JPRS ID: 10108 USSR REPORT SPACE

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• Sequence Number: 23
• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/ 10 ~ OS
:
10 November 1981
uSSR Re ort
p
SPACE
OUO 5/81)
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J!'k5 l,% .l U 1 U~i
- 10 November 1981
USSR REPORT
SPACE
(FOUO 5/81)
~ CONTENTS
MANNED MISSION HIGHLIGHTS
'Salyut--7' Orbital Space Station Launching Deemed UnlikeZy
Bef~re ~arly 1982 1
- Shatalov on psychological Problems in Long--Durat3on Flights...... 3
Mental and Physical Aspecta of Cosmonauts' Efficiency in
Flight 5
LIFE SCI~NCES ~
= Tnvestigation o~ Mutagenic FaGtors of Space ~light 9
Proble.ms of Space Biology, ~olume 42: Sanitary--Hygienic and
Physiological Aspects of Manned Spacecraft 28
CardiovascuZar Canditioning for Cosmonauts 37
Problem of Adaptation in Space Biology and Medicine 39
SPACE ENGINEERING
Technolo~y of Assembly, Installation and Repair Work in Space.... 47
Thermal Conditions in Spacecraft 60
SPACE APPLICATIONS
Zero-Gravity Metal, Semiconductor Melting, Crystallization,
Phase Formation Experiments in Space 64
� - a- [TII - USSR - 21L S&T FOUO]
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MANNED MISSION HIGHLIGHTS
'SALYUT-7' ORBI'tAL SPACE STATION LAUNCHING DEEMED UNLIKELY BEFORE EARLY 1982
k'aris AIR & COSMOS in French 29 Aug 81 p 43
[Article by Pierre Langereux: "Soviet Orbital Station 'Salyut-~7' Will Be
Launched at Start of 1982"]
- [Text] As disclosed by ex-cosmonaut Alexey Yeliseyev~ ~irector of Salyut flights~
at a Moscow press conference on 13 July: "The new orbi~tal space stat3.on
Salyut-7 will not be launched this year."
"Curr~ntly, we are continuing operation of the ~alyut-6 orbital station, which
is docked to the Cosmos-1267 satellite," said Yeliseyev~ explaining further that
"In preparing for the launching of a new station~ we of course take into account
the suggeations of the cosmonauts to improve the station, and this takes time."
The iJSSR~ therefore, will not launch its next orbital space station Salyut-7
before the beginning of 1982~ in other words, not much before the sending up of
a new "international" crew that will include one ~oviet and Che first French
. spaceman on a flight.tentatively scheduled for May-June 1982.
The orbit of the ~alyut-6-Cosmos-1267 orbital complex was ~ust raised once
again on 17 July; it is now in a 336-382-km orbit~ inclined 5Z.6�.
It is recalled that Cosmos-1267 was launched on 25 April 1981 snd that it ~aas
moored to the Salyut-6 station on 19 Jun~. This array~ which constitutes a
38-ton station. prefigures the future multimodule orbital st~tions the USSR
proposes to launch "within a foreaeeable future~" Yeliseyev said.
According to Yeliseyev, Salyut-6 has now been ixi orbit just a little under 4
years~ during 2 of which it has been piloted. ]~uring that period, more than
1,600 ~xperiments have been carried out aboard rhe station. Sixteen crews
have boarded it, and thera have been 30 mooringtz, 4 remoorings of spaceships
and 3 space walks by cosmonauts, aa well as 11 i-efuelings and resupplyings of
food and equipment by Progress spaceahips. The total weight of the equipment
used aboard Salyut-~6--Yeliseyev said--amounts to three tons~ of which one ton
consists of equipment delivered to it by Progress cargo spaceships.
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Around one-third of the time spent aboard it by the successive crews--Yeliseyev
said--has been dedicated tu the study of terrestrial resources and to other
observations related ta the eartn's environme:lt for use by 22 sectors of the
Soviet economy. Seven of the cosmonauts who have flown aboard Salyt:t-6 have
. spent more than 100 days aboard it; two, mdre than 6 months; and one
(Valeriy Ryumin)~ approximately 1 year (in two flights).
These flights have made it possible to "maintain the work capacity of the crews,
study the state of health of the cosmonauts in orbit, and make their readapta-
tion to terrestrial conditions e~sier." However--academician Oleg Gaz~nka, head
of the Medicobiological Institute of Moscow, points out--"There is still much to
be d~ne." This has to do particularl; with "maintaining the metabolism of
calcium by the cosmonauts at normal levels, and safeguarding their bodies'
self-protecting mechanisms against infectious diseas~s." This is by way of
preparation for future flights of long duration (1 yzar) which the Soviets are
now planning.
- COPYRIGHT: A. & C. 1980.
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SHATALOV ON PSYCHOLOGICAL FROBLEMS IN LONG-DURATION FLIGHTS
Paris AIR & COSMOS in French 19 Sep 81 p 55
jText] In a recent article in the USSR Air Force magazine~ General Vladimir
~ Shatalov~ chief of the Soviet cosmonaut corps~ cites a number of problems which
need to be solved in order for long-duration flights to be conducted.under good
conditions. It seems that the search for an optimum solution will require
more than a year." "Neverthelesa," asserted Shatalov~ "we are not far from
pern?anent operation of orbital stations~ that is~ twenty-four hour operation
all year long by crews who will replace each other directly o:i board and will
regularly receive everything tfiey need."
The problems that must be solved "in the immediate future"~ specified Shatalov~
' are essential].y to conquer the type of fatigue due to routine~ if not trom real .
boredom, which grips cosmonauts at the end of a prolonged stay.
The psychological and psychic factors thus seem to give cause for concern when
m3ssions become long.
"The time of active work of a single crew of cosmonauts will, without doubt,
~ always be ~elow the maximum tolerable time of a stay in space no matter how
well their work schedule, activity~ rest and leisure are designed and organized."
- Shatalov thinks that "the limited volume of living space~ contacCs and informa-
tion produces its effacts, as well as the condition of weightlessness. Sooner
or lat.er~ negative emotions appear and with them fatigue~ which has as a con-
sequence a lowering of energy and enthusiasm for work. Under such conditions,
rest and a change of conditions are necessary."
Another problc~n, according.to Shatalov, consists in "freeing the cosmonauts
- ' from tedious tasks of constantly monitoring the condition of a number of
systems which should be handled by automated systems and the ground specialists."
Staatalov also advanced the point of view expressed bq certain other specialists,
according to whom an excess amount of scientific equipment aboard a station
disperses the cosmonauts' strength and thus reduces the economic return.
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Finally~ Shatalov emphasized the need for offering the cosmonauts the means
for varied activity, primarily intellectual rather than manual, "as has been
done by the Soviets."
Assessing the past twenty years of manned flights~ Shatalov called it "positive."
In his opinion, things have progressed in regular fashion in two basic stages.
The f irst consisted in teaching man and space vessels to fly; the second in
e~ploiting these flights in an efficient way.
- COPYRIGIiT : A. & C . 1980.
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- UDC 629.78.007
MP:T?TAL AND PHYSICAI~ ASPECTS OF COSMONAUTS~ EFFICIENCY IN FLIGHT
Moscow DEYATEL'NOST' KOSMONAVTA V POLETE I POVYSHENIYE YEYE EFFEKTIVNOSTI in Russian
1981 (signed to press 2 Dec 80) pp 2-5, 263-264
CAnnotation, foreword and table of contents from book "Activity of the Cosmonaut in
Flight and Enhancing Activity Effectiveness", edited by G. T. Beregovoy, USSR pilot
and cosmonaut, candidate of psychologi.ca~ sciences, and L. S. Khachatur'yants, doc-
tor of inedical sciences, Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1800 copies, 264 pages]
[TextJ This book examines the theoretical and practical issues related to increas-
ing effectiveness of spaceship crew activity. It studies the problems of engineer-
ing psychology in the interests of providing for safety in s~ace flight. The unYque
conditions of flight in space, the specific elements of a cosmonaut's activity, his
mental states and methods for diagnosing and control3ing them, are modelled in this
book.
The book is intended for engin~pring and technical personnel and medical personnel
engaged in cosmonautics, ergonomics and industrial psychology.
FOREWORD
The development of cosmonautics is of tremendous significance in studying the ~arth
_ and the near-earth atmosphere, in finding solutions to major national economic prob-
lems. Already the term "cosmization of production" has come into common use. by
which is usually meant the process of peo~le's deliberate activity aimed at direct
- or indirect use of the natural scheme of things in outer space in the interesta of
~ social production.
Cosmization of prod+iction came about even prior to man's first flight into space.
Designs were developed in laboratories for utilizing the unusual conditions found in
space for earth-related endeavors. Many of theae designs ar2 in use today--systems
for global communications and celestial navigation in space, projects in the sphere
_ of ineteorology, oceanography, etc.
_ However, along with the development of space technology and the increasing complex-
~ ity of sp~ce research programs, responsibility also grows for the man who must par-
ticipate as an independent element in operating the diverse,.semi-automatic systems
for spacecraft guidance. In some instances, a reduction in man's reliability, as
- one element in the total system of control, can lower the operational quality of the
system right up to the point where execution of one flight operation or another be-
comes completely impossible.
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In solving today's problems and tho3e of the near future, particular significance
must be attached to studies related to stability of the human organism when confront-
ing space flight conditions, and increasing man's reliability, especially when he is
controlling complex space-technology equipment.
_ We see three basic paths for research, which, if followed, will help to achieve the
overall purpose--increasing the reliability and effectiveness of space flight on the
whole. Firstly, we must optimize the system for training coamonauts and the scheme
of operational activity on board the spacecraft. Secondly, we must enhance the lev-
el of technical maintenance for on-board equipment and improve its operational level.
Thirdly, we must effect operative guidance of the cosmonaut's mental state during
flight, and of his work efficiency. ,
Efforts in these three areas are comp~etely different with respect to what methods
are to be used in their accomplishment, whose area of expertise is involved, and what
form of implementation recommendations obtained will take. Those directly involved
in accomplishing these efforts--the USSR pilots and cosmonauts, the engineers, doc-
tors, biologists and psychologists, the technique specialists and designers--are well
aware of this. In spite of a diversit~r in procedure and tech:~ique, the areas of re-
sea�rch we havp proposed to the reader are logically related and mutually interdepen-
dent.
Material cited in the book's first chapter desGribes a number of new directions in
space research, and the basic principles and methods for maintaining a cosmonaut's
effectiveness during flight. Despite the fact that it is based an serious experi-
ment, much of this material is open to debate. This can be explained, basically, by
the non-traditional nature of the problems being touched upon, especially those 'that
concern efforts dedicated to finding new procedures and techniques for studying man's
activity, work that involves the theoretical particulars of cosmonaut preparation,
forecasting the psychophysiological probler~s the future will bring, and projects that
concern the use of psychophysiological feedback, as well as several other matters.
Material is cited here for the first time with respect to regul~.ting the mental state
of the operator. Chapters two and three discuss optimization of the activity of the
cosmo~iaut involved with the spacecraft's guidance system and matters of technical
maintenance. The material in these chapters is of acute practical significance not
only for conditions of space flight, but for other occupational conditions as well.
Finally, chapter four contains material which, to one degree or another, describes
the human operator's resistance to outside interference, and ways to optimize this
resistance in the interest of enhancing safety in flight.
The book is the fourth in a series on this subject ("The Human Operator in Space
Flight", Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye, 1974; "Particular Features of the Cosmonaut's
Activity in~ Flight", Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye, 1976; "Man and Celestial Navigation
in Space", Moscow: Mashinostroyeniye, 1979). This book differs from its predecessors
in that, along with describing the dynamics of a cosmonaut's work efficiency in
flight, it also treats specific measures for optimizing it.
~ In conclusion, we will note once again that the basic goal of this book is to gener-
alize thP firsthand experience the authors have gained over the course of space
flight preparation and execution, and during their specific participation in sotving
the problems presented by a psychophysiological assessnient of space technology.
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= The book is intended for specialists in the engineerir.g and technical sphere, and for
medical personnel working with manned space vehicles. It may be useful to readers
who are students of ergonomics and industrial psychology, and also to all those in-
terested in what the cosmonaut does--a complex sphere of human activity that takea
place in the unusual conditions of space.
We invite the opinions and comments of any reader who might have questions with re-
gard to material presented in this book, and request that he forward same to the pub-
lisher.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
, . 6
Chapter 1. General Issues of Manned Space Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Basic principles and methods for maintaining the cosmonaut's effectiveness in 6
flight (G. T. Beregovoy) . . . . . . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � � ' '
2. Topical psychophysi.ological�issues related to work in space (current condi-� 13
~ tions and a forecast) (L. S. Khachatur'yants) . . . . . . . . . . . : : . . . 25
3. Human activity in space--a model (G. M. Kolesnikov).
4. Some theoretical particulars of cosmonaut preparation�(G..T: Beregovoy,.P: R' 46
Popovich, G. rt. Kolesnikov). . � � �
I 5. Use of a psychophysiological feedback.system in the interests of optimizing� 58
~ activity (M. V. Frolov, L. S. Khachatur'yants) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ 6. Psychophysiological correlates of a cosmonaut's control-related activity 75
~ (L. S. Khachatur'yants). . . . . . . . � � � � � � � � � � ' ' ' '
' 7. Certain aspects of the cosmonaut's visual activity (Ye. A. Ivanov, A.,Ya.� . 86
~ Frolov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Procedural basics for studying operational errors on the part of the indivi~ 100
i dual who c~ntrols the space vehicle (N. D. Zavalov, V. A. Ponomarenko) .
9. Problems associated with regulating the operator's condition (L. P. Grimak, 116
L. S. Khachatur'yants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I Chapter 2. The Cosmonaut and Systems for Controlling the Dynamics of Spacecraft 138
I 1. Optimizing the cosmonaut's operator-associated activity and the serai-~auto-
matic guidance systems of manned spacecraft according to probability cri-� . 138
~ teria (G. T. Beregovoy, V. M. Vasilets, A. I. Yakovlev).
2. Studies on statistical features of the cosmonaut's operator-related activity
in controlling manned spacecraft ~B. V. Volynov, V. M. Vasilets: E..D: Su- . 146
khanov, A. I. Yakovlev). . � � � ' ' '
3. Studies on cosmonaut activity�under�conditions of weightlessness artificially
induced through use of a liquid medium (G. I. Vorob'ev, L. D. Smirichevskiy) 156
4. Experimental research on features associated with operator detection of ob-
jects un a television screen under conditions.of insufficient.time (V: N�. . 161
Zhovinskiy) . . . . . . . . . . �
167
Chapter 3. Technical Maintenance and Work Outside the Spacecraft.
1. Technical maintenance for long-duration orbital flight (E. N. Stepanov,�Yu'� 167
N . Glazkov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2. Equipment design for cosmonaut movemen~ in free space (Yu. N. Glazkov~. 172
3. Analog testing of operator activity in the space station's technical meic?-
tenance system (E. N. Stepanov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4. A data model for the dynamics of independent cosmonaut movement in free
` . I83
space (Ye. V. Dement'yev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Analog testing of independent manual guidance of the cosmonaut's ~o~rem~nt
unit (L. P. Grimak, Ye. V. Dement'yev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Chapter 4. Effect of Flight-Related Factors on the Quality of the Cosmo~aut's
Activity and Ways of Quality Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
1. On the effect of certain habitation conditions upon physiologicai functions,
work efficiency and human sleep dynamics (A. 13. Litsov, A. Ya. Frolov, V. N.
Artishchuk, A. V. Chapayev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2. Studies on cosmonaut-operator functions in data systems (N. N. F~felov, Ye.
A. Cherenkova) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . � . . . . . 198
3. The effect of emotional stress on a cosmona,ut's activities 3n th~e radio-
telegraph communications system (A. K. Ye~ishkin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4. A comparative psychophysiological evaluation of the effectiveness of psycho-
logical models for. hypo- and hyper-weight conditions o~ the body (L. P.
- Grimak) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5. Matters related to improving the cosmonaut's work-rest mode of operation
- (A. Ya. Frolov, A. N. Litsov, V. N. Malyugin, V. A. Sutormin, I. F. Sarayev) 222
6. Activity of psychological models for hypo-weight conditions of the body in
30-day experiments (L. P. Grimak} . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7. On the matter of psychophysiologically pr~viding for safety in space flights
o~ great duration (V. S. Mishchenko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
8. The effect of a sky-blue background on the operator's optic analyzer (Ye. N.
Khludeyev) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24$
BIBLI OGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1981
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_ LIFE SCIENCES
INVESTIGATION OF MUTAGENIC FACTORS OF SPACE FLIGHT
Moscow MUTAGENEZ PRI DEYS'TVII FIZICHESKIKH FAICTOROV in Russian 1980 (signed to
press 10 Nov 80) pp 206-223
[Article by E. N. Vaulina from book "Mutagenesis Induced by Physical Factors"
- edited by Academician N. P. Dubinin, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1300 copies, 225 pages]
[Text] Development of rocket building and cosmonautics has caused a tremendous
upheaval, not only in a number af technological branches of science, but develop-
ment of many basic sciences, including biology. Space biology and such branches
thereof as space genetics, space radiobiology, space microbiology, etc., were
conceived and began to develop. In the 18 years ~1960-1978) of development of
' biological research aboard space vehicles, the tasks, objectives and directions
, of the problem of "space biology" were completely formed, and determinatton was
made of the objects and methods used in such research.
i
Before we turn to further discus~ion of the problem, its inception and development,
we should define the concepts that we impart to the terminology used: "space,"
"space flight," "cosmic space" and "factors of spaca flights and planets."
At the present time, the word "space" [cosmos~ has two meanings: the broad one
referring to the universe considered as a single entity governed by common laws
that are studied by the discipline of "cosmology," and the second meaning, which
refers to everything beyond earth and its atmosphere (Frank-Kamenetskiy, 1976). In
the latter sense, the concept of "space" is set against the concept of "earth" and
~ it is used in such terms as "space flight," "cosmic space," ete. We usQ these
, terms in the same sense.
Then we must make a distinction betw2en the concepts of "conditions of space flight,
n
space and planets and factors of space flight, space and planets. The former
refers to the living conditions of an organism and the latter to the parameters of
these conditions.
Beyond earth, the organism finds rather specific living conditions, and they are
" different in different cases; for example, conditions during a space flight in a
near earth orbit, or flight to other worlds and conditions of planets in our
galaxy and their satellites. In virtually a11 cases, with the exception of plauets
that have an atmosphere that is suitable for "terrestrial life," these c:onditions
will constitute artificial ecological systems that are closed to some extent or
other. And while these conditions on planets with an atmosphere that is compatible
= with life may differ in composition of atmosphere and barometric pressure,
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1eve1 of gravity, magnPtic field and radiation, and perhaps a number of other para-
meters, in artificial ecological life support systems the factor of limited space
is added to these differences. A number of the parameters of artificial ecological
systems can be regulated by man at will, for example, temperature. Others, however,
can be approximated to customary terrestrial f eatures only relatively, either
because of the technical difficulties or virtual technical impossibility th~reof..
The composition of the gas environmen*_, magnitude of gravity and magnetic fields,
radiation situation, etc., are such parameters. In terrestrial biology, bott: these
and a number of other~~features that determine the ecological system of the 01globe,"
- i.e., the biosphere, are generally considered to be relatively stable and unchang-
ing. A quantitative and qualitative char.ge in some factor is perceived as disrup-
- tion of the normal course of biological processes. The results of these changes
are viewed as special cases of biological phenomena occurring under the influence
of some environmental factors or other. The study of these phenomena often l~ads to
development of new directions in biology. For example, in genetic~, the directions
of "radiation genetics" and "chemical mutagenesis" appeared. The values of the
variables become the principal environmental f actors during a space f light or ir:
space. For example, gravity and magnetic fields may change from zero to values that
exceed significantly those of the fields of earth, whereas in the spectrum of ioniz-
ing radiation there is appearance of high energy hadrons that have virtuallace~would
effects on organism on earth. Thus, the biosphere of a space flight and p
have qualitative and quantitative differences from the biosphere of earth. The
basic difference in a number of physical processes in the presence of altered
gravity or in absence thereof may affect physiological processes that determine the
function of organisms, and alter heat, mass and energy tTansfer. This would create
specific conditions and put a certain tmprint on genetic processes that occur under
such conditions in terrestrial organisms. It should be stressed once more that the
most important element of these differences, in our opinion, would b e the variable
nature of a number of factors that are perceived as constant in earth's biosphere.
The practice ~f cosmonautics and exploration of cosmic space raises, first of all,
- the question of nature of processes of inheritance and behavior of genetic systems
during space flights and in space. We shall have to consider the ger.^tic knowledge
accumulated on earth from a new vantage point to answer it.
At the present time, there are three distinct stages of development of biological
- research in space: the first, up to 1960, to the first experiment aboard an
- art~ficial earth satellite; the second, up to 1971, to development of the Salyut
orbital station; and the third, which is developing now and related to performing
research on orbital and planetary stations. We should note one aspect ~f develop-
ment of space genetics, its close relationship to technological progress. It was
generated by the latter, it appeared, is developing and will develop only as a
result of appearance, development and ref inement of rocket technology and means of
interplanetary communication [or travel]. The stages of development of space biology
follow, to some extent, the stages of development of cosmonautics, and because of
the rather specific technical conditions and possibilities, each of them has differ-
ent goals and tasks. Thus, at the first stage of development of space genetics,
factors were discovered that affect organisms during spaoe fli~hts, and methodolo--
gical approaches were developed to simulate them and analyze the f indings. The
second stage of development of research had the objective of genetic marking of
the routes of space flights and investigation of the effects of flights on genetic
structures. The tnird stage of research, which began in 1971, will permit analysis
of the mechanism of action of flight factors on biological systems, on the basis
af knowledge about environmental conditions of space flights and space, as well as
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development of inethods for protecting them and solving such an important problem
for cosmonautic practice as creation of life support systems on the basis of vital
~ functions of organism. It is impossible to perform ttiis task without definition
of the genetic bases cf these artificial ecological systems and development of
methods of genetic and breeding work to create new fornls of organisms that would
- be c~mponents of these systems.
The source of development of space genetics is closel..y linked with the source of
radiation ~enetics, which emerged in the first quarter of our century.
As we have already noted, the stages of development of biological research in space
are closely linked with the development and advances in rocket building and cosmo-
nautics. We can also note the same relationship raith regard to investigation of
_ factors that affect organisms in space.
~ The first fac~tor, cosmic radiation, drew the attention of researchers long before
the start of the space age of mankind. The question of necessity of studying the
genetic role of cosniic rays resulted from two ma~or scien~ific discoveries at the
start of our century: discovery of ionizing radiation in cosmic space (Rossi, 1966)
and proof of the mutagenic activity of ionizing radiations (Nadson, Filippov, 1925;
Muller, 1926). However, at first cosmic rays drew the attention of researchers
only as a probable factor of evolution. Later on~ in the 1940's, in connection
- with the development of rocket building and appearance of the possibility for man
to penetrate into space, the question also arose as to the biological effects of.
cosmic rays. The first genetic experiments conducted in 1935 in balloons yielded
a negative result (no differences were found between the control and experiment),
~ and for a long time there was no interest in this problem. In the early 1950.'s,
interest in the effects of cosmic radiatian, particularly its heavy component,
on organisms aas again revived abroad. The technical refinement of balloons jaero-
stats] and rockets, which made it possible to increase the altitude and dur~tion
- of exposure of biological objects in space, and development of high altitude avia-
tion served as an impetus for this interest. While cosmic radiation was the mdin
- factor affecting biological objects in the ex~eriments on balloons, a new group
of factors appeared in.those on rockets: dynamic factors (due to the dynamics
ot craft flight), the etfects ef which on biological objects could be censiderable.
Although weightlessness was present in these exper~ments, it had not y~t drawn
~ the serious attention of researchers. However, with the appearance of artificial
ear�rh satellites and orbital stations, with increase in duration of ma.nned spacE
flights, the question of the biological role of weightlessness was adeanced to
the fore in researcY? on space biology.
I At the present time, it is believed that the following factors may affect organisms
in space flight: those characterizing cosmic snace as the habitat, det~rmined by
flight dynamics of the craft and those determined by the internaT environment (bio-
sphere) of the flying vehicle itself.
The first group of factors includes the high degree of rarefaction of the atmosphere,
ultraviolet and infrared rays, radiowave and microwave radiation, ionizing radiation
and others. Of these factors, the ones of interest to biologists who conduct experi-
ments aboard space vehicles are cosmic rays, a factor that could affect organisms
in a spacecraft, since it penetrates through the craft's sttell. The inside of
- the spacecraft is irisulated against other types of radiation, in some w~y or other.
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The second group of factors, determined by dynam~.cs of fli.ght, consists o~ so-called
dynamic flight factors, which include accelerations (linear, radial and angular),
vibration, noise an3 weightlessness.
The third group refers to factors th~t are related to being in a spacecraft: isola-
tion, artificial gas atmo~phere, altered biological rhythm, artif icial electro-
magnetic f ields from instruments, etc.
Cosmic rays are a flux of high energy nuclei and secondary radiation that they form
- in earth's atmosphere and in d spacecraft, which includes all elementary particles
- known to date. Primary cosmic rays have greater penetrating capacity than al?
- forms of radiation known in laboratory experiments. At the present time, it is
generally believed that the flux of primary cosmic rays consists of about 85% protons,
13-14% a-particles and 1-2% particles with a charge of 3 or more. The probable dose
levels of ionizing radiation during lo~g-term space flights are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Probable doses of ionizing iadiation to crews during long-teLm space
flights (2 g/cm2 shield thickness) [9]
Type of Dose rem er ~
Irradiation conditions da month ear
ionizin radiation
Galactic cosmic Chronic, isotropic 0.07-0.14 2.2-4.3 25-52.6
- From solar bursts* Di.vided doses, 5-10 Frou~ 0 to g0-15�103 800-1s�104
times/year, 80-15�103
= unilateral
From near-earth and Single dose (wY?en 2_4 2_4 2-4
near-~planet radiation flying through bel.t5)
- belts* bilateral
From radioactive sub- Chronic, nonuniform 0.00024 O.~J072 0.086
stances contained in over body
materials of space- Chronic and recurrent From 0.07 82-15�103 825-15�104
craft furnishings, to
cosmanauts and foods, 80-15�103
i.e., radiations that
are part of the
- natural background on
- earth*
- *RBE was taken as 1 in the calculations.
The eff.ects of dynamic flight factors (other than weightlessness) are related essen-
tially to the phases of asc~nt, descent and maneuvering the spacecraft. These fac-
tors can be simulated in the laboratory. Since ~heir range is very wide in each
vehicle, it is difficult to reproduce it exactly in every given experiment. In
- model experiments, one generally uses tape recordings of the modeled process (Shipley,
Maclay, 1965).
Noise and vibration are similar phenomena. Vibration refers to the mechanical
oscillations of different shaped resilient bodies. The frequency o� vibrations
ranges from one to several thousand hertz and is characterized by the fre4uency,
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amplitude and magnitude of accelerations. The noise is an acoustical, nonharmonic
sound characterized by a complex time structure and specific property of affecting
the organism. When the engines of the spacecraft are in operation, a noise of up
to 180 dB occurs. There is a wide range of sonic oscillations, from a few hertz to
20,000. Vibration to which the living organism is exposed is characterized by fre-
quency, amplitude and so-called vibroacceleration, i.e., change in velocity per
unit time (m/s2), or vibro-overload, expressed in units that are multiples of
free-fall acceleration G. During a space flight, the org~nism is exposed to vibra-
tions at frequencies of 2 to 15 Hz and vibroaccelerations of up to 1 G.
Acceleration (G force, overload, in aviation and space medicine) is the vector~that
' determines the rapidity of change in velocity according to magnitude and direction.
The magnitude of acceleration is proportionate to the force a~ting on a body and
inversely proportionate to its mass, while its direction coincides with the~vector
- of force. Wlien a space vehicle takes off and when it is being maneuvered, so-caTled
- long-acting acceleration appears. Its magnitude can reach ].0 G. After ejection,
landing on earth and in emergency situations, "impact acceleration" occurs, which
is notable for its brief duration (less than 1 s) and high build-up rate (from
several hundred to several thousand G per second).
Weightlessness is a qualitatively new factor that is not present on earth and the
organism is exposed to it during a flight. Weightlessness is defined as a state of
, a mechanical system, in which the external forces acting on the system do not elicit
j reciprocal pressure of system particles upon one another. It is very difficult to
i simulate weightlessness on earth. Weightlessness lasting 1-3 s can be obtained on
elevators, swings and "Roman tower" type devices. When aircraft fly over a para-
bolic curve a state of weightlessness lasts �or up to 50 s. This is infinitesiznal
for biological experiments. In a spacecraft circling around earth weightlessness
lasts far a long time. It is among the habitat feature~ of the craft.
Thus, dynamic flight factors affect an organism in space flight: acceleration, ~~ibra-
- tion, noise and weightlessness, as well as space factors--radiowave and microwave radi-
ation and ionizing radiation-~-and factors referable to the internal en~ironment of the
flight vehicle: isolation in a small space, artificial gas atmosphere, altered bio-
logical rhythm, artificial electromagnetic fields and ott~ers.
An inactivating mutagenic or teratogenic action has been demonstrated in ground-
I based experiments for each of these factors, perhaps with the exception of weight-
~ lessness and cosmic radiation. At the same time, the combination of these fact~r~
__i in qualitatively and quantitatively different variants may have a diffeYent effect
I on organisms. For example, it was demanstrated that exposure to vibration prior
, to radiation enhances the radiation effect, whereas exposure to vibration after
radiation attenuates the latter (Vaulina, Kostina, _1973).
At the same time, it is virtually impossible to simulate in ground-based experiments
sucli factors ss weightlessness and certain components of cosmic rad~iation (hadrons).
For this reason, one has to conduct experiments aboard space vehicles during orbital
flights in order to demcnstrate the mutagenicity of flight factors.
_ We cannot fail to mention.here the distinctions of biological experiments conducted
aboard a space vehicle, as compared to ordinary laboratory experiments on earth.
_ In addition to the above-listed complex set of factors, concomitant factois may
affect experimental objects, such as temperature, humidity and others. Experiments
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~lmo5[ always inv~lve storage of materiai before and after exposure to the tested
factors. Storage time sometimes varies from several hours to several dozen days ,
= in different experiments.
Extensive biomedical research is conducted regularly aboard artificial aixcraft.
- Monkeys, dogs, rats, mice, guinea pigs, amphibians, fish, cultures of cells from
different tissues of man, animals and plants, pieces of human and rabbit skin, pre-
parations of DNA and enzymes, Drosophila, Habrobracon,..' Tribolium, amoebae, bac-
terta, actinomycetes, yeast, chlorella, chlamydomonads, seeds of a number of higher
plants (peas, nlgella, corn, eaheat,onion, let~uce,carrot, tomato, cucumber, barley,
Crepis, arabidopsi~, pine, spindle-tree and others), pollen of higher plants and �
vegetating plants (tradescantia, pepper, Ghinese cabbage, pea, potato, onion) have
been f.lown aboard spacecraft. At the present time, che quantity of objects used in
genetic experiments on spacecraft has been reduced. Those were chosen, for which
methods of exposure and treatment have been developed, and for which life support
equipment and apparatus for experiments in weightlessness have been created. The
principal objects are microorganisms, lower plants (chlorella, chlamydomonad),
higher plants (Crepis, Arabidopsis, barley, lettuce,pea),insects (Drosophila,
Habrobracon, Tribolium), fish, mice and rats.
Experiments were performed aboard a number of manned and unmanned space vehicles
_ with various orbital parameters and different duration of flights, ranging from a ,
few hours to a few months (Table 2).
It should be noted here that biologists who experimented aboard spacecraft had to re-
solve a number of technical and methodological difficulties. One of the distinctions
of the experiments is the limited weight, dimension and power consumption of equip-
ment, and participation of an experimenter. Even the simplest steps, for example,
soaking seeds to allow them to sprout and fixing seedlings, or feeding animals and
watering plants, have to be performed by special equipment. Moreover, in weight-
lessness all liquid or loose substances used in the experiment or excreted by or-
ganisms have to be.isolated from contact with the atmosphere of the spacecraft
cabin. For thxs reason., most objects must be kept in sealed instrumerats or con-
_ tainers, and they must often have their own life. support system. And, while this
refers to packages and bcxes for dry seeds, for the Drosophila we hav~: tu deal with
- heat-controlled cc~nt~iners with nutrient medium and air exchange, and for mice a
complex system with delivery of feed and oxygen an3 removal of gaseous, soli.d and
liquid wastes. All such restrictions and distinctions referable to performing
_ experiments complicate them considerably and make it difficult to interpret tlte
obtained results.
The obtained experimental results are indicative of the direct and combined effects
of various flight factors.
The dynamic factors of lift-o�f and descent of the craft (a set that includes acce-
lerations, vibration and noise) are more or less similar in duration, magnitude and
quality of effect in different experiments, at least in experiments performed on
- the same type of spacecraft. However, their effects in different experiments may
be altered due to a change in duration of the interval between lift-off atid landing,
i.e., between the first and second exposure to the dynamic factors. Moreover, during
this period organisms are in dynamic weightlessness and may be exposed to cosmic
radiation, which makes its mark on the observed effects.
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Taule 2. Biological experiments during space flights
Number Exposure Biological objects carried aboard
Types of of time, the spacecraft
_ s ace vehicles vehicles da s
Satellite spacecraft, 2 1-7 Microorganisms, lower and higher plants,
- USSR insects, mice
Vostok, USSR 6 1-7 Microorganisras, higher and lower plants,
insects
Voskhod, USSR 1 1 Plants
Zond, USSR 4 7 Lower and higher plants, insects
Soyuz, USSR 8 2-18 Higher and lower plants, insects, roe of

~ fish and amphibians
_ Cosmos, USSR 10 2-60 Microorganisms, higher and lower plants,
insects, fish roe, rats
Salyut orbital 4 18-408 Microorganisms, lower and higher plants,
stations, USSR insects, roe of fish and amphibians
Biosatellite, USA 1 2 Microorganisms, pratozoans, higher
plants, insects
Gemini, USA 2 3 Lower and higher plants, human leukocytes
Apollo, USA 2 8-10 Microorganisms, crustaceans
Skylab, USA 1 30 Crustaceans, fish roe
' S~yuz-Apollo, 1 6 Microorganisms, lower and higher plants,
USSR-USA fish roe
It has been demonstrated that the dynamic factors of lift-off and d~scent of the
spacecraft induce an increase in incidence of ch.r.omosomal aberratians (Arsen~yeva
et al., 1962; Demi~i, 1964; Vaulina, Kostina, 1973), incidence of embryonic lethals
and chlorophyll mu+.:ations in Arabidopsis seeds (Anikeyeva et al., 1978) and the
incidence of dominant lethals and crossing-over in the Drosophila (Parfenov, 1964,
1965); they inactivate respiratory enzymes in cells (Imshenetskiy et al., 1974)0
- Vibration lowers mitotic activity of bone marrow cells in mice, it causes adhesion
of chromosomes (Arsen'yeva et al., 1961, 1965) and alters substantially the state
of the nervous and hemopoieric systems ("Man in Space," 1974; Antipov, L'vova, 1978).
Sever.al studies revealed that vibration can a.lter appreciably the organism's reac-
tion to radiation. The direction and degree of changes depend on time and order of
_i exposure to the factors (Vaulina, Kostina, 1973).
~
i For researc'.1ers, the most interesting dynamic flight factor is we.ightlessness. This
is the factor whose contribution to the effect has still not been sufficiently
studied, since it is virtually impossible to conduct model experiments that would
- preclude otizer factors. Consequently, the conclusions concerning the effects of
weightlessness on biological objects are made on the basis of flight experiments,
- which include a set of factors that affect the organism.
It has been found that weight may have both a direct and indirect mutagenic effect.
The direct effect of weightlessness on chromosomes was first demonstrated by N. L.
Delone in Tradescantia microspores (Antipov et al., 1965; Delone et al., 1966, 1968).
Sev2ral experiments, conducted with the help of cosmonauts P. R. Popovich, V. F.
Bykovskiy and B. B. Yegorov, involved fixing of Trac~escantia buds at different
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stages of exposure to weightlessness. About 3% anomalous mitoses were demonstrated,
which had not been observed in the control. These disturbances consisted of change
in orientation of chromosomes (type III aberrations), retardation of unseparated
chromosomes (type IV), multipolar mitoses (type V) and nonseparation of chromosome
- set (types I and II) (Figure 1). The authors succeeded in demor_strating unequivo-
cal~.y that this effect is a function of duration of weightlessness (Figure 2). Ana-
logous mitotic disturbances were demonstrated by American researchers in microspores,
megaspores and root tip meristematic cells of Tradescantia (Sparrow et al., 1968,
1971) .
anomalf Prophase Metapha Telopha~ npo~~ene
Y
ormal O O ~ o
1 O c~ ~ O
II O ~w, a,u� Oo
_ ~ O Q Q O o
0 0 a=
~
, Y O Q �
m
Figure 1. Anomalous mitoses observed in Tradescantia microspore cells
(Antipov et al., 1965). Explained in the text
�~a
t0 r �
zs
2,0
- /,5
~._~~!!1
/
la ~ ~,.11
-
0,5 _ -
~ IY
_
0 _ . . _
~ S ?6 ~10 !15
Time in weiQhtlessness, hours ~
Figure 2. Incidence of mitotic disturbances in Tradescantia microspores
as a function of time of cell development in weightlessness
(Antipov et al., 1965). E--Total number of mitotic disturbances;
I-IV--different types of disturbances
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Weightlessness makes its contribution to the ather effects elicited by flight fac-
tors, but it is an indirect effect on genetic structures.
At present, numerous studies have established that weightlessness has an adverse~
effect on the functions of a multicellular organism. Changes are observed in the
sensorimotor system, skeletomuscular, c~rdiovascular and endocrine systems, and
fluid-electrolyte balance (Pestov, Geratevol', 1975). It was demonstrated that
metabolism of unicellular organisms also changes in weightlessness. However, the
- effect may be dual here, both positive and negative, depending on the prior state
of tt~~ culture: groweh of a culture in a good state is enhanced and that of a cul-
ture in a poor state is depressed (Kordyum et al., 1976) by weightlessness.
Perhaps such differences in function of macroorganisms and microorganisms in weight-
lessness can be attributed to the difference in attitude of these groups of organisms
to the gravity field. V. I. Vernadskiy wrote (1940): "In essence one can and must
assume that life is manifested in two physically different spaces. On the one hand, .
it is manifested in the field of gravity, in which we live and which is the most
ordinary for us. But this gravity field, where the entire set-up of phenomzna
is determined by gravity, does not cover all aspects of life. The minutest organ-
= isms reach a size close to that of molecules, though the order of magnitude is
different. These organisms, which are smaller in diameter than one hundred
thousandth of a centimeter, come into the field of molecular forces, and their
life and phenomena related to i~ are determined not only by uniyersal gravity, but
; the radiations that surround us everywhere, which could extinguish for such organ-
~ isms the living condiitons created by gravity" (p 141). ,
'
However, alter~:.ng the func~ions of organisms in some way or other, weightlessr~ess
elicits more complex genetic changes.
i Evidently, the postflight increase in phage-produci:ig activity of a lysogenic cul-
~ ture of E. coli K-12~, which is correlated with duration of flight, constitutes such
I an indirect effect of weightlessness (Zhukov-Verezhnikov et al., 1965, 1966). In
these experiments, induction was considerably higher tl:an the level that could have
been induced by the dose of ionizing radiation observed during the flight, while
vibration per se neither induced phage production nor influenced phage production
I elicited by ionizing radiation (Figure 3). This could also explain the decrease in
I postflight survival of an inactive chlorella culture, which was related to flight
~ duration (Fi.gure 4) (Vaulina et al., 1967, 1971; Shevchenko et al., 1967; Vaulina
i et al., 1968, 1971; Anikeyeva, Vaulina, 1971; Dubinin et al., 1973). Several studies
have demonstrated the effect of weightlessness on some physiological and morphologi-
' cal parameters of chlorella (Semenenko, Vladimirova, 1961; Kordyum et al., 1974;
Kordium et al., 1976).
On the other hand, it shou~d be borne in mind that the causes of spontaneous muta-
tions arn_ referable to the natural environmental conditions and metabolic distinc-
tions. As we have already noted, the absence of gravity and weightlessness in
flight a:cter significantly the environmenta~ conditions of organisms and alter their
metabolism. This cannot fail to affect the level of spontaneous mutations: after
the change in metabolism there is also a change in level of spontaneous mutations.
Thus, there was a i.5-4-fold increase in incidence of chromosomal aberrations in
dry Crepis capillaris seeds during space flights, as compared to the ground-based
- control (Table 3), and it did not demonstrate a clearcut relationship to flight
duration. The incidence of aberrations in C. capillaris seedlings in weightless~ess
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was 2-7 times higher than the spontaneous rate on earth, and it was also unrelated
to flight duration (Table 4). .
� v.
S~ ,oc~�
� .
c4 /
.
f
2 ~
~
2 ~
- Time in flight, hours Flight duration,days
rigure 3. Figure 4.
Degree of induction of E. coli K-12(~) as Survival rate of chlorella as a
a function of space flight duration function of flight duration
(Zhukov-Verezhnikov et al., 1965, 1966)
Table 3. Modification by extreme factors of the effect of exposing air-dried
Crepis capillaris seeds to y-radiation
Ratio o experimenta to contro
Exposure incidence of chromosomal aberrat.
Spacecraft tO without ~-rad. be- 'y-rad. af-
factors, ~y_radi- ore other ter other
days ation factors factors
SoyLlz-16 ~ 6 1,6 ~,qsa.s q~$4�
Soyuz-19 6 1.6� 1,19 0,6C'61
Salyut-5 8 1,7t 0,71� 0?8
soyuz-9 ta q,~g��� l,pb o.61�.
, B p 1,24 1,78� 0,59�
Cosmos-782 ~ p,3 21 1,31 1,89' 0,81�
~ 1 1,1, ~,65� 0,49�
Salyut-5 l9 O.R4 1,3p�.. p 73...
3alyut-5 so ~,e9 t,oo t,08
Co~mos-613 60 ~.41
Salyut 72 1.36 1,3q��� 1.0!~
Salyut-4 92 3,R2�'� 0,69��� 1,27�
Salyut-5 24y 3,81� 0,9~ 0,65���
Vibration + 9 min 6,13 1.n: 0,62
accelerat~ons
� t = 1,96 - 9696.
t = 2,5 S - 99`,6.
t = 3.29 - 99,99~.
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~ ~
Table 4. Incidence of chromosomal aberrations in C. cap~llaxis seedS,ings that
developed in weightlessness after air-dried seeds were in weightlessness
for different periods of time
Number of Meta- Damaged Incidence of
_ Variant roots phases meta- c~'omo~somal
a erra ions,
examine examin. phases ~�m
Ground-based control 26 4266 9 0,21 �O,ol ~
Seeds in ftight for 27 4338 19 O,aa�0,12�
20 days
Seeds in flight for 16 2131 33 l,sSto,26��
229 days
- � P ~ 0,05.
a� P~U.001.
This lack of relationship of the effect to duration of weightlessness indicates that
the latter has an indirect effect (through change in metabolism) on the process of
occurrence and expression of mutations. This is also indicated by the modifying pro-
perties of weightlessness. After exposing seeds to weightlessness, changes were
found in the cel]_s that affect processes of expression of mutations and sensitivity
of chromosomes to mutagenic factors. Thus, after the flight aboard the satellite,
sensitivity of C. capillaris seeds to ethylenimine was increased by over 2 times
(Dubinina, Chernicova, 1968; Dubinina, Chernikova, 1970). An analogous result was
obtained with barley seeds (Garina, Romanova, 1970, 197I). Many researchers have
demonstrated enhancement of the effect of preflight exposure of seeds to radiation
(Nuzhdin, Dozortseva, 1967; Farber et al., 1971; Dubinin et al., 1973). Since vibra-
tion does not enhance the effect of prior irradiation of seeds (Vaulina, Kostina,
- 1973) and the radiation dose observed during the flights was low, the effect is
- related to weightlessness (Vaulina, 1976).
Experiments involving exposure of objects to different doses of ~rays in weightless-
ness revealed that both synergistic and antagonistic effects can be observed #.n the
interaction between flight factors and radiation. Tradescantia irradiated in w2ight-
- lessness showeci an increase in quantity of abortive pollen, as well as incidence of
micronuclei in pollen and number of staminal pili with arrested growth (Sparrow et
al., 1968, 1971). In this case, the Tribolium dem~nstrated an increase in number of
specimens with wing abnormalities and incidence of dominant lethals in females. The
author believes that this occurs due to less efficl.ent function of repair systems in
weightlessness (von Borstell et al., 1971). In the Drosophila, there is an increase
in number of specimens with deformed thorax and wi.ng anomalies, incidence of chromo-
somal breaks and translocations between the 2d, 3d and 4th chromosomes and in number
- of sex-linked recessive lethal mutations (Oster, 1971). The author believes that
enhancement of the mutagenic effect of ionizing radiation in space could be attri-
butable to the modifying effect of weightlessness, which apparently makes it diffi-
cult for chromosomal breaks induced by radiation to be repaired. In favor of this
hypothesis is the significant number of chromosomal translocations in spermatogonia
of the Drosophila, which are extremely rare on earth. Vibration lowered the radiation-
induced incidence of translocations in the Drosophila (Browning, 1971).
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However, a different effect was also observed in organisms irradiated in space. For
" example, in the Drosophila there was less loss of y-chromosome markers, as compared
to Drosophila irradiated on earth (Reynolds, Saunders, 1971). It was demonstrated
that in neurospores there was a lower inci3ence of mutations in the flight variant
than ground-based control, due to reduction in number of spot mutations, wher~as
the incidence of deletions did not change (de Serres, Webber, 1971).
Among the factors of the inside envirorunent of a flight vehicle, the following may
be of interest: the artificial gas atmosphere and its 3ifferent components, electro-
magnetic fields from instruments.
This is the least studied group of factors. It is assumed, on the basis of some
ground-based experiments, that they may have an influence on genetic structures of
organisms, but no studies have been made specifically to determine the mutagenicity
of the craft's environment or its components. Experimenters have tried to rule out
the effects of these factors with various technical procedures--heat control, seal-
ing and use of protective containers. However, this has not always been successful.
During a long-term space flight, the dose absorbed by living objects in a spacecraft
consists of galactic cosmic radiation, radiation from solar flares, earth's radia-
tion belts, radiation from various instruments and equipment aboard the craft and
secondary radiation occurring when heavy charged particles in the shell of the
craft and other equipment are stopped.
The biological effects of light high-energy nuclei are virtually the same as of such
forms of radiation as, for example, gamma rays and x-rays, whose effects have been
well-studied in radiation biology. Thz biological effects of heavy nuclei have not
been suff iciently investigated, since it is difficult to simulate them in experi-
ments on earth.
In spite of this, a number of distinctions have been demonstrated with respect to
_ ~ the action of heavy ions. It was shown on mammalian ~:ells that the effectiveness
of each accelerated ion may be about 1000 times greater than tt?e effectiveness of
its l~~w-density ionizing analogue with low LET~. The relative biological effective-
ness of protons with energy of 660 MeV, estimated from the incidence of chromosomal
aberrations in the root meristem of seedlings, was found to be 1 tc 5.5 for different
- plants (Grigor'yev, Tobias, 1975). Heavy ions induced a large area of damage (groups
of cells) as a result of the action of one particle (T~eith et al., 1971). It was
noted that there was nonuniform distribution of absorbed energy due to generation
of secondary particles. This can be seen from the significant scatter of different
experimental values of RBE (Akoev et al., 1971). Prolonged retention of the
effects of exposure to heavy ions was observed. Thus, the high incidence of chromo-
somal aberrations in mammalian liver cells persisted for several months after ex-
posure to carbon ions (Grigoriev et al., 1973). The same was observed in plants
(Heinze et al., 1972; Todd et al., 1973). The survival curves for cells and tissues
exposed to heavy ions show multiple hits (Grigor'yev, Tobias, 1975). It was noted
that damage was not repairecl in the postradiation period. This was indicated by
= the additivity of delivery of divided doses of heavy ions ("Problems of Radiobiology,"
1971). The usual sulthydryl radioprotective agents were not effective against heavy
ions (Grigor~yev, Tobias, 1975).
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Table 5. Examples of Crepis capillaris rootlets containing cells with multiple
chromosomal aberrations
Number of cells with
_ S acecraft i diCated numbe~ of
P ?zootlet ~erz Aberr. ~esions per ce 1
duration of Variant hases ~er 100
fli ht ana- root- ane]~- ~ Z j q s
g lyzed let etaph.
- Automatic Flight p o 0 0 U 0 0 0
station, Y-radiation, tz 3 25 t t o 0 0
Zond-8 3 krad
(6 days)
Y-radiation 53 27 52 l3 7 0 0 0
~ and flight
Soyuz-9 Flight t0 s s0 5 D 1 o u
(1~ days) Y-radiation, 3a l8 53 t % 1 0 ~
- 3 krad
Y-radiation 57 72 126 20 E 6 2 ?
and flight
Salyut orbi- Flight S6 4 � 7 2 1 U 0 0
� tal station Y-radiation, ZZ ?0 136 2 3 6 1 0
(72 days) 3 krad
Y-radiation 59 ilU 185 ]3 11 9 7 4
and flight
Note: There were rootlets without aberrant cells in each group.
Studies af the biological effects of heavy ions in space are difficult to pursue,
first, because of the difficulty ~f separating the effects of this factor from those
of many others, to which the organism is exposed during a space flight, and second,
� because of the significant rarity of these particles (Table 1). However, various
methodological devices, for example, experiments with a photographic emulsion
control of par~icle hits, yielded results that are not in contradiction to the
conclusions made in ground-based experiments.
Th~~ capacity of heavy ions to inactivate cells, increase the incidence ~f spot
mutations and chromosomal aberrations is referred to the action of cosmic radiation
! (Akoyev, Yurov, 1975). However, these effects were unrelated to ei,ther duration
~ of flight or dosage of recorded radiation (Glembotskiy, 1970; von Borstel et al.,
1968).
~ ~
Experiments demonstrated mosaicism of the effects observed after space flights,
which consisted of the fact that, in the presence of very mild damage to objects
in a given variant, there was significant damage to indi~~idual specimens or groups
of specimens (Table 5) (Khvostova et al., 1963; Vaulina, 1976).
Multiple lesions were demonstrated in the chromosomal system of cells, and it was
shown that the number thereof is related to duration of flight (Figure 5) (Vaulina,
1976). Madel experiments and flight tests with a photoemulsion control confirmed
. the assumpticn that multiple damage to cell chromosomes is induced by heavy ions
(Akoyev, Yurov, 1975).
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sn a m b
~
p
~ ~
o ~
ZS % S
~ %
A Z~ l Z i/~a
~ ~ ,i
~ ~ i
7 Id 7l 7/8 / 7
Space flight duration, days
Fi~ure 5. Incidence of cells with sfngle (a) and multiple (b) aberrations as
a function of space flight duration
1) control, seeds exposed to 3 krad gamma rays
2) experiment, seeds exposed to space flight and preflight gamma radiation in
a dosage of 3 krad
We have already mentioned that cosmic radiation has an effect in conjunction with
a number of other flight factors and modifies their effects, or else its effects
will. ue modif ied by those of other factors. The influence of flight factors on an
organism would lead to a complex combination of effects in the same or different
directions, and it would result in an effect tha~ would be impossible to attribute
to any single factor, even such a potent one as ionizing radiation.
Research on mutagenicity of flight factors is in its most active phase. Development
of orbital stations and long-term operation thereof will enable biologists to in-
crease the scope and duration of i.n-flight experiments, and this in turn will augment
the informativeness of the obtained results. A11 this leads us to expect consider-
able progress in such research in the very near future.
- BIBLIOGRAPHY ~
1. Akoyev, I. G. and Yurov, S. S., "Molecular Bases of the Effects of High-Energy
Hadrons and Results of Biological Research in Space," IZV. AN SSSR. SERIA BIO'L.,
Vol l, 1975, pp 11-24.
2. Anikeyeva, I. D. and Vaulina, Ea N., Effects of Space Flight Factors Aboard
the Soyuz-5 Satellite on Chlorella Cells," KOSMICH. ISSLED., Vol 9, 6, 1971,
pp 946-948.
3. Anikeyeva, I. D., Kostina, L. N. and Vaulina, E. N., "The Modifying Effect of
Space Flight Factors on the Radiation Effect of Additional Gamma Irradiation
of Air-Dried Seeds of Arabidopsis Thaliana (L.) Heynch," in "P.roblemy kosmicheskoy
biofiziki" [Problems of Space Biophysics], Pushchino, 1978, pp 98-108.
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4. Antipov, V. V., Delone, N. L., Parfenov, G. P. and Vysotskiy, V. G., "Results
of Biological Experiments Performed During Vostok Flights With the Participation
of Cosmonauts A. G. Nikolayev, P. R. Popovich and V. F. Bykovskiy," in "Problemy
kosmicheskoy biologii" [Problems of Space Biology], Moscow, Nauka, Vol 4, 1965,
pp 248-260.
5. Antipov, V. V. and L'vova, T. S., "Combined Effect of ~'ibration and Ionizing
Radiation on the Organism," in "Kosmicheskaya biologiys i avia-kosmicheskaya
meditsina" [Space Biology and Aerospace Medicine], Moscow, Meditsina, Vol 12,
1978, pp 48-56.
6. Arsen'yeva., M. A., Antipov, V. V.; Petrukhin, Ve G., L'vova, T. S., Orlovar N. N.
and I1'ina, S. S., "Changes in Mouse Hemopoietic Organs Under the Influence of
Flight Aboard Satellite Spacecraft," in "Iskusstvennyye sputniki Zemli"
jArtif icial Earth Satellites], Moscow, Izd-vo AN SSSR, Vyp 10, 1J61, pp 82-92.
7. Idem, "Changes in Mammalian Hemopoietic Organs Under the Influence of Flight ,
Aboard the Second Satellite," in "Probl. kos~mich. biol." jProblems of Space
BiologyJ, Moscow, Nauka, Vol 1, 196~, pp 205-218.
8. Arsen'yeva, M. A., Belyayeva, L. A. and Golovkina, A. V., "Combined Effect of
Accelerations, Vibration and Radiation on Ce.ll Nuclei of Mouse Bone Marrow,"
in "Problemy kosmicheskoy biologii," Moscow, Nauka, Vol 4, 1965, pp 373-390.
9. Grigar'yev, Yu. G., editor, "Biological Effects of High-Energy Protons," Moscow,
I Atomizdat, 1967.
10. Vaulina, E. N., Anikeyeva, I. D., Gubareva, I. G. and Shtraukh, G. A., "Effects
of Space Flight Factors Aboard Unmanned Zond Stations on 5urvival and Mutability
of Chlorella Cells," KOSMICH. ISSLED., Vol 9, No 6, 1971, pp 946-954.
11. Vaulina, E. N., Anikeyeva, I. D. and Parfenov, G. P., "Chlorella Aboard
Cosmos-110," Ibid, Vol 5, No 2, 1967, pp 285-292.
12. Vaulina, E. N., Effect of Weightlessness on Genetic Structures," in "Problemy '
kosmicheskay biologii," Moscow, Nauka, Vol. 33, 1976, pp 174-198.
13. Vernadskiy, V. I., "Biogeochemical Essays," N~oscaw--T.e~ingx~ad, Izd-yo AN SSS1j,
1940. ~
I 14. Gol'dberg, Ye. D. and Grigor'yev, Yu. G. editors, "Problems of Radiobiology and
Biological Effects of Cytostatic Agents," Tomsk, Vol 3, 1971.
15. Garina, K. P. and Romanov, N. I., "Effects of Space Flight Factors on Barley
Seeds," KOSMICH. ISSLED., Vol 8, No 1, 1970, pp 158-159.
16. Idem, "Effects of Space Flight Factors and Ethylenimine on Barley Seeds," Ibid,
Vol 9, No l, 1971, pp 949-952.
17. ~lembotskiy, Ya. I., "Genetic Research in Space," Ibid, Vol 8, No 4, 1970,
- pp 616-627. ~
23 ~
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18. Grigor'yev, Yu. G. and Nevzgodina, L. V., "Effects of Heavy Ions of Galactic
Radiation on Chromosomal Aberra*_ions in Lettuce," in "Uspekhi. kosmicheskoy
biofiziki" [Advances in Space Biophysics], Pushchino, 1978, pp 52-58.
19. Grigor'yev, Yu. G. and Tobias, C.A., "Ionizing Radiation," in "Osnovy
kosmicheskoy biolagii i meditsiny" [Fundamentals of Space Biology and Medicine],
Moscow, Nauka, Vol 2, Bk 2, 1975, pp 78-136.
20. Delone, N. L., Yegorov, B. B. and Antipov, V. V., "Sensitivity of Mitotic
Phases of Tradescantia Paludosa Microspores to Space Flight Factors Aboard
- the Voskhod Satellite," DAN SSSR, Vol 166, No 3, 1966, pp 713-715.
21. Delone, N. L., Popovich, P. R., Antipov, V. V. and Vysotskiy, V. G., "Effects
of Space Flight Factors Aboard Vostok-3 and Vostok-4 Satellites on Tradescantia
- Mi~rospares," KOSMICH. ISSLED~ Voll, No 2, 1963, pp 312-325.
22. Delone, N. L., Trusova, A. S., Morozova, Ye. M., Antipov, V. V. and Parf.enovy
G. P., "Effects of Space Flight Aboard Cosmos-110 Satellite on Microspores of
Tradescantia Paludosa," Ibid, Val 6, No 2, 1968, pp 299-303.
23. Demin, Yu. S., "Combined Effect of Low-Frequency Vibration and X-Rays on
Maumnalian Bone Mdrrow Cells," Ibid, Vol 2, No 6, 1964, pp 939-945v
24. Dubinina, L. G. and Chernikova, 0. P., "Effects of Space Factors on Crepis
Capillaris Seeds," Ibid, Vol 8, No 1, 1970, pp 156-158.
25. Zhukov-Verezhnikov, N. N., Mayskiy, I. N., Tribulev, G. P., Rybakov, N. T.,
Podoplelov, I. I., Dobrov, N. N., Antipov, V. V., Kozlov, V. A., Sakaonov, P. P.,
Parfenov, G.P. and Sharyy, A. I., "Some Results and Prospects of Research on
~ the Biological Eff ects of Cosmic Radiation and Dynamic Flight Factors Using
Microbiological and Cytological Models," in "Problemy kosmicheskoy meditsiny"
[Problems of Space Medicine], Moscow, Nauka, 1966, pp 172-173.
26. Zhukov-Verezhnikov, N. I., Rybakov, N. I., Kozlov, V. A., Saksonov, P. P~,
Dobrov, N. N., Antipov, V. V., Podoplelov, I. I. and Par.fenov, G. P., "Results
of Microbiological and Cytological Studies Aboard Vostok Spacecraft," in
"Problemy kosmicheskoy biologii," Moscow, Nauka, Vol 4, 1965, pp 261-269.
27. Imshen.etskiy, A. A., Lysenko, S. V. and Moskvitin, E. V., "Effects of Dynamic
Space Flight Factors on Survival of Microorganisms and Their Ferroporphyrin
Enzymes," MIKROBIQLOGIYA, Vol 43, No 4, 1974, pp 735-737.
28. Kordyum, V.�A., Polivoda, L. V., Man'ko, V. G., Mashinskiy, A. L., Nechitaylo,
G. S. and Kon'shin, N. I., "Study of Distinctions of Chlorella Lag Phases Under
. Extreme Conditions," in "Materialy 8-go Vsesoyuz. soveshch. po voprosu
krugovorota veshchestv v zamknutoy systeme na osnove zhiznedeyatel'nosti
nizshikh organizmov" [Proceedings of 8th All-Union Conference on the Cycle of
Subsrances in a Closed System Based on Vital Functions of Lower Organisms],
Kiev, Naukova dumka, 1974, pp 175-180.
29. Kordyum, V. A., Polivoda, L. V., Mashinskiy, A. L.,'Man'ko, V. G., Nechitaylo,
G. S., Kon'shin, N. I. and Gavrish, T. G., "Effects of Space Flight Conditions
on the Set of Parameters of Growing Microorganism Culture," in "Eksperimental'nyye
issledovaniya po kosmichesk~y biofizike" [Experimental Research in Space Bio-
physics], Pushchino, 1976, pp 108-119.
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30. Kordyum, V. A., Polivoda, L. V. and Mashinskiy, A. L., "Effects of Space Flight
Conditions on Microorganisms," in "Prob.lemy lcosmicheskoy biologii," Moscow,
Nauka, Vo'1 33, 1976, pp 238-260.
31. Nadson, G. A. and Filippov, G. S., VESTN. RENTGENOL. I RADIOL., Vol 3, 1925,
p 305.
32. Nuzhdin, N. Y. and Dozortseva, R. L., "Combined Effect of Gamma Radiation and
Space Flight ~'actors on Fiarley Seeds in Different Physio~ogical States," in
"Eksperimental'nyye raboty po vliyaniyu ioniziruyushchikh~ izlucheniy na
organizm" [Experimer.tal Studies of the Effect of Ionizing Radiat:ion on the
Organism], Moscow, Nauka, 1967, pp 3-29.
- 33. Parfer,ov, G. P., "Occurrence of Crassing-Over in Male Drosophila Un..der the
Influet~.ce of Vibration, Accelerations and Gamma Radiation," KOSMIGH. ISSLED.,
Vol 2, No 4, 1964, pp 648-657~
34. Idem, "Occurrence uf Dominant Lethals in Drosophila Under the Influence of
Vibration, Accelexations ar.d Gamma Radia~tion," Ibid, Vo1~3, No 4, 1965,
pp 643-651.
35. Pestov, I. D. and Ge~-atevol~, Z. Dzh., "Weight.lessness," in "Osnovy kosmicheskoy
- biologii i meditsiny," Moscow, Nauka, Vol 2, Bk 1, ].975, pp 324-370.
; 36. Rossi, B., "Cosmic Rays," Moscow, Atomizdat, 1966, 236 pp.
i
j 37. Semenenko, U. Ye. and Vlad~mirova, M. G., "Effects of ~pace Flight Factors
Aboard Satellites on Viability of ~h.i~~:.lla Cultures," FIZIQL. RA.ST., Vol 8,
- No 6, 1961; pp 7~e3-745.
i 38, Farber, YL. V., Nevzgodina, L, V., Pap'yan, N. M. and S~boleva, T. N., "Effects
, of Flight Factors on Dormant Lettuce Seeds," KOSMICH. BIOL. I MED., Vol 5, No 6,
1971, pp 24-31.
39. Frank-Kamenetskiy, D. A., "What is Space?" in "Fizika kosmosa" [Physics af
Space], Moscow, Sovetskaya entsiklopediya, 1976, pp 12-16.
I 40. Khvostova, V. V.~y ~ostimski}r, S. A., Mozhayeva, V. S. and Nevzgodina, L. V.,
_I "Continued Studies of the Effects of Space Flight Factors on Chromosomes of
_I Primary Embryanie Rootlets in Pea and Wheat Seeds," KOSMTCH. ISSLED., Vol l,
No l, 1963, pp 186-1'91.
~ 41. Gazenko, 0. G. and Byursr_edt, k.h., editors, "Man in Space," Moscow, Nauka,
1974, 439 pp.
42. Shevchenko, V. A., Sakovich, I. S., Meshcheryakova, L. K. and Petrovnin, M. T.,
"Studies of Vita]. Functions of Chlorella During Space Flight," KOSMICH. BIOL. I
MED., Vcl l, No 3, 1967, pp 25-28.
- 43. Akoev, I. G., Fomenko, B. S., Leontyeva, G. A., Achmediyeva, A. H., Liv~nova,
_ I. F~., Lebed~ev, V. N., Lukanin, W. S. and Jurov, S: S., "Determination of
Biological Effectiveness of Secondary Radiation with 70-GeV Protons," in
"Intern. Congr. on Protection Against Accelerator and Space Ra~iatien," Geneva.,
CERN, 1971, pp 122-127. 25
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44. Von Borstel, R. C., Smith, R. H., Grosch, D. S., Whiting, A. R., Amy, R. L.,

- Baird, M. B., Buchanan, P. D., Cain, K. T., Carpenter, R. A., Cl~ark, A. M.,
_ Horfman, A. C., Yones, M. S., Kondo, S., Lame, M. Y., Mazianty, T. Y., Pardue,
_ M. L., Reel, Y. W., Smith, D. B., Steen, Y. A., Tindall, Y. T. and Valcovic,
� L. R., "Mutational Response of Habrobra~on in the Biosatellite II Experiment,"
BIOSCIENCE, Vol 18, 1968, pp 598-601.
45. Von Borstel, R. C., Smith, K. H., Whith, A. R. and Grosch, D. S., "Mutational
, and Physiologic Responses of Habrobracon in Biosatellite II," in "The Experiments
of Biosatellite II," NASA, Washington D. C., 1971, p 17.
46. Browning, L. S., "Genetic Effects of the Space Environment on the Reprodcctive
Cells of Drosophila," Ibid, pp 55-78.
47. Dubinin, N. P., Vaulina, E. N., Kosikov, K. V., Anikeeva.y.~. D., Moskvitin,
E. V., Zapadnaya, A. A., Kostina, L. N., Shtrauh, G. A., Kryzhanovskaya, Z. M.,
- Gubareva, I. G., Nechitailo, G. S. and Mashinsky, A. L., "Effects of Space
Flight Factors on the Heredity of Higher and Lower Plants," in "Life Sciences
- and Space Research," XI. B, Akad. Verl., 1973, pp 105-110.
48. Dubinina, L. G. and Chernikova, 0. P., "Space Effects in Crepis Capillaris
- Seeds," JAP. J. GEN., Vol 43, No 6, 1968, p 470.
49. Grigoriev, J. G., Ryzhov, N. J., Krasavin, E. A., Vorontsova, S. W., Koscheeva,
L. A., Savchenko, N. J., redorenko, B. S., Chlaponina, V. F., Popov, V. I. and
Kudryashov, E. I., "Radiobiological Effects of Heavy Ions on Mammalian Cells
and Bacteria," in "Life Sciences and Space Research," XI. B, Akad. Verl., 1973,
pp 247-259.
50. Heinze, W. J., Craise, L. and Tobias, C. A., "Pre].itqinary~~est~lts q~ a Sel~ctipn
Experiment to Decrease Radiosensitivity of the Flour Beetle, Tribolium Confusum,"
in "Progr~ss Report in Space Radiobiology," LBL-596, Lawrence Berkeley Lab.,
1972, pp 43-69.
51. Kordium, V. A., Polivoda, L. B., Mashinsky, A. L., Manko, V. G., Nechitailo,
G. S., Zuzanov, D. V. and Konshin, N. I., "Effects of Space Flight Factors on
Comp.lex of Microorganisms," in "Life Sciences and Space Research," XIV, B,
Akad. Ver1., 1976, pp 32-35.
- 52. Leith, I. T., Schilling, W. A. and Welch, G. P., "Effects of Accelerated
Nitrogen Ions on the Hair of Mice," in "Initial Radiobiological Experiments
. With Accelerated Nitrogen Ions at the Bevation [sic]," LBL-529, Lawrence
Berkeley Lab., 1971, pp 121-131.
53. Muller, H. J., "Induced Crossing-0ver Variation in the X-Chroplosotne o~
Drosophila," AMER. NATUR., Vol 60, 1926, pp 192-195.
54. Oster9 I. ~i., Genetic Implications of Spaceflight," in "The Experiments of
Biosatellite II," NASA, Washington DC, 1971, pp 41-54.
55. Reynolds, 0. E. and Saunders, J. F., "The Scientific Conclusions of Biosatellite
II," Ibid, pp 347-352.
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56. lleSerres, E. J. and Webber, B. B., "Mutagenic Ef~ectiveness of Known Doses of
R~diation in Combination With Zero Gravity on Neurospora Crassa," Ibid,
pp 325-332.
57. Shipley, W. S. and Maclay, I. E., "Mariner-4 Environmental Testing," ASTRONAUT.
AND AERONAUT., Vol 3, 1965, pp 42-48.
58. Sparrow, A. H., Shairer, L. A. and Marimuthu, K. M., "Genetic and Cytological
Studies of Tradescantia lrradiated During Orbital Flight," JAP. J'. GENET.,
Vol 43, No 6, 1968, p 470. .
59. Idem, "Radiobiologic Studies of Tradescantia Plants Orbited in Biosatellite II,"
NASA, Washi.ngton D. C., 1971, pp 99-122. ~
60. Todd, P. W., Schroy, C. B., Schi~erling, W. and Vosbuzgh, K. G., "Cellular
Effects of Heavy Charged Particles," in "Life Sciences and Space Research,"
� XI, B, Akad. Verl., 1973, pp 261-270.
61. Vaulina, E. N. and Anikeeva, I. D., "Space Effects in Chlorella," JAP. GENET.,
Vol 43, 60, 1968, pp 469-471.
62. Vaulina, E. N., Anikeeva, I. D., Gubareva, I. G. and Shtrauch, G. A.,
"Survival and Mutability of Chlorella Aboard the Zond Vehicles," in "Life
Sciences and Space Research," IX, B, Akad. Verl., 1971, pF 105-110.
63. Vaulina, E. M. and Kostina, L. N., "Modify~ng Effect of Dynamic Space Flight ~
~ Factors on Radiation Damage of Air-Dry Seeds of Crepis Capillaris (1) Wallr.,"
Ibid, XIII, B., 1973, pp 167-172.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980 ~
10,657
CSO: 1866/999
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,
_ UDC: 613.693:577.462
PROBLEMS OF SPACE BIOLOGY~ VOLUME 42: SANITARY-HYGIENIC AND'PHYSIOLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF MANNED SPACECRAFT
~ Moscow PROBLEMY KOSMICHESKOY BIOLOGII, TOM 42: SANITARNO-GIGIYENICHESKIYE I~
FIZIOLOGICHESKIYE ASPEKTY OBITAYEMYKH KOSMICHESKIKH KORABLEY in Russian 1980
(signed to press 4 Sep 80) pp 4-10, 265-267
[Annotation, foreword (by Yu. G. Nefedov and S. N. Zaloguyev), abstracts and ~
table of contents from book "Problems of Space Biology. Volume 42: Sanitary-
- Hygienic and Physiological Aspects of Manned Spacecraft", edited by Yu. G.
Nefedov (editor-in-chief of this volume), Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1150 copies,
_ 268 pages]
[Text] One of the main prerequisites for the successful accomplishment of space
missions is to create beneficial living conditions in the cabin of a manned
. space vehicle. This monograph submits a toxicological evaluation of the main
sources of pollution of the air environment by impurities and patterns of
formation of its aeroion compositi~n, with descriptions of the main changes in
~ man's functional state, discussion of the main microbiological and epidemiological
aspects of habitability of pressurized cabins, physiological and hygienic bases
for the diet of spacecraft crews.
This monograph .is intended for specialists in the field of space biology and
medicine.
Foreword
The problem of habitability of manned spacecraft and orbital stations, which refers
to the provisions for life and professional work of cosmonauts, consists of a
set of physiological and psychological questions, as well as a rather extensive
set af sanitary and hygienic conditions to be formed in the pressurized cabin
, of a space vehicle. The many directions inherent in the issues that make up
this problem, many of which have not been resolved, even for man's ordinary
living.conditions, make it impossible to describe in a single book the entire
problem of ha~itability of spacecraft as a whole.
In this monograph, attention is focused mainly on the current status and pros-
pects of solving some of the sanitary-hygienic and physiological aspects of the
problem of habitability of manned space vehicles. The choice of this topic is
considered warranted, in view of the fact that these issues are relevant to a
_ spacecraft, orbital station or any confined place, regardless of its purpose.
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Special relations are established between man and his environment in a confined
place, which are manife~ted ~y active formation of the at~aosphere by various
chemicals that are eliminated in ttie course of vital functions. We are not re-
_ ferring to fluctuations in composition of the main constituents (oxygen, ni~rogen,
carbon dioxide), but to pollution of the air environment by various microimpurities.
The extensive group of studies conducted in this direction established that the air
exhaled by man is one of the main source~ of pollution of the air environment of
a sealed place T~y chemical microimpurities, and the levels thereof are quite
variable, depending on a number of conditions: individual distinctions of inetabolic
processes in the human body, degree of effects of mir_roclimate parameters, composi-
tion and caloric value of diet, motor activity and others.
It should be noted that exhaled air is not the only source of pollution of the
air environment of pressurized spaces by various chemicals. The products of pers-
piration and activity of sebaceous glands, as well as intestinal gases can also
have a substantial influence on the level of overall pollution and composition
of trace impurities in the atmosphere of a pressurized place.
The.products o~ gas emission from polymer items and ornamental-finishing materials
used in the interior of a spacecraft may have a marked effect on formation of the
inhabited environment. Thus, a study of more than 500 such materials revealed
abut 70 various chem.fcal compounds, which were identified and assayed in the.
products of gas emi.ssion. They include highly toxic substances, such as carbon~
~ monoxide, epichlorhydrin, hydrogen cyanide and fluoride, etc. It is important to
note that the intensity of emission of volatile substances from polymers d~epends
significantly on operating conditions and parameters of the.environment. Thus,
with change in "specific saturation" by materials in.a pressurized cabin and ~
exposure to high temperature, an exponential relationship was established between
concentration of disr_harged substances ahd these factors.
_ The effects of toxic chemicals in the atmosphere of a spacecraft on man can be
discussed in aspects of acute and chronic toxic effects. A particularly close
scrutiny has been given to the possibility of manifestation of a chronic toxic
effect of these substances on man. Amang them, alcohols of different molecular.
weight, ethers of these alcohols and acetic acid, ketones, aldehydes, aliphatic
hydrocarbons, heterocyclic and inorganic compounds have been found. It is known
that, in the case of chronic exposure, alcohols can affect renal and liver func-
tion, while hypotension and.irritation of the lungs are caused by their ethers.
Low toxicity is inherent in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, but in high
- concentrations they can elicit certain changes in some internal organs and an
anesthetic effect. A diversity of manifestations is observed for the toxic
effects of heterocyclic compounds.
The foregoing warrants the belief that it is important to work on development
of st~ecial methods of investigation and use them to study the dynamics of .
accumulation of various chemicals in the air of space vehicles. No doubt, the
main purpose of such studies should be to assess the toxicological hazard of these
substances. However, it is equally important to obtain data on the composition of
gaseous chemical impurities resp onsible for appearance of odors in a spacecraft
cabin. When this problem is solved, it will be possible to offer validated re-
commendations on development of effective filters to remove toxic impurities from
air.
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Development of principles and criteria for setting air quality standards for future
spacecraft, with due consideration of spE~ific requirements of living conditions
in a manned space vehicle, as well as the main theses of the Soviet school of
hygienists, should also be considered a task �or sanitary toxicology.
Aerosols present a.great hazard when working in space; the possibility of their
penetrating into man's respiratory tract in weightlessness may differ substantially
from conditions where there is normal gravity. There are diverse sources of aero-
sols in a spacecraft; they include man himself, various materials and operating
life support systems. When discussing the toxicalogical hazard of aerosols, it
is imperative to consider the fact that they may serve as adsorbents or condensa-
tion centers for toxic gaseous impurities. This circumsntance may alleviate
penetration into the lower respiratory tract of chemical compounds that are
retained in the upper pathways under earth's conditions because of their good
solubility in water. The difficulty of thia problem as it relates to confined
manned systems is that a tendency toward increase in quantity and mean diameter
as time passes is inherent in aerosol particles. Nor has the nature o� biological
effects of ionized aerosols and gases been definitively established, particularly
in manned spacecraft cabins. The importance of this problem is attributable to
the fact that the constant background of cusmic radiation, the level of which may
rise periodically, can lead to an appreciable increase in concentration of aero-
- ions, by about 2-3 times, in the course of a manned space flight, as indicated by
estitaates. All of the foregoing makes it very important to conduct special studies
to resolve the problems that have been raised.
One of the important parts of the habitability problem is to study the mechanisms
of onset of diseases caused by representatives of man's automicroflora. This
problem is difficult to solve, first of all, because the infectious processes
- elicited by conditionally pathogenic microorganisms are distinctive, although they
retain the main epidemiological patterns.
This problem is of particular significance in sanitary-hygienic support of cosmo-
nauts in a spac~ vehicle operating for a long time, where the intensity of ex-
pression of the mechanism of transmission, which is the basis for the process of
mutual exchange of man's automicroflora, could increase substantially, as compared
to ordinary living conditions. This is indicated by the consistently observed
increase in size of microbial sites on the integumental tissues of cosmonauts,
as well as increased intensity of elimination of microorganisms from integumental
tissues into the environment, which is typical when people spend time in~a con-
fined space.
The findings from the above studies, supplemented by determination of the list �
of. microorganisms most frequently involved in causing marked chan~;es in man's
automicroflora under such conditions, made it possible to define the most probable
_ pathogens of diseases amor,~ the crews of space vehicles on long-term missions.
As we know, the upper respii~atory tract, integument and intestine are the main
sites of localization of microorganisms in man. Epidemiologically, the upper
respiratory tract is the most important, since there is an increase, by about 20-
100 times, in intensity of elimination of microorganisms from it when people are
in a confined place, as compared to ordinary living conditions. Expressly this
ci.rcumstance renders the air environment of a sealed place the principal factor
in transmission of probable pathogens of diseases. �
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The role of intestinal microflora in polluting a confined environment is less sig-
nificant, and apparently is mostly determined by the extent of personal hygiene.
However, it is worth stressing that, in addition to medical aspects, there is
a hygienic one to the study of human intestinal microflora in a conf ined environ-
ment, which is related to determination of the mechanism of onset of "autoinfectious"
diseases, since the composition of this microflora depends, to a large extent, on
a number of factors (diet, a�+~ailability of fluids, etc.), as well as a biological
aspect, which is related to the existing conception of the role of intestinal
microflora in maintain ing homeostasis in the human body.
With reference to the question of onset of diseases of the "cross-infection" type
among crew members, we were impressed by the lack of information about conditions,
under which the final stage of the mechanism of transmission is expressed, i.e.,
how microorganisms that have penetrated into the human body as a result of reci-
procal exchange "take root." Expressly this problem should be the focus of future
microbiological and immunological studies.
We have established that the reciprocal exchange of microor.ganisms is most often
temporary. A real exchange of microorganisms should occur when new organisms
- become part of the ecological system that is formed when people stay together.
There is also information to the effect tYtat the "root-taking" process for micro-
organisms is determined, to a significant extent, by the state of man's immuno-
logical reactivity, his physiological, anatomical distinctions and other circum-
stances.
All of the foregoing makes it imperative to cenduct a wide set of studies in the
future on.this problem as it relate5 tn medical support of space missions. We
- believe that investigation of conditions for expression of the "root-taking"
process in representatives of the automicroflora of one individual in the organism
of another will bring us closer to solving some aspects of the large, general
biological problem, the problem of "biological compatibility of people."
It is extremely important, in our opinion, to conduct studies for development of
the pr.inclpleK of eanitary and epidemiological support of. manned space flights,
wh(ch ulwo lnc..l.udca the atages of ground-hnsed prepArution of crews and space
vc~hl.cleti themaelves. The deacription of the main directions of this area of
resear~li is the topic of a separate report; for this reason, we shall discuss
only some of the aspects which, in our opinion, are particularly important at this
time.
With regard to sanitary and epidemiological support of manned space flights, one
of the mandatory conditions in manning crews should be the detection of individuals
among them with consistently high initial levels of microorganisms referable to
probable pathogens of diseases. If such individuals are found, it is imperative
to institute a set of sanitation measures.
It should be noted that the problem of "sanation" of healthy carriers to free them
of pathogenic representatives of their automicroflora is still far from being
solved in ordinary clinical practice. In spite of this, studies in this direction
as they relate to the support of space flights are considered extremely important,
and specialists must concentrate on them. One of the rather important aspects
of these studies is to develop and assess the ways and means of using effective
_ equipment for monitoring the composition of integumental microflora of cosmonauts
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spending long periods of time in space vehicles, and the list of these means must
include methods of evaluating some properties of microorganisms, for example,
their resistance to antibiotics.
The established active role of man's integument in forming the microflora of t~e
spacecraft cabin environment gives us grounds to consider development of personal
hygiene measures for cosmonauts as an important and mandatory contribution to
epidemic-control support of space flights. In this regard, when planning such
studies much attention should be given to the choice and validation, not only of
general measures (hygienic shower, washing hands 1nd face, etc.), but special
ones aimed at maintaining the integumental microflora within a range that
minimizes the possibility of reinfection due to reinoculation of microorganisms.
In the latter case, it is desirable tn develop both nonspecific (mechanical removal
- of microorganisms from the integument by using appropriate materials for clothing,
bedding and other personal hygiene items) and specific methods (use of various
bactericidal agents, selected with due consideration of the distinctions in the
change of cosmonauts' automicroflora, as well as those that activate the barrier
function of the skin and mucous membranes). ~
The adversity of conditions, under which people spend time in a confined environ-
ment, is aggravated by involvement of operating air conditioning system in pre-
serving and spreading microorganisms. Determination of the fact that certain
representatives of the automicroflora are capable of reproducing in condensation.
moisture, which collects not only in the air-duct system but, as indicated by
rep~rts of cosmonauts, on some parts of internal surfaces, warrants consideration
of studies of the problem of "bioresistance" of polymers as promising. This
problem has been considered heretofore only in the technical aspect, which is
of ,course very important, related to the possibility of equipment malfunction
because of reproduction of microor~anisms on materials. In solving this problem,
it appears to us to be important to pay attention to another aspect as well,
to which little attention had been devoted up to this time, i.e., the medical
aspect. It is determined by the possibility of involvement in processes of
destruction of polymers of conditionally pathogenic microorganisms tha~ are re-
presentatives of the human automicroflora, and reproduction of pathogens on
polymers before appearance of malfunctions in various equipment sould present a
health hazard to cosmonauts in the epidemiological and toxicological aspects.'
Development of a proper assortment of foods and proper caloric value of the diet,
which is impossible without comprehensive physiological and hygienic studies,
is an important part of the work to provide favorable conditions in spacecraft
cabins.
In this foreword, it was not our intent to describe even briefly the contents of
all of the book's chapters; our main purpose was to give an idea about some of the
most pressing problems ensuring from the results of studies submitted in the book,
which must be solved in future studies of the problem of habitability of manned
space vehicles.
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_ UDC: 612.221.2.U~.4
SOURCES OF POLLUTION OF CABIN ATMOSPHERE BY TRACE IMPURITIES, AND TOXICOLOGICAL
EVALUATION THEREOF
_ [Abstract of article by V. P. Savina and T. I. Kuznetsova]
~ [Text] The results are submitted of the role of man in polZuting the afir er:v~ron-
ment of a confined space with metabolic products. Mean daily levels of elimination
of toxic impurities in the air exhaled by man are calculated under normal living
conditions; the composition of volatile constituents of perspiration, urine and
- intestinal gases is given. A study was made of the effect on composition of ex-
- haled air of altered microclimate parameters, different diets, total fast and
antiorthostatic [head down] hypokinesia. The obtained results indicate that
worsening of living conditions affects the composition of end metabolic products.
Fasting, worsening of microclimate with respect to temperature and humidity have
the strongest effect. The findings of the studies served as the basis for select-
, ing the main pollutants, the concenrration of which is significant in the air
environment and which changes under the influence of some factors or other,
- used to assess the sanitary and hygienic status of the air environment of
- pressurized places. There are 15 tables, 2 illustrations; bibliography lists
41 items.
UDC: 613.693:615.9
HYGIENE AND TOXICOLOGY OF NONMETAI. MATERIAT~S
[Abstract of article by G. I. Solomin]
_ ~Text] This article deals with questions of safe use of polymers for equipment
in manned compartments of space vehicles. Experimental data are submitted on
the effects of space flight factors on the process of gassing from polymers; the
influence of trace impurities on formation of the gas environment of confined
places is demonstrated. Data are submitted for scientif ic validation of a system
of hygienic monitoring of safe use of materials at different stages of construction
of space vehicles. A system is offered for setting up experiments, scope of
studies and main directions of work. There is 1 table; bibliography lists 34 items.
UDC: 612.014.464:613.693
HYGIENIC SIGNIFICANCE OF IONIZATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE OF MANNED SPACECRAFT CABINS
- [Abstract of article by B. V. Anisimov]
[Text] It was shown, on the basis of analysis of the literature and the author~s
own experimental findings, that ionization of the atmosphere during space flights
would have a substantial effect on all functional systems of man. It is con-
cluded that it is imperative to regulate both the concentration of light aeroions
and coeff icient of unipolarity in order t~ assure a biologically ideal atmosphere
in pressurized cabins. Bibliography liscs 37 items.
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UDC: 6~3~036.22;576.8;629.7,0~,4.~8
SANITARY-MICROBIOLOGICAL.AND EPIDEMIOLOGIC~~L ASPECTS OF HABITABILITY
[Abstract of article by S. N. Zaloguyev, A. N. Viktorov and N. D. StartsevaJ
[Text] The probability of appearance in cosmonauts of diseases, the pathogens of
which will be mainly representatives of their own microflora, makes it necessary
- to conduct special studies to determine the distinc~ions of expression of the
mechanism of trans~raission of microorganisms under these specific living conditions.
It was established that unfavorable changes occur in total amount of micro-
organisms on the integumental tissues of cosmonauts, referable to an increase in
staphylococci, hemolytic streptococci and repres;entatives of Gram-negative
bacillary and cocal flora, as well as yeast-like fungal flora. A comprehensive
study of the composition of staphylococcal flora of cosmonauts revealed that
there is periodic increase in number of staphylococci on their integumental tissue
. with pathogenic traits and resistance to many antibiotics. The presence among
cosmonauts of a rather large number of carriers of pathogenic staphylococci and
other microorganisms, associated with increased intensity of eliminating these
microorganisms into the environment, is indicative of man's increasing role as
the probable source of infection under these condi~ions. The air environment is
the principal factor in transmission of microorganisms in spacecraft cabins,
and the internal surfaces are actively involved as mode of transmission. The
obtained data, as well as information about the distinctions of formation of bac-
terial aerosol in pressurized cabins of spacecraft, warrant the belief that there
can be faster expression of the mechanism of transmission of microorganisms under
- these living conditions than on earth. There are 18 tables; bibliography lists
110 items.
UDC: 612.338.31
MICROECOLOGY OF THE INTESTINE UNDER EXTRh'ME CONDITIONS
[Abstract of article by V. M. Shilov and N. N> Liz'ko]
[Text] This article deals with current conceptions of the composition of intestinal
microflora and its role in vital functions of the body. Along with the positive
role, the authors also call attention to the deleterious effects of microflora on
the macroorganism and potential pathogenicity of a number of representatives of
man's obligate microflora. This work sums up the many years of studies pursued
by the authors on intestinal microfl~ra, both of individuals isolated in a con-
- fined place and cosmonauts, before and after participating in space missions of
different duration. Methods of normalizing the intestinal microflora of cosmo-
nauts during space flights are discussed in connection with development of dys-
bacteriosis under'the influence of extreme factors on the body. There are l. table,
11 illustrations; tibliography lists 61 items.
UDC: 613.693
EVALUATION OF MAN'S FUNCTIONAL CAPACITIES UNDER EXTREME LIVING CONDITIONS
(Abstract of article by G. A. Manovtsev and V. V. Zhuravlev]
[Text] This section deals with evaluation of different functions of the human
body under conditions of isolation in a pressurized compartment of limited size
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for several weeks to 1 year. There is discussion of the results of studies of
functional state of the cardiovascular system, external respiration, neuromuscular
activity, acid-base equilibrium and heat regulation in man. The results of experi-
mental studies are described with reference to optimum living conditi4ns for man
and with significant deviation of different parameters of the habitat from optimum
= levels (altered gas environment in a pressurized place and worsening of microclimate
condi~ions). Information is furnished on functional state of different physiolo-
gical systems of man as a function of parameters of environment in a pressurized
compartment. There are 3 illustrations; bibliography lists 46 items.
UDC: 613.693:612.017.1
IMMUNOLOGICAL REACTIVITY OF THE BODY DURING STAYS IN CONFINED QUARTERS
[Abstract of article by I. V. Konstantinova and Ye. N. Antropova]
[Text] There is discussion of the distinction~ of man's immunoreactivity while
living in a sealed place with maintenance of the main parameters of the micro-
climate within the range of the hygienic standard, as well as with different
_ degrees of pollution of the air environment by trace impurities of a biological
and chemical nature. Data are submitted from a study of the effects of factors
involved in space flights of different duration on the cosmonauts' immunity system.
It was shown that changes in parameters of the microclimate elicit changes in man's
' immunoreactivity. Long-term space missions (30-140 days) elicit a number of
functional changes in the immunological system of cosmonauts, leading to
diminished function of T lymphocytes, change in levels of different subpopulations
of immunocompetent lymphocytes and immunoglobulins of the G and A r.lasses, appear-
~ ance of sensitization to bacterial allergens and activation of signs of auto-
immune processes. Brief space flights (6-8 days) do not have an appreciable effect
I on immunological reactivity of man. There are 1 table, 3 illustrations; biblio-
graphy lists 22 items.
UDC: 613.693:612.39
PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN CREATING FOOD ELIIrIENTS IN LIFE SUPPJRT SYSTEMS FOR
SPACECRAFT CREWS
[Abstract of article by V. P. Bychkov]
; [Text] This article submits data on principles for furnishing the food elements
' of life support systems for spacecraft crews as related to duration of missions.
There is a summary of experimental data on food supplies for manned space
flights performed in the USSR and the United States. In addition, there is dis-
cussion of data pertaining to the distinctions of inetabolic processes in man
during space flights and development of foods for future space vehicles. There
are 8 tables; bibliography lists 205 items.
Contents Page
S
Foreword
Toxicological and Hygienic Aspects of Habitability of Spacecraft
Sources of Pollution of Cabin Atmosphere by Trace Impurities, and 11
Toxicological Evaluation Thereof (V. P. Savina, T. I. Kuznetsova)
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Hy~iene and 'Coxi~ulugy ot NunmeCal Materials (G. I. Solom.iu) ~?j
Hygienic Significance of Ionization of the Atmosphere of Manned
Spacecraft Cabins (B. V. Anisimov) 68
- Epidemiological and Microbiological Aspects of Habitability of Spacecraft
Sanitary-Microbiological and Epidemiological Aspects of Habitability
(S. N. Zaloguyev, A. N. Viktorov, N. D. Startseva) 80
MicroecolAgy of the Intestine Under Extreme Conditions (V. M. Shilov,
N. N. Liz'ko) 140
Some Physiological and Immunological Aspects of Habitability of Sp~acecraft
Evaluation of Man's Functional Capacities Under Extreme Living
Conditions (G. A. Manovtsev, V. V. Zhura~rlev) 171
Immunological Reactivity of the Body During Stays in Confined Quarters
- (I. V. Konstantinova, Ye. N. Antropova) ~ 191
Diet of Crews of Space Vehicles
Principles Involved in Creating Food Elements in Life Support Systems
for Spacecraft Crews (V. P, Bychkov) 214
Abstracts 266
COPYRIGI~T: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980 ~
10,657
cso: 1866/999 .
. 36
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~
CARDIOVASCULAR CONDITIONING FOR COSMONAUTS
Minsk PERIFERICHESKIYE "SERDTSA" CHELOVEKA in Russian 1980 pp 64-67
[Sectioa from book "Peripheral 'Hearts' of Man", by N. I. Arinchin, Institute of
Physiology, Belorussian Academy of Sciences, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka i tekhnika",
80 pages]
[Text] In the opinion of S. P. Korolev, any essentially healthy person who can
endure the accelerations during lift-off and deboosting jdeceleration] of a
i descending spacecraft can fly in space. And the possibility of making such
voyages is increasing.
But, during space flights, particularly long-term ones, the cosmonaut is exposed
to devastating hypokinesia and weightlessness, as we know. Since orbital spacecraft
- fly at altitudes of 200-300 km, i.e., in the top layers of the atmosphere, they
gradually,"fall" to earth, their orbit changes and cosmonauts experience weight-
lessness under the influence of braking created by air and earth's gravity. It
induces changes in cosmonauts referable to bones, muscles, the vestibular system
- and other organs, particularly those of the cardiovascular system.
On earth, in erect position, blood of venous vessels so to speak "falls" freely
from the top of the human body by virtue of its own weight down toward the heart.
It has difficulty in rising from the lower limbs, and for this reason it accumu-
lates in venous and capillary vessels, the tonus of which is considerably higher
- than in other parts of the body. In weightlessness, however, there is less blood
i in the vessels of the lower extremities, since it flows to the top of the body,
~ overfilling vessels of the lungs and brain, which creates the sensation of heavi-
~ ness, headache, etc.; efficiency of cosmonauts diminishes. During long-term
- flights, there is adaptation of the body and its cardiovascular~~system to weight-
lessness, but upo.n returning to earth the cosmonauts are again in the embrace"
of gravity, and it has been found even more difficult to endure it than to become
accustomed to weightlessness. In order to improve the reliability of circulation
in weightlessness and to prepare cosmonauts for their return to earth, there is
a special compartment on orbital stations for diverse biomedical tests and train-
ing [conditioning]. The cusmonauts use a vacuum chamber, which creates negative
, pressure in the lower part of the body, as a result of which the veins and capil-
laries of the lower limbs dilate and are filled with blood which flows from the
- head. This improves cerebral circulation, and it also conditions the heart an~i
vessels to the impending return to earCh, when gravity will again attract blood to
the vessels of the lower extremities.
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There are bicycle ergometers, treadmills, special G suits, expanders, etc., aboard
spacecraft. Physical exercise in a specific volume, of specific duration and
intensity is recommended for cosmonauts up to the point when they experiPnce
some fatigue which, in the opinioil of Academician 0. G. Gazenko, is benef icial.
For example, at his recommendation, V. I. Sevast'yanov began to take 120, instead
of 100, steps per minute on the treadmill. Upon returning to earth, V. I.
Sevast'yanov crawled out of the landed craft and, having immediately taken a
f ew steps, began to prance: "Look, I can walk. This is a miracle!" The same
~ miracle happened after the 140-day record flight ot Vladimir Kovalenko and
Aleksandr Ivanchenkov.
Academician 0. G. Gazenko and his team of coworkers, were awarded the USSk State
Prize for developing the set of inethods for preparing cosmonauts for long-term
flights. 0. G. Gazenko and Ye. B. Shul'zhenko believe that venous pumps are
involved in the circulation of cosmonauts. In addition to them, st3.mulation of
suction-pumping micropump activity of skeletal muscles is also important, since
it is controllable by means of voluntary regulation by each cosmonaut. Skeletal
muscles, which constitute 40-50% of body mass, pull more blood when they are
functional than at rest, and consequently less amounts thereof flow to the brain
in weightlessness. This is instrumental in providing for high efficiency [work
fitness] of cosmonauts engaged in geophysical, astronomical, meteorological, bio-
medical and many other studies. For this reason, all cosmonauts are highly
trained athletes to assure their reliability. A certain time is reserved for
different forms of sports in their multifaceted training program.
A. A. Gubarev and G. M. Grechko trained for their flight for about 4 years. A. S.
Yeliseyev, Ye. V. ~Chrunov and others experienced weightlessness aboard a laboratory
aircraft. G. T. Beregovoy believes that sports are to be credited for his 4-day
flight aboard the Soyuz-3 spacecraft. Sports make it possible for a person 40-50
_ years of age to become a cosmonaut and perform work related to flight for a rather
long time. For this reason, in the villag~e of Zve~dnyy, sports training of cos-
monauts is being conducted so thoroughly and systematically. For this purpose,
there are a stadium, gyms and playing fields, swimming pool and ski centers. A. G.
Nikolayev said that, during the flight with V. I. Sevast'yanov,without any special
physical training it is unlikely that they wou~d have returned to earth without
experiencing some pain, since the unconditioned heart would not have coped with
the effect of gravity.
A. A: Leonov, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR, chai~r-man of the All-Union Council
for GTO, is handing over to our country's entire population the knowhow gained
in physical training o� cosmonauts.
On 17 December 1978, the head of the Center for Cosmonaut Training imeni Yu. A.
Gagarin, G. T. Beregovoy, pilot-cosmonaut of the USSR, made.a request on the
pages of the newspaper SOVETSKIY SPORT that suggestions be offered for new types
of sports activities for cosmonauts aboard space stations. Such suggestions must
and will be made, with due consideration of the fact that skeletal muscles also
have their own independent micropumping capacity, which man can control, not only
' on earth but in space. �
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka i tekhnika", 1980
10, 657
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PROBLEM OF ADAPTATION IN SPACE BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE
Moscow OSVOYENIYE KOSMOSA I VZAIMOSVYAZ' NAUK. TRUDY CHETYRNADTSATYKH CHTENIY,
. POSVYASHCHENNYKH RAZRABOTKE NAUCHNOGO NASLEDIYA I RAZVITIYA IDEY K. 'E. TSIOLKOVSKOGO,
(KAT,UGA 11-14 SENTYABRYA 1979 G.) SEKTSIYA: "K. E. TSIOLKOVSKIY I FILGSOFSKIYE
PROBLEMY OSVOYENIYA KpSMOSA" in Russian 1980 pp 80-90
[Article by A. V. Korobkov,~F. P. Kosmolinskiy and I. M. Khazen from book "Explora-
- tion of Space and Correlation Between Sciences. Proceedings of 14th Lecture
Series Dedicated to Development of the Scientific HeritagE and Ideas of K. E.
- Tsiolkovskiy (Kaluga 11-14 September 1979). Section of "K. E. Tsiolkovskiy and
Philosophical Problems o~ Space Exploration", edited by Prof A. D. Ursul,
doctor of philosophical sciences, Ye. T. Faddeyev, candidar_e of philosophical
sciences and Yu. A. Shkolenko, candidate of philosophical sciences, Commission
~ for Development of the Scientif~c Heritage of K. E. Tsiolkovskiy of the USSR
Academy of Sciences]
[Text] It is unlikely that we could find a more important prob:lem of space biology
and medicine than the problem of man's adaptation to life and work under extra-
~ terrestrial conditions, i.e., living conditions that are known to be unusual for
him. So that it is quite legitimate for K. E. Tsiolkovskiy to pay such close
attention to problems of altering man and his possible evolution in creating and
~ developing "ethereal cities" of the future [1-3]. Tsiolkovskiy was optimistic ~
' about man.].iving in space for a long time. He advanced a thought which is very
important and promising to research, that man would gradually change in the "ether"
and the danger of "emptiness" and other adverse influences related to be~ng in space
i would not be so signif icant and devastating to him [2, leaf 6].
Man's adaptation to life in space implies both the creation of a comfortable arti-
ficial exogenous environment, which would not elicit signif.icant changes in man
I (passive adaptation) and psychophysiological and intellectual adaptation of man,
i particularly to the space factors to which it is difficult to adapt by means of
' technical devices alone and there are significant adaptive changes in the body
_ (active adaptation). .This conception of man's adaptati~n has something in common
with Tsiolkovskiy's views of the possibility of man's gradual (over a period of
centuries) adaptation to "ethereal" conditions: "At the present time, the pro-
gressive strata of mankind are striving more and more to place their life into an
artificial framework, and is this not what progress means?.... In the ether
this artificiality will merely reach its extreme, but man will be under the most
beneficial conditions. As the centuries pass, the new conditions will also create
a new breed of beings, and the artificiality around them will be attenuated and,
perhaps, gradually taper off. Would not the conquest of ethereal space follow the
conquest of air: will the air-bound being change into an ethereal one?" [3, p 137].
39
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This quotation is indicative of the profound evolutionary approach to the problem
of emergence of a new type of human beings adapted to life in a space environment.
We are not dealing here with the possibility of life for modern man in space, but
with the basic philosophical and biological approach to the question of possibility
of creating a"new breed of beings" as a result of evolution of the human population.
- Tsiolkovskiy vi~ws altered living conditions as the cause of such evolution. The
problem of social and biological adaptation of man to life fn space, as the important
basis for creating a space civilization, imparted with new properties that permit
active adaptation to extraterrestrial living conditions, is considered by Tsiolkovskiy
from populocentric positions.
As we consider the emerging routes for solving the problem that was touched upon, it
is imperative to avoid absolutization of the knowledge we gained at different import-
ant stages of exploration of space, and to interpret them as the means of coming
gradually closer to understanding the deeper substance of the processes studied.
~ At the same time, we must take into consideration the need for an utterly new level
of solutions to basic and applied problems. Ar. the present time, it is characterized
by a change in rating of values in orientation, science and "industrialization" of
a number of ineans of solving experimental problems. More and more, theoretical
knowledge is gaining features that are essentially similar to a biotechnological
d~sign.
For example, in developing the ways and means of compensating for the effects of
weightlessness and other factors of space flights, on the basis of experimental
worlc done in 1954 [4], we arrived at t~e co~clu~ion that nothing can replace
skeletomuscular activity in flight, that it must be used as the most important
factor in the life of cosmonauts, in combination with positive emotions, nutrition
and controlling [regulatory] pharmacology. The obtained data were indicative of
the importance of specific functional conditioning related to the function of the
vestibular system, cerebellum, etc. Concurrently, there was formulation of some
of the distinctions of preflight, in-flight and postflight physical training and
exercise. In the first programs of physical training, broad use was made of data
indicative of the required energy level of muscular contraction, topography of
function of different muscle groups and other data for the practical solution
of this problem. It was stressed that physical and other loads must be optimized
[S]. Subsequently, theory and methods of using local negative pressure (LNP) and
lower body negative pressure (LBNP) began to be used, and this aided in elaborating
_ the exercise regimen for cosmonauts at all stages of flight, the Chibis device
and Penguin suit.
On the whole, the fundamental conception formulated in the course of this work, to
the effect that active muscular contraction based on feedback is a factor of
paramount importance to compensate for the absence of effects of gravity, was the
basis for a step forward, both with r~spect to s~lving problems of compensation
for the effects of weightlessness and adaptation to it. However, this is only the
beginning, and it is imperative to advance over the ways that were opened toward
solving new qualitative aspects of the problem.
The most important and basically new living factors in space are weightlessness
and related hypodynamia, as well as cosmic radiation, the hazard of which cannot
~ be underestimated. In this regard, a question arises: are the genetic system and
functional status of modern man reliable, and what are its capacities for variability
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for the purpose of adaptive changes and creation of a new level of dy~ami,c equili,b-
rium of homeostasis with the habitat? Is it possible for there to be stable adap-
tation of different generations of modern man to living and working conditions in
space? To what extent is Tsiolkovskiy's opinion of the possibility of creating a
"new breed of beings" in ethereal space valid?
Marxist-Leninist theory considers the social essence of man in dialectical unity
with the distinctions of his vital functions (biological characteristics) as a
component of nature. In principle, it does not restrict the possibility of man's
development as a personality and biological processes in his body. For this reason
there are no grounds to reject the possibility of formation of a new human popula-
tion in the space environme:nt.
Consideration of man's evolution from the populocentric point of view over many
generations assures the fullest disclosure of the mechanisms of man's adaptation.
We define physiological adaptation as a process that leads to a new stable level of
cell and tissue, organ an3 system function, as well as mechanisms of controi, which
makes it possible, on the basis of a balance between expenditure and restoration
of the body's resources, fo~ man's vital functions to take place and for him to
~ work under new living co~.aditions, and for a healthy progeny to develop. At the
- same time, this process is very variable on the population level. The role of the
social ~nd biological environment is of first and foremosr significance in the
j genesis of man's adaptation. Social programs of man's development provide for

__i transmission of his knowhow to generations through processes of rearing, training
~ and education. Thereby, man, who is the carrier of the social program, implements
I evolution of social for:ns of movement of matter by means of refinement of education
and labor [7, 8].
~
~I On earth, biological evolution of man is very limited in view of the relatively
~ standard living conditions. The obtained data indicate that 4-5 generations must
live in the mountains to develop a mountain-dwelling aborigene. But the question
i of whether the reserves of the human body have been exhausted for deeper evolution
under new space conditions (the possibility of which Tsiolkovskiy does not question)
~ has not been definiti.vely answered.
i Evidently, in the history of the future human population developing in space, which
is the basis of spac.e civilization, social programs of its development wi11 be of
prime signif icance in the entire scope of life, including deployment of functional
progr2ms and in connection with the need to develop the ways and means of creating
' conditions that wil.l induce a change in genetic programs, directed at formation of
new physiolog~cal ~~nd psychological properties in space organisms. The possibility
cannot be ruled out that "genetic engineering" procedures (although this, unquestion-
ably, already gen~~rates and will generate a number of biological-technical and
sociological-ethical problems) will also be used to form biological and functional
adaptation programs in the interests of conquering space. Under the influence of
living conditiona in space, there will also be a change in psychophysiological inter-
action between man and the environment, the effects of which are related both to
new space factors ansi separation from terrestrial living conditions. Dialectical
J correlation between structure and function, expenditure and recovery of energy,
structural and other reserves of the body will conform with the new dynamics of
existence, intended for many generations.
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~
Man's consciousness will be of enormous significance in this change (manifesta-
tions thereof such as knowledge, motivation, needs, purposefulness, etc.), since he
will continue `.o live in a social environment and act in the sphere of the social
form of movement of matter. In spite of the increasing role of the genetic pro-
gram (particularly during the period related to change in biological and psycholo-
gical status of the organism in accordance with space conditions), the social pro-
gram, which is profoundly linked with various forms of labor, will retain its
prime significance.
The role of level of knowledge and intelligence in the conquest of space is con-
firmed by the current practice of exploration of near space. This explains, in
particular (along with the active medical and technical steps taken to affect the
psychophysiological status of cosmonauts), the fact that, in spite of the signi-
fication extension of time space crews spend on orbital stations, the health status
and efficiency of cosmonauts are not worsening. Prior experience in manned space
flights has its effect, there is less emotional and mental tension, motivational
and competitive stimuli are triggered, there is more confidence in the exceptional
importance of space research involving man, and there~is an increase in the intellec-
tual potential of crews (including the ground-based flight support service) and
- their experience in working in a specified, strictly circumscribed and self-discip-
- lined mode.
In his works, Tsiolkovskiy also analyzed the origin of life, from the initial atomic
level to formation and development of living structures, from consideration of the
principles of structure and properties of animals, as related to their size and
existing gravity, to preservation of vigor, fitness and active longevity [9-11].
It is quite possible that Tsiolkovskiy was aware of the thesis expounded by I. M.
Sechenov as far back as 1863, which stressed the significance of the molecular level
to vital functions [12].
In studies on problems of adaptation, exceptional importance is attributed to
various biological levels of integration of functions, their regulation and compen-
sation. Thus, A. M. Chernykh [13] discusses 10 levels of self-regulation of the
organism. The highest cortical level includes integration af all other levels and
reflects the multiorganic and intersystem relations. Special significance is attri-
buted to the biosocial level, which interacts with environmental factors [14, 15].
= Starting with~the works of I. M. Sechenov, N. Ye. Vvedenskiy, I. P. Pavlov and A. A.
Ukhtomskiy, the teaching on adaptation began to stand on solid scientific positions
and deal with all adaptive reactions of the body as a dynamic phasic process
under the direct control of the central nervous system.
We believe that utmost information can be obtained with consideration of the or-
ganism's responses to a perceived and unperceived interacting stimulus from the
standpoint of theories of Russian classics in the natural sciences.
This direction was successfully developed in the studies of I. P. Razenkov [16],
who also singled out three phases of adaptation (and a fourth, intermediate one).
I. M. Khazen, who worked on this problem, singled out five phases [17]. F. P.
Kosmolinskiy found four [18]. The research of N. V. Lazarev on the state of
nonspecific heightened resistance of the organism (SNHR), developing under the
influence of a special group of substances (adaptogens), is important [19]. On
the basis of teaching on SNHR, there was development of a classification of
~ 42
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~~c~R ci~FU-~.~~. ~~~1~: t1N1.1'
,iil.i~~~ ~v~ ,L,alu.~ Uti 1.. tii~. v,1~n.lvl, l~. ~V~-lklLl~i dRd I`l. L~. L'kuLu~~~1 j~U.~ % t'~)l~~ILLLUUL~~;~
reaction (to mild stimuli), activation reaction (to moderate stimuli) and tension
(stress) reaction to strong stimuli. A. V. Korobkov [5] mentioned five different
phases of adaptation and preparedness of an organism for adaptation as a most import-
ant preliminary stage, stressing the role of motor activity to nonspecific resistance
- at all phsses of adaptation. The teaching on phasic states of the organism, which
was developed by Soviet scientists, is more comprehensive and a scientifically more
finished entity than Selye's stress theory, which reflects only part of thE hormonal
reactions in the hypophysis-adrenal system (which were, unquestionably, submitted
to in-depth investigation by Selye and his school).
Problems related to human ecology are of special importance to work on the proble~
of development of a space civilization. Scientific-techno].ogical and economic
problems of the "space station (city) human population space" system are
acquiring special and specific significance. In such a system wozk and other loads
should be such as to permit removal of fatigue before the next work cycle and they
should not affect health. This should be implemented by the industry of re-creating
health, directed at preservation and reproduction of manpower resources in space
civilizaticin.
Longevity has become a necessity dictated by the tasks of space exploration, while
space provides new impetus and means of achieving this. For this reason, problems
of life and death in space require special investigation.
The concept of health of an individual man on earth, as well as in space, cannot
be extended to the population health level. This is a different biosocial category.
- Man's health is determined by his activity and life span. But population health
is also characterized by social times, effectiveness of social production, etc.,
which determine the optimum development of a papulation. It is imperative to
investigate the very concept of population and criteria that characterize it, as
well as sociodemographic processes in a space civilization on the basis of integra-
tion of data in hygiene, psychology, physiology, biorhythmology, therapeutic medi-
cine and others, with due consideration of the new level and nature of life
support systems; mental and physical activity during life in space.
Thus, socio-anthropo-ecological studies should alter the routes of development ~f
- anthropology that were formed on earth. We must continue the development of the con-
ceptions of V. I. Vernadskiy c~ncerning the sphere of intelligence--noosphere, as
related to a space civilization [21].
The role of man, with his consciousness and activities in a space civilization, will
- undergo exceptional increase. He will create a specific, continuously controlled
scientific and technological environment as the basic ~nvironment of his existence.
This environment cannot be equated with natural environmental factors. Scientific-
technological factors~ and substances are natural in origin. But man organizes them
and imparts pro perties to them in sucti a way that does not exist in nature. At the
same time, technological systems combine the laws of nature (natural science) and
- social development. Technology is governed by its own laws, which are formed under
the influence of both natural and social factors. In a space civilization, cor~plex
organization and automation of states, as well as development of a scientific-
technological environment on the basis of interaction between social, natural and
engineering sciences, will reach a new level, higher than on earth, without which
life itself would be impossible in space. This creates additional conditions and
stimuli for disclosure of the capabilities of the human personality.
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Al1 of the foregoing is indicative of the need to make a special study of the prob*-
lem of man and human population in a scientific-technalogical space environment
(stsdy of capacities of the human body for change in nature of energy exchange with
the environment, etc.). No doubt, in the philosophical respect, the works of ~he
classics in Marxism-Leninism, as well as Tsiolkovskiy and Vernadskiy j21-23], are
- very importantto predicting man's life in space. At the same time, when discussing
the problem of man's adaptation from the populocentric aspects of evolution, one
cannot equate variability and adaptability [24].
The life of human society will develop on the basis of processes of evolution and
adaptogenesis, both on earth and under extraterrestrial conditions, and the optimism
of Tsiolkovskiy, who maintained that there is no end to the refinement of
mankind. Its progress is perpetual" [23, p 139], is fully warranted. ~In the opinion
of Ye. T. Faddeyev, "the ideas of K. E. Tsiolkovskiy concerning the perpetual develop-
ment of intelligent social beings, the possibility of such developm~nt for each civi-
lization, including our terrestrial mankind," are of great philosophical importance
[24, pp 29-30].
In conclusion, we consider it mandatory to stress that all space problems were
born on earth, and they will continue to generate and be refined in the foreseeable
furiire, in many respects, on earth. For this reason, the study of ecology of
terr.estrial human populations, qualitative aspects of coordination of movement,
metabolism and energy in the human body, as it interacts with the overall natural
environment and the environment created by the course of scientific and technologi.cal
process (civilization) will be the basis for developing the entire system ot a space
civilization.
Investigation of the reserves of the human body for the continued evolution thereof,
as well as the principal routes, dynamics and structure of this process, should be
- considered of special importance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Tsiolkovskiy, K. E., "Life in the Interstellar Environment," Mnscow, 1964.
2. Idem, "Life in the Ether," ARK~~IV AN SSSR, Folio 555, Opus 1? File 1, pp l-9.
- 3. Idem, "Reactive [Jet-Propelled] Flight Vehicles," "Sobr. soch." [Collected
Works], Moscow, Vol 2, 195~4.
4. Korobkov, A. V., Shkurdoda, V. A., Yavlev, N. I. and Yakoveyeva, Ye. S.,
"Physical Culture for People of Different Ages (Biological Bases),"
"Fizkul'tura i sport" [Physical Culture and Sports], Moscow, 1962, pp 7-41.
5. Korobkov, A. V., "Physical Exercise as a Means of Preserving Stable Homeostasis
in Cosmonauts," in "Problemy kosmicheskoy biologii" [Problems of Space Biology],
USSR Academy of�Sciences, Vol 2, 1952, pp 68-74.
6. Idem, "Physiological and Clinical Effects of Local Negative Pressure on Man and
Animals (Summaries of Papers Delivered at Scientif ic Conference)," Moscow,
VNIIFK [All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Physical Culture], 1972,
pp 6-9.
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7. Korobkov, A. V., "Is Lung-Term Life Possible in 'Ethereal~ Cities," "Trudy
XII i XIII Chteniy K. E. Tsiolkovskogo, Sektsiya 'Problemy kosmicheskoy meditsiny i.
biologii"' jProceedings of 12th and 13th K. E. Tsiolkovskiy Lecture Series,
Section on "Problems of Space Medicine and Biology"], Moscow, 1979, pp 98-102.
8. Dichev, T. G. and Tarasov, K. Ye., "The Problem of Man's Adaptation and Health,"
Moscow, 1976.
" 9. Tsiokovskiy, K. E., "The Way to the Stars," Moscow, 1960. ~
- 10. Idem, "Formation of Different Species of Living Things," ARKH. AN SSSR, Fo1io 555,
Opus 1, File 295, pp 1-14.
11. Idem, "Longevity," Ibid, Folio 55.5, Opus 1, File 518, pp 1-6.
12. Sechenov, I. M., "Reflexes of the Brain," in "I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. Ye.
Vvedenskiy. Fiziologiya nervnoy sistemy. Izbratlnyye trudy" [Physiology of the
Nervous System. Selected Works by I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov and N. Ye.
VvedenskiyJ, Moscow, Vol 10, 1952, pp 143-211.
13. Chernukh, A. M., "Regulatory Mechanisms and Processes of Getting Sick and
Recovering on Different Levels of Integration of the Body," PATOLOGICHESKAYA
FIZIOLOGIYA I EKSTREMAL~NAYA TERAPIYA, No 2, 1972, pp 3-12.
' 14. Anokhin, P. K., "Foreword to Russian Edition of Book by E. Gellhorn and J.
i Lufborough. Emotions and Emotional Disorders," translated from English, Moscow,
~ 1966, pp 5-18.
I
15. Shidlovskiy, V. A., "Multivariant Adaptive Regulation of Autonomic Functions,"
~ in "Voprosy kibernetiki. Vyp. 37: Sistemnyy analiz ve~etativnykh funktsiy"
~ [Problems of Cybernetics. No 37: Systems Analysis of Autonomic Functions], Moscow,
i 1978, Pp 3-7.
16. Razenkov, I. P., "Changes in the Process of Stimulation of the Cerebral Cortex
of Dogs Under Difficult Conditions," in "Trudy fiziologicheskikh laboratoriy
_ akademika I. P. Pavlova" [Works of the Physiological I,aboratories of Academician
I. P. Pavlov], Len3ngrad, Vol 1, No 1, 1925, pp 103-117.
i 17. Khazen, I, M., "Classification of Phasic States of the Body Under Extreme
~ Conditions and the Problem of Retaining ~'igor and Effi~iency, as Reflected in
j the Works of K. E. Tsiolkovskiy," "Trudy d~syatykh chteniy K. E. Tsiolkovskogo.
Sektsiya 'Problemy kosmicheskoy meditsiny i biologii [Proceedings of lOth
K. E. Tsiolkovskiy Lecture Series. Section on "Problems of Space Medicine and
Biology], Mosco~a, '1977, pp 167-185.
18. Kosmolinskiy, F. P., "Emotional Stress During Work Under Extreme Conditions,"
Moscow, 1976.
19. Lazarev, N. V., "C,omparison.of Nonspecific Defense Reactions Affecti~g Generali-
zation of Infections and Metastases of Neoplasms," VOPROSY ONKOLOGII, Vol 8,
- No 11, Leningrad, 1962, pp 20-28.
20. Garkavi, L. Kh., Kvakina, Ye. B. and Ukolova, M. A., "Adaptive Reactions and
Resistance of the Organism," Rostov-na-Donu, 1977.
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21. Akunov, V. I., Kosmolinskiy, F. P. and Sorokin, N. V., "Problems of Evolution
in the Works of K. E. Tsiolkovskiy and V. I. Vernadskiy," "Trudy XII i XIII
Chteniy K. E. Tsiolkovskogo. Sektsiya 'Problemy kosmicheskoy meditsiny i
biologii;" Moscow, 1979, pp 148-151. ~
22. Ryzhikov, G. V. and Bal'tsev, V. B., "General and Special Aspects of the
Adaptation Problem," FIZIOLOGIYA CHELOVEKA, Vol 8, No 6, 1977, pp 985-996.
23. Tsiolkovskiy, K. E., "Exploration of World Spaces with Reactive Instruments
(1911-1912)," "Sobr, soch." [Collected Works], Moscow, Vol 2, 1954,
pp 100-193.
24. Faddeyev, Ye. T. "K. E. Tsiolkovskiy on the Perpetual Development of the Uni-
~ verse," "Trudy pyatykh i shestykh Chteniy K. E. Tsiolkovskogo. Sektsiya
'Issledovaniya nauchnogo tvorchestva K. E. Tsiolkovskogo [Proceedings of
5th and 6th K. E. Tsiolkovskiy Lecture Series. Section on "Studies of the
Scientific Creativity of K. E. TsiolkovskiyJ, Moscoce, 1972, pp 26-39.
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SPACE ENGINEERING
UDC 629.78.002.2(075.8)
TECHNOLOGY OF ASSEMBLY, INSTALLATION AND REPAIR WORK IN SPACE
Moscow OSNOVY KOSMICHESKOY TEKHNOLOGII in Russian 1980 (signed to press 26 May 80)
pp 100-115
[Part 3, Chapter 1, Sections 1.1-1.3 from book "Principles of Space Technology", by
Ivan Timofeyevich Belyakov and Yuriy Dmitriyevich Borisov, Izdatel'stvo
"Mashinostroyeniye", 2,000 copies, 185 pages]
[Excerpt] Part 3. Technology of Assembly, Installation and Ftepair Work in Space
i
The development of rocket and space techno~ogy is following the path of the crea-
tion of ever heavier, mare complicated and larger objects in space, including the
space technological complexes that will be built in the near future. In order to
build and support the extended functioning of space systems, we now need to be able
' to carry out in space the technological processes involved in installing, repairing,
monitoring and testing equipment and maintaining an object in space and its various
systems.
Chapter 1. Assembly of Objects
At the present time we are witnessing the construction of large orbital complexes
of the "Soyuz"-"Salyut"-"Progress" type. At the same time, however, plans for
large, multipurpose, long-lived orbital base stations are also being developed. An
example of this is the American Macdonnell-Douglas Company's plan for a base sta-
tion for 50 people that weighs 450 t and has a useful volume of 2,700 m3 and a cen-
tral unit that is 114 m long. In order to create artificial gravity of up to lg~,
, it is specified that the station will rotate at a speed of 3.5 r/min relative to
' the central unit's longitudinal axis. The proposed power supply is a nuclear power
i plant.
As a result of the power shortage that we are experiencing even now, plans for a
~ photoelectric solar pawer station in space are beginning to be dev~loped. T'ne di-
mensiuns of this station are truly fantastic: it will be about 10-12 km long and
5 km wide. With a solar battery about 4 x 5 lan in size, a parabolic microwave an-
tenna for transmit~ing energy in the ultrasonic band from the ultrahigh-frequency
generator to Earth, and a total mass of about 20,000 t, the station will have an
output power of 5-10 GW. The design, engineering and control problems involved in
the creation of such a station are truly huge. It is necessary to solve problems
about the choice of the structural power system for the station's basic assemblies;
the choice of materials that will provide prolonged strength under the conditions
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encountered in spacc; [lie prevc~ntion ot the appearance of an inadmieaibly higti
~ space electrostatic charge on the station because of the effect of the cosmic plas-
ma; the delivery of the units forming the station into orbit, their assembly, the
maintenance of the station and so on.
Calculations show that as the dimensions of objects delivered into orbit and, coa-
sequently, the eneLgy expenditures for a given flight increase, there is also an
increase in the ratio of the rocket system's liftoff mass to the weight of the use-
ful load. This r~akes it necessary to build launch vehicles of gigantic size and
power and makes the development and operation of launch complexes more expensive.
- Therefore, the assembly in orbit of the individual elements of spacecraft, as well
as the servicing of such craft in orbit, will make it possible to eliminate this
unjustified increase in the power of launch vehicles and will give us the ability
to build space rocket systems tailored to given problems at less cost. It is also
possible to demonstrate the feasibility of using a number of assembly methods in
space: docking assembly of object~ in space from separate units delivered from
Earth; assembly of objects from transformable parts; assembly of large areal struc-
tures by cosmonauts in open space.
All of these assembly methods are dictated by the necessity of reducing energy ex-
- penditures for the delivery of large objects into orbit.
The development of new technological assembly processes and the determination of j
the structural engineering requirements for dockable assemblies and the necessary
technological equipment are both necessary prerequisite~ for the creation of long-
lived orbi.*al stations and other objects in space.
The planning of technological operations for the conditions encountered in space
invelves a complex of technical, technological, design and ergonomic problems.
As the basic features of the planning of technological operations for space (after
demonstrating their effectiveness or substantiating the need for them), we can dis-
tinguish the following:
careful development and perfection of operations on the ground but under conditions
as close to those encountered in space as possible;
evaluation of the functional capabilities for the cosmonaut-operator's actions un-
- der space conditions with respect to specific operations;
creation of a theoretical ~mathematical) model of a process on which a technologi-
cal operation is based, for the purpose of obtaining information about the pro-
cess's basic parameters and their interrelationship, as well as optimization of a
process's basic parameters for the purpose of insuring the required assembly work
quality;
creation of working facilities and accommodations f or the operator-technologist;
guaranteeing the safety of a cosmonaut-technologist while working.
Let us move on to a discussion of inethods for assembling space objects.
1.1, Docking-Assembly of Space Stations
At the present time we are already carrying out the docking-assembly of space sta-
tions in orbit, using independent units delivered from Earth that have their own
propulsion systems; an example of this is the assembly of the "Soyuz"-"Salyut"-
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- "Progress" complexes. We can expect the development of this assembly method on the
basis of the creation of special technological docking assemblies with a simplified
design. These general-purpose technological assemblies can be used repeatedly for
the direct docking of units delivered into orbit and the joining of theae units in
the position needed for the realization of a technological process, after which the
docking assembly can be dismantled for the purpose of using it again to assemble
other units.
Docking-assembly of space stations in orbit can be regarded as the first stage in
the development of assembly work in space. At the present time, docking-assembly
of space stations is the most developed method of assembly in space.
Docking-assembly can be carried out either autamatically or manually (by a cosmo-
naut). The possibilities of docking-assembly are determined by the degre~ of per-
fection of the facilities used to search for the objects to be put together, as
well as the maneuv er ing, approach and docking equipment, the perfection of the
docking assemblies' design and--in the case of the use of semiautomatic docking--
the cosmonaut's skill. Despite the huge complexities that must be dealt with when
working out docking-assembly operations in space, this type of assembly should be
regarded as the method of assemhling space objects that is most accessible at the
present ~ime. Docking-assembly can, obviously, be anly the first stage in the
technological process of the assembly of large arbital stations in orUit. Actually,
after the docking (mooring) of units to be assembled in space, the technological ~
process of assembly can carried out immediately. In this case it is possible to
~ introduce purely technological requirements f or assemblies (units) that are to be
' assembled by doc king-assembly and the technolo~ical processes that are being devel-
op ed
This type of requirement can include the following.
I 1. Units deliv ered for docking-assembly must be assembled on Earth in their maxi-
~ mally finished f o~?. (In particular, in view of the obvious difficulties involved
li in carrying them out in space, coating application processes must be implemented
I under ter.restrial cond itions.)
~ 2. The units' docking assemblies must be completely interchangeable.
3. If it is necessary tr; make a permanent connection at the joint after docking-
' assembly, the docking assembly itself must inaure.reli.able engagement of the units
(mechanical, electromagnetic and other types) thraughout the entire period that the
work is being done. In connection with this, there must not be any adjustment work
that has to be done when the permanent connection is being made and the connecting
processes must be maximally automated.
- 4. The design of the docking points must make it possible to perform repair and
- restoration wor k in the case of disruption of a joint's normal functioning (the
airtightness is lost, for example) without undocking of the units involved (partic-
ularly those joined by permanent connections).
5. Angular compensation can be provided during the assembly of units either by the
design of the dockxng assembly or during the connecting process, with the help of
special correcting devices and reference point3 on the surfaces of the units being
assembled.
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By using the docking-assembly method, it
is possible to assemble rather large space
� stations by adding additional units to the
� basic one (Figure 3.1).
Let us examine several details of the pro-
. cess of the dacking-assembly of space sta-
tions from independent units. Each u~it
of such a space station must be delivered
into orbit by a separate launch vehicle.
Tn order to solve this problem, methods
' ~ ~ and systems must be developed whereby two
� ships inserted into nearby orbits can find
Figure 3.1. Long-term orbital station each other, maneuver, approach, moor and
assembled from independent units. dock, either completely automatically or
with the participation of a cosmonaut.
The automatic docking (and then undocking) of ui~manned spacecraft was first accomp�-
lished on 30 Oc~tober 1967, during the orbital flight of the Soviet "Kosmos-186" and
"Kosmos-188" satellites. In connection with this, one satellite was "active" and
the other was "passive." The first satellite carried out such complicated func-
tions as searching for the other one in space, detecting it, approaching it and
mooring; the "passive" satellite was simpler: it was oriented in space in a cer-
tain manner and served as a beacon for the active satellite. In order to be able
to move in space, each satellite had a propulsion system that could be used repeat-
edly tor orbital correction and rendezvousing. For orientation and stabilization,
as well as for precise regulation of the mooring process during docking, both sat-
ellites had systems of low-thrust reaction engines. The docking assemblies insured
retraction and provided a reliable mechanical connection between the two satellites.
Docking-assembly is preceded by the following operations:
1. Launch and injection into orbit of the passive object ~target), which does not
maneuver in orbit (a situation where both spacecraft maneuver is also possible).
2. Launch and injection of the maneuverable object into the meeting zone.
3. Search and location (capture) of the target.
4. Rendezvous and mooring.
The docking stage begins at the moment of first contact of the docking mechaniems ,
and ends with the final mechanical and electrical connnection of the craft that are
docking.
The docking of orbital objects is a critical operation, since the docking objects
enter direct physieal interaction with each other (in the general case, with a non-
zero relative velocity and a different relative orientation). The docking process
depends to a large degree on the initial conditions of the docking stage and the
docking mec~anisms' characCeristics.
On the basis of experimental data, the following initial docking condition values
are the most satisfactory: relative mooring velocity--0.03-0.075 m/s; lateral
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displacement with respect to the axis--+0.5 m; angular migaligrnnent (with respect
to ul1 uxes)--+5~, -
Let us enumerate the docking mechanisms' basic assignments:
- reduce the difference in the docking objects' velocities to zero; that is, to act
_ as a shock absorber by receiving and scattering the kinetic energy;
after first cont~ct, to provide a mechanical connection between the craft so as to
prevent their rebounding from each other after contact;
compensate for the mutual misalignment of the craft's axes that can occur by the
moment of first contact;
insure the matching of the alignment of the axes of both craft and triggering of
the locks after first contact without use of the propulsion systems;
after triggering of the ~asic locks, provide sufficient rigidity of the connection
and the transmission of loads through the locks when there is joint maneuvering of
both craft;
provide an airtight connection when necessary;
make it possible for the craft to disengage immediately when necessary;
provide repulsive forces during disengagement;
be ready for repeated use immediately after disengagement;
make it possible to transmit electrical signals, transfer fuel and cargo and trade
crews between the two craft;
- have adequate reliai~ility and little mass.
1 3 2 ~
\ 0 ~
_ 1_ / ~ ` ~ O
0 5 ~ p
0 ~o � 4 o p
6 �
e
Figure 3.2. Androgynous docking assembly in the "Soyuz"-"Apollo"
system: 1. lock on ship's hull; 2, guide on lateral face of a
lobe; 3. end ring with eight locks; 4. power cylinders; 5. guide
ring; 6. lock on lobe.
Figure 3.2 depicts the androgynous-type docking assembly used to dock the "Soyuz"
and "Apollo" ships.
For purposes of simplifying the search and guidance systems and the docking-
assembly of units, it is possible to use special *_owing and manipulating devices
located on the ba~ic unit of the space station being assembled. In this case the
basic unit can be (for example) equipped with a net, with the help.of which it cap-
tures the structural units sent after it from Earth that need to be combined with
the basic unit (Figure 3.3a, b). By unwinding, the braking cable slows down the
captured structural unit and then pulls the units together (Figure 3.3c, d). With
- the help of a manipulator on the basic unit, a docking assembly of simplified de-
sign is oriented correctly, the captured structural unit is brought up to the
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f ,
~ 3
2 ,
a) ~ ~ . ,
. , c~
Figure 3.4. Assembly ship (diagram).
_ d ~ ~ f~
Figure 3.3. Diagram of docking- basic unit's docking assembly, and
a~ssembly with the help of towing and docking-assembly of the units takes place
manipulating devices on the basic (Figure 3.3e, f). The capturing net can
unit: a. rendezvousing of units; b, then be spread out again with the help of ~
- capture of structural unit by net; c. a remote manipulator, thereby making it
when the braking cable is unwinding; possible to capture subsequent structural
d, units being pulled together; e. units sent from Earth and combine them
alignment of the axes of the units' with the basic unit.
docking assemblies; f. docking-
assembly of units with each other; 1, In the near future we can expect the crea-
basic unit; 2. structural unit; 3, tion of a special space assembly system
net. consisting of a space tug and an assembly
ship (Figure 3.4) that, after being placed
in orbit ~with the help of reusable space t�ransport ships), will carry out the as-
sembly of individual structural units in orbit. In this case the assembly process
will take place as follows (Figure 3.5): the space tug captures a structural unit
sent into orbit from Earth and tows it into the assemb~y orbit. In the assembly
_ 3 2 1
, ~
, a
. o .
,
~ o '
- - � e � � -
011
Figure 3.5. Diagram of assembly ship�operatxan: 1. assembly
ship; 2. structural unit; 3. space tug.
orbit, the space tug docks with the assembly ship with the help of simplified dock-
ing assemblies on the structural unit and the assembly ship, and "gives" the latter
the structural unit (position 1, Figure 3.5). The space tug sets off for the next
structural unit, and when it returns an automatic device for docking and coupling
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the structural units moves along the first structural unit, thereby m.aking it ready
to receive (dock with) the next unit bein~ delivered by the space tug (position 2,
Figure 3.5). The space tug delivers the next unit and the two structural units
dock with each other. After the technological operation of connecting the units by
some form of permanent connection (by welding, for example), a special, automatic-
a11y operating installation sends the space tug for the next structural unit and
the process of unit "accretion" is repeated. In this case the assembly ship is a
unique robot--a complex cybernetic device. As technical and economic calculations
show, as the size of space objects increases, so does the effectiveness of the
utilization of assembly ships.
~.2. Creation of Objects From Transformable Structures
It is difficult to imagine the building of large objects in space without the use
of transforniable structures that are delivered into orbit in a folded, compact form.
Special devices are used to transform these structures by unfolding (extending, in-
flating) them until they acquire the desired shape and size. In the future, these
_ component parts of space objects will assemble themselves into a uni.fied whole.
The use of such structures makes it possible to overcome the difficulties involved
in transporting into orbit units for space objects that are of great length, area
or volume, thereby providing a large savings of delivery facilities and increasing
- the transportation capabilities of existing launch vehicles.
, Transformable structures must satisfy the following requirements: the structure
must be of minimum volume during i.njection into orbit and of maximum volume (or
area) after transformation (that is, it must have a maximum coefficient of struc-
' tural transformation); tY.e structure must have minimum mass and high strengtli and
' rigidity after transformation; the structure must be highly reliable and durable
~ during extended use in open space (and must maintain its airtightness, when this is
' necessary).
~ Let us discuss the three basic groups of structures: extendable-inflatable (using
materials with "memory" properties), extendable-bar and extendable-areal structures.
~
~ Extend~ble-Inflatable Structures. This type of structure includes th4se of the
! shell type.
_~i .
Primarily, these are inflatable structures made of an elastic material or a plastic
metal; they are delivered into orbit in the form of a compressed bellows in folded
- or compressed form, after which a gas is used to inflate them into their pxoper
- form.
Suggestions that inflatable structures can be used to build inhabitable and un-
inhabitable orbital stations have been heard for a long time. One of the basic re-
quirements for an orbital station's shell is that it have low gas permeability and
be durable enough to withstand collisions with meteorites (that it not tear apart
when punctured). Automatic elimination of any openings that might form should be
provided for.
High accuracy in the formation of a shell is achieved by controlling the internal.
pressure. The pressure in a shall or individual cavities in it is controlled by
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/lpazparrn+ct i1
- Up
~ u8M (2)
_ ~Paa uE Up nrtm.
` ,QamyuK ycunumeno ~ ~
" ~3~ Meauuu ynpaBne
uA t~'~
. OLO/704KQ ~5~ ~
tT) (8)
.QamyuK Pe2ynAmop NcmoyHUK
�KmuBHVCmu pacxoacz n~[mQHCtA
ConHC~a
QtzmvuK
~ aaBneHUp 93
Figure 3.6. Block diagram of shape-change control system for a
transforn?able shell.
Key:
- 1. Program 6. Solar activity sensor .
2. Digital computer 7. Flow rate regulator
3. Deformation sensor 8. Power soLrce
4. Control signal amplifier 9. Pressure sensor
5. Shell
feeding in the working body (usually a mixture of a gas and air). On the whole,
the shape and size of an article is controlled on th~ basis of deviations of the
intermediate article's parameters from the rated ones. Figure 3.6 is a functional
_ diagram of a system for the automatic regulation of the gas shaping of a shell hav-
- ing a single internal cavity with controllable pressure. Signals from the pressure,
deformation and solar radiation sensors enter a digital computer, where they are
compared with signals corresponding to the rated values of the measured variable~.
When it receives a signal (U) that there is a deviation from the rated values, an
- error signal passes through the amplifier to flow rate regulator and power source,
changing the gas flow rate and the voltage at the power source's ouCput, thereby
reducing the error signal. When the voltage corresponding to the assigned deforma-
tion of the shell is achieved, the shapins process c~ases.
There is a great deal of interest in inflatable structures made of multilayered
shells; they differ favorably from single-layer ones because ~f their great rigidx-
ty and greater safety factor during collisions with meteorites. Such a structure
consists of inner and outer shells with a fill.er between them.
A structure is assembled in the following manner. A shell is manufactured that�,
when unfolded, has the shape of the futuze space object. It is carefully tested,
after which the air is pumped out of it and it is folded and packaged. After de-:
livery into orbit the shell is again inflated, with the pressure in the central
~ part being higher than that in the peripheral compartments. Pipe connections are
then used to inject a special liquid into the peripheral compartments' cavities,
_ where it foams, fills the space between the inner and outer shells and hardens,
thereby providing the structure with rigidity and protection against micrometeorites.
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� There is also a great deal of interest in
metal shell structures of the bellows type
' that are manufactured on Earth from sheet
rt/ metal and then folded. After they are de-
;o o i livered into assembl orbit mechanical
y ~ \ forces exerted by tension membera or in-
~ . ,
ternal pressure that is the result of the
- in ection of a com r.essed
j p gas causes them
~ b~ to be transformed into a shell-hull with a
large internal volume. Such structures
Figure 3.7. Space object made from can serve as the basis for future manned
transformable metal shells: a, be- and unmanned objects that are to remain in
fore transformation; b, after trans- space for a long time (Figure 3.7). The
formation. main advantage of such structures is that,
- along with compactness and small mass,
they have a rather high degree of rigidity. In a situation where there are in-
_ creased requirements for a structure's rigidi,ty, it is possible to use additional
internal reinforcing elements (plates, section irons, bars, frames) that are packed
with the shell-hull in folded form ~efore the structure is sent into orbit. Once
in orbit they can be unfolded and the cosmona~t assembler can lay them out in the
required position and perform the necessary metal installation work.
Transforming Structures Utilizing Materials With "Memory" Properti~s. A design for
a passive communication satellite in spherical form has been patented in the United
States. After it is launched into orbit and freed from its container, it unfolds
- when it is heated to a temperature above 65oC by some heat source (chemical, elec-
trical) or under the effect of the Sun's rays. This type of structure can serve as
yet another example of transformable structures. It consists of a metal-coated
Mylar film shell and stiffening ribs made of a titanium-nickel alloy (nitinol
[translation unknown]). This structure has the property of "remembering" the shape
that it had at a high temperature. This is explained by the fact that when a 5-10
percent (no more definite figures were given) titanfum-nickel alloy (TiNi) is bent,
the alloy changes into TiNi2 and TiNi3, which change back into TiNi when heated
above 65�C and cause the structure to return to its original form. When they are
- unfolded, the satellite's stiffening ribs resemble the meridians of a sphere, but
when coiled spirally they can be packed, along with the shell, in the form of a
circle or cylinder (depending on the shape of the container) of little volume.
After being launched and freed from the container, the structure is heated to 65�C
by (for example) connecting the stiffening ribs to an electric power source, where-
upon it unfolds and stretches out into a shell. This type of structure can obvi-
ously also be used to make large space ships.
A rather large number of inetal alloys are included in the liat of materials that
can "remember" a deformation.
Unrolling Sheet Bars. The hull of a spacecraft is subjected to the action of inete-
oric particles, which attack the surface layer of the shell forming its hull. In
order to increase the service life of a spacecraft's hull, it is advisable to cover
it with a special protective screen. In connection with this, there arises the ne-
. cessity of manufacturing large shells from rolled sheet blanks.
A sheet-type shell is delivered into orbit in coiled (rolled-up) form, so the first
stage in manufacturing a screen is to open the r.oll until it has zero curvature.
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. ' With the help of a apecial device (Figure
3.8) for uncoiling the roll, it is neces-
sary to create the tarque needed to uncoil
- a6uzamenb the blank. A monitaring device is needed
_ (1) 8 to insure that the sheet has the required
~A ~M curvature.
~
pvad6uxrNae ' The rad~us of curvature is determined by
maaa(2) 1 the length of the extendable bar. Final
_ ~ lapping of the shell's curvature is
Figure 3.8. Diagram of unrolling of achieved by mcrving slide bar B in direc-
blank. tion A and exerting the appropriate con-
Key: 1. Motor trol over the moment of the unrolling
2. Extendable bar mechanism's motor.
t~ t r f r r r~~~ After the sheet blank is unrolled and giv-
en the necessary shape and size, spiral
welding can be carried out, thereby pro-
ducing a protectiv e screen or a cylindri-
cal shell for a large orbital station.
- ~ ~
- Figure 3.9. Honeycombs in folded and Extension of Honeycou~b Units in Space.
extended states. The well-known method of making honeycomb
~ units fram foil (fro~ an alumin~um alloy,
for example) can be used successfully as a technological process f ar manufacturing
~arge platforms for orbital stations in space. Figure 3.9 is a diagram of the
realization.of this process. Under the conditions encountered in space, the pro-
cess must be maximally automated.
' The advisability of using this process in
~ - space is explained by the possibility of
_ 2 delivering into a satellite's orbit honey-
1 camb units with unextended honeycombs. In
order to build a large platform, it is ne-
a~ ~ cessary to use a transport spacecraft to
deliver a honeycomb unit that is quite
6) long but, at the same time, has a small
'I cross-section. This unit must then t~e
_ ~ ' stretched out with the help of special but
uncomplicated automatic devices. After
this, it is suffYCient to use any availa-
ble method to place sheet material on bath
Figure 3.10. Module of the "umbrella" side of the extende d honeycomb unit so as
type: a. compact state; b, inter- to form a panel filled with honeycombs.
mediate state; c. extended operating This type of structure can serve as the
state; 1, brace; 2. rod, basis for the framework of a space ob-
~ ject's asaembly area or, for example, as a
framework for solar batteries covering a large area.
Among the number of promising transformable structures we should include various
extendable-b~r structures of the "umbrella" type (Figure 3.10). In the folded
state such a structure has a small volume. When acted, on by the braces, the
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structure's rods can be extended and it will take on the required configuration;
for.example, it can be one of the modules of the framework of a space object that
is large in area (such as a radio antenna).
1.3. Assembly of Large Objects With the Participation of Space-Walking Cosmonauts
- Despi~te the fact that the spacecraft that have been launched in recent years have
become larger and larger, in the future--as in the past--it will be impossible to
launch large antennas, telescopes and other devices into orbit in a fully assembled
state. Therefore., in open space it is necessary to have special methods for assem-
bling large articles from separate parts outside a spacecraft. Let us discuss one
of these methods, for the a�~sembly of a large antenna in space.
An antenna in a modular version is the most attractive (fram the constructional
point of view) for the process of assembly outsxde a spacecraft. The panels of a
modular antenna, which remind one of a honeybee's comb, are assembled in a manner
similar to the way a concrete-block house is built. In connection with this, it is
- usually necessary to align and attach panels of the same size, which r.equires a
minimum of equipment, skill and time, From the viewpoint of this type of assembly,
we preliminarily analyzed a modular antenna 45 m in diameter that consists of 240
standard panels with dimensions on the order of 2.7 x 2.8 m(the longitudinal edges
~f the panels are slightly beveled, at an angle of about 7�).
i
=i
- The so-called "escalator" method, where
the cosmonaut stands on a special scaffold
~ (Figure 3.11) and works as he moves along
a guide rail, is extremely promising for
this type of space object. He begins the
assembly by attaching a standard panel to
- the circular (central) base section. When
one row is assembled, he then assembles
Figure 3.11. Structure assembled by the second row and so forth until all 240
the "escalatSr" method, standard panels are in place.
The ba~ic question in analyzing this assembly process was about a man's ability to
~ mo~ze aud put in place the relatively large panels.
~
I
j An Fxperiment in a"weightless" water tank showed that the average time for the in-
' stallation of a panel measuring 2.7 x 2.5 ia is no more than 0.8 min. Such data can
~ be used when calculating the time required to assemble antennas. Using these data,
' it can be determined that the time required to assemble an antenna 45 m in diameter
is about 400 min (or 6 h 40 min), including 1 h for the cosmonaut to rest.
However, it is obvious that for an antenna several kilometers in diameter, this
type of assembly must be performed with the help of robots and manipulators.
On the Use of Robots and Manipulators in Assembly Operations. It has already been
mentioned that with the increases in the complexity and size of space objects,
their assembly in space will be impossible without the use of manipulators and, in
the final account, assembler robots.
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The creation of robots and manipulators capable of alleviating a cosmonaut's labor,
and in some cases generally freeing him from the dicect performance of some opera-
tion or another, is an extremely urgent problem.
Let us discuss several questions related to the prospects for using these types of
devices in space technological assembly processes.
When a manipulator is in cperation, its functions consist primarily of grasping
solid objects and orienting them spatially.
In order for the actuating element of a manipulator to have the capability of mov-
ing and orienting in the appropriate fashion its grasping device and the object
held in it, it must have at least three independent advancing and three independent
rotating motions. Besides this, the grasping device must have yet another inde-
pendent motion: opening and closing of the gripping ~aws. It is frequently neces-
sary to provide for additional degrees of freedom, so that it ia po~~ible to chang~
the shape of the actuating element or expand the manipulator's area of operation.
A manipulator's actuating element must be light, flexible and strong, have a wrist-
type joint for rapid attachment or removal of the gripping device, and have seven
basic degrees of freedom.
The grasping and installation of parts in immobile elements of equipment that are
- mated precisely to them should be included in the category of manipulation opera-
tions of average complexity. In order to a~void the ~appearance of large stresses
and insure the final installation of precisely mat.;d parts, a manipulator's actuat-
ing element must have a certain degree of flexibility. Flexibility is provided
either by elasticity of the actuating element or by slippage of the otaject in the
grasping device.
The use of systems for searching for and "feeling" objects enables a manipulator to
perform much more complicated operations and, on the other hand, lightens the re-
~equirements for mutual orientation of the objects to be assembled and the automat-
ic unit. In this case the automaton and the object of assembly do not have to be
mutually oriented and can be in any position and at any point in the sutamaton's
operating range. If the automaton is equipped with a"visual analyzer," the search
' and identification process takes place in the optical channel, and only after it is
completed does the mechanical hand go into operation. In this case the manipula-
tor's hand can perform highly complex operations.
In order to perform a search, a manipulator's grasping device is usually guided by
a sensor that carries out the functions of the automaton's "sensing organs." The
autanaton is controlled by a computer, the "memory" of which--in addition to the
program's listed components--stores different subprograms, including a list of com-
mands for setting the manipulator into motion. Structurally, a robot can be a de-
vice, part of the assemblies and systems of wl~ich are mounted on a mobiLe platform,
while the other part of it is a control panel. Between the control panel (base)
and the robot there must be communication channels that solve the following prob-
lems: transmit to the control point information gathered with the robot's help;
transmit control information from the base to the robot; supply power to the sys-
tems installed in the robot. ,
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Depending on the formulated structure of the overall system and the form of commun-
ication between the separate units, robots can be divided into the following
- groups: manipulating robots; semiautomatic manipulating rob ots with remote control
and telecontrol; automatic robots with programaning units; autonomous robots.
At the present time the most development work has been done on manipulating robots,
which, by combining in themselves comparatively uncomplicated automata and program-
ming units, possess a comparatively limited manipulating capability. The actuating
eletuents used in them are devices that automatically perform a cycle of monotypical
measuring, monitoring, manipulating and other operations. Such robot automata
(manipulating automata) are completely determined systems. In order to "teach" a
robot to do certain work, the operator must first, with his own hanct, perform ~~ith
the manipulator all the required operations for entry in the memory units of the
manipulator's work program.
When working at great distances from the ~ontrol point, and also in those cases
where it is impossible to maintain reliable communica~ion over the radio channel
because of interference or other reasons, prograu~ing units can be used to control
a robot.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye'", 1980
! 11746
~
I CSO: 1866/4
~
~I
~
I
,
I
~
59
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UDC: 629.78:530.24
THERMAL CONDITIONS IN SPACECRAFT
Moscow TEPLOVOY REZHIM KOSMICHESKIKH APPARATOV in Russian 19~0 (signed to press
23 Jan 80) pp 2-6, 231-232
[Annotation, foreword and table of contents from book "Thermal Canditions in Space-
craft" by Vladimir Viktorovich Malozemov, Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye",
957 copies, 232 pages, illustrated]
[Text] This book deals with problems of estimation, investigatiort and analysis by
methods of mathematical modeling, with the use of digital and analqg compute~s,
of systems.of provisions for thermal conditions (SOTR) in spacecraft. The princi.ples
involved in choice of design parameters with the use of optimization methods were
demonstrated. This book is intended for engineering and technical personnel
specializing in the field of SOTR for aircraft and spacecraft. It may be useful to
i_nstructors, graduate and undergraduate students of the relevant specfalties.
Foreword
Life support for crews engaged in long-term space flights is one o~ the most important
problems of cosmonautics. It is a complex task to solve it, and it requires much
effort, as well as cZose collaboration of biologists, physicians and engineers in
different specialties. ~
One of the most complicated elements of the general life support system (LSS),
which creates and maintains the conditions needed for man's life and work in
confined, sealed cabins, is the system of providing the thermal conditions (SOTR).
Its task includes formation of a specified thermal level in a spacecraft, with due
consideration of its correlation to the crew and environment in the presence of
the complex effects of extreme factors. To solve this problem effectively, new
aPproaches must be elaborated for developing, designing, studying and testing SOTR.
It is generally believed that it is sufficient to create stable thermal conditions,
of the greatest comfort, within the pressurized cabin for normal well-being and
high efficiency of man, both during flights and after returning to earth. Tn this
case, man is viewed as a certain, specified, static object. However, data that
have appeared in recent times refute this conception. Adaptive reactions o~ the
body may weaken during a prolonged stay under relatively stable ambient conditi~ons.
Under such conditions, a change in one of the parameters, even when it is within
the permissible range, could lead to loss of resistance of the organism and, cot~se-
quently, to worsening of well-being and capacity for work. Good well-being and
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work capacity depend more on the dynamics of changes in ambient parameters, state of
- adaptive mechanisms of the orga:?ism, which was determined by the conditions under
which man lived previously, than on the parameters of the environment at a given
point in time (a man may feel well both in the extreme cold and tropical heat). For
this reasan, development of an SOTR, particularly for long-term flights, should
be made with due consideration of its correlation with man, the environment and
the construction of the spacecraft. Only such an approach, where man is viewed as
the main element of a complex system, can assure development of a really effective
SOTR that would guarantee the good physical condition and high work capacity of
crew members. �
There is another important aspect of SOTR design. When preparing for a flight,
the crew undergoes special training with due consideration of future conditions,
to which they will be exposed in space. As a rule, from the very first days of
the flight, the crew starts to prepare for the return to earth, with due considera-
_ tion of fulfilling the flight program. The SOTR, equipped with an appropriate
conditioning program and devic~s measuring and forecasting the state of crew members
and all spacecraft systems, could assume some of the functions of a training device
- when man is in space.
- The SOTR is a complex consisting of functionally interrelated subsystems. Complex
design and estimation of a multi-element SOTR , taking into cosideration the
correlation between the crew and environment, as well as different subsystems, is
a difficult task. The appreciable nonstationary nature of the main processes
j occurring at all phases of flight adds more difficulties of both anal.ysis and
~ choice of regulatory subsystems. There is still not enough experience in finding
complex solutions to such problems. They can be solved on the basis of a new
i discipline, which has gained wide popularity and is related to analysis and syn-
thesis of large systems, which is called systems analysis [8, 41]. Complex systems
i theory is the scientific, mainly mathematical, basis of systems analysis. 5eparation
~ of real systems into complex and simple ones is largely arbitrary; it is related
essentially to the extent of the role of complex "general systems" questions to
the study of systems. This, in turn, depends on both the properties of the system
proper and on the objectives of the study. With regard to the properties of a
system, the presence of which enables us to refer it to the category of complex
systems, we can state the following [411: "We shall c4nsider a system to be
I complex if it consists of many interrelated and interacting eleements. It is
! logical to expect that a complex system is capable of performing a complex function."
I With reference to the SOTR of a spacecraft, it can be stated with certainty that it
has all the main features characterizing large systems. The considera~le number of
~A mplexly interacting elements, its link with the environment and man, justify
our classYfication of SOTR in the category of large systems, the design, analysis
and synthesis of which are made on the basis of systems analysis and general theory
of systems. However, exhaustive knowledge is required to use this approach, both
about processes that occur in typical e~ements and correlation between different
units and sybsystems. It is only after studying all of the distinctions of the
processes and correlatian of elements of individual subsystems and complexes, and
after constructing mathematical models thereof that we can turn to the systems methods
of automated design and investigation with the use of modern computer technology.
To solve complex problems of design, analysis, synthesis and forecasting, it is the
most expedient to use functional decomposition of the SOTR, drawing upon mathematical
61
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modeling to examine different subsystems and elements, including man. Structural
and functional breakdown ["decomposition"] of systems and mathematical modeling
make it possible to elaborate the methodology of solution and obtain concrete
results for one of the functional subsystems, without losing the general aspect
of the problem but reducing its dimension.
The book offered to the reader is an attempt to present systematized material on
estimation, mathematical modeling and investigation of SOTit for spacecraft. The
first chapter deals with general aspects of thermal provisions and a new version
of system classification. The second chapter is concerned with analysis of external
and internal heat loads. The next chapters describe different variants of sub-
systems for heat insulation and heat regulation. The different subsystems are
examined on the basis of inethods of mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are
given for different elements and subsystems, and they are analyzed. Methods are
described for studying mathematical models of SOTR elements and subsystems w~th
the use of digital and analog computers. The last chapter discusses problem s per-
taining to choice of design patameters for SOTR.
Many of the problems raised ir? this book are still far from being definitively
resolved. However, formulation and discussion thereof illustrate the importance
and need of continued research in these directions.
This author considers it to Ue his duty to express his appreciation to Prof A. P.
Vanichev, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, for the valuable
comments and advice offered when he reviewed the manuscript, as well as to Ye. N.
Bondarev, doctor of engineering sciences, S. M. Bednov, candidate of engineering
sciences, R. M. Kopyatkevich and other friends who examined the manuscript and
expressed their wishes and suggestions, which were taken into consideration as much
as feasible in the final editing of the book.
This author expresses his gratefulness to V. S. Pichulin, A. Ya. Donov, E. A.
Kurmazenko, V. A. Tomskiy, I. I. Bogachev, S. N. Loginov, S. N. Kutepov, A. G. Bruk
and T. I. Baranenkova for their assistance in the preparation of some of the
material.
- Without presuming to have shed exhaustive light on the topic, this author would
be very grateful to readers for critical comments and suggestions, which should
be addressed to: 107885, Moscow, GSP-6, 1 Basmannyy per., 3, "Mashinostroyeniye"
Putilishing House.
Contents Page
Foreword 3
Conventional Symbols ~
Chapter 1. General Questions of Providing Thermal Conditions in Pressurized g
- Cabins and Bays o~ Spacecraft
1.1. Purpose of system for providing thermal canditions $
1.2. Methods of providing thermal conditions 10
1.3. Classification of systems for providing thermal conditions 13
1.4. Specif~.cations for SOTR and parameters of thermal equipment 16
Chapter 2. Internal and External Heat Sources 21
2.1. Thermal status of man 21
2.2. Internal heat sources 2~
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2.3. Main typ~s of external heat sources and radiation models 32
2.4. Estimation of inc.Ldetit and absorbed radiant flow of heat 3$
2.5. Use of computer to calculate external flow af heat 42
- Chapter 3. Heat-Preserving Subsystems of Thermal Insulation of Pressurized
Cabins and xays 45
3.1. Heat-preserving subsystems based on heat regulating covers 45
3.2. Heat-preserving subsystems based on vacuum-shield insulation 50
3.3. Heat-preserving subsystems based on homogeneous insulation 56
Chapter 4. Heat-Dissipating Subsystems of Thermal Insulation With Convective
Cooling 68
4.1. Heat-dissipating subsystems with airtight insulation 68
4.2. Heat-dissipating subsystems with porous insulation 80 ~
4.3. Nonstationary heat transfer in heat-dissipating subsystems of ther-
mal insulation with porous insulation 91
Chapter S. Heat-Regulating Subsystems 99
5.1. Convective heat regulating subsystems 99
5.2. Evaluation of area of radiation heat exchanger 105
5.3. Open subsystems with change in aggregate state of coolant 109
So4. Closed subsystems wi.th change in aggregate state of coolant 115
Chapter 6. Analysis of Joint Operation of Closed Heat-Regulating Subsystem
and Power Plant 123
6.1. Main correlations for power plant and thermal pump 123
~ 6.2. Evaluation of parameters of steam-compression thermal pump and
j power plant 12~
~ 6.3. Evaluation of parameters of heat-using thermal pump and power plant 135
Chapter 7. Mathematical Modeling of Elements of Heat-Regulating Subsystems 141
7.1. Specifications for mathematical models of elements 142
7.2. Mathematical modeling of heat exchangers 144
7.3. Mathematical modeling of radiant heat exchangers 154
I 7,4. Mathematical models of locall.y correlated elements 162
Chapter 8. Mathematical Modeling and Investigation of SOTR 175
8.1. Objectives and purposes of modeling SOTR 175
8.2. Mathematical modeling and investigation of SOTR with digital
computer 178
~ 8.3. Mathematical modeling and investigation of SOTR with analog computer 187
~ 199
_ 8.4. Identification of parameters of mathematical models
I~ Chapter 9. Optimization of SOTR 204
i 9.1. General tasks of SOTR optimization 204
i, 9.2. Choice of planned parameters of heat-regulation subsystems by the
I method of Lagrange facrors 2~~
9.3. Distinctions of the method of geometric programming 210
9.4. Mathematical model of heat exchanger 215
9.5. Mathematical models of radiant heater and ducts 221
9.6. Choice of planned [designed] parameters of heat-regulating subsystems
by the method of geometric programming 224
- Bibliography 228
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1980
10,657
CSO: 1866/999
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SPACE APPLICATIONS
- UDC 536.425:669.275'849
ZERO-GRA~JITY METAL, SEMICONDUCTOR MELTING, CRYSTALLIZATION, PHASE FORMATION
EXPERIMENTS IN SRACE
Moscow PLAVLENIYE, KRIST.ALLIZATSIYA I FAZOOBRAZOVANIYE ~ NEVESOMOSTI in Russian
1979 (signed to press 11 Sen 79) np 2, 253-255
[Annotation and table of contents from book "Melting, Crystallization and Phase
Formation Under Zero-Gravity Conditions", by L.I. Ivanov, V.S. Zemskov, V.N.
Kubasov, V.N. Pimenov, I.N. Belokurova, K.P. Gurov, Ye.V. Demina, A.N. Titkov
and I.L. Shul'pina, USSR Academy o� Sciences, Institute of Metal~urgy imeni
A.A. Baykov, Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1200 copies, 256 pages]
[Text] Questions are discussed, relating to the performance of technological
' experiments in space for the purpose of an overall study of re~ularities in the
behavior of inetal and semiconductor alloys under conditions of zero gravity.
A central place is set aside for the results of research performed within the
framework of the Soviet-American experiment in the "Soyuz Apollo" program.
Features of certain kinetic processes under conditions of low gravity
in a space flight are studied, as well as the prospects for utilizing these con-
ditions for producing materials with special properties.
This book is intended for specialists working on problems of space technology and
can also be helpful to students at technical WZ's.
CONTENTS Page
Foreword 3
Part One. Metallic Systems
Chapter One. Genera]. Information on Phase Formation 10
1.1. Processes in the sol~d state 10
1.2. Brief description of solidification processes 17
1.3. Some ideas regarding the interaction of a solid and molten metal 20
1.4. Experimental data on the diffusion interaction of a solid and molten
m~tal 36
Chapter Two. Investigation of Meta'lic Systems in Space 53
2.1. Goals and objectives of space research 53
2.2. The "universal furnace�t apparatus for technological experitaents 55
2.3. Results of investigation of the properties af inetallic systems after
experiments under conditions of zero gravity 67
2.4. Procedure for preparation of the experiment according to the �tSoyuz-
Apollo" program 84
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Chapter Three. Melting and Crystalliza~ion o~ Metal Specimens Undex Zero Gravity
- Conditions; the "Soyuz-Apo11o" Experiment 88
3.1. Investigation of a composite material 88
3.2. Interaction of molten A1 with W 94
3.3. Phase formation in contact of molten A1 with a W-Re alloy 102
3.4. Melting an alloy of the Cu-A1 system 111
3.5. Experiment with A1 powder 115
Chapter Four. Some Mechanisms of the Interaction of Solid Metals with
Molten Under Zero-Gravity Conditions 119
4.1. Behavior of gas inclusions in a molten metal solution 119
4.2. Forming of ingots of a composite material in the crystallization
process 122
4.3. Pha~~ formation with solid-liquid diffusion interaction 125
4.4. On utilizing features of phase formation for producing composite
materials 130
Bibliography 134
Part Two. Semiconductor Materials
Chapter Five. General Ideas Regarding Normal Oriented Crystallization of
Semiconductor Materials 140
Chapter Six. Survey of Results Obtained by American Specialists in the
Skylab and "Soyuz-Apollo" Programs 154
6.1. Crystallization of Ge doped with various components 154
6.2. Crystallization of InSb 161
6.3. Containerless crystallization of indium antimonide 164 ~
6.4. Crystallization of solid solutions of AIIIB~' compounds lEi7
6.5. Crystallization from the gas phase 170
Chapter Seven. Growing Crystals of a Ge-Si-Sb Solid Solution in the Space
Complex of the Soyuz-Apollo Station.and on Earth 177
7.1. Temperature conditions of experiments 177
7.2. Original solid solution pieces 179
7.3. Construction of the ampoule 181
7.4. Characteristics of forces and acceleration acting on a furnace with
ampoules in space and terrestrial experiments 182
7.5. Methods of studying crystals 186
~hapter Eight. Key Results of Experiments on Crystallization of Ge-Si-Sb
Solid Solutions 194
8.1. Distribution of components in crystals 196
8.2. Investigation of crystalline structure 206
8.3 Electron microscope study of crystals of a Ge-Si-Sb solid solution 219
8.4. Results of additional simulat~.on experiments on the earth 228
8.5 Mechanism of asymmetric d~ctribution of components in cross sections
of crystals 234
Bibliography 243
Conclusion 246
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1979
8831
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