~vidual K. N. ~
7890-01 9561-02 3456-01 ~ ,
~ 7981-02 3561-02 3457=01
6718-~02 4561-O1 3458-00
Strategy C. A search for elements is made through the singling out of a system of
connections among the~elements of the game situation. This strategy is realized
_ during the construction of a third move, if K1=K2. The establishment of a con~unc-
tive connection between the replaced and replacing elements and a weakly dis3unc-
tive connection between these elements and three others forming part of the first
and second moves is the basis for this stra tegy.
The following are examples of this atrategy: '
Tested individual B. A. Tested individual D. S.
1234-02 4379-01
2346-11 4378-01
1346-01 4389-01
The search strategies during the opening used by various groups of tested individ-
uals are indicated in table 1. ~
Table 1.
Group of Tested Individuals Strategy
1 "theoreticians" B, C
2 "empiricists" ~ A
3 A, B
As can be seen from the table, the search f or a deciaion in tested individuals
who are "theoreticians" is characterized by atrategiea B and C and in "empiricists;
by strategy A. Hence it can be concluded that the search according to strategies
B and C requires an analysis and reflection and its performance presupposes a high
level of development of the internal plan of action. However, the search charac-
terized by strategy is made without an analysis or reflection and does not require
a high level of formation of the internal~p lan of action. Analysis ensures the
performance of a search according to the connections of the elements of game sit-
uations. At the same time, analysis most explicit in its own theoretical form is
revealed in the realization of strategy C. Here the search is made on the basis
of a system of connections constructed by the tested individual who is a"theore-
tician." Reflection, which is an aspect of theoretical analysis, makes it possi--
ble to examine the basis of the actions proper and to find the basis most accept-
able under given conditions. Reflection is revealed most clearly during a
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transition from strategy B to strategy C. This transition is characterized by a
destruction of the strictly dis~unctive connection between the replaced and re-
placing elements and the construction of a new con~unctive connection between them.
The high level of development of the internal plan of action provides for tha "th~
oreticians" the creaeion of a wide search zone including the entire combination of
_ connections among the elements of the game situation.
i
4 A H C 10 4 7 2 5 3
3 A H 10 N 3 ~ 2 3 6
2 A IO H A ~2 3 7 2 7
1 10 C C C 1 3 2 b b
a~ c d� a s c d
� . 2 xo~W �
2
� 4~~ R p. r 2 3 7 2~.
3 r x ~ x 3 S 7 6 7
Z 6 A P fi , 2 2.3 '2 3,
~ 6 6 x.x a a ~ 3
a~ C d a~ C d'
3x+qn,a 1
~ 34 E H E~ 4 7 8 3 9
3 N Y Y N 3 3 8 8 7
y E E~ Z 3 9 8 ~
t~ r n~ .1 ~ 7 7 3
a s c d a~ c d
4XOAd ~
Figure 3
Key:
1. Move
Thus, as a result of the conducted investigation significant differences in the
strategies of the search for decisions in tes;.~d individuals who manifested a dif-
ferent type of thinking were established. The presence of the basic components of
theoretical thinking (analysis, reflection and a high level of the internal plan
of action) significantly determines the nature and method of the search for a de-
cision and its strategy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 1. Gik, Ye., "Bulls and Cowa," NAUKA I ZHIZN', 1978, No 2, pp 150-151.
2. Davydov,_V. V., "Vidy Obobahcheniya v Obuchenii" /T~?pes of Generalization in
Traininp~/, Moscow, 1972.
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i
;
3. Zak, A. Z., "On the Problem of the Development of Thinking in Schoolchildren," ~
- in the book "Psikhologicheskiye Problemy Uchebnoy DeyateZ'nosti Shkol'nikov" `
/Psychological Problems in Educational Activity of Schoolchildren/, Moscow, '
1977, pp 253-260.
4. Zak, A. Z� "Construction of Methods for the Determination.of the Level of De- �
_ velopment of Theoretical Thinking in Schoolchildren," in the book "Issledova- '
niya po Problemam Vozrastnoy i Pedagogicheskoy Psikhologii" /Investigations of
Problems of Age and Pedagogical Psycholog~/, Moscow, 1979, pp 26-31. .
5. Kozeletskiy, Yu., "Psikhologic??esicaya Teoriya Resheniy" /Psychological Theory
~ of Decis~.,ns/~ MUa~OW~ 1979. ~
6. P~nomarev, Ya. A., "Znaniya, Myshleniye i Umstvennoye Razvitiye" /Knowledge, ,
Thinking and Mental Development/, Moscow, 1967. . '
7. "Problemy Prinyatiya Resheniya" /Decision Making Problems/, Moscow, 1976. ,
8. Pushkin, V. N., "Operativnoye Myshleniye v Bol'shikh Sistemakh" /Operative
Thinking in Large Systems/, Moscow, ~1965.
9. Rafael, B., 11Dumayushchiy Komp'yuter" /The Thinking Computer/, Moscow, 1979.
. -
10. Tikhomirov, 0. K., "Struktura Myslitel'noy Deyatel'nosti" /Structure of Think-
ing ActivitY/, Moscow, 1969.
11. Khant, E., "Iskusstverniyy Intellekt" /Artificial Intellect/, Moscow, 1978.
COPYRIGHT: "Voprosy psikhologii". "Pedagogika", 1981
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~
.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF FATIGUE BASED ON ACTIVATION INDICATORS
Moscow VOPROSY PSIKHOLOGII in Russian No 3, May-Jun 81 pp 38-48
[Article by G. A. Stryukov, T. N. Dolgolenko and 0. A. ICAnopkin]
[Textj Concern with the reliability of operators controlling complex technical
systems has imparted new importance to a problem that is not at all new--that of
_ diagnosing fatigue in man. Although studies devoted to psychophysiological descrip-
tion of fatigue number in the hundreds each year, the problem rema.ins far from solved,
~ both from the aspect of deep theoretical development and from the aspect of applied
use of the obtained results. McFarland believes that "absence of an understanding
and of control over what we call fatigue is one of the most confused problems of our
life." He also adds that "the term fatigue may be likened to the word subconscious,
which has become a convenient category by which to designate phenomena that are not
, altogether understood but nevertheless real" l(20), p 2).
Were we to analyze studies of fatigue, the first thing we would notice is the un-
reliability and variability of the "witnesses of fatigue," be they sub5ective symptoms
of tiredness, shifts in work effectiveness or changes in psychophysiological funetions
(18). 7.'here are practically no indicators which would unambiguously signal the onset
of fatigue, and at present it is impossible to descri.be fatigue as a clearly delimited
syndrome having a limited set of mutually correlated parameters following specific
_ laws. In reports given at recent all-union conferences on labor physiology (15,16),
changes occurring in physiological funetions during a work shift which are sometimes
diar.~etrically opposed (decrease-increase in pulse, arterial pressure, blood sugar,
horm~nes, electrolytes; depression-exaltation of the a-rhythm, and so on) are never-
theless interpreted by different authors as signs of approaching fatigue. The reason
for this is the rather arbitrary interpretation made of recorded changes, using terms
implying "decrement of function" (inhibition, blockade, discoordination, stress,
weakening, deterioration and so on), which creates the appearance of an explanatinn
of the recorded changes.
Broad introduction of polyfunctional recnrding, improvement of the technical side of
- experimentation and introduction of computerized mathematical methods for analyzing
experimental data have generated the hope that it is mainly along this road--
complicating and refining the data processing methods--that reliable and sufficiently
universal criteria of fatigue will be found. However, despite the certain amount of
progress that has been enjoyed, this approach has not elevated the problem above
empirical inquiry, and it has not led to a qualitative change in diagnosis of fatigue.
Assessment of man's state in regard to fatigue symptoms remains within the province
of more or less arbitrary interpretation by researchers.
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The idea that it is impossi.ble to assess fatigue on the basis of some one function,
that itsdiagnosis requires an integrated systems approach, is now gaining increasa.ngly
greater approval. However, the theoretical side of the question is often limited
to too-general, though valid, conclusions appealing for assessment of the state of
~th~ body "as a whole," while practical applications o� the integra~ed approach are
reduced to attempts at recording as ~nany functions as possible and subjecting them ;
. to summational mathematical treatment without any clear, theoretically grounded
hypotheses concerning the principles of integrating differer.t functional signs into
a single indicator of fatigue. Thus the main accerrt in the effort to impart psycho-
- physiological objectivity to fatigue is laid on.building mathematical models which
would "most adequately" synthesize data acquired by numerous measurements. Very
great significance is imparted to the search for "the right formula" by which to
process the empirical material. .
_ While we do not reject the benefits o~ such research, we do not think that we can
totally ignore pure psychophysiological research in this area and still come up~with
a satisfactory solution to the problem of assessing fatigue. It would be wrong to
assume that the field of labor psychophysiology already possesses dependable methods
by which to acquire raw data that simply need to be "correctly" processed in order
to reveal stable components within the extremely unstable functional pattern of
fatigue. There are few studies in the special literature devoted to the psycho-
metrics of fatigue in the strict sense of this term (4). Most methods u~ed to diag-
nose fatigue reqture standardization and testing for reliability and validity (5).
Discussing the physiological mechanisms of fatigue, we should distinguish two groups
of phenomena. �
On one hand there is the "initial deficit," which arises in the "weakest" link of
the functional system and which imparts a certain degree of dissonance to the w~rk
of the system as a whole. The question of the functional essence of the initial
deficit is at the basis of classical theories of fatigue, and.it was the subject of
acute debate during the time of initial development of labor psychophysiology (~2,14).
Contemporazy data in physiology and biology support A. A. Ukhtomskiy's conclusion
(14) that attempts to formulate a general theory of fatigue based on some universal
mechanism of reversible disturbance of a chain of inetabolic reactions are unfounded
and unpromising. Depending on the individual psychological qualities of the worker
and on the concrete working conditions, to include the entire set of occupational,
hygienic, social and psychological factors, the particular location of disturbances
will vary, and consequently the concrete physiological signs of the "initial deficit"
will be different as well, or at least it would be difficult to reduce them to a
limited number of classes. Both the pressing theoretical and practical pr~blems of
labor psychophysiology require a meticulous effort to compile a"psychophysiological
catalog" of fatigue states.
On the other side of the functional pattern of fatigue we observe, concurrently with
development of the initial deficit, adaptive alterations in the body aimed at compen-
sating for the arising difficulties.
A typical example of a nonspecific ~ompensatory.reaction to the environment's counter-
homeostatic influence is Selye's general adaptation syndrome, or the stress reaction,
which expresses itself primarily in neuroendocrine alterations in the hypophyseo-
adrenocortical system (11). Selye included fatigue among a number of factors
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provoking a stress reaction. The following question naturally arises in this
" regard: Can we nAt use the indicators of stress as a universal nonspecific physio-
logical sign of fatigue? Practice fails to confirm such a hypothesis. The physio-
logical pattern of fatigue may manifest itself within the limits of a broad range of
fwactional changes: from typical signs of a stressful state to the typical symptOms
ot reduced activation and development of inhibitory proces~es--that is, fatigue
cannot be intexpreted as a state which automatically and uniquely elicits the
general adaptation syiidrome.
Nevertheless some authors (19) feel that "true fatigue," being a consequence of
highly motivated labor characterized by stringent effectiveness parameters, is always
a general stress reaction. According to this point of view signs of a decrease in
activation are more a sign of a reluctance to become tired, than an indication of
the depth and degree of fatigue.
However, this line of reasoning is far from undebatable, and it does not solve the
problem. After all, the "reluctance to become tired" and the decrease in activation
~ ascribed to this state are usually the consequence of work; they are usually a unique
protective response to a work load. And there are no grounds for rejecting presence
of a relationship between this reaction and fatigue.
Clarifying the question as to when and under what conditions a nonspecific compen-
satory reaction to fatigue acquires the nature of "negative inhibition" and when it
becomes a form of stress (tension) is acquiring fundamentally important significance
to general theoretical conceptualizati.on of the fatigue diagnosis problem. Were we
to achieve command over these conditions, and were we able to experimentally elicit
either the "inhibitory" or the "stressful" manifestation of fatigue, we would have
made a significant step forward in our understanding of fatigue, and of the funda-
mental 3ifficulties associated with diagnosing this state. The very fact that the
Fhysiologicai symptoms of fatigue may be represented by the extreme poles of the
scale of activation (inhibition, stress (1)) demonstratively emphasizes these
di fficulties.
In our opinion the explanation for the instability and uncertainty of functional
expression of fatigue by activation parameters lies in the fact that activation level
is not an indicator that is uniquely c~etermined by the mechanisms of physiological
regulation. But many studies on the psychophysiology of tiring in man implicitly
contain the assumption that in a state of fatigue (initial deficit), delicate,
intimate changes in int.racellular regulation that cannot be detected directTy by
instruments automatically lead to compensatory change in the overall level of arousal
of the central nervous system (the level of activation). To reveal the invariant
components of this reaction means to find a universal alqorithm of fatigue diagnosis.
The fact that despite the technological power of the modern physiological experiment
these invariants cannot be revealed elicits fundamental douY~t as to their
existence. The fact is that the general physiological pattern of fatigue, in the
way that it is represented by activation level indicators, depenas not only and not
so much on the magnitude and nature of the initial functional deficit, as on how
the individual evaluates the situation in which he finds himself, how he interprets
his state and relates it to the objectives of his activity, how he perceives and
"overcomes" the unpleasant subjective sensations of fatigue, and so.on. Thus this
pattern reflects diverse, variable and whimsical processes associated with man's
self-regulation of his state and activity (6).
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It would hardly be possible to fina a single, clearly delimited fatigue syndrome ~
~
' by using, for this purpose, di~gnosis of nonspecific activation parameters. Fatigue ;
in the working individual is a state of ambivalent experiences and competing motives: ,
c?n one hand we have the motives of recovery, self-preservation, reduction of activity,
ancl rest, while on the other hand we have the motives of social responsibility and
prestige, and maintenance of activity level, often at the cost of additional mobil-
ization. And depending on the relationship among these motives, on the nature of
the task and the sub-lective significance of the qoals the worker pursues, and on
his individual features, a highly variable, "conjunctural" pattern of organization
of his activity and functional state evolves.
These considerations were the general theoretical background for the experimental
study described below. The objective of the eMperiment was to test the hypothesis
that the dynamics of some physiological functions proceeding during tiring mental ~
work depend on factors associated w~th psychological self-regulation. ,
The tentative hypothesis was as follows: "Inhibitory" signs of fatigue (that is,
signs indicating a decrease in activation level) would reveal thems~.lves when the
meaningfulness and objectives of activity are clearly delimited, and when they do
not come into conflict with the natural tendency to reduce activity or with the
dominant motives of economization of effort during development of fatigue. On the
other hand, the "stressful" signs of fa'cigue (growth in activation level) would
manifest ~i~em5elves in situations where the content and meaning of the task facing
the subject encourage him to actively mobilize his reaources as the work goes on,
in orcler to satisfy the requirements of his activity.
Me tho ds
The following assignment was chosen as "tiring activity." A series of numbers 1.8 ~
sec apart were played through a tape recorder loudspeaker to a subject in a sound-
proof room. The series of numbers was taken from a random numbers table, and it
cor~~ained digits from 0 to 9. Somewhere in this series was the letter "z". Its
di:;tribution in the series was also random. Z"he minimum interval between two
succ:essive letters "z" was three numbers, and the maximum was nine. On hearing the
letter "z" the subject had to write down the third number before "z" on a special
response sheet (for example on hearing the sequence ...,7, 5, 2, 0, z, 6, 5, 9, 2,
4, 8, z, 3,..., the subject had to write down the numbers 5 and 2). Thus the task
was intended to impose a dynamic load on the working memory (this is a"running
memory" model).
The preliminary experiments showed that 4 hours of continuous work resixlted in
intense mental tiring of the subject, who exhibited the typical symptoms of this
state (growth in the number of errors, difficulties in concentration, the desire to
stop working). Basing ourselves on these data, we interpreted a 4-hour load as a
v~olume of work which would "guarantee" development of inental fatigue.
The experiments in the main series were performed in two variants. In the first
variant the subject worked for a specific length of time. He was told beforehand
that the experiment would last 4 hours, and he was able to adapt himself to the
temporal dynamics of the experiment. In the second variant the subject worked until
"breakdown." The subject had to work diligently until he felt unable to continue the
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work or to maintain the required effectiveness due to extreme fatigue. In this case
_ he had the power to stop the experiment. In r2ality, however, the experimenters
had no intention of working their subjects to the moment of "breakdown": The experi-
m~nt was halted after 4 hours of continuous work (at which time an"equipment failure"
was faked). Thus the actual volume of work done in both variants was the same--
4 hours of continuous performance of the experimental assignment. A typical feature
of the psychological atmosphere in which the experiments of the second variant were
conducted was that the subjects were unable to accurately estimate the time since the
experiment started.
All subjects reported intense fatigue after the end of the experiment in both the
first and second variant. ~
An EEG was recorded continuously during the experiment with a Hungarian "Orion"
eight-channel encephalograph (with a time constant of 0.3 sec and an amplification
ratio of 10 mm/50 Uv). Bipolar recordings were made by L. P. Pavlova's technique
(10). Wideband filters were used to isolate theta (4-7 Hz) and alpha-rhythms (8-13 Hz)
from the total EEG. These rhythms were subjected to integration. The readings of the
- integrator were recorded in parallel with the EEG recordings. The data of an EKG,
recorded concurrently with the EEG, were used to determine pulse rate.
When analyzing the EEG recordings we counted the number of marks made by the inte-
grator's stylus each minute. The number of marks was then averaged over a 30-minute
interval. The material was subjected to statistical treatment with an"M-222" com-
puter, and it included calculation of the arithmetic mean, the standard deviation
and the error of the arithmetic mean. Confidence intervals were determined at the
95 percent level of significance (p c6poco Bo~deucmBue (j5) � ~
- ~lq~ Bn~ n edcKa3oNUA 5) ,
pozpan�rrHOe ycmpo � ynpaDnArowee
. l/urcnuvecKU cmBo(ceHppupyemnpe 16) 4oa0e~3cmGue
- npu6np onaaueNOe ~npnGnA ~
c6poco~13 eedeucmeueOmev
ue npeOcKO~aNUa)
~ Figure 10. Block Diagram of a Control Loop Containing a Prediction Displa,y
Key:
1. Input (desired output value) 9. Initial conditions for the model
2. Prediction display (CRT) 10. Nbdel of object of control in
3. Human operator accelerated time
~ 4. Control fixture 11. Prediction signal `
5. Controlling influence 12. Future value of signal (time is
6. Object of control reckoned from moment of reset)
7. Output 13. Cyclic reset unit
8. Sensors 14. Reset signal
15. Controlling influence for prediction
16. Programming unit (generates suggested
controllinq action during prediction
time )
_ SN
5~(w) 5~
N ti Wr S� W~ St
Figure 11. Giagram of a Control Loop Used to Calculate the Difficulty Index
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r~lK vrrit,~AL uJr. UtvLY ;
F
- A eo-called 1~redicLion display, a block diagram of which is ahown in Figure 10,
has recently been enjoying increasingly broader application. Such df.splays have
been found to be an extremely effective means of controlling complex dynamic objects.
i~evelopment of prediction displays requires, in particular, an answer to the question
as to what is th e optimum prediction time. The choice of prediction time not only
determines the requirements to be impospd on technical companents, but it also has
a significant influence on the characteristics of human activity.
Let us try to calculate optimum prediction time using certain modifications of the
general quasi-linear model represented by expression (10), and the calculation
scheme proposed by Hollister (41). Let us assume that an individual is included in
the control system as shown in Figure 11, and that an ordi~ary compensatory system
is used to display the error signal to him. Let us assume Purthermore that the
anticipation time Ty contributed by the individual must corre'spond to an optimum
prediction timr. (This assumption may be justified with McRuer's "intersecting"
model (see Table 3)). At frequencies at which the individual introduces the element
of anticipation, the value of the controlling influence u(t) is greater than the
~ error produced by amplification Kpe. At frequencies at which th~ individual intro-
duces a time delay, u(t) is less than Kpe. ,
Let us introduce the anticipation coefficient:
L = u8 . .(17).
(KpE)H . ~ ~ ~
, As we can see from (17), if anticipation time TL dominates, then L>1; if time delay
T1 dominates, then L