JPRS ID: 9728 USSR REPORT MILITARY AFFAIRS

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JPRS L/9974
10 September 1981
Translation
- ECONOMICS OF FUELS Af~D ENERGY TRANSPORTATION
By
- S.S. Ushakov and T.M. Borisenko
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JPRS Z/9974
10 September 1981
ECONOMICS OF FUE~S AND ENERGY TRANSPORTATION
Moscow EKONOMIKA TRANSPORTA TOPLI~A I ENERGTI in Russian 1980 (signed
to press 28 Feb 80) pp 6-162, 166-189
[Chapters 1-7, pp 159-162 of Chapter 8, Chapters 9 and 10, Conclusions
and Bibliography from the book "Economics of Fuels and Energy Trans-
portation" by Serafim Sergeyevich Ushakov and Tatyana Mikhaylovna
Borisenko, ed. by Ye. O. Shteyngauz, Izdatel'stvo "Energiya," 5,000
copies, 192 pages]
CONTENTS
Q~AP TER 1. ~e Role of Transportation in.the Energy.Complex 1
1.1. Main Trends in Development of the Energy :Complex 1
1.2. Fuel Production and Transportati.~on in the USSR 6
1.3. Tti~ Problems of ~iansport in Flormation'of an Energy Complex........... 11
QiAPTER 2. Methodical Aspects of Determining Transport Expenses 18
'L.1. General Aspects 18
- 2.2. Methods of Comparing the Versions of Fuel Transport 21
QiAPTER 3. Rai1 Transport of Fuels 28
3.1. ?he Role of USSR RaiJ roads in Fuel Transportatior~ 28
- 3.2. Basic Directions for Development of Railroads 31
3.3. Methods of Increasing the Carrying Capacity of Railroads 34
3.4. Development of a Specialized Railroad Mainline 41
3.5. ~?e Engineering and Economic Indicators of Railway Transportation..... 44
3.6. Full-Scal~ Indicators of Rail Shipments 65
- a _ [I - USSR - H FOUO ]
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CHAPTER 4. Gas Transport 72
4.1. Gas Pipeline Transport Syste~ in the USSR and Abroad.........~........ 72
4.2. The Engineering and Economic Indicators of Major Gas P3pelines......... 79
4.3. Basic Directions for Development of Gas Pipeline ZYansport in the
USSR 84
4.4. Increasing the Efficiency of Gas Pipelines 93
4.5. Optimum Parameters of Ma~or Gas Pipelines 104
4.6. Further Improvement of Ma~or Gas Pipeline Parameters 1~8
4.7. Regulation and ResPrvation of Gas-Supply Systems ~14
4. Gas Transportation and Storage in the Liquefied State 121
CEIAPTER 5. Pipeline Transport of Oi1 126
5.1. Development of Pipeline Transport of Oil in the USSR and Abroad........ 126
5.2. ~?e Engineering and Economic Indicator.s of Oil Transportation by
Pipeline in the USSR 134
5.3. Selecting the Optimum �arameters of Oil PipeZi:~~s 136
5.4. Storage of Oil and Reservation of Oil P3pelines 150
QiAPTER 6. Transport of Petroleum Pro ducts 154
6.1. Development of Petroleum Product Transportation 154
~ 6.2. ~e Effectiveness of Using Different 1~pes of Transportation of
Petroleum Products 158
- 6.3. Engineering and Economic Indicators of Pm duct Pipelines and
Storage Centers 165
_ (HAPTER 7. Pipeline Transport of Coal 170
7.1. Experience of Construction and Operation of Slurry Pipelines for
Coal Transport ....................................o.................... 170
7.2. 7.he Engineering and Economic Indicators of Slurry Pipeline Transport
of Coal 177
CHAPTER 8. Water Transport of Fuels 185
8.1. River Transport 185
- b -
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CHAPTER 9. Electric Po~zer Transmiasion I.ines 190
(~iAPTER 10. Proble~ of Comprehensive Development o~ Transportation of
Energy Resources 203
CONCLU'SIONS.......... 208
" BIBLIOGRAPHY 2ll
- c -
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Chapter 1. 'Ihe Role of Transportation in the Energy Complex
[Text~ 1.1. Main Trends in Development of the Energy Complex
The scientific and technical revolution--the growth of productive forces and conse-
quently the growth of energy consumption-~had an enormous effect on formation of
the world's enerqetics. Worldwide eaeryy consumption increased 3.6-fold during the
period i950-1977 (Table 1.1), and ore consumption increased 5.9-fold, gas consump-
tion increased 7.1-fold, coal consumption increased 1.8-fold, peat consumption in-
creased 1.2-fold, wood consumption increased 1.9-fold and water pow~er consumption
increased 3.9-fold. The advances of science made it possible to utilize a new type
of fuel--nuclear fuel--and its consumption was equivalent to 360 million tons of
comparison fuel in 1977 [30, 71].
The worldwide energy complex and the energy balance are formed under very complex
conditions under the influence, on ~che one hand, of the planned economy of sc+cial-
ist countries, and on the other hand under the influence of the economy of capital-
ist countries. The nonuniform territorial distribution of resources in countries
- themselves and the disparity of a fuels raw material base and the n~eds of coun-
- tries' economy for energy resources have a significanct effect on the s~ructure of
the fuel bslance.
Prior to 1973, the energy complex a.~d energy balance of the capitalist countries
was formed mainly due to an increase of petroleum use and in same countries of gas
use; the fraction of coal usually decreased (Table 1.1). Oil comprised 23.8 per-
cent and 43 percent in 1973 in the worldwide structure of the energy balance,
while the fraction of coal decr~ased from 54.1 to 27.1 percent during this period.
This was determined by the discovery of abundant oil fields in the developing coun-
tries of t~e Near East, Africa and South Ameri.ca and by favorable conditions of
deposition and low cogts for development of the oil fields of the developing coun-
tries. One-sided agreements concluded bp the oil companies with the governments
of the oil exporting countries led to the fact that the petroleum fuel of develop-
- ing countries was more ecor~omical than any other kind even with the transportation
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ranc ~rri~ iwi. UJG VIrLI
Table 1.1.
w.. * ycao.aro ,auus+
xe. r rroq, a~ roa
W~q ton~ a ~ieprur ~2
1960 ( 1966 197U 1973 I 1976 I 1911
~ (3) 2852 5808 7580 SG99 8855 IO166
$ c e r o ~ ~00 !p0 ~pp jpp ~pp
6gp 1g98 3058 3T37 3560 3981
tle~rb ~4) 23,8 34.6 40,4 43,0 ~10,3 39,2
266 952 1405 1664 1700 1815
Ta3 (5) 9,0 16,5 18,5 19,0 19,2 18,9
1544 216G 2285 2382 2506 2839
- Yronb (6) 54.1 38,1 30,2 27,1 28.3 2T,9
To ~(7) !8 20 22 25 22 21
P 0,6 0,3 ~ 0,3 0,2 0,2
167 305 314 321 320 320
1(Poea (8) b~9 4,3 4,1 3,7 3,6 3,2
� 187 357 4G5 522 610 730
~ Il~npo3xepr~~A (g~ 6,6 6,1 g,j G,0 6,9 7,1
- 10 gl 77 137 ~
AroMHBA 911C~fH9 (lQ) - p,-2 0,4 0,9 1,5 ~
Key : ~
l. ~ipe of fuel and energy
2. Energy consumption, millior. tons of comparison fuel/percent of annual total
3. Total
4. Oil �
_ 5. Gas
6. Coal
7. Peat
8. Wood
9. Wai;er power
10. Atomic enerqy
costs figured in and at the same time provided high profits to the oil monopolies.
Thus, the cost of oil in 1972 comprised 16-25 dollars per ton in the Persian Gulf
and the Mediterranean Sea areas, the cost of delivering it by tanker to the United
States was approximately 1-2 dollars per ton, the cost of transportation from the
port to the petroleum refining plant was approximately 1.3 to 1.5 dollars per ton
- [96, 97], whereas the cost of producinq American oil comprised 88-103 dollars per
ton [86, 87].
The economy of a number of cagitalist countries was determined largely by the be-
qinning of 1973 by oil supplies: in 1972 the specific weight of imported oil com-
prised 59 percent in the total energy consumption of Western Europe and 72.6 per-
cent in the energy consumption of Japan. The fraction of imported oil in the er.ergy
balance comprised 13.5 percent even in the world's largest oil-producing country--
= the United States [105). The orientation of the energy base of capitalist countries
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towarrl iriported oil made them dependent on OPEC countries,* which could make de-
mands on the largest capitalist countries. The OPEC countries raised the prices
for oi~: the cost of oil in the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea areas com-
prised 100-120 dollars per ton in 1977-1978. This in turn led to the need for a
niunber of capitalist countries to review the entire energy balance from the aspects
of the greatest i.nvolvement of their own energy resources and development of atomic
power engineeri;~g.
The result of the 1973 energy crisis was a reduction in the fraction of oil consump-
tion and an increase in coal constnnption by 457 mi.llion tons of comparison fuel and
an increase of power generation by hydroengineering and nuclear power plants (al-
though the specific weight of water power increased from 6.6 percent in 1950 to
- only 6.9 percent in 1975 and to 7.4 percent in 1977). Rapid growth in the rates of
- atomic power development have been observed, but its specific weight was still in-
significant.in 1975, approximately 1.5 percent of worldwide energy consumption, and
was only 3.5 percent in 1977.
The energy complex of the socialist countries was formulated in proportion to de-
_ velopment of their economy and was not subject to sharp jumps. The energy balance
of all the CEMA member countries was formulated ttirough their own energy resources
with extensive use of all types of fuels. The specific weight of solid strip-
mined fuels is higher in these countries than the worldwide average [14, 68].
The vig~orous growth of oil production in the developing countries and the ever in-
creasing consiunption of oil andpartially of liquefied qas in industrially developed
countries induced vigorous development of maritime shipments of petroleum and pipe-
line transport of petroleum mainly from the fields to ports, from the ports to oil
refining plants and o.f product pipelines from the plants to consumers. Intracon-
tinental pipeline transport of gas was developed ext~nsively. Very large gas and
oil transport systems have now been developed in the United States, the USSR and
- Western Europe. The total length of the w~orld's major pipelines has rea~hed 680,000
km [30, 97].
Table 1.2.
CTPYKTYPO T~011C1~1~ C.'I~KTy~TQ~ I~ICpOP.
is. ~~i. 06111~1'O ` ~ ~ T~~ �/~i ~4Ef0
BuA TPe~nuo{na~l.~ o6Lwa i~e~~euo~ac 1lxA rpa~knopra o6ee~a tlepesoaar
3 P CWA CCCP CIIiA
Hc~imb (5) (10)Ke�menpody?una
r~~py~o?~poaounwa (6.) 85 75,3 1'py6onpoauAnwii 10 36,0
~(ene3t~oAOpo~ow~i . hCene3eonopo~cHw~ . 78 2,0
BOUIIWfi (S). . 4 18.2 Boqllw~ . . . . . . 12 22~6
AuroMO6nnbuwf+~~). . . - 6,3 /bsroMU6a+nbum~~ . . - 39~4
Mroro: (11) 100 100 ~iroro: !00 100
- [Key on following page]
*
OPEC now includes Algeria, Venezuela, Gabon, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Kuwait,
Libya, Nigeria, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Ecuador.
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. . . _
[Key continued from preceding page]:
l. Type of transport 6. Pipeline
2. Stxucture of transport, percent of 7. Rail
total volume of shipments 8. Water
3. USSR 9. Mot~or
4. United States 10. Petroleum products
5. Petroleum 11. Total
The total freight turnover of all typQS of intraconti.ne~ntal f~uel transport com-
prised approximately 7 trillion ton-kilometers, which com,prises approximately 44
percent of the world's total freight turnover.
The distribution of intracontinental shipments of liquid fuel by types of transport
is deterntined by the specific development of the countries im the USSR and tt~~
United States (Table 1.2).
The transport +component in the cost of gas in the United States and the USS~ ~.s
equal to 20-30 and 60-80 percent, respectively, while the transport componez~t of
oil is equal to 10-20 and 30-40 percent of its cost. An increase in the fraction
of the transport component in the cost of gas and oil should be a~nticipatec~ 3n the
United States with regard to the need to develop oil and later gas fields in the
northern portion of the American continent [76, 96].
A significant �raction of the transport component in the cost of �u~el,s and an i.n-
"crease in the distance of delivery and alsr the need to construct mainY.~~.nes under
complex and hydralogical conditions posed the problem of intensific~tioa~ and more
extensive use of scientifia and technical progress to transportatian. 7'his is an
increase of pressure and cooling of gas, an increase of the unit ca~acity of gas-
pumping units and so on in pipeline transport of gas, in railway transport these
are various engineering solutions that permit an increase of the carrying capacity
of mainlines from 90-100 to 180-200 million tons per year and so on.
The main intercontinental flows of fuels (Figure 1.1) are incre~siszg: the import
of oil comprised 1.486 billion tons in 1977, including 5~2 million tons to Western
European countries, 331 million tons to the United S~tates and, 237 million tons to
Japan [86, 87]. This is also typical for flows of petroleum products; ~heir export
from Wes.tern European countries comprised 120 million tons, w3~iYe imports comprised
140 million tons. The import of petroleum products to the United States comprised
88 million tons. During the last few years, oil imports to the United States in-
creased sharply. The total turnover of intez~ational marine shipments of petroleum
and petroleian products comprised 16.8 trillion ton-kilc~met~rs in 1977, Intracon-
tinental shipments of gas and coal are increasinq: they comprised 116 billion m3
and 121 million tons, respectively, in 1977 [S17. M~,ritime transport of oil costs
one-third as much as pipeline transport and th~ average cost vf deliv~ring oil by
sea comprises approximately 1.2 dollars per ton for a distance of 4,000 kilometers,
while delivery of oil by pipeline comprises 3.6 dollars per ton for a distance of
1,000 km. Consequently, oil consumption.is deterniraed only by prices for oil.
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o
?~'./l , ~
~ ~"~s
. 1a .
rr~ o
crecrN.~a ~ C C ~
AMf/MN ~ 1_ ~ n A �~`a~�1
~j O ~ N ~ .
E o \h ~
,~~~y~
0
A I/MA'A
D Q
roxN~~ ~0~
w ~
AM(PNA.1 "r'~
J
AIC7PAAN.I
Figure 1.1. Main Intercontinental Flows of Petroleum and Petroleum Products
During the past few years, after nationalization of the oi.l-producing industry of
a number of developing countries and centralized pricing for oil by OPEC member
countries, most countries that import oil have implemented measures to replace im-
ported petroleum fuels by more expensive domestic oil, pit and hydrogenous coal
and other local fuel resources and are conducting accelerated development of nu-
clear power. Thus, the shortage of oil and gas in the United States makes it
necessarl i:o increase coal production. The increase in the demand.for electric
power and the slower than anticipated increase in the capacities of r~uclear power
plants contribute to this (63 AES [Nuclear power plant] were operating in the
United States in 1977 at which 10 percent of the total energy w~s produced, start-
up of an additional 75 AES that will provide 20 percent of all generated energy is
anticipa~ed by 1985, but this is still 25 percent less than previously planned [70,
71, 105]. According to the latest forecasts, coal production in the United States
may reach one billion tons per year in 1985 and 1.3 billion tons per year in 1990
compared to 0.62 billion tons per year in 1976. Moreover, intensive geological
prospecting work in Alaska and in the other northern regions of the American con-
tinent are now under way in the United States.
Great Britain, Norway, the United States, Venezuela and a number of other countries
are conducting intensive geological prospecting work and oil and gas production
from offshore fields. The .total oil product�ion from offshore fields comprised ap-
proximately 540 million tons per year in 1977, including approximately 360 million
tons per year by OPEC member countries and 80 million tons per year by the United�
States. Approximately 210 billion m3 of natural gas per year was produced from
- offshore fields in 1977 [S1, 97]. Especially intensive operations to exploit off-
shore gas fields are under way in the English sector of the North Sea.
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�~Vn V/~~ ~~+IAL V~.ILi VI~L,�
Intensification of geological prospecting work both on land and at sea made it
possible to increase worldwide petroleum reserves by 5 percent by 1977 compalre~ ito
1973, gas reserves by 21 percent and coal reserves by 53 percent. At the same
time it should b~ noted that the majority of oil and g~s reserves of the capital-
ist world are located in developing countries. A total of 75 percent of the oiZ
reserves is concentrated in OPEC countries and appraximately 60 percent of ga.~:~'e-

~ serves is concentrated in the countries of the Near and Middle East and ~,Frica~.,
The United States has approximately 6 percent of oil reserves and 18 peraent oiE~gas
reserves and Western Europe has 5 percent of oil reserves and 11.6 percent of r~a~
reserves, whereas the United States, Japan and Western European countries are ~e
largest consumers of energy resources in the capitalist world [97, 105].
The involvement of various types of fuels and atomic power in extensive i~c~t~stx'ia3.
use and implementation of the enumerated and other programs for this provid~e t~e
basis to consider the planned trends as long-term trends which wili det~r~.ne in,
the foreseeable future ~he general direction in development of w~or~dwi~le e:lerg~l?'
~ management.
Besides extensive development of atomic power, one can expect rapf,~d dc~velopment of
~ gas production and intercontinental and intracontinental gas ~r~n.~~paxt cWSr long
distances. The accelerated development of coal production, prin2ai;ri.'~~ by~ s~rip min-
ing with transport over relatively long distances, is inevitab~e sinc~e the indicat-
ors of nuclear power plants are still less favorable for the near ~uttnre than those
of electric power plants operating on striF-mined coal. Progxam~ have,lbeen devel-
oped to process bituminous sands, shales and inexpensive str~.p-c:~ed hydxogenous
coal with subsequent transportation of the product (coke, resins, me~ttYanol and
other chemical products) over considerable distances.
- Lnplementation of the planned programs to iMprove the struc.ture of the energy bal-
ance in different oountries requires further development a,~ iriterriational transpor-
tation systems of different designation, primarily of intracontinental pipeline
transport of oil, petroleum products, qas and coal and the products of refining
them, of rail and river transport of fuels and also of maritime transport of oil,
liquefied gas, coal and products of refining them.
1.2. Fuel Production and Transportation in the USSR
There is a close relationship between the @evelopment of a country's economy, fuel
production and consumption and development of electric power. During the period
from 1960 through 1975, the gross national product increased 2.65-fold, the per
capita income increased 2.62-fold, the production of all types of fuel increased
2.61-fold and electric power generation increased 3.52-fold. During the past 25
years the production of all types of fuel has,doubled every 9-10 years, while gen-
eration of electric power has doubled every 6-7 years. Part of the fuel was expor-
ted, primarily to CEMA member countries [69, 72, 731.
N~unerous factors affect the growth rates of fuel production and the need for trans-
pc~rt facilities to transport it. These are primaxily an increase in the volume o�
- incl;istrial and agricultural production, an increase in the power available per
w~ork,~r for labor, technical progress in different sectors of the economy, improve-
ment of the enerqy balance of individual regions and of the country as a whole,
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involvement of oil fields remote from consumers in industrial development and
_ other factors [68, 74]. The country's energy consumption (Table 1.3) increased
5.6-fold, oil consumption increased 14.4-fold, gas consumption increased 56.2-
fold, coal consumption increased 2.4-fold and water power consumption increased
7.9-fold during the period 1950-1977 under consid~ration.
The growth of energy consumption in the USSR is 1.6-fold higher than the growth of
worldwide energy consumption (Table 1.1) and the growth of oil consumption exceeded
the worldwide growth rates of consumption 2,4-fold and of gas consumption 9.5-fold.
. This indicates the high rates of development of the USSR economy, specifically of
the petroletun and gas industry.
Table 1.3.
( j, ) 3~ 2~onvrpe6nnme. wax. t ycaoexoro Toanxu
BrAe+ ~au~~ea x 9~Kprw y'
� 1950 ( 171G0 I 1970 I 1975 1977
~3~ 318,7 716,2 l2G6,2 Ifi:f::,l 1785,7
F3 c e r o ~~xl I pp 100 1 W 100
5~,2 211,8 502,5 701,8 780,b
He~~~rb ~4~ 16,8 29,6 39,5 ~2,8 43,8
Tas (5) 7,3 54,4 233,5 395,7 410,0
2,3 7,6 18,4 21,5 22,9
205,7 373,1 432,1 490,4 486,0
Yronb (6) g4,7 5'l,0 39,1 ~9 27~2
Top~ ('7) 14,8 20,4 17,7 1G,9 14,0
4,6 2,9 1,4 l,U 0,8
~.1,3 4.8. 8,8 11,7 11,4
~180~(8) 0,3 0,7 0,7 0,7 0,6
27,9 28,7 2G,6 23,ii 24,fr
Apoea (9~ 8,8 4,0 2,2 1,5 1,4
7,5 23,4 ~4,4 ~3,8 59,2
T~fl/tP09HCPt'NA~lO~ 2~4 3,3 3,5 2,6 3,3
Key :
1. Types of fuel and power 6. Coal
2. Energy consump~ion, million tons 7. Peat
of comparison fuel, percent 8. Shales
. 3. Total 9. Wood
4. Oil 10. Water power
5. Gas
The country's power engineering is being developed undex the influence of technical
- progress to im~xove production processes and the utilizatic;n of energy resources.
Thus, the sgecific fuel consumption with specific calculation per kilowatt-hour of
electric power comprised 627 grams at general-purpose electric power plants in 1945,
415 grams in 1965, 348 grams in 1973, 340 grams in 1975 and 334 grams in 1977. Ac-
- tually, the fuel saving is hi.gher since the specific weight of electric power
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a�vn va�.�a~..na. v.~a: vi.a..
~eneration by general-purpose ~ower plants increased si.multaneously (by 6.8 percent
from 1950 through 1975) and also the specific weight of fuel produced by combination
generation at electric and heating plants and central boiler plants was also
increased.
Fuel consumption decreased from 35.6 to 8.9 kg of comparison fuel from 1955 through
1975 per 1,000 gross tons-km in railway transport due to replacement of steam trac-
tion by electric and diesel locomotives. The total fuel consumption for transport
(including intracity) co:nprises 12-13 percent of the total fuel consumption in the
country due to primary development of types of transportation that economize in
consumption of energy resources compared to 20-22 percent in the United States and
Western European countries.
The replacement of internal combustion engines by diesel engines in agrirulture led
to a decrease af specific fuel consumption by 30-35 percent.
Technical progress has an enormous effect on fuel utilization, the volume of its
~ consumption and the work of transportation to deliver fuel to consumers. If the
specific fuel consumption of 1950 were to be maintained at the modern level of de-
velopment of the economy, there would be approximately two times more fuel than
actually consumed for all needs.
Improving the structure of the country's energy balance by increasing the specific
weight of more economical or calorific fuels has an important influence on tY~e con-
sumption of energy resources and the work of transportation. The volume of the
energy consumption of fuel and its specific weight in the country's fuel-energy
balance are presented in Table 1.3. The fraction of petroleum in the energy bal-
azice increased from 16.8 to 43.8 percent and the fraction of gas increased from 2.3
to 22.9 percent during the period under consideration, while the specific weight of
coal decreased from 64.7 to 27.2 percent (with an increase of mining it mainly by
the open-pit mathad).
The actual specific weight of petroleum consumption is lower than indicated in
Table 1.3 since petroleum and partially gas were exported to CEMA countries.
The main directions in development of the national economy of the USSR for 1976-
1980, adopted at the 25th CPSU Congress, provided further development and improve-
r.tent of the country's energy balance. It is planned to bring oil production (in-
cluding gas condensate) up to 620-640 million tons (900-930 million tons of
comparison fuel), to bring gas up to 400-435 billion m3 and to bring coal produc-
tion up to 790-810 millian tons [2].
- The development of fuel transportation and the fuel's economy are determined by the
structure of the energy balance and by the geographic disposition of production and
consumption of energy resources. The m~in consumers of energy resources in the
USSR are concentrated in the European USSR and in the Urals. Approximately 80 per-
cent of all consumption went to these regions in 1977; i~ is expected that approxi-
mately 70 percent of energy resources will be consumed in the European USSR and the
Urals in the future and that approximately 30 percent will be consumed in Siberia,
the Far East and Central Asia. Oil, gas and coal will be exported through the ports
of the Black and Baltic Seas and across the country's western borders.
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Prior to the late 1960's, the production of energy resources in the European and
Asian parts of the country corresponded approximately to consumption. However,
this equi3ibrium was not present by types of fuel. The oil and~petroleum products
of the Urals-Volga region were transported to Western and Eastern Siberia and to
the Far East. A special oil and petroleum pipeline system was developed ior this.
The pit and coking coals af the Kuzbass and Karaganda were transported by rail or
by mixed rail-river traffic to the European regions of the country and were trans-
ported by rail to the Urals. The coal of the Ekibastuz basin was transported to
the electric power plants of the Urals. Gas from Central Asia was delivered to
the Urals through the Bukhara-Urals gas pipeline and gas from Western Siberia was
delivered to the Urals through the Igrim-Serov gas pipeline.
- ~l~ 2onn -
i ~
~ 1500 .
o (
~ 1000
~ i 2 3 4
~ S00
~ s-- , 7
o, .
4
Q Q
/9S0 :9.55 196~ 1.7o,i /970 /97S
_ Figure 1.2. Volume of Fuel Shipments by Various Types of Transport: 1--total;
2--coal shipped by rail; 3--oil and petroleum products shipped by
railj 4--oil and petroleum product pipelines; 5--gas pipelines;
~ 6--oil and petroleum products shipped by water; 7--coal shipped
- by water
Key :
1. Voluane of shipments, million tons
Extensive Central Asian-Center-state boundary-Nadym (Medvezh'ye)-Torozhok-Minsk-
state boundary and Urengoy-Kazan'-Center and Orenburg-Center gas pipeline systems
are being developed during the current decade with regard to the vigorous develop-
ment of gas production in Central Asia, the Southern Urals, Northern Tyumenskaya
Oblast and Orenburg. The Soyuz system has been developed to deliver gas from the
Orenburg field to the state boundary and from the Central Ob' field to the regions
� of Novosibirsk and the Kuzbass. The rapid rates of development of gas production in
the Central Ob' region made it possible not only to replace Volga area oil from
- eastern regions but also to organize delivery of Central Ob' oil to the European
regions of the country. Favorable conditions for coal production in the Ekibastuz
bains led to its rapid development and made it possible to organize shipments of
mass quantities of Ekibastuz coal to the Urals. The volume of fuel shipments by
various types of transport during the period 1950-1975 is presented in Figures 1.2
and 1.3, respectively.
By 1975, significant changes had taken place in fuels transportation. Whereas the
- railroads carried out 85 percent of the total volume of transport work related to
providing the country with fuel in 1950, they provided less than 65 percent in
1970, 54 percent in 1975 and 33 percent in 1977. At the same time the specific
weight of pipeline transport increased from 5 percent in 1960 to 26 percent in
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1970 and 48 percent in 1977, respectively. Oil shipments by sea increased with
reqard to the rapid development of the northeastern regior.s and also the increase
in the export of oil and petroleum products [55, 56, 59]
t1) 2nav -
~ ~
~ ~son -
~
a �
~ D l000
0
0 2 3~ S 6 7
a 500 -
~ t
0
i950 l95S L/60 /965 !,l70 /s7S
roa~~ ~2)
Figure 1.3. Freight Turnover of All Types of Transport in Fuels Ship:~?ents.
The notations are the same as in Figure 1.2.
Key: ~
1. Freight turnover, billion tons-km 2. Years
The development of water power played some role in the decrease in the growth rates
of the transport load in fuel shipments since most hydroelectric power plants are
located in regions with long fuel supply lines. If thermoelectric power plants had
- been constructed in place of hydroelectric powex plants, the need for coal would
have increase by approximately 63 million tons in 1975 (with mean specific heat of
coal of 5,000 kcal/kg) and the volume of rail shipments of coal would have increased
by 95-100 billion tons-km, which comprises 10 percent of the total fuel transporta-
tion work of the railroads.
Nuclear power engin2ering has achieved ever greater development during the past few
years. According to the decisions of the 25th CPSU Congress, capac3ties of 13-15 mil-
lion kilowatts will be introduced at nuclear power plants during the currE;nt five-
year plan. Generation will comprise 90-100 billion kilowatt-hours with use of
capacities of 6,500-7,000 hours, which will permit replacement of 30-33 million tons
of comparison fuel or 42-45 million tons of inedium-grade coal of the Ekibastuz or
Kuznetsk basins, which would require an increase in the work of rail transport by
approximately 3.5 percent. ~
The role of electric power transmission lines in replacement of energy carriers is
- still small. All existing electric power transmission lines with voltage of 400 kV
_ or higher could replace transportation of approximately 36 billion ton-km of compar-
ison fuel in 1970 and 56 billion ton-km in 1975, which comprises 2.7 and 3.0 per-
cent, respectively of total fuel transport shipments. The actual saving of trans-
- port shipanents achieved by using electric power transmission lines is somewhat less
than that indicated since some lines performed the functians of linking energy sys-
tems to each other and operated in a direction not always coincident with the gener-
al direction of fuel transport. ~
The total volume of fuel transport shipments throughout the USSR is approximately
40 percent. In this case the fraction of freight turnover of fuels in the total
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freight turnover of the country's transportation system, despite measures adopted
to reduce these shipments, is increasing continuously. The ireight turnover of
fuels comprised 37.3 percent in 1960, 38.2 percent in 1965, approximately 40 percent
in 1970, 42.1 percent in 1975 and 44.8 percent in 1977 [30, 55, 56].
For comparison let us point out that the si.milar index comprises 42-44 percent dur-
ing the past few years in the United States. If one considers the more uniform
distribution of fuel resources in the United States than in the USSR and their
proximity to the main constuners and the considerably smaller territory of the United
States, one can conclude that the fuel supply of the U5SR national economy is at a
higher level of organization.
The development of pipeline transport led to some decrease in the fraction of the
- freight turnover of fuels in the total freight turn~ver of the country's railroads:
34.7 percent in 1965, 32.7 percent in 1970 and 31.0 percent in 1975. The freight
turnover of oil and petroleum products increased from 51.2 billion tons-km in 1960
~ to 665.8 billion tons-km in 1975. The delivery of commercial gas by pipeline in-
creased from 28.0 to 279.4 billion m3 during this same period.
Thus, major coal shipments are perfarmed by railway transport via extensive, usually
electrified, mainlines, gas and oiI and transported by pipelines and petroleum
products are transported by rail and pipeline. The distributed transport includes
the branched network of pipelines and railroad spur tracks. M~otor transport using
specialized trucks adopted to deliver petroleum products and coal to small consumers
located in rural locales is utilized extensively.
The system of supplying the national economy with energy resources includes storage
and distribution bases for solid fuels, oil and petroleum products that provide
storage of reserv~s required to cover the peak consumption and to supply all con-
siuners of the na~ional economy during random interruptions in production and deliv-
ery of energy resources.
- It should be noted that the estahlished disposition of consumers, primarily of
petroleum refining plants, the distribution of shipments and selection of types of
- transport are not optimum in all cases. Bringing the energy-consuming plants closer
to the fuel bases of the country's eastern regions, locating petroleum refining
plants closer to the consumer regions and efficient. distribu~ion of fuels shipments
among types of transport, specifically, development of a more branched network of
petroleuan product pipelines and switching transport of petroleum products to them
from rail and partially motor transport would permit more efficient shipments and
would reduce the fraction of transport expenses in delivery of fuel in the total
_ energy expenses and the expenses of the national economy as a whole.
- 1.3. The Problems of Transport in Formation of an Energy Complex
The voluane and distance of transport shipments of energy resources are determined
primarily by the level and structure of social production, by the needs for fuel
consumption by regions of the country and by the disposition of the main fields of
fuel resources. The development of the energy complex and its established struc-
ture have an important influence on development of the transport system and its
structure (the fraction of the types of transport) (Table 1.4).
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rvn vrr~wna, a~.~a: v~~a.~
Table 1.4.
!~~u iseo
nau~annr (1) 1950 I 19GO (~uwi) ~2)
TonnKeu?re pecypcW. wnx. T ycnoei+oro To(Inaua 318,2 716.8 12GG,2 2050
Yae~urye~me, 96, K npea~,aYweMy AecA'm~erHro - 226 178 IG2
4)
iCey :
_ 1. Indicators
2. Planned
3. Fuel resources, million tons of comparison fuel
4. Increase, percent, compared to previous decade
It is expected that the future consumption of energy resources will increase with
gradual stabilization of fossil fuel production due to improvement in the structure
of the electric powe~ balance, an increase of the utilization factor of energy re-
sources by consumers, secondary use of energy resources and other changes that
provide an increase in the effectiveness of the country's entire energy management.
The rates of atomic power development are of great significance to reduce fuel
transportation shipments. Introduction of Atommash [expansion unknown] places the
development of atomic power on a reliable basis.
High rates of development of atomic power are desirable from the viewpoint of re-
li~ving transportation from shipping enormous quantities of mineral fuels, provided
that the economic indicators of nuclear power plants will be no lower with regard
to fulfilling all environmental protection standards than those of electric power
plants operating on Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk and Ekibastuz coals (with transport of
coal to the consuming regions). In this case an increase of fuel production would
be required only for new units at existing electric power plants. Under these
conditions all forecasts of energy resource consumption, especialy for the long
term, should be regarded as estimate ~orecasts dependent on the rates of development
- of atomic power.
Approximate concepts on the main directions of shipping various types of fuel and
the role of transport in further improvement of the structure of the country's en-
ergy balance can be compiled on the basis of the future needs for mineral fue~.s ac-
cording to zones of the country and for the future and proven reserves of natural
energy resources.
- The main need for energy resources, as indicated above, remains in the European USSR
and in the Urals. Depending on the rates of industrial development, primarily of
energy-consuming industry in the eastern reaions and the rates of development of
- atomic power in European regions of the USSR, the needs of the western regions of
the country for minearl fuels will also fluctuate in the future in the range of
2-2.5 trillion tons of comparison fuel ll~, 25]. Appraximately 100 million tons of
comparison fuel are now mined annually in the European USSR and in the Urals.
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. ~ ,
A further increase in the level of mineral fuel production in European regions,
specifically Donbass coal, is possible in insignificant di~r~ensions with regard to
economic effectiveness: essentially by 10-15 percent. The coal of the NSos~ow
(except some mines) and the Pechora basins is the country's most expensive fuel.
Further development of coal mininq will hardly be justified with the exception of
mininq the coking coal in the Pechora basin.
Under these conditi~ns an increase of capacit~.es in coal mining in the Europea:.
USSR is a less feasible direction to improve the structure of the energy balance
by this type of fuel and transport oi fu~l feom eastern regions is feasible. De-
velopment of oil and gas production in the European regions of the country will de~-
pend on discovezy of new high-yield fields at great depths or in offshore regions.
Known fields are exploited on the basis of existing reserves and rational periods
of their exploitation. In the future one can expect depletion of a number of fields
and transition to their exploitation with reduced yield. The water power resources
in this region will be mainly exhausted ~aith constructic+n of the Nizhnekamskaya and
Cheboksary hydroelectric power plants on the Volga river.
All tha enumerated factors indicate the need and feasibility of making up the defi-
cit in the energy resources of the European USSR and the U.rals by accelerating the
construction of nuclear power plants and exploiting the fields of eastern regions
with organization of mass transport of fuel from east to west.
The main type of boiler-furnace fuel in this case, along with the nuclear fuel re-
placing it, will be coal and in some cases gas. Worldwide prices for oil and gas
make it feasible to limit their use as fuels in all cases where they can be effec-
tively replaced by economical strip-mined coal. Moreover, oil and gas are a more
promising raw material for the chemical industry and a fuel for mobile power sta-
tions. Efficient use of these types of fuel is one of the main tasks of improving
the country's fuel and energy balance. Therefore, along with increasing oil and
gas production and developing extensive transport systems for them, we will be
faced in the future with solvinq the problem of accelerat~d exploitation of'strip-
mined coal and of finding met:hods of fixansporting it over long distances in the
form of fuel or electric power. ~
The main coal bases of the country's eastern regions are the K~uznetsk, Ekibastuz,
Kansk-Achinsk and other basins.
Coal of the Ekibastuz basin is comparatively low-calorie (4,100-4,200 kcal/kg) and
- has a high ash content, but is now the least expensive hydrogenous coal in the coun-
try (2.3-2.5 rubles per ton of comparison fuel) (67, 68]. Comparison of the reduced
expenditures for mining, transport and burning of Ekibastuz coal, for example, with
Donetsk coal or gas, permits one to conclude that it is feasible to trasnport it
over a distance up to 1,500-2,000 km. T'he capacities of the basin, i.ncltxiing the
Maykyubenskoye field, are estimated at 120-150 million tons of production annually.
Approximately half of this coal production can be used at local electric power
plants and can be sent over electric power transmission lines to nearby regions
and the country's central regions. The remaining coal must be transported to the
Urals and to Central Asia.
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The ~trip-mined coal of the Kuznetsk basin has specific heat of 6,200-6,500 kcal/kg
and is also relatively inexpensive (5.5-7.0 rubles per ton of comparison fuel).
The coal can be transported both by rail and through coal-slurry pipelinese A
to~al of 350-400 million tons of coal annually can be mined in the basin~ i.ncluding
approximately 35-40 percent of coking coal. Based on the need to provide the cen-
tral regions with fuel, it is feasible to increase mininc~ of the coal of this basin
for transpurt to the west, while the needs of Siberia for enerqy fuel can be met
with coal of the Kansk-Achinsk basin.
The coal reserves in the Kansk-Achinsk basin are extremely large and according to
forecasts reach 1.2 trillion t~ns. The capacities for mining under favorable eco-
nomic indicators are estimated at 1-1.2 and even 2 billion tons annually [67].
However, these scales of production lead to min~ng coal at great depths and con-
siderably w~orsen the economic indicators of production. According to the economic
indicators per ton of comparison fuel, this coal is the least expensive--4.0-6.0
rubles of reduced expenditures per ton of comparison fuel--according to projected
plans with development of strip mines ea~h producing 40-60 million tons annually. �
However, this coal is low-calorie (3,300-3,500 kcal/kg), is moisture-saturated (up
to 40 percent), has a tendency toward spontaneous combustion and in natural form
permits transportation (for example, by rail) over short distances. Methods of
concentrating this coal have been developed and tested with production of high-
calorie products (semicoke with 6,800-7,000 ckal/kg, resins and so on) that permit
transport over lonq distances by rail and slurry pipelines. Since the large coal
reserves of the Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk basins are capable of making up a sig-
nificant part of the increase of the country's needs for fuel by the year 2000 and
can contribute to more efficient utilization of oil and qas, the problem of con-
centration and transport of it is one of the most timely in the problem of the
countxy's fuel and energy balance.
The main oil and gas fields are concentrated in the West Siberian lowland. The
West Siberian industrial complex--the main region for producing these types of fuel,
which will be developed, has already been created.
Prior to prospecting the oil fields in the Fax East and in the offshore zones of
Sakhalin, the oil transport routes of the West S;berian lowland pass to the east and
south to meet the needs of all regions located east and south of the Central Ob' re-
qion [73, 74]. The presence of predicted oil reserves in the Far East and on
Sakhalin determines the approach to selection of transport to deliver oil to these
regions from the Central Ob' region. A special pipeline to deliver oil durinq the
next few years if oil reserves are discovered there sufficient to meet local needs
may be underloaded in the future. This predetermines the feasibility of organizing
oil transport to the east by rail.
The main oil flow from Western Si.beria is directed toward the Wei~elinetacrossdthef
the European USSR and for export needs with delivery of oil by p p
w~estern borders and toward the tanker ports of the Black and Baltic Seas. This flow
is stable and large pipeline systems are required for development of it.
During the current five-year plan the West Siberian lowland will become the main
gas-producing region in the country. The proven gas reserves in the northern re-
gions of the lowland exceed 70 trillion m3 [74~, which permits development of this
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region at accelerated rates predetez~nined by the needs of energy management, the
chemical industry and also export needs. Rapid development of gas production re-
quires development of extensive systems for delivery of it to the northwestern re-
- gions ~f the European USSR that are less provided with energy resources, to th.e
central and southern regions with denser populaticn and more developed industry and
also the country's western borders for gas tran,sportation for export.
Tyumen' gas flows are now delivered through pipes 1,420 mm in diameter.
The engineering solutions of these mainlines may not be regarded as optimum for a
number of reasons, mainly due to the fact that a large number of gas pipelines must
be laid and consequently extensive labor and metal expenditures are required.
Therefore, problems of increasing the efficiency of the gas pipelines acq~uire spe-
cial significance.
The gas from the Orenburg field is sent by an already complex scheme to the coun-
try's western regions and for export across the western borders. A pipeline 1,420
m�n in diameter, which passes through the USSR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary with
branches to other CEMA member countries, has been constructE~ to transport this gas
through the efforts of CEMA countries. The gas of Yakutiya will o~viously be sent
- to the.east to meet the needs of Far Eastern regions and also for export by maritime
transport.
The general layout of the transport flows of fuel is presented in Figure 1.4.
Along with the enumerated larger transport directions of fuels, transport communica-
tions of newly discovered fields with consumers and also with transport m~inlines
will be developed. Product pipelines need to be developed to create distributed
- transport of petroleum products from the plants to consumers. Development of product
pipeline systems is determined by the dispositi~n of oil-refining plants and their
opti.mum capacity.
The given data show that the national economy is faced with solution of very com-
plex problems on intracontinental transport of energy resources. The first success-
ful steps have already been taken in this direction. Engineering and e~~nomic in-
dicators of fuel transport systems (rail and oil and gas pipelines) are usually
higher than the corresponding foreign indicators. However, the indicators achieved
cannot be regarded as optimum and require a further increase. Advanced transport
systems must be developed, engineering and economic problems must be solved and the
most efficient types of transport and their combinations must be selected. One must
take into �account in this case that the level of expenditures for fuel transport and
timely solution of problems on fuel support will directly affect the rates and in-
dicators of the effectiveness of develnpinq the country's national economy.
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4 ~ �

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trt o K 3~i:> , i% ~ ~~-1 0
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6 . `~.GY~ bv i v ~ ~ ~ y '"I
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[IGey continued from preceding page]
_ l. Tallin 10. Baku
2. Riga 11. Ashkl:abad
3. Vilnius 12. Tashkent
4. Minsk 13. Dushanbe
5. Moscow 14. Frunze
6. Kiev 15. Alma-ata
7. Kishinev 16. Coal
8. Tbilisi 17. Oil
9. Yerevan 18. Gas
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r~K urr~~iwL u~~, unLr
Chapter 2. Methodical Aspects of Determining Transport Expenses
_ 2,1. General Aspects
The diversity of the physical and engineering cha~a~~teristics of the fuel of differ-
ent fields, the different engineering and econo~nic indicators of production, the
need to take into account the consumer effect (~xpenditures for combustion), the
- relatively broad interchangeability of fuel and the possibility of usinq di�ferent
types of transport to niove it make the problem of formulation of the energy balance
- as a whole and selection of the most favorable fuel regime of individual consumers
exceptionally complicated. The problem is complicatec~ by the need to take into ac-
count simultaneously the capabilities of developing fields and of creating one or
another transport system within the required deadlines by changing the engineering
and economic indicators of production with an increase of the production scales, de-
- velopment of technical progress and a nuanber of r~ther factors.
Different approaches and procedures for takinq into account the transport factor in
optimizing the energy balance are used at different stages of investigation and
planning of the enerqy balance, dependinR on the postulated problem and the degree
of reliability of information. When developing the basic directions of five-year
plans, one xelies on the extensive information that permits computer aids in se-
lecting the optimum version of the energy balance and of determining the transport
and econom;.c communications for different types of fuel and the need and feasibility
of construct.ing individual transport facilities. Comparison of five-year plans with
division by y~ars and annual plans for development of the national economy is based
on complete information of the needs of different regions of the country for fuel
and energy and on the capacity *.o produce fuel by fields. This permits development
of a completely balanced plan for production and consumption of fuel and for loading
and development of transport systems. However, the capability and primarily the
deadlines for implementation of different measures on dev~lopment of existing and
assimilation of newly discovered fields and construction of communications lines
must be taken into account in this case. A long period (more than 5 years) is usu-
ally required to develop large producing and transport facilities with regard to
the time required for planninq and prospecting work.
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- When working out future development plans, for example, general schemes for 10-15
years, one relies on less reliable information but in this case there is the pos-
sibility of implementing measures that provide serious changes both in the struc-
tur~ of the energy balance with bringing new fields into exploitation and in devel-
opment of new transport systems. Suggestions based on these developments are taken
into account when compiling five-year plans both complete and ~~-ing subsequent
five-year plans as provided for partial or total introduction into exploitation.
When working out forecasts for the longer term, there is frequently no reliable in-
formation on the conditions for development of the energy economy, especially in
_ proven and confirmed fuel reserves for individual fields, but there is the capa-
bility of designating the basic directions of solvinq problems to improve the struc-
ture of the energy balance and consequently of individual types of transport, of
taking into account the effectiveness of ineasures planned for the nearest stages
of development and in some cases of advancing proposals on the long-term changes of
proportions and shifts in the energy balance and transport. It is obvious in this
case that the initial base is the basic directions and general decisions on devel-
oping the country's productive forces and primarily of energy-consuming sectors
and of their disposition by territory.
At the same time expenditures for transport also have a significant influence on
the disposition of the enerc,~y-consuming sectors of the national economy.
The disposition of the productive forces and the specialization of regions, as is
known, depend on a number of economic, geographic, national and other factors
- (transport of raw materials and finished products play the far from last role among
them). Bringing production closer to energy resources and reducinq their transpor-
tation expenditures may have a negative or positive effect on the indicators of
transporting raw material, semifinished products and finished products. Optimiza-
tion of the energy balance and development of transport are closely intertwined
with the problem of arranging the country's productive forces.
Taking into account the numerous direct and indirect relationships in the national
economy during optimization of the energy balance requires complex calculations and
makes it necessary to assume a number of provisionalities related to the technique
of making calculations and the capabilities of computer equipment and also to vari-
ation of the reliability of information for different time levels of calculations.
However, one must adhere to a ntunber of common aspects du:ing all assumptions and
provisionalities, violation of which would lead to the incompatibility and unreli-
ability of the results of individual calculations and suggestions.
The general aspects may include the following.
1. The community of optimization, as which reduced expenditures required to achieve
a given result (increase of production, development of transport shipments and so
on) are taken.
The energy balance must be optimized and transport must be developed at each
stage of working out the plan as an independent section of investigations to opti-
mize the disposition of productive forces, taking as the initial base the aI.ready
available data on development of the economy of individual regions and their con-
sumption of different types of fuels. The problem of fuel for consumers who permit
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replacement of one type of fuel by another is solved by calculations of the energy
b~alance with regard to transport expenses.
3. The engineering and economic calculators af fuel for expansion or development
of production in one or another region of the country take into account expendi-
tures for groduction and transport from the fields, which must be brought into op-
eration, i.e., those usually more remote from the consumer. In calculations on
optimization of the sector as a whole, expenditures are usually taken into account
by the closing fuel, which leads to some overestimaticn of the fuel and consequent-
ly of the transport component.
4. The indicators of shipping fuel by universal types of transport should be iden-
tical to the indicators for shipping other goods. This is determined by the mutual
dependence of expenditures for shipments of fuel, raw material, semifinished prod-
ucts and finished products with different versions of the disposition of production.
It is natural that these indiators should reflect the shipping conditions (the ca-
pacity of the transport facilities used, the level of their utilization, the use
of empty runs and so on). ~
5. The indicators of different types of transport and production should be com-
parable to each other in calculations on the disposition and development of pro-
ductive forces. When solving problems of finding the minimum expenses, the non-
variable part of the expenses of industry or transport may be disregarded.
These and a nuanber of other general aspects of engineering and economic calcula-
tions are discussion types and are not completely shared by some specialists.
However, they are used extensively in practice and serve in the given case as an
initial base for calculating fuel (energy) transport expenses.
Let us consider some concepts on determining the transportation expenses for uni-
versal types of transport. When compiling five-year plans for development of the
energy economy and for diGposition of production enterprises, as already indicated,
one proceeds in most cases from the real capabilities for development of fuel pro-
duction in known fields and basins. In working out the plan, calculations are fre-
quently corrected and refined as the capabilities for development of fields or
basins and also of transPort are determined. These calculations are usually made
when the levels and disposition of individual production sectors have still not
been finally determined and when there are no complete data on the load of trans-
port directions. Under these conditions all transport indicators can only be ap-
proximate since the level of transportation expenses, for example, on rail or pipe-
line transport, vary significantly as a function of freight traffic volume.
Further stages of calculations to refine the energy balance or to select a fuel
for individual consumers require refined indicators of transportation expenses that
take into account no~ only the characteristics of one or another transportation
facilities but also the conditions of the stages of their development and the level
of loading. Refined indicators of transportation expenses are also required to
distribute shipments between the types of transport and to determine expenditures
on the closing fuel.
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The feasibility of constructing pipelines, electric power transmission lines and
specialized loading-unloading facilities in ports and other structures required to
' develop the increasing shipments of fuels with switching of shipments from one
type of transport to another can be substantiated only with consideration of a
- number of factors that characterize apecific conditions for development and func-
tioning of a given transportati.on facili~y. These calculations are made with in-
formation on the load of individual mainlines and sections, real expenditurFS to
develop one or another types of transportation during the period under considera-
tion with regard to analysis and recovery of potential reserves and an increase of
the future carrying capacities of the transportation system.
These concepts led to the conclusion of the need for two types of indicators of ~
transportation expenses:
1) averaged expenses intended for the first stages of optimization of the
- fuel and energy balance and calculations on the disposition and development of in-
dividual sectors of the national economy and other phases when the to~al load of
individual directions of the transportation system for the calculated period is
still unknown but calculations are made for the entire mass of "old" and "new"
goods, the growth rates of which are close to those typical for a socialist economy;
2) differentiated expenses required to substantiate the distribution of
freight loads between different types of transport and primarily to substantiate
construction of specialized transportation facilities (pipelines of different desig-
nation, electric power transmission lines and so on). These indicators should re-
flect specific conditions for develogment of transportation facilities aa}~d opera-
tion of them. t
,
T'he first indicators should be worked out for the long term and should be accessible
for use by all organizations conducting investigations on optimum development of in-
dividual sectors of the economy, including the energy economy; the second indicators
can be used by the organization conducting investigations on formation of the coun-
try's unified transportation system or by another organization having information ~
on transportation at economic communications and the load of individual sections of
the country's transportation system during the periods under consideration.
Main attention is devoted in this book to determining the differentiated economic
full-scale indicators of transportation expenditures required for comparison of dif-
ferent types of fuel (energy) transport with regard to specific conditions of their
development and also to consideration of inethods of technical progress in different
types of transportation and their effect on economic and full-scale 'transportation
indicators.
2.2. Methods of Comparing the Versions of Fuel Transport
All problems on determination of the effectiveness of ineasures directed toward im-
proving universal or specialized types of transportation, on selecting the most ef-
ficient of them and also on the feasibility of using essentially new types of
transportation reduce to selection of optimum versions.
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It is known that development of the national ~conomy, including development of
energy resource transportation, can be accanglished by different methsxis. The main
criterion in selection of one or another e~qineering solution is its economic feasi-
bility, i.e., achieving the minimum reduced national economic expenditures for con-
_ struction and operation. The optimum vera.~.an amnng those compared is regarded as
that having minimiun reduced expendit~.ires. T'he v~rsian is usually selected with re-
- gar@ to full-scale indicatora with simiZar values of reduced expenditures "in the
zone of uncertainty."
The preparedness of scientific and design develapn?~nts, the possibility of organiz-
' ing construction organizations within required deadlines according to conditions
of material sugpl;~ and deadlines, the need for accel.ezated development of the coun-
- try's lagging regions, climatic conditians, operational reliability under special
conditions and so on must be taken ir.to accoun~. However, the main criterion is
the minimum reduced national economic expendi~ures. If a veraion with increased
reduced expenditures is taken for one or another reason, the expenditures must be
determined to analyze the losses induced by devi.a~ion from the optimuan version [28,
29, 33J. It is obvious that the coa~parability of expenditures and the economic
effect of the versions being compared by the t~,me of expenditures and achieving a
saving, the prices adopted to express expenditures and the savinq, the nature of
expenditures and the savinq from the viewpoint of simple and expanded reproduction,
the range of expenditures includPd in capital investments and the methods of cal-
culating the cost indicators use~ 'to calculate effectiveness and other factors
should be adhered to in calculaLinns of economic effectiveness.
All the versions of capital investments beinq caanpared should be reduced to a com-
parable form by all features, except that whose effectiveness is being determined.
The main aspects of c~omparinq the effectiveness of versions have been established
by a standard method of determining the economia effectiveness of capital invest-
ments and the standard method of the effectivenesa of new technole>gy of inventions
and innovator proposals [28, 29].
A characteristic feature of develapinq transportntion systems is the step by step
increase of capacities, dependent on tihe qrowth of freight traffic volume. Capac-
_ ity may reach very high values for s~n~ types of trnnsportation, which is frequent-
ly achieved only over a prolonqed period calculated fn decades. There are usually
several methods in this casa of incxeasing capacities and numerous combinations of
a step by step increase of the carryinq capacities of transportation systems are
possible. For example, the carrying capacity of a single-track railroad ~an be
increased by openinq up additional sidings, increasing the mass of trains and
. equipment by more modern means of com~unication on train traffic, construction of
two-track inserts, continuous second tracks and the use of a number of other mea:3-
ures. The carrying capacity of a railroAd caa~ be brought up to 60-70 million tons
- and under specific conditions ::p to 100 million tons. A step by step increase c~f
the carrying capacity can also r~ accc~mplished ~..n river transport, for which cor-
responding development o� ports and locks is required. An increase of the carr.�y-
ing capacity in pipeline ~rax~~port can be achieveci by constructinq intermediate
compressor or p~nqping stations and by construction of parallel pipes of different
diameter and loopings.
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Establishing the deadlines for implementing measures on increasing the carrying
capacity and their economic effectiveness requires special attention when solving.
problems of development of transportation devices. For example, the carrying ca-
pacity of a single-track railroad can be brought up to 22-25 million tons annually
by opening additional sidings and can be increased even more by using new types of
rail cars and freight tnat permit complete utilization of their load capacity.
However, current expenditures increased significantly with this type of loading
due to frequent stops of trains. It is economically more feasible to construct
two-track and to organize nonstop crossing of trains with freight traffic volume
of 20-22 million tons annually, i.e., earlier than is required by conditions of
carrying capacity. A similar aspect can also be created in pipeline transport.
The carrying capacity of an oil or gas pipeline can be increased compared to that
usaally achieved by reducing the distance between pumping stations to 40-50 km,
but operating expenses increase in this case. It is more feasible to reduce the
deadlines for laying a parallel pipeline over the entire length or a section of it.
- The characteristic features of transport development also include the fact that
- different growth rates of freight turnover and different economic effectiveness of
individual measures to increase the carrying capacity determine the possibility of
developing increasing freight traffic volumes on many types of transport by several
methods. These characteristic features of developing transportation facilities make
it complicated to find optimum versions when establishing a step by step increase
of carrying capacity and consequently of selecting the type of transport to supply
different consumers with fuel and also to supply the energy complex. Since the
problems related to improvement of transportation factilities, espe~ially for fuels
when one is concerned with several interchangeable types of transport, are based on
inadequate information and one must introduce a number of assumptions and conditions.
At the same time achieving results that reflect real national economic expenditures
with one or another version requires compul~ory provision of t~e variability of
calculations of the indicators of transport devices that participate in the compar-
ison. Obviously, e~~cpenditures for all facilities, outlays for wh'ich can be used in
adopting at least on~a of the versions, must be included in the calculation. This
aspect provides the r~asis to select versions by two methods I32, 33, 59].
The first method assumes calculation of the total expenditures for all facilities
included in the comparison. For example, when solving the problem of sel~ecting the
type of transportation between some ternunals, one must take into account expendi-
tures for all existinq transportation systems and those planned for construction in
the test area under investigation along which the freight traffic volume can be
directed. The given aspect can be illustrated by example of selecting the most
feasible version of fuel transport in the test area of a transportation network
(Figure 2.1).
Supply of region B with petroleum products can be resolved by one of the following:
1) by construction of a pipeline between the location of the oil-refining
plant A and region B;
2) by strengthening the rail line between regions A and B to ship petroleum
products from the plan to the oil depot at point B;
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A y B
2
3
Fiqure 2.4. Test Area Qf Transportation Network Under Consideration During
Construction of a Product Pipeline: 1--railroad from oil refin-
ing plant at terminal A to terminal Bs 2--railroad to port; 3--
river route; 4--pipeline '
3) by organizing shipment of petroleum products between these points in mixed
rail-water transport, which requires strengtheninq of the railroad sections A-C and
accordingly of developing a waterway on the leg C-B with construction of tank depots
at its destination points and also by completing other work that provides uninter-
rupted supply of region B with petroleum during the period between navigation
seasons.
Adoption of any of three solutions is reflected in the operating indicators of the
other two. If, for example, a petroleum product pipeline is constructed, the oper-
ating indicators of rail or mixed rail-water transport will be different from those ~
of this transport provided that the fuel flow only be directed alonq one of them
_ without construction of a petroleum product pipeline. In this case the operating
indicators will vary not only for fuels for which the means~of transportation is
being selected but also for other freight transported in the given case by uni-
versal types of transport. Depending on specific conditions (engineering~parameters
load and so on), the expenditures on these types of transport for the remaining
goods may decrease or increase, which is naturally reflected in the indicators of
the effectiveness of product pipeline construction from the viewpoint of the na-
tional economy as a whole and cannot be taken into account when solving the postu-
lated problem. Accordingly, the total reduced e~penses must be determined for
each version to determine the optimum solution.
Comparison of the reduced expenditures determined for the case of transporting
goods along each of the routes should be the basis for selecting the most econom-
ical of them. Experience shows that these calculations are very cumbersome and
require information on the loading of existinq transport structure now and in the
future and on the presence of reserves of carrying capacities and other data.
The second method also assumes comparison of all changes of transportation and re-
lated expenditures for all transportation-economic communications of the test areas
under consideration, including those along which the flow is not sent in the given
version, but may be sent in some other version. However, only the expenditures in
the variable part are taken into account. The expenditures which are fixed in all
versions are not taken into account. Only the variable expenditures are taken into
_ account that are usually linearly dependent or close to dependent (in a specific
range) on the volume of shipments. All calculations are simplified since only
specific expenditures are taken into account. The validity of this assumption can
be shown on the example of two rail lines.
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With the first method, the difference of expenditures a according to the versions
being compared, expressed by total expenditures, can be determined by the formula
a� jy,~Ea~'~'p,fE�=J~ Pr~E~~,~p�=Eal~ ~ ( 2. Y)
where P1~ and P2 are the freight traffic volume (or transport work) on the first
line under the initial conditions and with an additional fuel flow, P2 and P2 are
the same freight traffic volume on ths second line, El and E2 are the total specif-
ic expenditures on the first line in the initial aspect and with an additional fuel
flow and E2 and E2 are the same figures on the second line.
With the second method, i.e., with consideration of only the variable expenditures
~E for each of the lines being ~onpared that occur with regard to passage of an ad-
ditional freight flow along it, they can be compared to each other by the formula
a=~A3~--~3:. . ( 2 . 2 )
- It is easy to ascertain that the second~method is a modification of the first
P'~E'i~3~~ p':E':=3z: ~2.3)
P�~E,~~=~~~3~c _ (2.4)
P"sE"s=3s-f-a3~.
(2.5)
Then
a- (3'rl ~3~-~-3':)-(3'rl-3~r~-~A3,)~A3,-O~r ( 2 . 6 )
Thus, determination of the transportation expenditures occurring with regard to the
= basis of a newly appearing fuel flow, and this is also valid for any goods, by cal-
~ulation of the total expenditures or their variable part for each test area essen-
tially yields identical results.
The basic principle of comparison is frequently violated in calculations by the
first method (for total expenditures) since changes in expenditures on all transpor-
- tation lin,es participating in the versions being compared are not taken into account
or the variation of specific expenditures occurring with variation of the volume of
shipments is not taken into account. As a result the calculated transportation ex-
- penditures considerably exceed the actual expenditures, especially on traditional,
universal types of transportation. To confirm this conclusion, let us oansider the
example of determining transportation expenditures to ship coal from station A to
an electric power plant if it is located at station B or C located from station A
at dis~ances of A- B= 200 km and A- C= 250 km, respectively. Let us assume for
clarity that the reduced specific expenditures on the railroad under its existing
load are identical over the entire length and comprise 3 kopecks per 10 km. It
would seem in this case that expenditures to deliver one ton of fuel to the elec-
tric power plant if it is located at station B will be equal to 0.60 ruble and if
- it is located at station C will be equal to 0.75 ruble.
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An increase of expenditures per ton of fuel will comprise 0.15 ruble if the electric
power plant is located at point C compared to its location at station B or the ex-
penditures for the entire voliane of fuel shipments for the electric power plant
wi11 be equal to 450,000 rubles annually. However, this is not true in reality.
The specific shipping expenditures on the line with the appearance of an additional
freight traffic volume vary and they vary not only to ship coal (the additional
freight traffic volume), but also for all other freight shipped on this line. The
permanent part of the expenditures will be distributed for a different volume of
shipments.
The specific expenditures usually decrease with an increase in the flow of shipped
goods if the additional freight traffic volume does not lead to significant over-
loading of the transportation facilities or to expensive operations to increase car-
rying capacity. In the given case, based on conditions similar to the average con-
ditions for rail transport, the specific expenditures can be divided into two parts:
Epost = gizm _ ~.5 ~r~ ~~.e E~st is permanent expenditures that can conditionally �
bertaken ~as independent of the volume of shipments and Eprm is variable expenditures
in proportion to the freight traffic volume.
If six million tons of freight passed through the section prior to construction of
the electric power plant and if construction of the electric power plant increased
the volume to nine million tons, then this causes an increase of expenditures only
in the variable part Ep~ = 1.5 kop/10 t-km. With a volume of six million tons,
these expenditures comprise 9,000 rubles annually per kilometer and with ~shipment of
coal with total volume of nine million tons it comprises 13,500 rubles. However,
- the permanent expenses over the entire length of the line remain fixed, equal to
0 5 Epr = 1.5 kopecks per 10 t-km or 9,000 rubles per kilometer regardless of whe-
ther there is an additional volume of flow for the electric power plant or not.
Hence, the specific expenditures Epr comprise 2.5 kopecks per 10 t-km with addi- .
tional coal for the electric power plant. The total expenditures for shipment of
all freight over line A-C then comprise 5.4 million rubles with the electric power
- plant lncated at point B and 5.625 million rubles with the power plant located at
point C.
An increase of transportation expenses with the electric power plant located at
- point C rather than at point D will comprise 5.625-5.400 = 0.225 million rubles
rather than 0.450 million rubles, as would be the case if the change in the struc-
ture of expenditures were not taken into account. We find the same results if we
use only the variable specific indicators irm. In the case under consideration,
an increase of expenditures to ship coal w~h regard to the electric power plant
being located 50 lan from the point of coal production comprises 50�3.0�106�0.0015 =
= 0.225 million rubles annually.
The given concepts show the possibility of m~king calculations for total and supple-
mentary expenditures with regard to all changes occurring in the country's trans-
port network with the considered versions of fuel and other freight traffic volume
distribution; determination of expenses for the entire.test area with regard to var-
iation of its load requires special attention. It should be stipulated that calcu-
lations can be carried out on permanent and variable expenditures and calculations
on the variable part of expenditures permit rather accurate accounting of the
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traneportation expenses by versions. At the same time they reflect the real na- �
tional economic expenses, but do not coincide with existing tariffs, since perma-
nent expenses are also taken into account in the latter. The values calculated
for total expenses for individual routes and sections of the transportation network
also do not coincide with the tariffs, which are averaged values.
The difference between the real national economic expenses and existing tariffs
indicates the impossibility of using tariffs when comparing versions.
When selecting the type of transportation, it is more important to take into ac-
count the variation of real national economic expenses by the variable part than to
determine them from tarif�s, even more so since tariffs change periodically [47].
Errors frequently occur due to incorrect establishment of the level of dependent
(variable) and independent (permanent) expenses. Let us assume that a route must
be selected to ship one million tons of freight over one of two transportation
routes 200 lan long with the following characteristics. The dependent expenditures
oz the first route are equal to 0.2 kop/(t-km) and the independent expenditures
are 40,000 rubles/km with a volume of 20 million tons, while the dependent expendi-
tures are equal to 0.1 kop/(t-km) and the independent expenditures are 60,000
rubles/km with volume of 10 million tons on the seoond route. It is obvious that
the additional volume could be carried over the second route where the dependent
expenditures are one-half as much. In this case the total expenditures over both
routes comprise 30.2 million rubles. However, the total expenses on the first
route are lower (0.4 kop/(t-km) compared to 0.7 kop/(t-km)). The total expenses
are very frequently the basis for making decisions on the direction of freight traf-
fic volume. There is an increase of total expenditures by 0.2 million rubles, i.e.,
to 30.4 million rubles, in the give example when additional freight is shipped over
the first route with lower total expenditures.
Consequently, when the versions are compared one must determine the increase of
expenditures for possible transport versions over all routes on which indicators
~ may vary with the appearance of additional freight traffic volume and as a result
of comparison, one must select the more economical route.
In the practice of design and planning of systems development, the economic indi-
cators are always determined for the additional freight traffic volume.
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rvx vr r a~.~r+a. v~c, vi~i. ~
(hapter 3. Rail Transport of Fuels
3.1. The Role of tJSSR Railroads in Fuel Transportation
During the past 20 years, the engineering and economic indicators have improved ~
considerably on the rail transport of the Soviet Union. Although the length of
general-purpose railroads was increased comparatively slowly (by approximately .
1,000 ]an annually), their technical equipping increased rapidly and made it possible~
to assimilate the incr~ased freight traffic volumes, includinq fuels. The freight
~ traffic voltune of the railroads increased from 602 billion t-km in 1950 to~2.45
trillion t-1~ in 1970 and 3.33 trillion t-km in 1977. During this tiine the freight
traffic volume..of fuels (coal, coke, oil and petroleum products) comprised 34.5,
35.8, 32.8 and 30.9 percent, respectively, of the entire freight turnover. The de-
crease in the specific weight of fuels was the result of developing pipeline trans-
port and improvement of the country's energy balance [30,55, 56].
- The basic direction of technical progress in rail transport that made it possible
to sharply increase the freight intensity of the network was redesign of traction
(extensive electrification and introduction of diesel ~raction) with simultaneous
replacement r~f two-axle rail cars with four-axle cars, modernization and strengthen-
ing of the upper track structure, means of communications and other components of
facilities.. The length of electrified railxoads increased from 3,000 km in 1950 to
40,500 km in 1977. 7.'~-ie most freight intensive, mainly two-track, mainlines were
electrified.
Experience showed that electrified mainlines with modern technical equipping assim- ~
ilate freight traffic volumes up to 100 million tons or more, including fuels of
approximately 40-60 million tons annually, and operate rather reliable and economic-
ally. All this made it possible to improve the engineering and economic indicators:
the cost of shipments was reduced from 4.86 kopecka per 10 t-}an in 1950 to 2.48
kopecks in 1975. This reduction in the cost of shipments made it possible to sig-
nificantly reduce national economic expenditures for transportation of coal from
the eastern basins and to expand the boundaries of their effective use. The coal
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of the Kuznetsk basin began to be delivered west of the Urals, to the Volga region
and in some cases to the Center.
~ Th~ effect of variation of the engineering.and economic indicators on expansion of
the coal transportation area and formation of the energy balance can also be con-
sidered in the experience of the United States.
A number of ineasures has been implemented on the coal-hauling railroads of the
United States that made it possible to significantly improve the engineering and
economic indicators of this type of transportation. They primarily include:
the use of specialized qondolas with capacity of 91 tons that provide rapid
unloading of coal without manual cleaningj
the use of remote locomotive (diesel) control equipment located among cars
from the pilot locomotive, which made it possible to drive a train with mass up to
20,000 tons or moret
organization of special "shuttle".coal trains formed un between large mines or
coal-collection stations and large electric power plants according to a strict
schedule, which makes it possible for the electric power g.lants to operate without
cu~nbersome stores of fuelf
organization of coal-collecting stations in coal basins to which coal is de-
livered from small mines and where "shuttle" trains are formed up.
All these measures made it possible to considerably reduce expenditures for crew
payment and as a result to reduce tariffs. Variation of: expenditures for production
and transport of coal is obvious from the data presente~3 in Table 3.1.
A decrease of prices for coal and iunprovement of the re:gularity of delivery to the
electric power plants led to the fact that this type o:E fuel was in some cases com-
petitive with oil and gas. In combination with electr:Lc power transmission lines
(with the electric power plant bei?:, located outside p~pulated reqions), a reduc-
tion in cost of coal transportation made it possible to expand the sphere of use of
coal fuel (70, 71].
Thus, improvement of rail shipments of coal induced a number of far-reaching conse-
_ quences in the field of development of both energy capacities and of the fuel in-
dustry and in the final analysis in the structure of t:he fuel and energy balance.
During the past few years, with regard to the energy c:risis, the process of further
development of power engineering with rail shipment of coal is being developed,
and, judging by data from the literature, will also be: developed in the future.
According to forecasts of the National Petroleum Counc:il of the United States, coal
- consumption will increase from 544 million tons in 1974 to 890 million to 1.09 bil-
lion tons (metric tons) in 1985. During this time the coal consumption by electric
power plants will increase from 350 to 590-635 million tons, respectively.
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Table 3.1.
_ ( 2 ) 3sT~r~ro. nmr/*
~1~ ~4~ ~wcae pcoprmw~auw~
[lona3aTCn~
,~a 19GG r. p,ix Kp~~~riwc niw wcmcxx
~3~ (5)wexT (6)W~xt
1,1o6m4a yrn~ e waxTax ~7~ . . . . . . . . 4~41 4,41 ~,9fi
Tpa+~aapr +~o wannrrpa~x (8~ . . . . . . 3,8G 3~2U 2~20
Tpaxcnopr Ao yrnec6opoyawx craeuHA nepe- _ 0,67
rpysKii (9.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
Bcero~10} � . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,27 fi,61 7~83
Key:
l. Indicators 7. Coal production in mines
2. . Expenditures, dollars/ton 8. Transport over mainline
3. Prior to 1966 9. Transport to coal-assembly
4. After reorganization stations and transloading
5. For large mines 10. Total
6. For small mines
It is planned to use rail shipments usually by block trains to ship coal where there
is no possibility of using water transportation. Despite the extensive development
of water shipments, 65 percent of the coal mined in the country was shipped by rail
in the United States in 1974. Since the fields most favorable for mining are lo-
cated far from rivers, the fraction of rail shipments will increase in the future.
Only the development of pipeline transport of coal may affect the growth rates of
coal shipments. However, even if all the available programs for development of ~
coal pipelines are fulfilled (up to 8,000 km), the voltnne of coal shipments by rail-
roads will increase significantly.
A large part of the measures implemented by United States railroads (block trains,
coal-collecting stations, the high level of using rolling stock, an increase of
train mass and so on) was implemented earlier to one degree or another on the rail-
roads of the Soviet Union.
Further improvement of fuel shipments and improvement of their engineering and
economic indicators on domestic railroads have their own characteristic features
that follow main3.y from the high loading of the railroad network. Assimilation of
newly occurring shipments usually requires not only corresponding supplementation of
the rolling stock pool but also an increase of carrying capacity and in some cases
construction of new rail lines.
It should be noted in this case that an increase of carrying capacity of a number
of rail routes is complicated by their high load in which construction work requires
prolonged periods and increased expenditures. However, despite these difficult~.es,
the role of rail transport in formation of the country's fuel and energy balance
will increase for conditions of the Soviet Union [55, 56].
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The reduced expenditures for coal in most regions of the European USSR for long-
distance Kuznetsk and concentrated Kansk-Achinsk coal are lower than the cost of
coal from the Donetsk, Pechora and Moscow basins. Imported coal is similar in many
regions by reduced expenditures to those for gas fuel of the northern fields of
Wes~ern Siberia with regard to the saving from improving the consumption conditions
_ at electric power plants. Therefore, one should expect a further increase of coal
shipments from the east to the west and primarily for production purposes: coke,
semicoke, concentrates for coking, special grades of energy coal (lump semicoke and
high-quality briquettes for domestic needs) and energy coal for heating and electric
power plants and in some regions of the country to supply power to condensation
electric power plants, especially those operating in the semipeak mode of the load
schedule.
Rail transport occupies the leading position in shipment of petroleum products, only
approximately half the petroleum products can be pumped over petroleum product pipe-
lines. Mazut, oils and a number of grades of light petroleum products of increased
quality or those produced in small quantities and at oil refining plants remote from
constuners will be transported mainly by rail transport.
Despite the fact that the fraction of fuels in the tntal general-purpose rail ship-
ments will be gradually reduced (34.5 percent in 1965, 31.5-32 percent in 1975 and
28-29.5 percent in 1980), the actual volume of fuels increased by approximately 15
percent during the five-year period from 1965 to 1970 and it increased by 18-20
percent during the five-year period from 1971 to 1975, and a further `increase of
shipments is anticipated during the current five-year plan. 2'he fraction of fuel
shipments in the more remote future will continue to decrease, but the rate of this
decrease is now difficult to i.magine. This will depend on the structure of the fue~.
and energy balance, the scale of oil and gas production, the ratio of expenditures
to production and transport, the rates of development of nuclear power engineering,
involvement of large masses of Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk coal and the fuel and
energy balance of the European regions and the Urals and development of pipeline
transport of coal fuel or development of long-distance electric power transmission
lines.
The given data indicate the need for further improvement of the hardware and organ-
ization of shipment of fuels on railroads.
3.2. Basic Directions for Development of Railroads
Analysis of the prospects for development of the Soviet Union and its transportation
system leads to the conclusion that rail transport will remain the main type of
freight transport in the foreseeable future for long and mediutn distances for most
freight, except oil and partially of petroleum products. Despite switcl~ing a number
of goods to specialized types of transport'and despite accelerated development of
more high-speed and cnnvenient passenger traffic, the work of the railroads will in-
crease, although at lower rates.
The change in loading of the railroad network is of special interest under these
conditions to judge the effect of shipping fuels on the development of railroads.
The freight intensity (freight turnover per unit length) of individual sections of
the railroad network is extremely nonuniform and on some lines exceeds 60 million
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tons-km/(km�year) in one direction, but the total length of sections with this load
is insignificant. The length of lines with load from 40 to 60 million t-lan/(]an-year)
in the loaded direction is also low. The optimum freight intensity of two-track
railroads with modern hardware is at the level of SO-90 million t-km/(km-year) in
the loaded direction dep~nding on the structure of the freight turnover, the length
of the receiving-dispatching trac:cs and the dimensions of passenger traffic. A
number of loaded sections and routes operates rather reliably with freight intensity
exceeding 70 million t-km/(km-year) in the loaded direction and with rather inten-
sive passenger traffic. As already pointed out, there are sections of railroads
where the freight intensity reaches approximately 100 million tons-km/(lan-year).
However, parallel railroads constructed to relieve them are sometimes not fully
loaded. Therefore, the railroad network can be developed by construction to assi.m-
ilate additional shipments for increasing the carrying capacity on individual routes
or sections of railroad and also to supplement the rolling stock fleet.
One must also take into account in this case the general nature of variation of the
load of railroads: the freight traffic volumes in the loaded direction remain rel-
atively stable only on an insignificant part of the network of single-track (7-12
_ percent) and double-track (3-5 percent) lines, while a continuous increase of ship-
ments of all freight occurs on the remaining length of the railroad network.
There may be two methods of increasing the carrying capacity of railroad routes:
making the railroad network denser by construction of new routes parallel to exist-
ing routes and 'converting to mainlining--development of mainlines with very high
carrying capacity and inexpensive shipments on the basis of existing railroads.
Development of domestic rail transport confirmed the fruition of ideas of mainlin-
ing proposed earlier by the GOELRO [State Commission for the Electrification of ~
Russia] plan as the basic directior~ for development of transportation [3].
Analysis shows that there is the possibility on all main rail routes parallel to
- existing loaded mainlines to develop new railroad routes with high carrying capac-
ity by constructing individual missing sections of relatively short length and
construction of second tracking on existing single-track sections included in the
mainline being created. An exception are regions of the Far East and the Urals-
Center where the Baykal-Amur Mainline Railroad is under construction.
Under these coruiitions the problems of fuels shipment faced by railway transport
can be divided into two types.
The first type of problem is development of a relatively slow increase of coal ~
shipments and shipments of petrole~un products. This problem arises if a further
improvement of the energy balance of the European regions and the Urals occurs due
to development of nuclear power, an increase in the specific weight of gas fuel
and extensive development of pipeline and other specialized types of energy trans-
portation (coal pipelines and electric power transmission lines), then an increase
in the voliune of coal shipments from the eastern basins by rail will be relatively
slow and will not exceed 130-150 million tons annually in the foreseeable future.
In this case concentration of coal volumes on individual routes may be no more, for
example, than 20 million tons and it may reach 60-80 million tons on each route
from the Ekibastuz and Kuznetsk basins [2, 72, 73]. This transportation support
may be achieved by increasing the carrying capacity of the existing railroad
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network, by improving the rolling stock, by rearrangement of single-track rail-
roads to two-track railroads with conversion of them to large mainlines and by
developing new routes by improving the configuration of the network.
The second type of problem is to deliver large amounts (for example, more than
180-200 million tons annually) of coal from the Kuznets, Kansk-Achinsk (concen-
trated) and other eastern basins to the Urals and to the European USSR, i.e., an
energy coanplex will be developed by extensive involvement of the coal of eastern
regions. This is possible with development of a special large-capacity mainline.
A specialized mainline can be developed on the basis of a railroad by restructur-
inq a number of sections and fundamental ~econstruction o� lines already
constructed.
A characteristic feature of railroads is the capability of increasing their carry-
" ing capacity by increasi.ng the mass of trains and by increasing their number. Thus,
the carrying capacity for a single-track railroad was established at 12-36 pairs of
trains per day with length of the receiving-dispatching tracks of 850 or 1,050
meters. The carrying capacity will be brought up to 180 pairs of trains per day,
i.e., will be increased 5.?-17-fold, with double-track railroad mainline with mod-
ern communications devices that provide a su~cession of trains at intervals of 8
minu~es. Even higher carrying capacities are achieved on short, primarily suburban
sections. At the same time, the mass of a train can be increased by lengthening
the receiving-dispatching tracks and introducing rolling stock with increased load
per meter of length.
- In practice the carrying capacity of a railroad constructed according to specifica-
tions of category I(3-5 million tons annually) can be brought up to 80-100 million
tons annually in the loaded direction with subsequent development.
The use of eight-axle qondolas and tank cars is possible in the future for shipping
fuels, which will make it possible to increase the carrying capacity of double-
track electrified mainlines by an additional 30-35 percent and to brinq it up to
120-130 million tons annually with length of receivinq-dispatching tracks of ap-
proximately 1,050 meters [59, 60].
The effective carrying capacity of a railroad section or route determined by exist-
ing hardware and also by the number of pairs of passenger trains and volume of ~
shipments to service local consinners and the possi.ble carrying capacity which can
be achieved with complete development of the railroad to a double-track mainline
with modern hardware that provides passage of 144-180 pairs of trains of a parallel
schedule should be distinguished. However, this carrying capacity permitted by
permanent devices with corresponding support with rolling s~ock is not optimum.
The optimum carrying capacity is somewhat lower than the possible capacity with
complete use of permanent devices. The presence of a.reserve that provides high
operating indicators and opeXating stability of the route is required to achieve
minimum transportation expenses.
The problem of passing an additional flow of fuels and other freight over one or
another section or route of a railroad network with existing hardware and the num-
ber of rolling stock is solved on the basis of the effective reserves and other ~
conditions and is related to problems of operational planning. Consideration of
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routes and indicators of conversion from the actual to the possible carrying capac- ~
ity and the use of this increase to ship fuels is of great interest for analyzing
the enqineering and economic indicators of fuel transport.
3.3. Methods ~ Increasing the Carrying Capacity of Railroads . .
a) The Mass of �Trains
As is known, the mass of a train is determined by the length of the recei.ving-
dispatching tracks, the load capacity of rail cars and the level of their utiliza-
tion. Electric and diesel traction makes it possible to achieve any tractive
force and capacity by sectioning with control from the front locomotive section.
Therefore, trains of any mass formed up according to the length of the receiving-
dispatching tracks of stations can essentially be made up. During the past decades
practically all basic directions of the railroad network were reconstructed and
the receiving-dispatching tracks were lengthened to 850 meters and on some routes
to 1,050 meters. Therefore, the reserves for increasing the mass of trains by a
further lengthening of receiving-dispatchin3 tracks have essentially been exhausted.
When constructed new rail mainlines, the length of the receiving-dispatching tracks
can be any length. There is positive experience in laying out a mainline under
valley conditions of terrain with the possi.bility of lengthening the receiving-
dispatching tracks to 1,700 meters. The use of station tracks of this length on
railroads constructed under less favorable conditions causes an increase in con-
struction cost, but is alsn possible. Preliminary developments showed the possi-
~ bility of developing a mainline with access of trains on it with double length of
2 X 850 or 2 X 1,050 meters. However, trains of this length can be used only in
construction of a new railroad or fundamental reconstruction of existing, primarily
_ single-track railroads.
Improving the.parameters of coal gondolas and tank cars may provide large reserves
for increasing the carrying capacity. Shipment of coal or petroleum products in
eight-axlp cars, especially those constructed according to dimensions 1-T, in-
- creases the running load per meter of train length from 5.8 to 8 and even 8.5 t-f/m,
i.e., by 38-45 percent (Table 3.2). The fuel-carrying capacity of railroads ac-
cordinqly increases without increasing the number of pairs of coal or tank-car
trains [20, 21].
Restrictions on overall dimensions and the strenqth of artificial structures
(bridges and overpasses) prevent a further increase of the load capacity of rail
_ cars or rather of load per meter of train length. Eight-axle rail cars with dimen-
sion T carrying a load of more than 9 t-s per meter of length will be able to be
operated in the near future only on closed routes.
Improving the stock of gondolas to ship coal and tank cars, besides increasing the
carrying capacity, should also solve two other problems: reducing coal losses dur-
- ing shipment and increasing the operating reliability of the rail car stock and
consequently of railroads as a whole.
Coal losses now comprise up to 1.5 tons for each gondola with capacity of 60 tons
, or up to 20 percent of the transported coal. When coal is transported only from
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FOR OFFI~IAL U~E ONl,Y
Table 3.2.
(1) ~2~ r~~3~ox*� {4~ oa~S~K~~� ~ ~~~w YieBim~uwq
4ucno 1'aC~e~n~T rwuacrn. Ta~w. r ww Ko~.~r ra4en~u. wTY~K~~ dh,ew.
(~CtII T 1lMCTt~NY. M~ u T~IM Mt~T
l~r~earuH~r c z.fy~~.~ noao.u
G I-T 95 30.(1 107,U 16,~ 7,60 I,II
6 T 95 :31 ,5 I Ifi,O Ib,7 8,05 (.23
g T ~17 28,7 IIfi,4 1~,4 9,0 1,2
8 I-T 12~ ~11.5 13A.4 19.3 8.b 1,08
g T 1;3'~ ~O,d I~i.Q 19,1 9,0 1,18
8 T 128 39,9 15:1.6 18,7 9,0 l,2
(10 ) llucme pNw
6 O-T !N) 39,0 ~J,O 16,0 8.0 I.10
6 T 9U a5,6 104,Q 14,0 9,0 I,10
8 1-T 120 4A,0 13~'i,fi 21,1 S,0 1,12
S T i20 4R,0 146,0 IG,~ l0,2 1.2
9 T� 128 48,0 153.G IR,O 9,78 1,2
*Design developed for Baykal-Amur Mainl~.ne Railzoad
_ Key:
. 1. Number of axles 6. Lenqth of automatic coupler along
2. Overall dimensions axles, meters
3. Load capacity, tons 7. Runaing l~~d, t-f/m
4. Tare, tons 8. Specific volume, m3/t
5. Voltane of body or boiler of 9. Gondolas with blind floor
tank car, m3 10. Tank cars
_ the Kuznetsk basin, more than 2.5 million tons of coal is lost annually and the
- nonproductive expenses throughout the country as a whole due to coal losses reach
several tens of millions of rubles [60I.
The main causes for coal losses are qaps in the body (and doors and unloading
hatches) and loadinq qondolas from the "top." Therefore, reducing coal losses by
= coveri.ng it with mastic, spraying it with oil and packing the surface of the coal
with rollers does not eliminate the main causes.
- As can be seen from the data of Table 3.3~ calculated for average distance of coal
ship~nent, the minimum losses due to wind accur when gondolas are loaded to the
level of the sides or hiqher up to 100 mm. However, with existing gondolas, this
loading leads to siqnificant losses due to incomplete utilization of load capacity.
'1'he volume of a gondola body constructed acaording to dimension 1-T, is increased
by approximately 12 percent, which makes it possible to load coal into the car
without a"~cap" an~d at the same time to improve the running load of the car.
Eight-axle gondalas constructed accordinq to dimension T with false floor and spe-
cific body volume of 1.18~1.20 m3/t have good indicators. They completely
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~':Jn Vl'~ ~L~AI. ?,JYJ V.~YI .
- eliminate losses due to coal s~illi~ng throuqh leaks in hatches and removal of fine
coal fractions due to wind when gondolas are 2oaded with a"cap." However, these
gondolas will find application only on individual routes in the near future.
Table 3.3.
~1~ ~ ~11A'~ 07 n0'f!~'~1~1 Ot ~ nOTtw OT ~~Of!('ll VfJW OT
uRaR~y~Kr w~Yan~~ + Q- ~ ~ ~Kiof~yllw ~MZ~-ns~qia
O i4`~ ~M Mf01111. - b~ Y~ ~
c+~ i Ad' ( T ~Yh� � 0 7~'~ T I qtS.
600 64,1 I1 2,.`~Q 21,30 100 58,2 8.9 10,89 0,21 1.78
5W 63.5 O,fi 1,0.5 3,10 15,5a 0 55,Y 8,9 16,91 b,2^ 1,82
400 62,4 1,7 :1.01 1,52 i2,90 - 100 b2.2 11.9 23.30 0,74 5,95
300 61,G 2,5 �I,~A 0.92 7.80 - 200 19~3 1~,8 30,22 0,91 7,70
^00 59,9 4,2 7,62 O,fiO 5,Q9
Key:
1. Height of cap, mm 5. Coal losses due to wind
_ Z. Load of rail cax, tons 6. Tons
3. Underloading, tcuis 7. Rubleg
4. Losses due to underloadinq of
rail car, rubles
- Investigations of tl:e designs of larqe-capacity tank car~a for th~ 3aykal-Amur
Mainline showed that the internal diameter of the cylindrical pnrt of the body
~ must be increased to 3,4QJ r.im to increa~e the engineering and econoanic efficiency
of tank cars. Effici~nt use of dia~sion and the optimum parameters of tank
_ cars will provide a decrease of reduced expenditures by 8.5-9 percent and will
_ permit an increase of the carrying capacity of the mainline by 26-27 percent [19].
Thus, the basic directions for further improvinq tl~~e hardware of railroads in �uel
shipment are converqent to dimension 1-T and subsequently to dimension T and im-
provement of the parameters of loadinq capacitiss.
Extensive use of eiqht-axle qondolas and tank cars of di.mansion 1-T and subse-
quently of dimension T may be reqarded as the most effect+ve direction of assim-
ilating the increasinq fuel volumes with minimum exgenditures for development of
pez~nanent devices: capital investment~ are require~ only for constructxon and
adaptation of loading devices (rai~. c~ir tigpinq d~vices and unloading tracks) and
energy supply devices on some sec4~ions with elenNOro Tonnune, ua 1U000 r�KM 6pyrro 127,0 30~g
'fo Hcp ua IOOO T�HM ~ICTT0~5~ . . . . . . . . . . . 223,0 68,5�
Pacxou rouneua na :eWpa6uTKy 1 KBT~4 9lICKTp09NEpIWN, QT-
uyuleHnoH noTpe6HTenAM (6.) . . . . , , , , , , , 0,340 -
I~acxoa ronnuea ~a Ao6w~iy, Tpa~icnoprtipoexy, nepepa6o~rtcy
a uorepu npa ero xpaaiextw~, % (7) . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 15-20��
llonuwii pacxott 3~~epropecypcoe xa McenesHOAOpoHCt~ae
nupaeoaKU, Kr ycnodHOro TounHOa, Ha ~OOO T�NM 8,0-8,4 8,0-8,4
*The increased fuel consumption ~ndicators are explained by the fact that fuel
consumption for shunting and auxiliary work performed by diesel Iocomotives on
sections with electric and diesel traction is related to the net measurement of
1,000 ton-km. ~
**Including fuel expenditures for refining diesel fuel of sulphur to the require-
ments of locomotive diesels.
Key :
1. Indicators
2. Electric traction
3. Diesel traction ~
4. Electric power consumption on hiqh-voltage buses of traction substations,
kW�hr, or of diesel fuel, kg of comparison fuel, per 10,000 gross tons-km
5. The same per 1,000 net tons-lan
6. Fuel consiunption to generate 1 kW�hr of electric power sent to consumers
7. Fuel consumption for production, transportation, refining and s~orage
losses, percent ~
8. Total enerqy resource consumption for rail shipments, kg of comparison
fuel, per 1,000 ton-km
consumption (per 10,000 net tons-lan) on railroad sections of different character-
istics with 100 percent empty run of gondolas and tank cars is presented in Table
3.18. The specific fuel a~zd electric power consumption increase sharply (up to
twofold) depending on the difficulty of the track profile--essentially on the
terrain relief (Figure 3.16).
The type of traction as a comparatively insignificant effect on energy consumption.
When electric traction is powered from future large electric power plants operating
on coal with fuel c~onsumption of 0.310-0.320 grams per kW�hr of pawer delivered to
tne consumer or with development of nuclear power, electric traction is more de-
sirable than diesel tractfon both in energy xesource consumption~and especially in
the saving of liquid fuel.
_ Thus, the basic directions for reducting energy resource consumption for rail ship-
ments are concentration of shipments on two-track mainlines with favorable track
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(1)
- ~ o ~JO 3 4 /1
dE
F ~ ~
~c ~ /00 ~
�y i
a ~ ~ 2
0
i ~
~k
~ ~ SO
p q 6 a /D J?
(2) 9nnoNE~ �/.o
Figure 3.16. Fuel Expenditures for Coal or Oil (Petroleum Product) Ship-
ments by Rail with Different Difficulty of Traak Profile
with 100 Percent IInpty Return of Rolling Stock:
electric tractiont --diesel traction; 1 and 3--single-
track sections, train mass of 3,000-4,000 tons; 2 and 4--
two-track sections, train mass of 6,000-8,000 tons
Key :
1. Specific fuel consumption, kg per 10,000 net tons-]an
2. Grade i, pera�nt
profile, supplying power to electrifi~d railroads from economical electric power
plants operating on solid fuel or nuclear power and with diesel traction, usinq
modern diesels with low specific fuel consumption on diesel locomotivesi the
typical fuel expenditures on shipments with regard to losses at different phases
of refining with 100 percent empty run of rail cars and tank cars are 10-12 kq of
- comparison fuel on railroads of all regions of the country except Western Siberia .
and northern Kazakhstan and it is 7-8 kg of comparison fuel per 1,000 net tons-km
on railroads of Western Siberia and Kazakhstan with flat track profile.
Table 3.18.
_(2~ Y/~GMIYN I~C7tOA !'MKT(lO3N!(M'Iql N1N
X~peKtepacnara Aopon~ ~,n~a T TauxM n~w pacvmwu nc+tt~e~ie, ~ 3~
~ I ii I a I ~u I- 12 -
_ (4) 3a~K~npuYecKntt I!lA2R~ Ke~q�Y
1leyxnyTxaA am~ onuonyrNaa Mano3a-
rpy~cexxaA (5). 3000-400i1 185 226 371 30fi 342
_ To Hce (5) . . . . . . . . . . 6000-8000 180 221 26~! 296 32~1
3arpyHCenHa~ onHOnyruaa(6) 3000-4000 225 270 31fi 350 37"

_ To ~ce(6). . . . . . . . . 6000-8000 193 23A 390 328 3~52
Tcn.~oaos?ura ~nxza, Kx ycaoeKOZO nco?i.~nea
Aeyx~nyraan enN onHOnyreaa n~ano:{a-
rpy~ceHHae (5) 3000-4000 fi3.3 7!1,0 9G,0 109~ I I I7~U
- To Hce(~) . 6(N10-8000 fil ,R 77,5 94,0 105,(i I12,5
3arpykteexag oABOnyrNaA 3(N10-40110 fifi,? ft3,5 101,5 119,7 121,2
To me~~t~ 600()-8Q0() f,4,7 85, I 103,6 I18,2 126,0
[Key on following page]
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~ J~~ v~ ~ ~~.~~~a~ v~Jai vl ~a~~
[IGey continued from preceding page]:
1. Railroad characteristics
2. R'rain mass, tons
_ 3. Specific electric power or fuel consumption with calculated grade, percent
4. Electric traction, kW�hr
5. Two-track or one-track low-freight
6. Single-track loaded
7. Diesel traction, kg of comparison fuel
c) Metal Consumption
Determination of the metal consumption of rail shipments encounters a~number of
methodical difficulties. The metal allocated to rail transport is consumed for:
construction of additional rail cars and locomotives; ~
increasing the length of main and station tracks;
repair of rolling stock (rail cars and locomotives) and other railroad
equipment;
replacement of worn rails and other parts of the upper track structure--
switches, rail bracing, manufacture of reinforced concrete crossties instead of
wooden crossties and so onf
supplying railroads with new equipment (electrification, more improved com-
munications equipment and so on). �
Investigations made it possible to establish the following indicators of the metal
consumption of rail freight shipments: 18-20 kg/(t�km/year) (net) to assimilate
shipments and 0.9-1.0 kg/(t�lan/year) (net) to restore worn-out components.
The first indicator is the amount of inetal supplied to transportation to increase
shipments: additional rail cars, metal to strengthen the carrying capacity of
_ railroads and so on and the second indicator is compensation for wear of inetals
replacement of rails, wheels, brakeshoes and manufacture of various spare parts
consumed duriag repair of main equipment.
These indicators are average for shipments of all freight. The indicators will be
close to those presented in shipment of fuels by ordinary trains with empty return
- of rail cars or tank cars since a reduction of inetal constunption achieved by im-
provement of freight capacity is compensated for by an increase of the empty run
of gondolas or tank cars.
The metal cansumption of. the types of transport over a prolonged period is some-
times calculated as the total metal expenditures during the aervice life, i.e., by
not less than during 25-30 years, to compare the types of transport (rail and pipe-
line) to different indicators of initial investments of inetal and its annual con-
sumption. It is more correct to take into account the time factor when calculating
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metal consumption by reduction of inetal consumed for repair to the year of an i.n-
crease of shipments, for example, by a formula similar for reduction of capital
investments at different times. With this approach the consumption of inetal per
1,Od0 tons-km of increase of annual shipments performed over a prolonged time per-
iod with indicators of the use of rolling stock typical for the system as a whole
will camprise 26-30 kg as a function of the reduction coefficient. The condition-
ality of this approach is obvious. .However, it more correctly reflects the es-
sence of the phenomenon from economic aspec~s than simple summation of inetal con-
sumption for shipanents over a number of yeas:s or underestimation of it to restore
basic stocks and for repair needs.
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Qzapter 4. Gas Transport
4.1. Gas Pipeline Transport Systems in tha USSR and Abroad
Natural gas is one of the most effective types of fuel. Gas consumers even with
identical cost of one ton of comparison fuel of qas and coal achieve an additional
saving from improvement of burning conditions, which can be estimated from 3 to 18
rubles, and in some cases even higher. The greatest svaing is achieved when gas
_ fuel is consumed at large electric power plants and the lowest saving is achieved ~':'zrw~
in small furnaces and household devices and also when gas is used as a raw mater- ~
ial of the chemical industry.
The enorms~us advantage of gas fuel is the high degree of its combustion and the
insignificant noxious discharges into the atmosphere, which makes the use of it
extreznely desirable at enterprises located in cities.
The high efficiency of gas fuel use, especially in high-temperature production
processes, at enterprises located in large cities and for household needs, i.e.,
in those spheres where it produces the hiqhest consumer saving, can be judged by
the rapid development of gas fuel im~orts by industrially developed countries over
pipelines of great lenqth and maritime transport in a liquefied state with expendi-
- tures that considerably exceed those to produce other types of fuel in the same
fuel equivalent.
The high economy af gas fuel provides the basis to assume that one of the basic
directions for improving our country's energy balance should be an increase in the
specific weight and efficiency of usinq gas fuel. The use of gas in the national
economy made it possible not only to increas~ the growth rates of the country's
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economy and product quality but in many cases to sharply improve the ecological
conditions of cities. Not only the geological reserves and production conditions
that determine expenditures for production but transport indicators as well affect
the specific weiqht of gas fuel in the country's fuel balance.
The gas transport system of the USSR is now an interrelated complex of fields,
major pipelines, gas depots and distributing pipelines. The gas transport system of
the USSR is inferior only to that of the United States in the amount of gas deliver-
ed to consumers.
Development of the gas transport system was begun in 1946 with construction of the
first Saratov-Moscow major gas pipeline 300 mm in diameter. The Dashava-Kiev and
K,okhtla-Yara-Leningrad gas pipelines 400-500 mm~in diameter were then constructed.
Gas pipelines began to be put into operation at especially rapid rates in 1956
with regard to discovery of the Shebelinskoye, Stavropol'skoye and Krasnodarskoye
fields and the fields of Central Asia. The Northern Caucasus-Center four-pipe gas
transport system approximately 2,000 lan long and with productivity of 42 billion m3
annually and the Bukhara-Urals system that established the beqinning of the gas
- fields of Central Asia into the fuel economy of the Urals and the European USSR
was developed.
Construction of a large gas trans,port system from the four Central Asian-Center
pipelines was begun in the 1960's. Development of the Western Siberian fields was
begun in 1971 and the Urengoy--Nadym-Punga--Perm'--Izhevsk--Kazan'--Gor'kiy and
other gas pipelines were constructed. The country's gas transport system has re=
cently been developing at especially rapid rates [30]. The rates of development
of gas pipeline transport can be judqed from the data presented i.n Table 4.1.
Development of the gas industry is now characterized by intensive introduction of
fields of the northern regions of the West Siberian lowland and the Orenburg and
Central Asian fields into exploitation and a rapid increase of the distance of gas
transport. The accelerated development of gas production leads to a systematic
increase of its fraction in the country's fuel-en~rgy balance.
The country's unified gas transport system has now been formed already, including
regional and functional major gas pipeline systems [60, 62, 63]. The Central Asia-
Center system permits delivery of approximately 56 billion m3/year of gas from the
Central Asian fields to the European USSR. The length of the system is 3,070 km
and it consists of two pipes 1,220 mm in diam~ter and one pipe 1,020 mm in diam-
eter, designed for a pressure of 56 kgf/cm2, and one pipe 1,420 mm in diameter de-
signed for a pressure of 75 kgf/cm2. 7.'he system delivers gas to the Central,
Volga and Urals systems. The northern regions of Tyumenskaya Oblast-Ukhta-Torzhoic
is transferring approximately 20 billion m3 of gas annually to the Torzhok region
through the rapidly developing system. The length of the system is 2,850 km. A
new gas pipeline system of the northern rayons of Tyumenskaya Oblast-Punga-Perm'-
Center is being formed, approxitnately 18 billion m3 of qas annually is delivered
to Yel'ets through a section of the gas pipeline and approximately 80 billion m3
of gas annually will be delivered by 1980. The largest Urenqoy-Chelyabinsk gas
transport system and further to the rayons of the Volga area is being laid in
Tyumenskaya Oblast. Approximately 60 billion m3 of qas annually will be delivered
through this mainline. The Orenburg-State border gas pipelines 2,750 km long are
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Table 4.1.
I1c~cu~re~ (1 ~ 1965 1970 �1976 1977
Toeepxd~ ras, ~apa. ~~/roA I2)� 112,1 170,5 250,6 300,2
IIpOTAIKtHNOCTb~ Y61C. KN ~ 3~ . . . . . . . . ,8 67~5 ~~2 ~~~,s
('pysoo6opor, ~PA. M~�IIM~t}~. . . . . . . 70,2 16~1.2 337.3 437,1
CPCAN9A A~eb~b Tp~THPOBKM, KM~~j~ . G`Z6 ~ I3'IS .L4~G
fpy9ouenpAaceaxocrb, wapA. K 'KM~KM ~ . . . I ,68 2,43 3.4 ~TT
Key: ~
1. Indicators 4. Freight turnover, billion m3�km
2. Commercial gas, billian m3/year 5. Average transport distance, lan
3. Length, thousand km 6. Freiqht intensity, billion m3�]aq/km
being developed mainly to supply the southern regions of the Ukraine with gas and
to deliver gas for export. One of the gas pipelines 1,420 mm in diameter is being
constructed in cooperation with CEMA member countries. The Northern Caucasus sys-
tem is the main one for gas distribution of the Northern Caucasus fields to con-
sumers and partially for delivery to Donbass regions. The Central Asian system
delivers gas to the regions of Uzbekistan, Tadzhikistan, Kazakhstan and Kirgiziya
from the fields of Central Asia and by import from Afghanistan. The Transcaucasus
system provides consumers of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan and also regions of
the Nozthern Caucasus with qas, i.e., the gas of local fields and also imported
gas from Iran is distributed through it.
The Central system distributes gas from the fields of Central Asia, Western Siberia
- and the Eastern Ukraine and transfera qas to other regions. The Eastern Ukraine
system supplies the Eastern Ukraine with gas and transports gas to the west [61].
Gas is delivered to consumers of Lithuania, Latvia, Belorussia, the Ukraine and for
export through the western system. The Volga system is used to distribute Central
Asian and Siberian gas to consumers of the Volga region. The Urals system is
ringed with the Central, Volga and Central Aaia-Center system. The gas of Siber-
ian fields is connected to it. It is used to distribute gas in the Urals.
Along with the major gas pipeline system, a branch2d distributing system that sup-
plies gas to most any larqe populated points of the European USSR, the Urals and
partially to Central Asia has been developed in the USSR. The specific weight of .
the length of the distributing networks in the total length of the gas pipelines
in the USSR comprises aQproximately 30 percent. This is less than in the United .
States and European countries, which is explained primarily by the higher concen-
tration of gas consumption [60]. It should be noted that it is now planned to
increase the specific weight of gas consumed for production and municipal-domestic
needs in the USSR, which leads to accelerated development of separating systems
[63] .
The desire to increase the carrying capacities of large mainlines and to change
the structure of ,^onsumption increased the demands on the reliability of gas sup-
ply, which in turn required that measures be implemented fo develop a reserve
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_ ca,~
~ 4)
cl~ ~
~
~ � ~ ~
~ ~ 4 ~ .
~ ~ ~ 6~
~ l00 ~ 00 ~ '
e ~ '
~ d
~i00 ,i d00 600 '
: ~ x/"
C ~
.e ~00 t tB0 y00 S y B
_ ~ '
Z!0/ ! f00 100 ~ ~
~
0 0 0 ~liS 1l70 Jl7,f
(5 ) rodw
_ Figure 4.1. Indicators of Gas Pipeline Transport Development: 1--co~nercial
gas of the USSRi 2--commercial gas of the United Statesf 3--
length of gas pipelines in the USSRi 4--length of gas pipelinss
in the United States; 5--freight turnover of USSR gas pipelines;
6--freight turnover of United States gas pipelinesj 7--freight
- intensity of USSR gas pipelinesf 8--freight intensity of United
States qas pipelinest 9--average length of tra~sportation in the
USSRt 10--average length of transportation in the United States
Key:
1. Average length of transportation, km 3. Freight turnover, m3�lan/year
2. Freight intensity, billion m�lan/lrn1 4. Commercial gas, billion m3/year
5. Years
system and to cover the peak gas consumption of consumers by another type of fuel
and to develop an underground storage system. There are now gas depots with active
volume of 34 billion m3 [62].
The total indicators for development of gas transport systems in the USSR and the
United States are presented in Figure 4.1 [30,
The transport system of the USSR qas industry in the volume of gas delivery, length
of the major network, the use of large-diameter pipes, the freight intensity of
mainlines and a number of other indicators emerged in second place in the world
after the United States.
Gas pipeline transport in the USSR was developed at rapid rates with improvement
of the engineerinq and economic indicators, which made it possible to achieve
- favorable restzlts despite the increase in the distance of gas transportation and
shifting of production to regions with unfavorable climatic and hydrogeological
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conditions. This was the result of axtensive use of the advances of scientific
and technical progress and primarily of the use of large-diameter pipes and con-
version to a pressure of 75 kgf/cm2. Moreover, the gas pipeline transport of our
country is being developed under conditions of good support with resources.
A characteristic feature of the development of the gas industry in the United States
is a gradual decrease of gas production and consequently of transport by explored
. and proven reserves. Production by proven reserves decreased from 17.6 to 11.0
years from 1965 through 1973. If the gas reserves on the north siope of Alaska are
excluded, production is at the level of 9-10 years and this naturally restrains the
development of the hardware and technology of gas transport in the United States.
As can be seen from Figure 4.1, the freight turnover uf gas pipelines in the USSR
was approxin,ately 80 percent of the corresponding indicator of the United States
in 1975. The development of highly productive gas pipelines in the USSR made it
possibJ.e to bring the freight intensity up to 3.4 billion m3�km/km, unlike the
freight intensity equal to 0.92 billion m3�km/]an in the United States.
Pipeline transport of gas is practically unchanged for gas delivery under the con-
ditions of any continent. Howzver, loadinq of pipelines for their service life
must be provided for effective operation, which is ensured only with the presence
of the corresponding reserves.
- The gas pipeline transport of the United States has been developed under conditions
- of low effectiveness of geological prospecting work for gas. Thus, capital in-
vestments in development of the entire gas supply system of the United States com-
prised 1.935 billion dollars in 1965, which provided an increase of production of
35 billion m3. Capital investments reached 3.0 trillion dollars in 1973 and pro-
- vided an increase of production by only 3.0 billion m3/year. The major expenditures
were required to ma.intain production at the achieved level.
According to preliminary data, approximately 50 percent of the consumed gas in 1990
in the United States will be gas produced in the region north of the 48th parallel
or exported in the liquefied state by maritime transport. The problem of construct-
ing a number of major gas pipelines from the northern regions is being discussed
widely in this regard. The problem of delivering gas from fields located on the
north slope of Alaska is being discussed. A version of combined gas transport by
the gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez is being considered, in which construc-
tion of a liquefaction plant and further transport to the west coast of the United
States in tankers is planned, and a version of gas delivery completely by land over
a qas pipeline route parallel to the trans-Alaskan pipeline to Fairbanks and then
to Calgazy, from which one branch will go to Chicago and the other to San Francisco,
is being considered. The total length of the gas pipeline is 7,700 km of pipes
1,220 mm in aiameter. The total cost of construction is estimated at 10 billion
dollars.
A ntunber of versions for construction of the gas pipeline from fields discovered on
the Arctic islands of Canada--the second expected significant resource base of nat-
urat gas on the American continent--have been advanced [97].
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As can be seen, further devel~pm~nt of ~.he qas industry of the United States by
exploitation of the qas fields in the Arctic regions of Canada and Alaska requires
_ very canplex enqineering solutions to develap transport systems and consequently
requires hiqh capital investments.
'1"he structure of gas consumptiors in tihe USSR and United States differ sharply.
\ Thus, gas consumption by electric power plants comprises approximately 25 percent,
- cons~mrptibn by industry comprises approximately 70 percent and consimaption by mu-
nicipal-domestic consuaiers comprises approximat~ly 5 percent in the USSR, while the
fraction of the same consumers is ~oproximately 15, 6~ and 25 percent, respectively,
in the United States.
- The structur~ of ~onsinnptio;~ also determined the characteristic feature of the gas
industry in tiie Ur.ire~ States: Qxtensive development of ineans for compensating for
i.rreg~alar consumption $nd ~qualization of the 1oac3 of mainlines, especialy those of
great lengtt,. The total productivi~.y of ineans to compensate for irregular gas con-
sumptian was approx~m~tely 1.64 billion m3/day during the winter of 1975-1976 with
averaq~ daily gas delfvery of 1.8 billion m3 by pipeline companies. Thus, compen-
sation supply of gas comprises appraximately ~0 percent of the total and 1.3 bil-
liaa~ m3 goes to underqround depats, 0.13 billion m3 goes to propane-air units and
0.2 billion m3 goes to liquiefied natural gas units.
Conditions in the United States pernit the use of depleted oil and gas fields and
also other similar structures located near large ~as consuming regions for erea-
4:ion of gas depots. There were 38b undergro;uid gas depots in the United States in
1.976, of which 302 were created in depleted gas pools, 18 were in gas-oil pools,
i were in oil pools, 53 wer~ tn watier-bearing beds, 1 were in salt domes and one
was ln a mine shaft with total active gas volume nf 143 billion m3. The increase
in the roZe of units for gas stoxaqe in tre iiquefied state merits attention. There
are 57 liquefied natux~al gas units used to c~~ve~ peak loads in the United States and
Canada.
OF~~ o~ the main problems of further development of the fuel balance in the USSR is
improvement af the gas consumi.ng structure: a decrea~e in the volume of gas de-
].ivered to low-qualified consuruers. T't;is shoul~ lead to development of a large
di.stributing n~tw~ork and an icicreaye in t~:e rnzans of reyulation and reserve of the
gss supply.
~'rie sccialist caur,tries af Eu~ope mainly rec~iv~ gas by import from the USSR. Gas
deliveries from t}a.e Uss~.have heen increasing d~aring the past few years and the gas
suppTy nf. tkzese countrie~s is achievi.nq ever wider development.
The Orenburq-5tate k;order ~~as ~ip~line was constructed through the common efforts
of a n;,unL-~r cf c.~un.trie~z an { a br a~.::!~ed network of major qas pipelines has now been
develoskomneftesnab to consumers over an average dis-
tance of 25 km. Awa~x,~ce conditions of shipments and average newly arising expendi-
tures for shipment ~re taken for r~il `zansport. The actual expenditures may
fluctuate, as was ccz~3idered in Chapter 3.
The results of calculati.ons for a volume af petroleum products of 200,000 tons/year
are presented in Fiqure 6.2, a, the r~sults for a volume of 3.0 million tons/year
are presented in Fi~u~e ~.2, b and in this case truck trains with load capacity of
- 16 + 8 tons were used in ~irect motcr shipments and trucks with capacity of 6 and
16 tons were used foX trucbc ht~uling depending on the distance. From the given cal-
culations, one can conclv.de that there are spheres of application of various types
of transport and spiig-res ~or z~irth~r improvement of petroleum product transporta-
tion. When transparting small volutr,e3 of petroleum products by rail, the increase
of shipping distan~e, especially under favorable conditions of train traffic, hard-
ly affects transportation expenses due to r_}~~ high expenditu~~s for the initial-
final operations related to preparae~aon of tnnk cars for filling and unloading at
intermediate stations t;y assemt~Zed trains and also for hauting by motor transport
- to consumers. Thus, ari increase in the shipping distance fxom 50 to 1,000 km leads
to an increas~ of expenditures frcxn 65~10 ta 85--95 rubles. Expenditures increase
to approximately 115 rubles per 10 tons, i.e., twofold, only under unfavorable
shipping conditions (overloaded rai:l.road mai.nline, singl~-track railroad with small
train ma~s and so r~n) if t:he ship}~izig ~Yi.stance increases to 1,000 km.
Initial-final operations during transpoztatior of small volumes of petroleum prod-
ucts over special pipelines ar~ also siqnificant due to the need to have available
capaciti~s for sequential pumping and e~cpenditures for hauling of the fuel by
truck at the beginning and end of the pipeline. However, even the line part re-
c;uires ccresiderable expenditures with small-diameter pipes due to the high drag and '
the need tu operate low-capacity pumping stations. Expenditures per 10 tons in-
crease fzom 46-50 rubles at 50 km to 240~250 rubles at 1,000 km with regard to ex-
pend:;.ture, for truck hauling for an average distance of 25 km. In sum, product
pipelines a,re more economical with distance tip to approximately 150-200 km (Figure
6.1, c) ~~nd rail. transport yields better results at longer distances.
The indicators of pipeline fransport with low valumes of g~etroleum p.roducts with
delivn_ry over branches (loopsa from the truck product pipeline, when structures
and operation of special pumgi.nq stations are not required, are more favorable
- than shown in Figure 6.2.
The reduced expenditures indicate tY~e f~~asibility of the sometimes suggested mixed
pipelin~-rail method of shipping petraipum products over relatively short distances,
for example, 200-:300 km, by pipeline and then by railroad (Figure 6.1, d). Mainteir-
. ance of l~w-cagacity~ line devices and terminals for preparation of tank cars for
loading requires large expenditures, whieh is not compensated for by the saving due
to reduction of shipping distance by rail. ~tixed pipeline-rail shipments are ef-
fective at long distances (500-1,000 km? and with a significant volume and also on
= loaded routes whez~e transfer of petroleum products to pipeline transport makes it
possible to postpone the deadline �or ir:plementzng expensive measures on fundamental
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cvn vr�.~~na.. v..sa, vi.~.�
- .iOD _ _ _ _ _ - - - -
,
~1)Zd0 - ~ - - -
~ 160 - - _ - -
zv~}_ - - - - l - - - - ~
~ a I t ~ i
4120 . - - - - - - - -
= Z 6 '7
tl 1C^ . ~ . + - - - -
, -
l~+' r4~ . - . _ _ .
C
b
~ r6n . _ _ _
2 I40 - - r - - - ~ - - /
: ~ Il0 � ;~f ~ , ~ - v - -
/ M
~ l0? - - - -
~ eo - - -
/ J ~
60 - - - -
~ YQ / - " . - - /
V I... t s
.
~ ID - _ t.. . .
4 ~.1~
= a ~00100 TAO y00 SO/ bOO 'I1B o~: i80 /04/ 0//0100 J0~ ~90 S00 i90 700 /00 !00 /SBO
PaccmarM~ct, +r~ ~21 Pnccmo~NUt, N,w ~
_ a/ b)
~ Figure 6.2. Effect9.v~:n~ss of Using various 'i~pes of Transport: a--with as-
similation af petrole~m product volua~e of 200,000 tons/year; b-�
~i.th assimilation o~ voltiune of 3 million tons/year= 1--pipeli.~e
t~.�ansport wifh tr~xck hauling af 6 tons t 2--pipeline transport with
truck hauling af 16 tons: 3--rail trans,~ort with truck hauling of
6 tdns; 4--rail tranap~ort with truck haulinq of 16 tonsj 5--rail
_ transport under less ~av^Yable shippinq conditionss 6 and 7--
- motor transpor~ as ~ function of hiqhway conditions ~,u type of
trucks
Key:
1. Specific recls~~d expenditures, rubles/10 tons
2. Dista~~ce, km
reconstruction of a railrnad, for example, ~n construction of second tracking under
complex topographic condi.tions.
Mixed pipeline-rail shipments are sometimes f~asible with hiqh concentration of
capacities of oil refining plants when the volumea of loading nt one railroad ter-
minal exceed the capabilities of developinq it and normal operation and loading
msst be transferred to an a3jacent railraad terminal to a distance of 100-200 km
- with delivery of fuel by gipeline to the loa~iinq point.
Truck shipments have minimum expenditures for initial-final operations and can pro-
vide delivery of petroleum prGducts directly to consumer warehouses or to general-
purpose service station~. However, reduced expenditures by 30-40 rubles per 10
tons at 50 km increase to 270-400 rubles at 1,000 km depending on the type and con-
= dition of roads. These indicators of motor Rhipments naturally exclude the possi-
- bility of using them for long-range shipments of petroleum products, except special
cases of supplying the country's remote regions with fuel durinq ~he winter season
where the use of other types of transport is impossitle. Comparison of the
~
~
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considered types of transport shows that motor transport using Kama trucks with
capacity of 23-24 tons wi.th trailer, which permit de~ivery of petroleum products
= directly to consumers even under unfavorable conditions, is most efficient with
relatively small volumes of petroleum products and with their being shipped over
. comparatively short distances. The use of motor transport is feasible compared to
small-diameter pipelines, even under unfavorable highway conditions at distances
_ up to 150-350 lan, depending on the hauling conditions from the oil storage and
distribution centers with pipelines to consumers and with volumes of less than
100,000-I50,000 annually and over long distances.
When motor and rail transport are compared, the use of trucks yields more favorable
indicators at distances of 150-200 lan.
Supply within the region of an oil refining plant can usually be accomplished with-
out the participation of rail and pipeline transport by motor transport alone from
the central oil storage and distribution center located near the plant to consumers,
by changing the intermediate centers and also the numerous overloads and related
losses. This same scheme of supply of numerous consumers of a region can be
adopted upon approach to the center of the region where highways converge from re-
- gions of a truck pipeline. In the latter case it is natural to construct branches
to the reqional centers located near the route of the truck pipeline to reduce the
distance of motor shipments.
Consequently, one will be oriented in the future toward significant expansion of
the sphere of use of motor transport in shipments of petroieum products to numerous
small consumers with the transport being shipped to short-run rail shipments with
primary hauling of fuel-lubricating materials to consumers, by changing the inter-
mediate centers.
Different relations occur with transport of petroleum products in significant vol-
umes. In this case the high load of the line part and especially of pumping sta-
~ tions leads to a significant reduction of specific indicators and rates of their
reduction with an increase of transportation distance. As a result pipeline trans-
port under identical conditions of hauling petroleum products to consumers is more
economical in the e.ntire range of distances up to 1,000 km or more than rail ship-
_ ment, even if there is a reserve carrying capacity of rail shipment and even if it
has modern hardware.
Optimum pipeline parameters by diameter and loading have been adopted in calcula-
tions of reduced expenditures with pipeline transport, the results of which are
shown upon comparison with other types of transp~rt. Moreover, the enqine ring and
economic indicators of pipelines vary sharply as a function of utilizing their
capacity.
The results of calculating expenditures with pipelines of different diameters and
their different load are presented in Figure 6.3. The upper part of the zone cor-
responds to a load of 0.9 and the lower part corresponds to 0.5-0.6.
The use of pipes smaller than 114 mm in diameter does not lead to significant im-
provement of indicators for volumes less than 100,000 tons/year. Expenditures on
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(1) aoo . .
i w ~ ~~A~~' `5~y~ . .
,e o 200
~ e~ Z/9;uW ' - ~
a
~ F !00 ~ ~ - -
-
~e ~
0
~ ZO SO /00 ?00 J00 400
Paccmo.rHae, K,v ( 2 )
Figure 6.3. Variation of Reduced Expenditures as a Function of Pipeline
Diameter
Key:
1. Specific reduced expenditures, rubles/10 tons
2. Distance, km
pipe acquisition and depreciation deductions with a reduction of pipeline diameter
decrease insignificantly in the total expenditures on pipeline construction and
operation. Therefore, the use of separating pipelines less than 114 ]an in diameter
can hardly become widespread in the case when one can expect a further growth in
the volume of pumping of petroleum produc~s.
An exception are branches (loops) that operate without pumping stations or with
pumps located at oil storage and distribution centers when expenditures for con-
struction and operation of them are insiqnificant due to combining with the corre-
sponding facilities of the oil storage and distribution centers. It is economical-
ly feasible in these cases to use pipes less than 100 mm in diameter.
Thus, a branch 80 km long with pressure of 20 kgf/cm2 at the connec~ion point and
_ 60 ]an long provides delivery of 30,000-35,000 tons of diesel fuel or about 70,000
tons of gasoline during 5,000 hours of operation annually with indicators more favor-
able than motor shipments.
One should make the following conclusions from the given data:
the average distance of transporting petroleum products more than 1,000 km is
temporary--it will decrease as oil refining plants are constructed in the consum-
ing reqions;
- if oil refining is expanded, the distance of transporting petroleum products
may remain basically unchanged, but an increase of volumes creates prerequisites
for expansion of the spheres of use of product pipeliness
construction of pipelines is primarily feasible between oil refining plants and
nearby oblast centers or large cities, where transporLation and economic ties are
stable and do not vary with construction of new plants. Connection of all adjacent
centers to the product pipeline is feasible;
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the reduced expenditures durinq shipment of petroleum products by rail and
by separate product pipelines differ only in specific spheres. Therefore, con-
struction of a pipeline should be substantiated with regard to local shipping con-
ditions over specific sections of railroads from which switching of the volume oE
petroleum products to a pipeline is planned;
the deadline for putting branching pipelin~s into operation, like truck pipe-
lines, is determined by the load level at which the reduced expenditures will be
lower than on railroads. Under conditions of development of a Froduct pipeline
system, construction and operation with less than full load and expenditures higher
than rail shipments oannot be regarded as economically justified.
Accounting for losses may play a significant role in selecting the version of trans-
portation of petroleum products to consumers.
It is obvious that reducing the number of shipments and intermediate storage cen-
ters will contribute to a reduction of petroleum product losses. There will be
more favorable conditions with extensive development of product pipelines with
branches that provide delivery of petroleum products directly to large cons~amers
with one-time motor transport with single transloading. There will also be favor-
able conditions with motor shipment directly from the center at the plant to the
consumer. One should expect that consideration of this factor leads to expansion
of the spheres of use of product pipelines with branches and motor shipment of
petroleum products directly from the centers at plants.
6.3. Engineering and Economic Indicators of Product Pipelines and Storage Centers
The most favorable engineering and economic indicators during pumping petroleum
products through pipes--diesel fuel with kinematic viscosity coefficient of approx-
imately 0.1 cm2/s and gasoline with coefficient of approximately 0.01 cm2/s--occur
in approximately equal proportions with distances of 100-150 km between pumping
stations.
The nature of variation of reduced expenditures is similar to the principle estab-
lished above for trunk pipelines. Variation of expenditures with locati.on of pump-
ing stations in this range is insignificant and frequently does not go outside the
accuracy of calculations. Pipeline productivity for these conditions is presented
in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3.
li~~al~l~p rpy6~a. MM I(1~3ran~n4~n~ n+e. rI J1xaMe~y ~pyCw~. MM II7p~+x~eoAennwiorrb. Tuic. r
114 150-250 325 2001)--3C0(? .
159 3~0-500 377 2700-4UOU
219 700-1000 42G 3500-5G00 ~
273 I 300-2000 530 600(I-9000
Key:
1. Pipe diameter, mm 2. Productivity, thousand tons
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Table 6.4.
J1xxMexwecKaa one~u~m. Ha~~~bRaKawn ( A,BWR~H9lCKlA pK(7B4NN. N~temuo~coneviwa
uon/110 r�KM1 tl~ aretan~. RoM10 r i M011~IIO T�NM) rnepan~oi. Ron/10 r
a c ~
~4) ~~5 t6) a -a ~ 9~
` q ' a ~00 e p ~i� ~ O ~H ~�p ~
~~o n~ AcKr �g $~H ~ oc P~ S
~ . Y~ ~a ~ Q~
rl~ C~~ sc3E xk d~ C~~ ~i~ ~iE ti3E
219 0,8 2,56 30,74 30,0 480 37T 3,2 0~91 10,93 f4,0 225
I,0 2,1'2 24,60 30,0 480 4,0 0,78 8,74 14,0 225
27a I,6 1,45 16,4 25,0 380 426 4,0 0,79 9,77 15.0 235
2,0 1,23 13,11 25,0 380 5,0 0~67 7.80 15,0 35
325 2,4 1,08 12,23 IT,O 280 530 7~2 0,66 8,70 16,0 45
- 3,0 0,92 9,78 17,0 280 9.0 *0.66 6,96 16,0 245
Key :
1. Traffic operation, kopecks/(10 tons�km)
2. Initial-final operation, kopecks/10 tons
~ 3. Pipeline diameter, mm
4. Productivity, million tons/year
5. Operating expenses
6. Capital investments
Table 6.5.
\1~ nMdC 11l~ft� ~ p~,~~ (3) n~x~ana~ae sa,rnd~ y~v~~~ T. f~ AlJ6NOCTN TrBFIC110~RwQ0El01r RY
npoAY~cTOS. �~~eoAe. Yr ~ap I 3pp 1000
woi. T/roA " 10 30
0.2 114 17.8 20,7 30~7 72,5 233,9
0,4 163 10,3 11,3 18,9 44,5 143,2
U,8 219 5,6 6,7 10,7 24,7 79,1
~,4 273 3,b 4,3 6,7 15,4 49,4
2,0 325 2~7 3,2 b,0 11,8 37.b
3,0 3T7 1,9 2,5 4,1 9~6 30,1
Key:
1. Volume of petroleum products, million tons/year
2. Pipeline diameter, mm
3. Reduced expenditures, rubles/10 tons, at transportation distance, km
The operating expenditures aiid capital investments for traffic and initial-final
operations for product pipelines with spacing of 150 km between pumping stations
are shown in Table 6.4 for the middle regions of the European USSR.
The coefficients that take into account local canditions will be significant and
may reach 50 percent or more for regions hav ng significant deviations in the
level of wages or rates for electric power or that require construction of product
pipelines in mountainous terrain. The averaged indicators for these conditions
can be used only as approximate indicators.
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Variation of reduced expenditures for pumping petroleum products through small-
diameter pipelinea ie preaented in Table 6.5 ae a function of transportntion
distance.
Thus, the indicators of pipeline transport vary as a function of the pumping volume,
pipeline diameter and distance over a very wide range. Thus, if the volume of pe-
troleum products increases 15-fold from 0.2 to 3.0 million tans, expenditures in-
crease 8-9-fold and expenditures increase 13-15-fold with an increase of transpor-
tation distance from 10 to 1,000 lan, i.e., 100-fold. Expenditures for initial-final
operations are very high at short distances.
An organic part af the country's petroleum product supply system is centers and
tank depots designed to accept petroleum products from rail, water or pipeline
transport, storage and issue of petroleum products to different of transport
and primarily loading into tank cars or trucks for further hauling.
Cylindrical metal tanks have become most widely used for storage of petroleum
products. However, underground reinforced concrete tanks and ~rench type tanks
are used and caverns in salt beds, worked-out mines and other capacities are used
abroad for storage of petroleum products.
Table 6.6.
!lo?~miam,uaR obr.ew pe3epeya~on. M~
1'IoRe~ 1
~nx 2
- 100 I 1000 I 5U00 10 i~ ' 20 ~HNI
~3~CIR[i,RbH61P, !(Il:ll1H()n!IYCCKII/! pear.peyapa~ c py,zoHi~poeaKKa~.~ KopnycoM u(~HqU~BAt
fionea~iwH o6ben+, M' ~4 . . 87 I 013 ~1 I f I J~590 I7 050
Z(NaMerp pe3epeyapa, M(5~ 4,7 12,3 22,8 34,~ 45,G
E3acora pesepwyaP% ~16~ . . 5,9fi 8,94 11,92 11,92 11,92
~1erannoeMKOCrb, r M 7) 73,0 31,0 27,4 26,5 22,9
Yuenbi~a~ CTOfIMOCTb, Ms/pyG (g~ . 72,4 15,5 10,1 10,0 9,73
(g) CmnAaHe~e r~u,TllHd~Nl'ICCK(lE pQ3BPRlf(l~16i C~1ffA0NlIPOB(ll!!l6lAl KO~1121fCOA! I! dHl1!!SI'A!,
uSu~nneo~T Kpoeneil u ~remannu~ecxuM noHnroxox
Clone3Hwt1 oGbeM, M' . 101 IOl3 4622 10 950 19450
I~NaMeTp peaepByapa, M . 4,7 12,3 22,8 39,9 45,6
- I3wcora peaepeyapa, M . 5,96 8,84 11,84 11,92 I1,92
Merannoen+KOCrb, T/M~ 55,8 2b,3 21~7 18,9 19,7
_ Y,uenbHaa CTOFIMOCTb, M'/py6 . 54,5 12,4 7,4 7,3 7,2
Key:
1. Indicators
2. Nominal volume of tanks, m3
3. Cylindrical steel tanks with rolled body and bottom
4. Effective volume, m3
5. Tank diameter, meters
6. Height of tank, meters
7. Metal consumption, tons/m3
8. Specific cost, m3/rubles
9. Cylindrical steel tanks witti rolled body and bottom, panel roofing and
metal pontoon
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The characteristic trend of r~wdern tank construction in the USSR ie enlarging the
capacity of individual tanka and depots as a whole. Tanks of the moat diverse
capacities from 3 to 75 m3 at delivery centers and from 100 to 20,000 m3 at dis-
tributing centers have been established as a function of the designation of the
cen~~er. Tanks with capacity of 50,000 m3 have recently begun to be used. Tanks
with capacity up to 100,000 m3 or more are used abroad in countries that mainly
utilize imported oil.
The engineering and economic indicators of steel tanks for storaqe of petroleum
products are presented in Table 6.6 C43, 44].
The specific indicators of inetal consumption and construction cost will improve
significantly with a furtehr increase of the unit capacity of tanks. Thus, specif-
ic metal consumption is reduced to 17.0-20.0 kg/m3 of effective capacity and the
specific estimated cost is reduced to 5.7-5.8 rubles/m3 of effective capacity for
tanks having capacity of 50,000 m3 with permanent covers and pontoons that prevent
evaporation of the petroleum products.
Indicators of the specific cost of tank depots are presented in Table 6.7 with re-
gard to expenditures for fire-safety measures and expenditures for tying in to
local conditions.
- Table 6.7.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ YAt116H8A CMtTiBll CTaIMOCT6 F'a ~ M~
~ lMKOC711r
E~iKOCrb tiepus, F.?ncocte o~uaro pe3ep� 4rtcno (+e3epeya~oe
~rbc. w~ eyape, ~c. w~ s m~e, wr.
pea�p�yaproia pexUeYSPos
~5~
3aapydaeKHae .xce~eao6emoKKae
480 i0 48 20,2 t~~6
20 24 17,9 12,7
30 !6 17,0 1i,4
5~p 50 10 16,7 9.8
~8~ BC/!R!!lJCQilbN6lC Cl?!li/lbN6lB
~ 480 20 24 10,9 6,T
500 I b0 I 10 10,1 b,8
Key:
1. Depot capacity, thousand m3
2. Capacity of single tank, thousand m3
3. Number of tanks in depot, units
4. Specific estimated cost per cubic meter of capacity, r.ubles
5. Tank depots
6. Tanks
7. Hardened reinforced concrete
E3. Vertical steel
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The specific construction costs of specific tank depots are 10-25 percent higher
in some cases that those indicated in Table 6.6 and 6.7.
Thus, further development of the transportation-storage systQm to supply numerous
consumers with petroleum products can be achieved with primary use of pipeline
transport to ensure delivery of fuel from plants to large consuemrs (cities) with
construction of branches to adjacent oil storage and distributinq centers. Deliv-
ery of petroleum products from deliv?ry centers near oil refining plants directly
to consumers by pri.marily large-capacity trucks, replacing the intermediate centers
of Goskomneftesnab, should be widely developed. The specific weight of shipments
of light petroleum products by rail is effectively reduced in the future, especial-
'ly in mixed pipeline-rail communications with pipelines of relatively short length.
Wider use of river transport, primarily in regions with a sparse rail and highway
system, to transport petroleum products is possible.
Development of storage capacities can be oriented toward construction of steel
tanks with rolled bodies and bottoms equipped with pontoons and other devices to
reduce loss~s of petroleum products.
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Chapter 7. Pipeline Transport of Coal
7.1. Experience of Construction and Operation of Slurry pipelines for Coal
Transport
The favorable engineering and economic indicators of pipeline transport of oil and
petroleum products, the positive experience of coal transportation through pipes
in mines with hydraulic mininq, the extensive use of hydraulic transport at elec-
tric power plants to remove slag and ~lso distribution of this type of transport
for ore, limestone and oth~r ::aterials over short distances induced extensive in-
vestigations on the use of pipelines to move coal over lonq distances at an elec-
tric power plant instead of shipment by rail, water or transmission of electric
power over wires.
Hydraulic transport of coal is closely related to mining and burning of the fuel.
It cannot be considered in isolation from the entire production chain: mining,
storage, preparation for transport, transport, storage~ preparation for burning and
burning of the fuel.
The enqineering solutions and engineerinq and economic indicators of the Cadiz-East-
lake and Black Mesa coal pipelines constructed in the United States are presented
below, which may serve as the initial base for preliminary analysis in solving the
problem of the feasibility of using this type of transport.
The Cadiz-Eastlake coal pipeline 174 km long and with productivity of approximately
1.1 million tons/year has been in operation for approximately 6 years and showed
high reliability of the entire coal delivery system [70]. Operation of the coal
pipeline was economically unprofitable as a result~of reducing the rates on the
parallel railroad and it was disassembled. The coal pipeline was entered in the
production chain of coal delivery without changing the system of mining and burning.
- The coal pipeline was constructed 254 mm in diameter with average wall thickness of
12 mm (the wall thickness was increased to 18 mm after the pumping stations and
was reduced to 8-10 mm before the pumping stations). The working pressure of the
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- pumping units was approximately 80 kgf/cm2. Pipes of ordinary carbon steel with
ultimate strength of about 30 kgf/mm2 were laid at a depth of 1.2-14. meters
_ (freeze line) with ordinary insulation to protect the pipelines against corrosion.
- Three pumping stations were constructed on the route--the main station near Cadiz
and two intermediate stations 48 and 83 ]an from the main station. The final sec-
~ tion about 81 }an long had a slope in the direction of motion of the water-coal
slurry.
Water-coal slurry with ratio of 1:1 with coal size up to 1.2 mm was transported
when the pipeline was started up. It was found during operation that slurry with
composition of one part coal to 0.72 part water by mass with coal size up to 2.4
mm was more economical transport.
A time-equivalent composition of the mixture of 0.7 percent with fraction content
of 2.4-1.4 mm, 16.2 percent with fraction content o� 1.4-0.6 mm, 21.3 percent with
fraction content of 0.15-0.07 mm and 21.3 percent with fraction content up to 0.07
mm was maintained during the operating period. The coal content in the slurry was
594-600 kg/m3, the density of the hydraulic mixture was 1,200 kg/m3, coal density
was 1,400 kg/m3, the ash content in it was 7.5~9 percent and sulphur content was
2.5-3.5 percent.
~vo reciprocating pumps each with delivery of 150 m3/hr operated at the pumping
stations. They were set in motion by an electric motor with rating of 335 kW
through a hydraulic speed-control clutch. The slurry was delivered by pumps to
special tanks--covered tanks (dampers) filled with nitrogen, from which it was
uniformly ejected into the pipeline. 'I"he wet coal concentration wastes were pumped
through the pipeline. The water-coal slurry was delivered by two pipelines to the
station for preparing the coal for transportation. A flotation concentrate with
coal fractions up to 0.15 mm and low content of solid component was delivered
through one of them and a flotation concentrate with fractions of 0.15-9.5 mm and
high coal content (coal to water ratio in the slurry was 1:2.4) was delivered
through the other pipeline.
The hydraulic pulp is crushed into lumps of coal at the hydraulic slurry prepara-
tion station, the coal delivered from the concentration plant is dehydrated to op-
timum slarry composition and inhibitors that protect the inner walls of the pipes
against corrosion are added. This part of the installatioa was a continuation of
the wet concentration installation with addition c~f units to crush thecoal to
fractions of 2.4-9.5 mm. Moreover, the installation included a standby warehouse
of coal with fractions of 3-9.5 mm which made it possible to provide continuous
operation of the pipeline during one-shift operation of the concentration plant.
The experience of operation showed that stable operation of the pipeline depends to
a significant degree on a fraction content of 0.045 mm or less, which forms a sus-
pension with increased density that maintains larger fractions in a suspended state.
Z'he coal was dried to total moisture content of 8.5 percent at the receiving end of
the pipeline and was delivered in this form by belt conveyor to the electric power
plant warehouse. The installation for dehydration and drying of the coal was a
cnmplex structure. The water-coal slurry, after pressure was reduced (a vertical
pipe with conical plate), was delivered to settling tanks with total capacity of
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V~\ V~' ~ ~~~~1L+ v~JV Vl ~6I ~
about 5,000 m3 where the coal was left for 13 hours. The concentrated mixture was
delivered by centrifugal pumps from the settling tanks to three vacuum-filters,
after which the coal was delivered to four tubular driers. In this case the quartz
dust that had already been dried was added to it before the drier. Approximately
3 percent of the transported coal was burned for drying. A scheme for trapping
fine dust was provided in the drier. Water with solid particle content of 0.0001
percent was discharged into the waste water system of the electric power plant.
The sediment having significant coal content was delivered to the drier where the
water was evaporated. The installation was automated and a total of 15 men were
involved in maintenance of it.
A total of 7.5 million dollars was expended to construct the pipeline and 5.5 mil-
lion dollars was expended on the initial and final installations. Moreover, 2.5
million dollars was expended on scientific research work related to development of
the pipeline.
The structure of the operating expenses (without deductions for payment of cred-
its) was 43.7 percent electric power, 4.9 percent inhibitors, 22 percent work
force, 18.3 percent tools and materials, 9.6 percent miscellaneous expenses and 1.5
percent deductions for special needs. The total expenses in startup of the instal-
lation was approximately 25-30 percent below the hauling fee by rail [100]. When
the depreciation deductions and other payments were calculated, the calculated ser-
vice life of the pipeline was taken as 20 years. No appreciable wear of the pipe
walls was detected after 6 years of operatinq the pipeline. It is interesting that
microscopic analysis of the coal particles at the beginninq and end of the pipeline
diz not reveal significant differences in the sharpness of edges and pelletization,
which indicates the absence of strong friction aqainst the walls and of the parti-
cles between each other.
The pipeline was operated with average productivity of 1.2-1.4 million tons/year,
but experiments were conduc~ed to operate it under conditions that provide delivery
of approximately 220 tons/hr or 1.8-1.9 million tons/year.
The experience of operating the Cadiz-Eastlake pipeline permits the following
conclusions:
abrasive wear of pipes by coal at flow rates used in the pipeline and with the
adopted granulometric composition is insignificant and the operating periods of
trunk coal pipelines wi~h optimum granulometric composition of the coal and coal
content in the slurry can be sufficiently long3
the practical poss bility of operating a pipeline with approximately 580 kg
of coal and 420 liters of water per cubic meter of slurry (the ratio of solid fuel
to liquid was 1:0.72) was proven. Slurry with higher coal content up to 600 kg/m3,
i.e., with solid matter to liquid ratio of 1:0.67, was pumped during individual
periods;
- normal operation of the pipeline is possible at slurry flow rate of approxi-
mately 1.4 m/s;
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stable operation of the pipeline, the possibility of starting it up after
premature and random shutdown and operation with minimum wear of the pipe walls
required a quite specific granulometric composition and flow rate and it was de-
termined that these parameters are predetermined to a significant degree by the
physicochemical properties of the coal being transportedj
ttie adopted scheme of coal dehydration was extremely complicated and develop-
ments were begun during operation to dehydrate the coal by the mechanical method
using centrifuges, which simplified the entire system of receiving devices;
~ the decisive factors of efficient operation of coal pipelines are the engineer-
ing and economic indicators not only of the pipeline itself but also of the parallel
railroads changed with. regard to technical progr~ess and the possibility of changing
the rate policy in this regard. Failure to consider this factor led to shutdown of
the installation as unprofitable.
Investigations of the spheres of economically feasible use of pipeline transport of
coal compared to shipment by rail were carried out with regard to the experience of
_ the Cadiz-Eastlake coal pipeline in the United States. The investigations showed
that pipeline transport of coal is effective with volume of 5 million tons/annually
or more under conditions of a weakly loaded railway system when assimilation of new
volumes of coal does not require development of permanent devices. At the same
time the efficiency of coal pipelines begins only with high volumes of coal under
conditions favorable to railroads (low development factor, presence of free capac-
ities and so on).
The second trunk pipeline 437 km long was a system introduced in 1970 to deliver
coal from the Black Mesa mines in Arizona to the Machova Electric Power Plant in
" southern Nevada. The system includes a slurry preparation plant, pipeline, pump-
ing station, information monitoring and transmission systems on the operating modes
of the pipeline and its individual units and a slurry dehydration installation. The
latter is not included in the control of the overall system and is a part of the
electric power plant. A system of pipes 450 mm in diameter passes through terrain
~ which has a total slope from the mine to the electric power plant from 1,900 to
150 meters and the drop in height is 900 millimeters during the last 20 km and the
pipeline diameter on this section is 300 mm. T'here are a number of rises on the
pipeline route which it intersects without any difficulties. The productivity of
the pipeline with regard to irregular operation is 4.4-4.5 million tons at 48-50
percent concentration of solid fraction and flow rate of 1.7-1.75 m/s. The slurry
flow rate reaches 4.0 m/s on the final section where a pipeline 300 mm in diameter
has been laid to prevent formation of flow interruptions or partial clogging of
- the pipeline and consequently intensified corrosion of the walls. Transportation
time is thr.ee days and the filled pipeline contains 45,000 tons of coal.
Four pumping stations were constructed for pur.~ping. Three stations have two each
operating and one standby unit and four have three operating and one standby unit
of lower productivity, but higher pressure. The otanping stations in the pipeline
are controlled from a terminal at the beginning of the system.
The overall operating scheme of the pipeline is as follows. After being crushed
to coarseness of not more than 50.8 mm, the coal is delivered from the mines in
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Arizona over belt conveyors through acales to the slurry preparation plant. Pit
coal with density of 1.45 and moisture content up to 11 percent has an average
heat of combustion of approximately 6,800 kcal/kg, ash content fluctuates from 6.5
to 17 percent, with an average of 9.8 percent, and sulphur content fluctuates
from 0.38 to 0.43 percent with an average of 0.4 percent.
The coal is delivered by belt conveyors to three hoppers. Each hopper feeds a sep-
arate preparation line consisting of an impact (inertial) crusher, rod mill, clas-
sifier and centrifugal pump. The inertial crushers pulverize the coal to coarse-
ness of 6.35 mm or less and the rod m.ills reduce it to coarseness of 2.36 mm or
less by wet pulverization. The crushed coal (slurry) is delivered from the rod
mill to the classifier. The discharge of the classifier passes through a filter
and enters two tanks with capacity of approximately 24,000 m3 which are supplied
with mechanical mixers to maintain the coal particles in a suspended state. The
thickened classifier product (coal coarser than 2.4 mm) is returned to the rod mill
for prepulverization.
After analysis of the composition, the slurry is pumped from these tanks to a third
tank in which the granulometric composition is regulated by addition of water or a
solution of high content of small particles and is reduced to strictly given condi-
tions and is pumped in this form by the pumps into the pipeline.
The characteristic feature of slurry preparation is a content of a specific quantity
of coal (19.5-21 percent or 20-25 percent according to different data) of coal with
coarseness of 0.043 mm or less in it, which does not settle out of the water, holds
large fractions in the suspended state for a specific time and ensures stable start-
up of the system when it is shut dowa. Continuous monitoring of the granulometric
composition of the slurry is carried out during operation and the established con-
tent of fractions less than 0.043 mm is a compulsory condition for delivery of it
to the pumping units.
The experience of operating the pipeline led to the fact that the fourth tank at
the slurry preparation station should always stare a reserve slurry containing only
coal with coarseness of not more than 0.043 mm, which is used to flush out the pipe-
line if large fractions of coal fall into it during a planned or accidental shut-
down of the pumgs.
The pipeline is operated in a rigid automated mode. Variation of productivity is
parmitted in the range of +5-6 percent of the calculated variation, which is
achieved by regulating the number of strokes of the pumps by special clutches in-
stalled on the drives. All the units are controlled from the central main station
combined with the slurry preparation station. Only two persons each work at each
station on the "home standby" principle, the task of whom includes overall observa-
tion of the units and manual control of them upon variation of operating modes
- upon instructions from the central control station. The entire system, except the
dehydration station, is maintained by 56 persons, of which 12 are workers of the
control equipment and 10 are laboratory workers to monitor the slurry composition.
There are slurry storage tanks at the electric power plant designed for 4 days of
operation of the electric power plant under full load. The slurry is pumped from
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the ~anks by centrifuqal pumps to a bank of 40 centrifuges (20 each for each boil-
er unit), where 75 percent of the water is removed from it. The coal is heated in
' the centrifuges, which contributes to better moisture removal.
The wet coal c~ncentrate is transported to 20 fine-crushinq mills (10 each for each
_ unit) and further dehydration. Air is delivered to the mill for drying the coal at
temperature of 400�C, which also dries the coal during its crushing and transports
it to the boiler furnaces. The drainage from the centriques (centrifuge effluent)
containing 6.5--8.5 percent fines is pumped to clarifiers az~d is subjected to chemi-
cal treatment to separate the coab and ash from the water.
The thickened product is usually pumped from the c2arifiers having approximately
20 percent af coal by mass directly to the furnaces, while the clean water is di-
r~ected to the circulating water-cooling syst~m of the electric power plant. More-
over, there are two evaporating ponds at the electric power plant for evaporation
of the water from the centrifu~e effluent passing through the clarifier. 'I'he
dried product is used as needed by intraducing the slurry formed from the dried
coal into the common coal-delivery system of the eiectric power plant.
The coal delivered from t:he clarifyinr~ *.ank has increa~ed ash content (40 percent)
and is delivered ta the boiler furnaces and is burned mainly to prevent environment-
al pollution by the coa~ and primarily of the Calorada River on which the electric
power plant is lacated. E`vaporation of the water delivered from the settling tanks
with the coal reduces the efficiency of the boiler by approximately one-half, but
_ even so an overall imgrovement ir,. the use of f~iel is achieved since the sediment
contains 4-5 pQrcent general fuel received by the electric powex~ plant through the
pipeline (per f:ael r.~ass ) .
~ reserve coal warehouse with c:aftacity for mor~ than 30-day consumption was created
at the electri~ power plant during adiustment of operation of the entire coal pipe-
line transp~rtation system. t-low~ver, tk~e pipeline has been operating very reliably
during the past year and th~e reserve warPhouse is essentially not used. A pipeline
u*_ilizatior. factor equal to 99~2 pezcent in tim~ has been achieved, which indicates
the very high operarir~y relial~ilit:+l of the entire coal pipeline system [100].
The. main thi::g ir tl:e coal dehydrati.dn sys~tem is a continuous coil type horizontal
centrifuge wi-~h ratar liamnter af 1 meter, 2 meters long and with productivity of
19.8 tons/hr.
The use of ~en~rzf~:ges ~n~tead df filters tcs dehydrate the coal after hydraulic
trans~c,rt. an.-: aciaptin~x ~he b~~ 1er ~urnaces to burn coal of increased moisture con-
tent and aLso k~~urnzn~; the sediment of the ~entrifug~ effluent with evaporation of
water eonr,an-:inat.ed with coal fines are the main differences of the described coal
pipe~inE~ in ~~repazatir?n of ~~aal f~r burning froati the Cadiz-Eastlake coal pipeline.
' Nun~rou~ invesci.qa#.i.arzs wese carried aut during a3justing operations to improve the
~3.e~:i~n o~ ti~~ ~~~aal gr~para~.ian installations, coal dehydratian and transfer for
t;ur;~ing. `I'he pipel.ine, preparatinn station and 8e;~~3ration station now supply coal
- to an Fl~c:tric }~o~~r p~ant with out;put o� 3.58 MW. However, the electric power
plant o~~~at~s an a sy:~te~m wa.th tk~~e h~,~dxoelectric ~ower plants on the Colorado
Riv�r ar?d usuaZl.1 r~as ;:t~fficiently ur~ifnrn load and fuel consumption. An irregular
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~'VA Vl'l'~~..~ML. VJI:+ Vl\Ll
load of the electric power plant leads to irregular operation of the pipeline and
causes a number of difficulties in operation since possible fluctuations in coal
delivery are limited.
The economic effectiveness of the Black Mesa pipeline is v~~~ high. It is con-
structed in a region where there are no competing rail~oa~g and required one-fourth
_ the capital investments that would be required to cons~;~Let a railroad. The total
expenditures for coal transportation comprised about 65 cents/(~on�km) without re-
gard to dehydration expenses, i.e., at the level of rates of existing railroads
~ construct~d under favorable relief conditions and havinq a higher load.
_ Table 7.1.
~011~1pEOR11H! CIICTYMM ~1 ~ j(lliN ~ hN A~ MlTr. MM n~tOp]~n~TlJIMIOC7b.
I YJIH. T~fOA
wTar IOra-wTar t~eeana (5). . 17so 588 lo
F{opr Becr (6) . . 1782 490-588 10
3eeAHCx TpaNCnopreHwii . . 1678 .~i5 25
BxseKC (8) . . . . . . 2000 920-1200 21-38
XbrocroF~ [ie~vpn (g) . . . . 1760 200-720 15
Conr pHeep ~lp) . . . . . 292 392 4
NTOro: (11) 9272 I 85-102
Key :
1. Pipeline systems 7. Energy transportation
2. Length, ]an 8. Vitex
- 3. Diameter, mm 9. Houston Natural
4. Productivity, million tons/year 10. Salt River
5. Utah-Nevada 11. Total
- 6. North West
The least developed link of the system was the dehydration system. The total ex-
- penditures per ton of coal and preparation for burning were as follows for 1975:
3.6 dollars for coal, 2.76 dollars for transportation and 1.63 dollars for dehydra-
tion and preparation for burning. As can be seen, the fraction of expenditures for
dehynration and preparation for burning is high and reaches 25.4 percent of the
~ prepaid cost of the coal of the electric power plant. Moreover, a rapid increase
in the cost of reagents for coagulatior~ and the high expenses for a work force to
maintain the centrifug~~s led to the need to dt~velop other less expensive and effi-
- cient m.~;thods of slurry dehydration and preparation of it for bt~rning. Investiga-
tions are being conducted in this direction. It must be noted that the entire sys-
tem of t:~e pipeline and the dehydration installation was constructed using equipment
- already being produced by industry with minimtun modification. This led to installa-
tion of a large number of centrifuges and mills and complication of the entire
syste.~n for dehydration and pxeparation of the coal for burning. Enlarging the units
and imF~ro~ing them in a direction corresponding more to operating conditions wii:h a
slurry of granulometric composition selected by pineline transportation conditions
would Lm3ouk+tedly i.mprove the economic indicators of this link of the coal delivery
system.
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The problem of constructing six new systems (Table 7.1) is now being considered in
the United States [84, 101].
Designs of a coal pipeline in the Vancouver region to transport coal to Japan and
of a coal pipeline from Alberta to the industrial regions of the eastern part of
_ the country have been worked out in Canada. However~ despite the great attention
~ devoted to the problem of pipeline transport of coal and bulk products, construc-
tion of pipeline systems is proceeding slowly.
The slow rates of development of this type of transport are apparently explained by
the following concepts:
inadequate study of the physicochema.cal processes of pumping coal and prepara-
- tion of it for pumping and dehydration during burning;
the economic effectiveness of hydraulic transport of coal in coal pipelines of
- relatively low productivity is similar to an in some cases is even higher than ad-
ditional expenditures during shipment by parallel railroads. To increase profita-
bility, the railroads frequently establish incentive rates for coal shipment, cov-
ering only part of the expenses to maintain permanent facilities, thus increasing
the total profitability of shipment of other freight. With reserve carrying capac-
ity of the railroads, this factor is significant and in some cases is of decisive
significance. It is for this reason that the possibility of constructing systems
with productivity of 25 and 25-38 million tons/year, i.e., with volumes of coal
which the railroads are unable ta significantly assimilate, is being studied in-
tensively in the United States;
- the absence of flexibility in pipeline transport in selection of suppliers of
coal or other types of fuel;
the absence of developed t~~pes of equipment on the market for pumping stations
and slurry preparation installations and high-capacity coal dehydration units.
7.2. The Engineering and Economic Indicators of Slurry Pipeline Transport of Coal
- The main parameters that determine the efficiency and engineering and economic in-
- dicators of pipQline transport of coal are its concentration in the slurry, the
= flow rate of the slurry, the wear of the pipeline walls, the tractive resistance of
the slurry and consequently energy expenditures, the wear of the pipe and the eco-
nomic indicators of initial and final operations, i.e., preparation of the slurry
and dehydration prior to burning. The difficulties of analyzing the engineering
and economic indicators of pipeline transport of coal also include the fact that
they differ significantly for different grades of coal and different granulometric
composition of the slurry.
The coal concentration in the slurry is usually recommended at 1:1. The tractive
resistance is increased and mainly the operating stability is reduced with an in-
crease of coal conc2ntration in the slurry. 7t is obvious that the pipeline should
- be capable of startup after premature or accidental shutdown. Otherwise expensive
operations are required to flush out the coal that has settled in the pipes and
int~~rruptions of the operating mode are inevitable.
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Processes of of transporting hydrogenous coal, semibituminous and coking coal in
the ~orm of a water-coal slurry have been investigated in Canada. Hydrogenous
coal permitted a concentration of not more than 30 percent. A gel formed rapidly
in the pipeline with higher concentration which behaves like a clay suspension.
Oxidation of the coal and formation of acids are observed in this case. Semibi-
tuminous coal with concentration of 28.6-33.7 percent in pumping the slurry through
a pipeline 52.2 mm in diameter showed a sharp increase of pressure losses with an
increase of coal concentration in the slurry and with an increase of the flow
rates. Thus, the pressure losses comprised 0.6 kgf/cm2 per 100 meters of pipeline
at coke concentration of 30.9 percent and approximately 13.0 kgf/cm2 with concen-
tration of 33.7 percent at a flow rate of 1.5 m/s. An increase of flow rate to
2.5 m/s increased these indicators to 10 and 26, respectively.
Pressure los~