JPRS ID: 9839 TRANSLATION NUCLEAR POWER PLANT CONSTRUCTION BY V.B. DUBROVSKIY, ET AL.

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JPRS L/9839
10 July 1981
Translation
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT CONSTRUCTION
By
V.B. Dubrovskiy, e~ al.
~
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~
% JPRS L/9839
r
10 July 1981
~ NUCLEAR POWER PLANT CONSTRUCTjON
Moscow STROITEL'STVO ATONINYKH ELEKTROSTANTSIY in Russian 1979 (signed
to press 4 May 79)
[Sections 1-1, 1-2, 1--3, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 3-1, 3-2, 4-1, Chapter 6,
Bibliography and Index from the book STROITEL'STVO ATON~TYKH ELECTRO-
STANTSIY by V.B. Dubrovskiy, P.A. Lavdanskiy, F.S. Neshumov,
Yu. V. Ponomarev, A.P. Kirillov and V.S. Konviz, Izdatel'stvo
_ Energiya, 6,500 copies, UDC[621.311.25 621.039].002.2(0.75.8)]
CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Nuclear Power Plant Technology and Equipment 1
1.~1. Nuclear ~8~.'tOrS~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~� 1
1.2. Types of Nuclear Power Plants. Primary Process
' Eq uipment 16
~
1.3. Qiaracteristic Features of the Engineering Equipment...... 40
Chapt:F~x 2. Qioice of Construction Sites and Master Plans for Nuclear
Power Plants~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~� .J5
; 2.1. Special Features af Nuc~ear Power Plants and
Construction Site Requirements 55
2.2. Engineering Surveys ..........................A............ 59
2.3. Master Plan........ 62
Chapter 3. Floor Space Designs of Nuclear Plant Buildings....e 73
3.1. Requirements on the Layouts of the Facilities 73
.i
3.2. Nuclear Pawer P1ant5 With Vessel T~pe Reactors..........'.. 81
- a - [I - USSR - K FOUO]
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(hapter 4. Construction Desigas of Nuclear Power Plant Buildings and 99
- Structures
~ 4.1. Structural Design of Nuclear Power Plant Buildings....... 99
Chapter 6. Organization and Technology of Nuclear Pawer Plant ~9
Cor_atruction~��~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~�
6.1. Organization of Construction ~9
6.2. Special Features of Construction-Installation 164
Operations
Appendices 201
Bib liography 214
Subject Index 221
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PUBLICATION DATA
English title � NUCLEAR PQnTER PLAr:T CONSTRUGTION
Ru~sian title ' . STROI~L~STVO ATOI~TYKH ELEKTROSTANTSIY
Author (s) . V. B. Dubrovskiy, P. A. Lavdanskip,
F. S. Neshumov, Yu. V. Ponomarev,
A. P. Kirillov, V. S. Konviz
Editor (s) . V. B. Dubxovskiy
Publishing House . Izdatel'stvo "Energiya"
Place of Publication . Moscow
Date of Publication . 1g79
Signed to press . 4 May 79
Copies . 6,500
, COPYRIG'dT : Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", 1979
~
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,
UDC [621.311.25:621.039].002.2(0.75.8)
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT CONSTRUCTION
Moscow STROITEL'STVO ATOMNYKH ELEKTROSTANTSIY in Russian 1979 signed to press
4 May 79
[Sections 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 3-1, 3-2, 4-1, Chapter 6, Bibliography and
Index from the book "Stroitel'stvo atomnykh elektrostantsiy" by V. B. Dubrovskiy,
P. A. Lavdanskiy, F. S. PJeshumov, Yu. V. Ponomarev, A. P. Kirillov and V. S. Kon-
viz, Izdatel'stvo Energiya, 6,500 copies]
_ [Excerpts] Chapter 1. Nuclear Power Plant Technology and Equipment
1-1. Nuclear Reactors
_ Some Information From Nuclear Reactar Physics
Modern nuclear power engineering is based on using the power released on fission of
= uranium-235 nuclei (292U) existing in nature and also artificially obtained fis-
sionable materials plutonium-239 (294Pu) and uranium-233 (292U). The fission of
these nuclei is possihle under defined conditions which has required the creation
of a set of equipment for realizing the fission reaction--the nuclear reactor.
The thermal power released during fission of nuclei is removed from the nuclear re-
actor by pumping a liquid or gas caolant through it. This en~rgy can be converted
to electric power by obtaining steam designed to turn turbines and also it is used
directly in energy-consuming processes, for example, in the che~rical or metallurgi-
cal industry.
Let us consider the fission reaction in the example of U-235.
The fission of the U-~235 nuclei is most probable on absorption of low-energy (ther-
mal) neutrons. On absorption of a thermal neutron nT by the nucleus, a U-236 nu-
cleus is formF.d in the excited state: ~
~zU nT ~ ~U�
~ Fission of the nucle>>~ into two fragments A1F and A2F with the emission of two or
Z1 Z2
three neutrons r. and release of the energy E takes place with approximately 85-per-
cent probability:
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~U --Y =sF ~F -I- 2,5n E.
. The fission fragments are beta-radioactive nuclei of the chemical elements of the
middle part ~f thP periodic table. The neutrons formed during fission are broken
down into instantaneous (~99 percent), emitted at the time of fission, and delayed
(~1 percent), em~tted on decay of the fission fragments. The average energy of the
delayed neutrons is about 0.8 � 10-13 joules (0.5 Mev) and the instantaneous,
3.2 � 10-13 joules (2 Mev). In order to ensure a self-supporting reaction, it is
necessary to decrease the energy of the neutrons formed, that is, decelerat.e them,
' which is possible on collision of the heutrons with nuclei of light elements.
The self-supporting fission reaction can take place only for defined dimen~~eir for-
(volume) of the reactor, where the leakage of the neutrons is balanced by I
mation in the f:ssion process. Such dimensions (volume) are called critical, and i
the mass of the nuclear fuel which fills the core with critical dimensions is
called the critical mass. If the reactor dimensions are less than critical, they
are called subcritical, and if greater than critical, supercritical.
In order to decrease the neutron leakage, the reactor core is surrounded by materi-
als which dissipate neutrons well, s~o-called neutron reflectors. The presence of
a reflector increases the number of neutrons in the reactor core participating in
- the fission process and, consequently, decreases the critical dimensions of the re-
actor. In addition, the reflector provides for some equalizing of the neutron flux
- density with respect to the core volume and, consequently, more uniform ~urnup of
the fuel during the operating process. The latter fact is important for the reac-
tors of nuclear power plants, for it permits the time bEtween recharging the fuel
- scco~panied by shutdown of the reactor and inte.rruption of the power supply to be
increased.
The total energy re]eased during fission of one uranium atom is 3.2 � 10-i1 ~oules
- (200 Mev), and the thermal energy released during fission of 1 gram of uranium is
7.79 � 1010 joules (1.86 � 10~ kcal), which correspands to burning 2,660 kg of coal
in a provisional calculation.
It is necessary to distinguish the electric and thermal power of nuclear power
plants. The electric power is determined by the power of the turbogenerators, and
the thermal power, by the fuel load and structural design of the reactor.
The thermal power af a reactor Np in watts with U-235 fuel can be determined from
the expression
�Np = 3,0 � 10-~ ~ ~ paV ~
where 3.0 � 10-11 joules (190 Mev) is the thermal power released during fission of
one U-235 nucleus under the effect of a ther~r~al neutron; ~ is the average flux
density of the thermal neutrons in the reactor; p is the number of nuclei of fis-
sionable material per unit volwne of the core; V is the volume of the reactor
core; Q is the microsco~ic fission cross section, cm2 (for uranium-235 it can be
~ taken as 585 � 10-24 cm
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- Natural uranium consists primarily of two isotopes: U-235 and U-238, the content
of which in the natural mixture will be a~iproximately 0.7 and 99.3 percent, respec-
- tively, with respect to mass.
On irradiatior~ by 292U and 290Th neutrons new fissionable materials 292U and 294Pu
can be obtained as a result af the following radioactive chain reactions:
Thorium cycle
- zsz 'v . 2a3
~Th n s~oTh siPa ~U.
Plutonium cycle
~U -F- n--} ~U -Y 293~ ~s
` v ~ 9~Pu.
The f inal products of these rPactions, just as uranium-235, can be used as fuel in
nuclear reactors.
_ The radioactive nuclei formed in the reactor decay with the emission of radiation
[69J: alpha-particles with a charge Z=+2 and a mass numbzr A= 4; they consist
of two neutrons and two protons, and they are helium nuclei; beta-~particles having
a unit negative charge equal to an electron charge and its mass; gamma-rays which
are electromagnetic vibrations with small wavelength or proton flux.
Basic Elements of Nuclear Reactors
Reactors are classified as a funetion of purpose, type and physical state of the
fuel, the moderator and coolant, and they have their characteristic features. How-
ever, the schematie diagrams of all reactors are identical to a high degree. Any
nuclear reactor consists of several zones, each having its own purpose. Fission of
the fuel nuclei takes place in the core. Tne heat released during fission is re-
moved by circulation of the coolant through the core.
The number of fissions in the core (and, consequently, the rEactor power) is varied
by the control rods of the safety and control rod system of the reactor (SUZ) made
of materials that ~:~sorb neutrons well. The core surrounded by the neutron re-
flector is placed in the reactor vessel. The reactor vessel is protected by con-
crete biological shielding which reduces the radiation fluxes to the admissible
limit. A tliermal protective layer is frequently installed between the vessel and
- tt~e biological shielding. This thermal layer is designed to take the radiation
heat release and prevent radiation damage of the concrete biological shielding.
Nuclear Fuel and Fuel Elements. As has already been stated, uranium-235, uranium-
233 and plutonium-239 can be used as the nuclear fuel in the core. The fission of
the fuel nuclei can take place under the effect of thermal, intermediate or fast
neutrons. Depending on the neutron energy under the effect of which fission of
the fuel takes place, the reactors are subdivided into thermal, intermediate and
fast neutron reactors.
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~ In thermal neutron reactors [average fission neutron energy ~:o~ ~ ~~`�..'~..;o~.' 'o~. o,:..~~ . ~'o
. ~
i
/ /
' ~S
_ Figure 1-6. General view of a gas-graphite reactor in a reinforced-concrete ves-
sel. 1--reactor vessel made of prestressed reinforced concrete; 2--
gas blower; 3--steam generator; 4--heat shield; 5--core lining; 6--
steam outlet; 7--heat insulation of the vessel; 8--internal sealing
lining of the vessel; 9--channel; 10--fuel recharging machine; 11--hot
- gas chamber; 12--inter*~al vessel forming a cold chamber for feeding
part of the gas to cool the moderator; 13--feedwater supply; 14--
struct~~ral sup~orts; 15--feed of part of the gas from the gas blower
to the core.
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reactors, called RBMK (high-power, channel-type reactors) (see Figure 1-4) are in-
stalled at many nuclear power plants in the USSR (Leningrad, Kursk, Smolensk,
Chernobyl'skaya, and so on).
As a result of improving the RBMK-type reactors, designs have been developed for
various powers of these reactors: RBMK-1000, RBMK-2000, RBMKP-2000, RBMKP-24U0.
In the last two provision has been t!:ade for superheating of steam. The basic pa-
rameters of the RBMK reactors ar~ presented in Table J.-3.
The effort to organize industrial methods of manufacture and installation of reac-
tors and also to vary their unit power depending on the power engineering require-
ments has led to the development of a design for a sectional-modular RBMKP-2400
uranium-graphite reactor (Figure 1-5). This reactor is assembled from stan~lard
central and end sections. In plan view the core is a rectangle, the length of
which is determined by the number of central sections. The reactor sections are
portable, autonomous and include the req~iired equipment, monitoring and control
elements.
The gas-graphite vessel-type reactor GGR for nuclear power plants has become the
most widespread in Engla:~d and France. An example of the structural design of an
improved gas reactor (UGR) in a vessel made of prestiressed reinforced concrete is
presented in Figure 1-6.
The future of nuclear power engineering belongs to the fast neutron reactor (BN).
Along with obtaining power, breeder reactions are realized in such reactors (see
above). Gases or liquid metals, primarily sodium, ar.e used as the coolant in fast
neutron reactors.
For the BN-600 power reactor (Figure 1-7) built at the Beloyarskaya Nuclear Power
Plant, an integral (tank) arrangement of the radioactive process equipment was
used: core, pumns and intermediate heat exchangers are located in a single sealed
tank. The high coolaut temperatures at the exit from the core increase the effi-
ciency of the nuclear power plant and permit the use of steam with the p.arameters �
adopted at modern thermal electric power plants (Table 1-4).
1-2. Types of Nuclear Power Plants. Primary Process Equipment
Flow Diagrams of Nuclear Power Plants
The consumption charts for electric power generated by all types of electric power
plants are nonuniform and depend on the time of day (there is a sharp decrease in
electric power consumption at night and an increase during the day with a trough at
the lunch break), the day of the week (a decrease in electric power consumption on
Saturday, Sunday and holidays) and time of year (a decrease in electric power con-
sumptior in the summer as compared to the winter).
In order to increase the maneuverability and reliability of the electric power sup-
ply and also to improve the quality of electric power supply, the power plants have
been joined into a common power system which offers the possibility of decreasing
t~e power reserve at each electric power plant as a result of noncoincidence in
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time of the peak loads in different areas, and it facilitates the passag~ through
the nighttime load dip.
Nuclear power plants, just as thermal electric power plants, can operate in a com-
mon power system joined by electric networks, and they can operate in isolation,
covering the needs of a defined area, for example, in inaccessible parts of the So-
viet Union or in areas where there are no nearby organic fuel deposits.
In order to cover the peak loads it is efficient to create "peak" power plants
which operate for a relatively short tiine (1 or 2 hours a day or less). The basic
requirements i.mposed on these plants is maximum reduction of the cost of equipment.
The cost of the electric power (the efficiency of the de~~ce) does not have deci-
sive significance in this case.
The majority of thermal plants are equipped as base plants, that is, for prolonged
operation in the rated mode. Considering the significant capital consumption of
nuclear power plants, at the present time they are basically built also as base
- plants.
Jus*_ as the thermal electric power plants, the nuclear power plants are divided
into condensation and heat-electric generating plants. At the condensation nuclear
power plants, after the turbine (which is also called a condensing turbine) the
steam goes to a heat exchanger-condenser in which the residual heat is transferrea
to cold water from the sea, a river, a cooling pond or cooling tower.
In the heat and electric nuclear power plants the heat removed from the turbines
(heat and electric generating turbines) can be sent to the users for subsequent use
in the form of hot water or steam (for enterprises, heating buildings, and so on).
These plants are called nuclear heat and electric power plants (ATETs).
In the modern nuclear power plants the working substance (the substance which per-
forms work converting thermal power to.mechanical) is steam.
There are several flow diagrams for nuclear power plants (Figure 1-8), but in any
of them it is necessary to construct biological shielding around the equipment
which is a source of ionizing radiation. This shielding can be provisionally di-
. vided into primary shielding--the shielding for the reactor itself--and secondary
shielding--the shielding for the pipelines and other equipment, access to which is
possible after the reactor is shut down.
In the single-circuit layout of a nuclear power plant (Figure 1-8a) the coolant and
the working substance coincide. The steam formed in the core is separated and fed
to the turbine. The spent steam is condensed and again fed to the reactor. This
system is characteristic of boiling reactors in which all of the equipment, includ-
ing the turbine, operates under radiation conditions,* which is one of the defi-
ciencies of the system. However, a significant advantage of such nuclear power
plants is a smaller amount of heat engineering equipment and, consequently, a de-
crease in heat losses and an increase in efficiency.
* Here and hereafter the term "radiation conditions" means the presence of exces-
sive ionizing radiation and radioactive isotopes in the work areas.
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Fou oF~cctaL t~sF o;vt.v ~
. _ I .
f
~s
. ~
..Q �..e
..o�.� :
0.~' P' �~0~~~p
:~.0�
O'. e ~p . O
e
3 � ~ �o . .
- o
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7
I 1 8
I y
1 ; ~ j I'
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;
�e� ,
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a
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~ o.
,e' . \
~ :e 'o ~.a.
Figure 1-7. BN-600 fast neutron reactor. 1--supporting structure; 2-6re~otosta-
tank; 3--pump; 4--pump electric motor; 5--rotating plug; P
tionary sealing; 7--heat exchanger; 8--central SUZ assembly; 9--charg-
ing device.
The two-circuit nuclear power plants have become most widespread, in which the
coolant and working substance circuits are separate (Figure 1-8b). The radioactive
roolant circuit is called the primary circuit, and the nonradioactive working sub-
stznce circuit, tlie secondary circuit. The coolant, which is heated in the core,
is r~a to a steam benerator, it transfers heat to the water of the secondary cir-
cuit which converts it to steam, and it is returned to the reactor by a circulating
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pump. Tiie steam formed in ttie steam generator is fed to a turbine, then it is con-
_ densed, and the condensate is returned to the steam generator. The absence of ra-
dioactivity in the secondary circuit simplifies operation of the ~lant.
4 4
� -
~ ' _..y.. __i 5
3 i ; 6 .
3 I S ~
I Z ~ (
2 i t ~ i _ - i ~
~ - - i ~ I
. ~ ~
I '
. ~ ~ � ~ i ~
L _ _J .
~ a 90 9 8 7 72 9 91 ~ f0 9 B .
~ ~ 9~ ~t !Z
4
4
r-- ~ S
3 I ~
2 i i S~ ~ ~ 6
~ ~ ~ ~ r I . N
I ' ~ _ ~ ' ~
~ ~ ' ?
L~ ~ ~ ~ .
~ , '
1
92 9 9f b a0 9 B � ~ 9 99 d 9 11 70 9 8 �
' Figure 1-8. Flow diagrams of nuclear power plants. a--single-circuit; b--double-
circuit; c--incompletely double-circuit; d--triple-circuit; 1--reac-
tor; 2--primary biological shielding; 3--secondary biological shield-
ing; 4--pressure regulator in the circuit; 5--turbine; 6--electric
power generator; 7--condenser or gas cooler; 8--pump or compressor;
9--coolant or working substance makeup tank; 10--recovery-heat heater;
11--circulating pump; 12--steam generator--l3--intermediate heat ex-
changer.
In the two-circ~iit system the nuclear power plants operate with vessel-type water-
cooled, water-moderated reactors, for example, the_Novovoronezh. Nuclear Power
Plant.
Water, gas or erganic coolants can be used as the coolants in the primary circuit
of the two-circuit system. Quite high pressure should be maintained here to avoid
boiling of the coolant and in connection with the necessity for having a sufficieat
_ temperature gradient in the steam generator between the coolant and the water of
the secondary circuit.
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In order to increase th~ efficiency of nuclear power plznts it is desirab?e to feed
superheated steam to the turbi.nes. Accordingly, the incontpletely two-circuit heat
= output system has appeared (see rigure 1-8c). The water heated in the reactor is
fed to 3 steam generator and is returned to the reactor. The saturated steam
formed in the steam generator is fed to the reactor for superlieating, and therefore
it is simultaneously a coolant and a working substance. Then the superheated steam
is f ed to the turbine. This system is called a nucl~ar superheatin~ system. The
channel-type water-cooled, graphite-moderated reactors of the Beloyarsk Nuclear
Power Plant operate bp this system.
Sodium which reacts violently with water and steam is used as the coolant in fast
' neutron reactors. Accordingly, an additional intermediate circuit has been built
which excludes the possibility of failure of the primary radioactive circuit even
in case of an emergency. These nuclear power plants are called three-circuit
plant~ (Figure 1-8d). Sodium circulates in the primary circuit. It passes through
- an intermediate heat exchanger and releases heat to the sodium of the secondary
circuit. The sodium of the secondary circuit, passing through the steam generator,
gives off heat to the water of the third circuit; the system does not differ from
the two-circuit system after that. The presence of a second, intermediate circuit
leads to an increase in capital expenditures, but it ensures safe operation of the
reactor. The three-circuit output system has been used in the BN-350 reactor at
the nuclear power plant built at Shevchenko.
In recent years significant development has taken place in the design and construc-
tion of floating (on barges) nuclear power plants (PAES). The primary advantages
of the PAES by comparison with the ordinary nuclear power plants are the following:
the possibility of selecting the base station of the PAES near the electric load
center, independent of seismic conditions, unlimited cold water reserves and the
- possibility of using a direct-flow water supply system (see below), the use of a
. standard design f~r a series of power plants not requiring adaptation to local con-
ditions and, accordingly, reduction of the design times, higher quality of con-
struction and installation work, and future reduction in construction cost. These
power plants are built on thP basis of ordinary pressurized water reactors.
In recent years a great deal of attention has begun to be given to�the possibility
of using nuclear reactors to build heat supply nuclear plants (AST). This is ex-
plained by the creation of reliable and economical small and medium power reactors. .
~ As a result of the absence of heat losses in the exhaust gases, the thermal effi-
ci_ency of the AST is higher than that of industrial, disf�rict and, especially,
block and local boiler rooms. In addition, the use of ~sST leads to reduced air
pollution in cities,. for the nuclear sources are the most "humane" of the known en-
ergy sources.
All of the heat engineering equiFment of nuclear power plants has been subdivided
with resoect to process stages into reactor, steam generating, steam turbine and
condensation units and the condensation-rriakeup cycle. The interrelation among
~ these elements forms the heating system of the plant [37, 50].
The purpose of the basic process equipment can be demonstrated in the example of a
simplified heat diagram of a two-circuit nuclear power plant with water-cooled,
water-moderated reactor (Figure 1-9).
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~ y. .
_ ~Z ~3 Low-pressure
- ~ cy inder
2 ~
S 6 ~ High-pressure �
= cylinder
~ ~
- ~o
~ I ~ . ze
~ ~ ~ ~k ~
~ a a 9i ~ ~s
~ ~ z~ t ~ ~ ~
_ ~ ~e '
. ~
I ~ ~ ~J ~ 1_~ ~ T -
' I II I L-
L------
~ , 20
I � � ~
i . .
r.-..~_----'~------i --i .r ; i .
~ r 2z
~ 1 ~ I- . ~ re ~s
~ 1 ~ ~
21 ~ 99 16
i6 , i Z31 1 . I
� I ( ~ ' ~
~ ~ I ' I
I ~ ~ ~
I ~
~ . Z5 2~ ' I ~ . I /
~ ---..,......_J 17
!
Figure 1-9. Heat diagram of a two-circuit nuclear power plant.
Heating of the coolant (water) takes place in the reactor 3. The water goes
through the lines of the primary circuit equipped with a sli3e valve 5 to the steam
- ger_erator 7. In the steam generator heat transfer takes place from the coolant to
the working substance of the secondary circuit, steam is generated, which is fed to
the high-pressure cylinder of the turbogenerator 11. The coolant from the steatn
generator is fed to the reactor by the main circulating pumps 6 through the lines.
Thus, the purpose of the primary circuit is transfer of the heat released in the
reactor to the working substance. The expansion tank 4 is designed to compensate ~
for the thermal expansion of the coolant during heating up and cooling down of the
reactor.
In order to keep the water in the primary circuit pure, on the given level continu-
ous removal of the impurities formed as a result of corrosion of the structural ma-
, terials is required. The impurities are removed by tapping (blowdown) of part of
the water, purification of it and subsequent return of it to the circuit. The
blow-~ff water consu~nption is determined by the normative content of impurities in
21
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the coolant, and it can vary within quite broad limits for various types of nuclear
power plants (for example, it is 0.5 ton/hr at the Beloyarskaya Nuclear Power Plant
and 25 tons/hr at Novovoronezhskaya).
- In the investigated system the blowdown water is taken from the line located be-
tween the main circulating pump 6 and the slide valve. The blowdown water passes
through the blowdown cooler 27 fed by the pump 20, the f ilter group 18 (ion ex-
change f ilters) and returns to the circuit.
Another method of purifying the primary circuit water which is used along with con-
tinuous blowdown is special water purification. The primary circuit water (or
leaks, drainage water, and so on) is collected in the active condensate tank 23,
and it is pumped to the evaporation units 25 where as a result of tapping hct steam
from the turbine, the condensate evaporates which then is sent to the filter group
18 and collected in the pure condensate tank 26. For the greatest purif ication of
the condensate, the activity reaches 10-8 curies/kg and it is taken as standardized
for the condensate of a single-circuit nuclear power plant. The condensate vapor
goes through a special wastewater disposal system to the liquid waste storage 24.
The purified condensate is pumped to the makeup deaerator 1 for degassing and is
returned by the makeup pump 2 fio the reactor 3.
The steam formed in the steam generator 7 completes work in the high-pressure cylin-
der of the turbounit 11 and is humidified. In order to decrease the corrosion of
the low-pressure cylinder vanes of the turbine, which depends on the moisture, af -
~ ter the high-pressure cylinder the steam is passed through the separator 12 where
the moisture is separated out, the heater 13 and then to the low-pressure cylinder.
The separator condensate goes to the deaerato~ 10 for degassing. The steam is su-
perheated in the steam superheater 13 by tapping off live steam from the steam gen-
erator 7.
After the turbine the spent steam is condensed in the condenser 28 and it is pumped
by the condensate pump 15 through the recovery-heat low-pressure heater (PND) 14 to
the deaerator 10 for degassing. The condensation of the spent steam in the conden-
ser 28 is realized by the service water from the sea, a river, cooling pond or cool-
ing tower.
The purpose of the recovery-heat heating of the feedwater is to increase the eff i-
ciency of the nuclear power plant as a result of removal of heat.from the steam in
the turbine and transf er of it to the feedwater for heating. The condensate formed
itere is returned to the feed cycle. Theoretically, the more steam tapped from the
turbine and the more f eedwater heaters, the higher the eff iciency of the cycle.
However, increasing the temperature of the f eedwater is permitted to a defined
limit where the increase in efficiency does not compensate for the additional ex-
- penditures on equipment (the recovery-heat heaters, steam generator).
The purpose of the deaerator 10 is to purify all of the condensate formed to remove
the gases dissolved in it as a result of boiling during heating by the steam from
- the high-pressure cylinder. The degassed condensate is collected in the deaerator
tank and is pumped by the feed pump 9 through the recovery-heat high-pressure
heater (PVD) 8 to the steam generator 7. The f eedwater is heated in the PVD by
_ 22
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steam from the turbine high-pressure cylinder. The condensate formed is sent to
the deaerator 10 for degassing.
The purification (blowdown) of the secondary-circuit water is accomplished by trap-
ping the water from the steam generator with subsequent feed to the expansion tank
22, the cooler 21 and the filter group 18. The purified feedwater is collected in
the tank 16 and pumped to the turbine condenser. The feedwater makeup for the sec-
ond circuit is realized by feeding the "raw" water by the pump 17 to the clarifier
19, col'lectior~ of the clarified water in the tank 16, from which it is sent through
the filter group 18 to the pure condensate tank 16.
The described heat diagram of the nuclear power plant with water-cooled, water-
moderated reactors in metal vessels, which is the system used in the third power
unit of the Novovoronezhskaya Nuclear Power Plant, has become most widespread, and
it is used at a number of Soviet and foreign nuclear power plants. The Kola and
the Armenian nuclear power plants and also the Nord Nuclear Power Plant (GDR), the
Kozloduy (People's Republic of Bulgaria), Paksh (Hungarian People~s Republic), Had-
dam Neck (United States), Stade (FRG), and others operate by this system.
In the third stage of the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant, the WER-440 reac-
tor was installed which has six circulating loops (one loop is presented in Figure
1-8). Each loop has a steam generator 7 and circulating pump 6. The lines and the
slide valves are made from austenitic steel. The water pressure in the circuit is
12.3 MPa, and the temperature at the exit from the reactor is 300� C. Two of the
type K-220-44 turbines (with one high-pressure cylinder and two low-pressure cylin-
- ders) operating on saturated steam are provided f or each reactor.
Let us consider other heat diagrams of nuclear power plants having characteristic
features.
The heat diagram with a channel-type boiling reactor is used at the Leningrad Nu-
clear Power Plant (see Figure 1-10). Similar systems are used for the Kursk, Smo--
lensk, Chernobyl'skaya and other Soviet nuclear power plants of this type.
- ~ ~p 90
.3
9 9 7~ 9 9
. ~ ~
= 8
8
. 2
1
4
5 92 ~Z ~Z 91
6
Figure 1-10. Heat diagram with channel-type boiling reactor (Leningrad Nuclear
Power Plant).
23
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~ ' S 6 ~
. . ' . ~ .
.
~ 1 ~
2 Z ' '
~ VD
~0. PVD 9 P 8
. 9
Figure 1-11. Heat diagram with vessel-type boiling reactor (Muleberg Nuclear Power
Plant). 1--reactor; 2--circulating pump; 3--high-pressure cylinder
of a steam turbine; 4--low-pressure cylinder with steam turbine; 5--
separator; 6--steam superheater; 7--condensate pump; 8--condensate
purification; 9--condensate cooler; 10--feed pump; PVD = recovery-
heat heater; PND = low-pressure recovery-heat heater.
The power unit of these nuclear power plants consists of one RBMK-1000 reactor and
two K-500-65 turbogenerators with a power of 500 MW each. Each reactor has two cir-
culating loops (one loop is shown in Figure 1-9) consisting of four circulating
pumps with a feed of 7,000 m3/hr, two external evaporator-separators 2.3 ~eters in
diameter, 30 meters long and 22 distribution group plenums 300 mm in diameter feed-
ing the reactor channels.
The water in the channels 2 of the reactor 1 is heated to the boiling point, it is
collected in the plenums and sent to the separators 3. After separation, the water
is pumped by the circulating pumps 4 to the reactor, and the saturated steam under
a pressure of about 6.5 MPa with 0.1-0.2-percent moisture is fed to a five-cylinder
turbine with one high-pressure cylinder 7 and four low-pressure cylinders 8. Sepa-
rators 10 and intermediate steam superheaters 9 are installed between the high-
pressure cylinder and the low-pressure cylinder. A characteristic feature of the
nuclear power plant is 100-percent purification of the condensate 11. The purified
condensate is returned by means of the feed pump 6 through the system of recovery-
heat heaters (high-pressure heater and low-pressure heater) 12 and the deaerator 5
to the separator 3.
The heat diagram with a vessel-type boiling reactor and internal steam separation
(Figure 1-11) is used at the Muleberg Nuclear Power Plant (Switzerland). The power
unit of this nuclear power plant consists of a reactor with forced circulation of
the coolant and two turbogenerators of 163 MW each with one high-pressure cylinder
and two low-pressure cylinders. The nuclear power plants of Oyster Creek (United
States), Dresden-2 (United States), Fukusima-1 (Japan), Dodevaard (Netherlands),
Tarapur-1 (India), and so on operate by analogous flow diagrams.
24
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The systems with boiling vessel reactors, internal separation and natural circula-
tion of the coolant have become widespread. They are used at the nuclear power
- plants at Vallesitos (United States), Humbolt Bay (United States), Big Rock Point
" (United States), and elsewhere. The heat diagrams of these nuclear po~Ter plants
are similar to the diagram presented in Figure 1-11. The difference consists in
absence of circulating pumps.
The tieat diagrams of nuclear power plants with gas-cooled reactors are divided with
respect to thermodynamic cycle into steam-turbine and gas-turbine systems and with
respect to number of circuits, into two-circuit and one-circuit, respectively.
The most widespread are the steam-turbine cycies wi*h gas-graphite and improved gas
reactors (UGR). However, the most prospective are the high-temperature gas reac-
tors (VTGR) [10], which, as a result of high coolant temperatures (850� C and
higher), can also be used for process engineering purposes: in the chemical indus-
try, to obtain artificial methane from coal; in the metallurgical industry they are
- used to recover iron from ore.
The heat system with VTGR at the Fort Saint prain Nuclear Power Plant (United
States) is presented in Figure 1-12. The electric power capacity of the nuclear
power plant is 330 MW. The reactor is cooled by helium under a pressure of 4.8 MPa,
the temperature of which at the entrance reaches 404� C and at the exit, 776� C.
The layout of the reactor equipment is integral. In the two circulating loops
there are two compressors 1 and six direct-flow steam generators 2. The steam un-
- der a pressure of 16.6 MPa with a temperature of 538� C is fed to the high-pressure
cylinder 6, then to the compressor 1, it is again heated to a temperature of 538� C
in the steam generator, and it is fed under a pressure of 4.1 MPa Co the medium-
pressure cylinder 7 of the turbounit. The recovery-heat heating consists of three
low-pressure heaters, a deaerator and two high-pressure heaters.
The heat systems of nuclear power plants with fast neutron reactors are made in the
loop or tank version. Ea~h of these versions has its advantages and disadvantages,
and at the present time there are no grounds for rejecting either of them.
A distinguishing feature of nuclear power plants with such reactors is the presence
of an intermediate circuit between the~liquid-metal. coolant and the steam-water
channel. As an example of a heat system with fast neutron reactor and liquid-metal
coolant, the third power unit of the Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Plant is pre:;ented
(Figure 1-13). The BN-600 reactor with basic process equipment of the primary cir-
cuit is placed in a tank 1. Three pumps 4 and six heat exchangers 3 form three
loops. One power unit includes the reactor and three K-200-130 turbines operating
on steam at a pressure of 12.7 MPa and at a temperature of 535� C.
Main Circulating Pumps (GTsN)
- The basic requirements imposed on the main circulating pumps connected with their
specific operating conditions (radioactive coolant transfer) is reliability and
seal [78].
25
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~
3 y S ' '
g 10
~ 6 i B ~
~ ~ r 1?
~a
~ ~t i .
` ~ '3 '
~ >4
, 15
- ' 16 16
Figure 1-12. Heat diagram with high-temperature gas reactor (Fort Saint Vrain Nu-
.
clear Power P1ant). 1--compressor for helium; 2--steam generator; .
3--vessel made of prestressed reinforced concrete; 4--holes for re-
charging fuel; 5--core; 6--high-pr~QSSUre cylinder (TsVD); 7--medium-
pressure cylinder (TsSD); 8--low-pressure cylinder (TsND); 9--genera-
tor; 10--cooling tower; 11--circulating pumps; 12--condenser; 13--
heater-deaerator; 14--condensate pumps; 15--demineralizer; 16--feed-
water heaters; 17--feed pumps.
�
' ~ . 9
. N
� ~7 ~B
~ ~
's ~r--- ~ ~ 6 .
~ ~ ,~9 ~ ~ .
- - ~ ~ ~ - i !3
4 r~ ~ I turbine From turbine taps ~
20 ~ I ~ ' taps 1B 14
Z ~ Z1 J , . + 12
21 , ~ i
~ I
~ 23 Gas. outlet ~ ~Z . ~ , .
~ ~ '
Figure 1-13. Heat diagram with fast neutron reactor (third power unit of the
Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Plant with BN-600 reactor). 1--reactor
tank; 2--reactor core; 3--intermediate heat exchanger; 4--circulating
pump; 5--circulating pump electric motor; 6--evaporator; 7--steam
superheater; 8--secondary-circuit circulating pump; 9--turbine; 10-- ~
condensate pump; 11--condensate purification; 12--low-pressure heat-
' ers; 13--deaerator; 14--pump; 15--high-pressure heaters; 16--shutdown
cooling pump; 17--reduction-cooling unit (ROU); 18--cooler; 19--con-
densate pump; 20--trap filters; 21---sodium drainage tanks; 22--sodium
transfer pumps; 23--tanks for s'toring argon.
26
, ti
rOR OFF[CIAL USE ONLY
~
~
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The structural execution and materials for mak~ng the pumps must correspond to high
requirements in connection with the high corrosion activity and radioactivity of
the transferred water.
The main electric circulating pump TsEN-310 is series manufactured for nuclear
power plants with WER-440 water-cooled, water-moderated reactors (third and fourth
power units of the Novovoronezhskaya Nuclear Power Plant, Kola and Armenian nuclear
power plants). The drive is an asynchronous electric motor for operation on three-
phase, AC, 50-Hz current and at a voltage of'6,000 volts. The significant heat re-
leases are picked up by an autonomous water- and air-cooling circuit. It is de-
signed to feed 6,500 m3/hr. The weight of the pump with the frame and all of the
accessory products, but without biological shielding is 48 tons (the pump itself is
- 41 tons). The overall dimensions of the pump are as follows: height from the
stand 6.73 meters, in plan view 3.83 x 3 meters.
The TsEN-195 electric vane circulating pump (Figure 1-14) with mechanical .;eal of
the shaft and monitored leaks is made for use in a loop of the WER-1000 water-
cooled, water-moderated reactors which will become widespread in nuclear power en-
gineering in the USSR in the next decade. The TsEN-195 pump installed on the fifth
power unit of the Novovoronezh . Nuclear Power Plant is designed to feed 19,000
m3/hr; its overall dimensions are as follows: height (without rotating crank on
the suction) 9.7 meters, in plan view 2.9 x 2.8 meters; assembled weigYtt 100 tons.
The conversion from high-delivery pumps for nuclear power plants with WER-1000 re-
actors made it possible to reduce the number of circulating loops servicing the re-
- actor to four (by comparison with six loops on the nuclear power plants with the
WER-440 reactor).
~ The TsVN-7 circulating pump with mechanical seal of the shaft and controlled leaks
is made for use in the circulating loops of nuclear pawer plants using the RBMK-
1000 boiling reactors. It is designed to deliver 6,850 m3/hr. Overall dimensions:
height 10.22 meters, height from top to cover 7.69 meters, in plan view 2.7 x 3.23
meters. The total weight 127 tons, electric motor weight 28 tons.
- In the case oF the pumps with li.quid-metal coolant a gas cushion is created over
the sodium level which when the gas leaks completely excludES leakage of the cool-
ant. Structurally the liquid-metal pumps of the primary and intermediate circuits
of the nuclear power plant at Shevchenko with the BN-350 reactor are made identi-
cally, but the primary circuit pump has biological shielding [50, 85]. These pumps
are centrifugal, cradle-mounted with electric motor and mechanical seal. The over-
all dimensions of the BN-350 reactor pump are as follows: height 9.87 meters,
tieight from the level oF the biological shielding to the top of the pump 7.4 me-
ters, diameter of the support plate in plan view 4.6 meters.
Increasing the unit power of the nuclear power plant and, consequently, the pumps,
and also the gas-blowing of the nuclear power plants with gas reactors leads to the
necessity�for creating powerful electric motors which are complicated and expensive
to manufacture. Therefore in recent years a trend has been noted toward doing away
witn the electric drive and conversion to turbine drive. For this purpose the
drive of the circulating pumps is made in the form of turbines fed the same steam as
the main turbosnit of the nuclear power plant.
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~ - ~ ~ ~
i; y i; i;
3
.
w .
b 4
a~
~ Z 5
, ~
.
~
a~
~ , .
5000
7
8
�o
~ 15 g
~
�v : o . ;e..,~o.
.
� ' ~ ` � : :0 10
' '.'o: ~p.;' .
' ~ . p. ~ o :
��O~ ..0�..
:.0': o:.
.'.b'.' ~ .'.0;.~ .
o. ~ ~ ssa ~t
0 12
o~..'
o.
~ 1 . ;o... i6
.u .o::~: '~;0 13
;:o. o�,o. ' 19
cC .o .
4-1
.
N
~
cC
g
N
2
. .f-
Figure 1-14. TsEN-195 main circulating pump with high flow rate (Q = 19,000 m3/hr).
1--hydraulic ball-bearings; 2--service platforms; 3--electric motor;
4--electric motor shaft; 5--flywheel; 6--shaft; 7--coupling; 8--ra-
dial thrust bearing; 9--pickups; 10--seal assembly; 11--lower radial
hydrostatic bearings; 12--pump shaft; 13--impeller; 14--housing; 15--
pins and flange of the main parting seal; 16--diaphragm for sealing
the span between floors.
The heiQht location of the main circulating pump depends on the height at which the
reactor is seated, and more precisely, the coolant input lines. The vertical
height of the output connection of the main circulating pumps must be as close as
possible to the level of the input line of the vessel type reactor or the distrib-
uting group plenum of a channel-type reactor. The electric drive (or the turbine
drive of the two-circuit nuclear power plants) is not radioactive and requires pe-
riodic servicing. Therefore it must be separated from the active part of the pump
28
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(the impeller itself) by a shielding cover, that is, the pump drive must be located
in a semimanne~ facility, and the impeller, in an unmanned facility.
The layout of the main circulating pump in plan view is connected with the require-
ment of minimum length of the main circulating circuit lines. Therefore the pumps
must be installed symmetrically and as close as possible to the vertical axis of
the reactor.
When designing the structural components, provision must be made for the possibil-
ity of dismantling the main circulating pump during operation. This work can be
done using the bridge cranes of the reactor section through openings which must be
provided for this purpose. However, as a rule, the cranes of the reactor section
are heavily loaded during a shutdown period. Therefore the boxes of the main cir-
culating pump drive are equipped with independent lifting means, the lifting capac-
ity of which is chosen beginning with the weight of the heaviest part of the main
circulating pump--the electric motor.
The thickness of the shielding between the facilities for the motors of the main
circulating pump and the circulating circuit facility arises primarily from the ac-
tivity of the circuit lines. For reactors with water coolant the primary source
when calculating this shielding between floors (just as the other shielding struc-
tures of the coolant circuit) is the gamma quanta with an energy of 6.2 Mev from
the 160(n, p)16N reaction.
The calculated surface activity of the main circulating pump of the nuclear power
~ plant k*ith RBMK reactor is 1.41 � 10-4 curies/cm2.* The pump can be represented in
- the form of a cyl.inder 220 cm in diameter, 130 cm high and with a wall thickness of
12 cm.
During the physical startup of the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant with RBMK-1000 re-
actor the measured value of the specif ic activity of the circulating circuit water
with an electric power of 800 MW was about 10'~`' curies/kg,** and the exposure dos-
age in the circulating circuit boxes was (390-520) � 10-~~ A� kg~l (150-200 uR/
sec***), in the corridors near the boxes (0.5-1.3) � 10-10 A� kg-1 (0.2-0.5 uR/
sec), and near the turbogenerator (0.5-2.3) � 10-10 A� kg'1 (0.1-0.9 uR/sec).
Steam Generators and Separators
I'or all Soviet nuclear power plants with water-cooled, water-moderated power reac-
tors, horizontal steam generators with tube banks in the form of plenums are used
with submersible surface of the.heat exchanger and built-in separators.
The structural design of the steam generators of the first power unit of the Novo-
voronezhskaya Nuclear Power Plant is presented in Figure 1-15. The heating sur-
faces are a U-tube system of seamless gaging pipes, the ends of which are flanged
to the plenums. The coolant which is collected in the plenum moves along the pipe.
~ 1 curie/cm = 3.7 � 1014 Bk/m2.
1 curie/kg = 3.7 � 1010 Bk/kg.
1 R/sec = 2.58 � 10'4 A/kg,
29
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In the space between the tubes the water circulation is natural. The outside sur-
face of the tube system is flushed with f eedwater converted to steam. In the steam
tank a baffle separato~ and steam-receiving ceiling are installed over the surface
of the coolant. The weight of the dry steam generator is 104.2 tons. The overall
dimensions of the vessel are as follows: inside diameter 3 meters, length 11.5 me-
ters.
' k S 6 -'i Steam~ tlet A-A
Feedwater A 7 8
inlet ~
0
0
H
~ o Top position of level
~ ~ ~
3 Z�
A
2350 6800~ ~
Coolant Coolant
Z " .inlet outlet
~i iH.. ...i~
I.h~ �I
11 1 1+- I .
m~5 -
, 3900
Figure 1-15. Horizontal steam generator of the first power unit of the Novovoro-
nezh Nuclear Power Plant. 1--vessel; 2--heat exchange surface;
3--tube system supports; 4--feedwater plenum; 5--baffle separator;
- 6--steam intake plenum; 7--steam-receiving ceiling; 8--air connec-
tions; 9--supports; 10--inlet and exit coolant plenums.
~t tl~c nuclcar power plant with WER-440 reactors, improved steam generators are
installed. Their distinguishing feature consists in the fact that the holes for
servicinP (inspection and repair) of the inside cavities of the pipe plenums where
~the most responsible joints--the ends of the heat exchange tubes--are located, are
placed over the steam generator and not below it,as in the steam generators of the
f irst and second power units of the Novovoronezh. Nuclear Power Plant. The
weight of the dry steam generator for the nuclear power plant with WER-.440 reac-
tors is 145 tons. The overall dimensions of the vessel are as follows: inside
diameter 3.2 meters, length 11.25 meters.
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For nuclear power plants with WER--1000 reactor, a horizontal steam generator of
the improved type for nuclear power plants with WER~440 reactors but with a sig-
nificant increase in the inside diameter of the vessel and two--stage steam separa-
tion was adopted. This steam generator is suspended from the ceiling of the fa-
cility, which lowers the forces on the lines on thermal expansion of it. The
- weight of the dry steam generator is 265 tons. The overall dimensions of the ves-
~ sel are as follows: inside diameter 4.0 meters, length 16.2 meters.
At the nuclear power plant with single-circuit boiling reactors and with loop lay-
out* of the equipment, drum separators are used to obtain the steam with the parame-
ters required for the turbine.
At the Dresden Nuclear Power Plant (United States) a drum separator 2.44 meters in
diameter and 20.4 meters long is made of carbon steel with an inside coating of
stainless steel. The separation units are made of four rows of centrifugal separa-
tors and two rows of driers. The separators of the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant
with the RBMK-1000 reactor (two loops of two separators each) are made in the form
of horizontal drums 2.3 meters in diameter, 300 meters long and weighing 200 tons.
The basic distinguishing feature of the steam generating equipment of the nuclear
power plant with a l~.quid-metal-cooled reactor (BN-350) is the use of two indepen-
dent units to obtain steam: obtaining, heating and steam formation take place in
the evaporator, and superheating, in a steam superheater.
The steam generators of the two-circuit loop nuclear power plants and the separa-
tors of the boiling loop reactors are highly radioactive equipment, and they must
be located in unmanned facilities.
The height of the steam generators of water--cooled, water~moderated reactors de-
pends, just as the height of the main circulating pump, on the level of the exit
and entrance tubes of the reactor.
The location of the steam generators and plan view is connected with the require-
ment of minimum length of the primary circuit lines. Therefore they are located
near the reactor vessel and symmetrically around it. Above the openings of the
steam generators in the ceiling there must be openings for Llind flanging of the
tubes in case of detection of a leak. The installation operations in the plenums
of the steam generators are performed through these openings using special remotely
controlled machines.
The drum separators of nuclear power plants with RBMK-1000 rPactors must be located
at significant height above the reactor to create an additional head. The arrange-
ment in plan view must correspond to the same requirements as for a steam generator
_ in loop water-cooled, water-moderated reactors, that is, minimum length of the
lines to the reactor. In plan view the separators can be shifted with respect to
the reactor axis for convenience of performance of operations of recharging the
core.
With loop layout of the equipment the steam generating equipment is outside the
reactor vessel.
31
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The thickness of the shielded ceiling and walls of the steam generator box of the
water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors (~ust as the RBKM-1000) is determined
by the oxygen activity of the water coolant (gamma-radiation with an energy of 6.2
Mev).
Turbines
In the early phase of the development of nuclear power engineering, in connection
with the development of a large number of various types of reactars generating
steam with different parameters, a large number of turbines were individually de-
signed with a wide range of s~eam pressures and temperature. At the present time
the following types of steam turbines have been defined for installation at nuclear
power plants: with water-cooled, water-moderated and boiling reactors bein; the
most widespread, turbines that operate on saturated or slightly superheated steam
with a pressure of 5.5-7 MPa are used; with gas and liquid-metal reactors, an ef-
fort is made to use series turbines assimilated at the thermal electric power
plants and operating on organic fuel--turbines with medium- and high-pressure su-
perheated steam.
The growth of tc?e unit power of nuclear power plants is also leading to growth of
the unit power of the turbogenerators. The most economical version today is con-
sidered to be the building of a reactor-turbine monolithic unit with unit electric
power of 1,000-1,300 MW.
For the turbines of single-circuii: nuclear power plants operating on radioactive
steam, it is necessary to build biological shielding, and the steam must be fed to
the cylinder below the service level. Special requirements are also imgosed on the
seal of the flange connections of the steam lines (they m~ist be replaced by welded
lines insofar as possible). In the early phases of the design work it was consid-
ered that for manufacture of both the turbine itself and the entire unit it is not
possible to use ~raditional materials in view of the danger of leaching out copper,
cobalt and other materials from the structural elements of the turbine as a result
of the gresence of dissolved oxygen. However, the experience in operation of the
turbines demonstrated that these dangers dre exaggerated, and the concentration of
corrosion products can be maintained at a given level by purifying all of the con--
densate returning to the reactor.
The basic parameters of modern Soviet condensation turbiaes for nuclear power
plants are presented in Table 1-S.
The requirements on the layout of the turbines for the two-circuit nuclear power
plants operating on nonradioactive steam do not differ from the requirements for
the thermal electric power plants on organic fuel. The selection criterion is
minimum expenditures on building the machine room, the steam lines and the feed
lines.
Longitudinal (parallel to the longitudinal axis of the turbine room) and transverse
arrangement of the turbines are possible. An analysis of the expenditures [85] for
longitudinal and transverse arrangement of the turbines demonstrated that a small
cost benefit can be obtained for nuclear power plants with low-- and medium-pressure
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turbines in the longitudinal arrangement of the turbines, and for nuclear power
plants with high- and superhigh-pressure turbines, with transverse arrangement of
them. For 500-MW turbines, only longitudinal arrangement is expedient as a result
_ of their significant length.
The economicalness of transverse arrangement of high- and superhigh-pressure tur-
bines for the monolithic reactor-turbine units is explained by the high cost of the
high-pressure lines. The height of the location of the turbounit is determined by
the dimensions of the condenser located under the turbine.*
At the nuclear power plants with boiling reactors, all the radioactive equipment of
the machine room must be placed under a shielding ceiling which must have openings
for dismantling and repairing the equipment. Usually the shielding of the turbo-
unit is not provided over the service area. However, when necessary in the opera-
tion and maintenance process, it is possible to construct a modular, collapsible
- concrete shadow shielding of the turbounit with a lock for the service personnel to
reach the turbine on the service platform.
Table 1-S. Basic Parameters of Soviet Condensing Turbines
K-500-60/1500
K-220-44 (for (for nuclear K-500-65/3000
nuclear power power plants (for nuclear
plants with with WER--500 power plants
Indices WER-440) and WER--1000) with RBMK-1000)
Power, electric, MW 220 500 500
Number of low-pressure cylinders 2 1 4
Total length (turbine + genera-
tor), m 21.9 + 19.3 24.2 + 19.6 39.0 + 17.8
Weight of the turbounit, tons 788 1,300 1,524
Weight of the condenser, tons 582 1,120 1,170
The thickness of the shielding ceiling of the machine room and also the walls of
the condensate facility is determined by calculation, and it depends on the mutual
arrangement of a large number of gamma radiation sources (co:~denser, steam and con-
densate lines, recovery-heat heaters and other equipment).
Condensation Units and Service Water Supply Systems for the Nuclear Power Plants
The closed cycle of a nuclear power plant predetermines the necessity for condensa-
tion of the spent steam in the condenser and return of the condensate to the cir-
cuit. The smaller the temperature difference of the steam and the entrance and
exit from the turbine, the higher its efficiency. Since the temperature depends on
pressure, it is necessary to maintain rarefaction in the turbine condensers. The
structural diagram of a surface condenser and the schematic diagram of the conden-
sation unit are presented in Figure 1-16.
The spent steam is cooled by pumping cooling service (desalinated) water by the
circulating pump through the condenser tubes. The steam, passing through the space
~ For more details on the requirements on the layout of turbounits see [85, 87].
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rou orF~CIAI. t~sE o~i.v ~
between the tubes, is condensed and is pumped by the condensate pump into the cir-
cuit. .
_ , ' . � St am inlety ~ 5
~ Cooling water �
Steam feed to ejector outlet
Steam- ' . ' 6 u '
air mix ' ~ " ~ ~ -
ischarge ' ~ ~
_ / Steam inlet `
~ ~ . Z , 6 -
' ~ L
~J 3 1 1 C~ ing water 8 ~ Steam fe d $ Siramix
+ ~ inlet to bubbling ' a
, Condensate outlet i condensate' + discharge
; . a~ 6,
Figure 1-16. Diagram of a condensation unit (a) and structural diagram of a sur-
face condenser (b). 1--surface condenser; 2--circulating pump; 3--
condensate pump; 4--steam jet ejector; 5--flange for connection to
the turbine exhaust; 6--cooling pipes; 7--pipe bank; 8--condensate
collector.
The condenser must be sealed to avoid taking in air from the environment. The con-
densate formed with good seal of the tubes of the cooling system is distillate.
For maintenance of the required vacuum in the condenser, special air evacuation
units--steam-air ejectors~-are used. Their operation is based on the fact that on
exit from the opeYating nozzle of the condenser, the working steam (frequently
spent from the turbine) takes away the steam-air mixture from the turbine condenser
with it, creating a vacuum in it.
A defined amount of products of radiolysis and also radioactive gases enter the
condensers of single-circuit nuclear power plants. Therefore, the gas mixture is
removed from the condensers of the two-circuit nuclear power plants to the atmo-
sphere, and from the single-circuit nuclear power plants, through a special venti-
lation system. The distillate formed in the condenser is ~aturated with oxygen.
Partial removal of the oxygen from the condensate is possible by pumping the steam
througli tlie condensate in the condensate collector (Figure 1-16), that is, organi-
zation of Uubbling of the condensate.
Along with the general requirements (ensurance of decondensation and deaeration of
the condcnsate), special requirements are imposed ori the condensation units of nu-
clear power plants:. the possibility of taking steam discharged from the reactors
or steam generators under emergency conditions and also when shutdown cooling of
the reactors is required. This fact determines the peculiarities of the struc~ural
solution of the nuclear power plant condensers which depend on the type of reactor
(time and conditions of its shutdown cooling). Some of the characteristics of the
condensers of modern turbines are presented in [82].
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The calculated ~pecific activity of the turbine condensers of the RBMK-1000 reactor
of the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant caused by oxygen activity is 3.59 � 10-6
curies/liter.
The water for cooling the condenser is collected by the circulating pump from natu-
ral water supplies near the power plant (a river, sea, lake) or from artificial wa-
ter areas (reservoirs, pools). If the intake of service water for cooling and dis-
charge of it from the condenser are realized in a natural water area, the water sup-
ply system is called direct flow.
When using artificial water supplies, the water from the condensers is sent to spe-
cial units: cooling ponds, spray basins, cooling towers. After cooling in them,
the water is again fed to the condensers. This water supply system is called cir-
culating.
The water consumption and the water supply conditions depend on the power and the
types ot turbines and also on the adopted water supply sysCem of the nuclear power
plant.
The lower the steam parameters at the entrance to the turbine, the more water re-
quired to cool the rurbounit per kilowatt-hour of produced electric power.
Modern nuclear electric power plants at which turbines operating an saturated, low-
pressure steam have found application, require a very large consumption or service
water for cooli.ng. For example, when installing the turbines with a power of
300 MW with initia~ steam pressure of 2.9 MPa at a nuclear power plant with a power
of 1,200 MW the service water flow rate for cooling the condensers will be about
500,000 m3/hr.
It is natural that the water consumption also depends on the temperature of the
cooling water fed to the turbine condenser. For wintertime in the central parts of
- the country the water flow rate in the direct flow water supply system is reduced
; by 50-60 percent by comparison with the summer months.
If highly mineralized seawater is used for cooling, it is necessary to use addi-
tional heat exchangers in which the seawater, moving along an open circuit removes
heat from the service water designed to cool the units of the nuclear power plant
and circulating through a closed circuit.
The cooling system of the condenser is selected depending on the specific condi-
tions: climatic and natural. For example, for the middle belt of the USSR the ad-
missible specific hydraulic load per m2 of active area of the reservoir-coolers
when heating the circulating water in the condensers of the steam turbine units by
8-10� C will be 0.04 m3/(m2-hr); for the spray basins under the same atmospheric
conditions with a drop sprayer 0.8-1.0 m3/(m2-hr) and with a film sprayer to 6-7
m3/(m2-hr). For the most effective and most expensive ventilator cooling towers,
the admissible hydraulic load will be 8-10 m3/(m2-hr).
The direct-flow warPr supply system is the simplest, and it is 15-25 percent
cheaper than the circulating water supply, but its application is possible only
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when building nuclear power plants near large water supplies. The possibility of
water supPly throu~;h a direct-flow system is also determined by the specifications
of the Gosrybnadzor [State Fishing Inspectorate]: the temperature in the water
- must not rise by more than 5� C during the summer as a result of the discharge, and
it must not rise by more than 3� C in the winter; in this case the minimum flow
rates of the river in the low-water period must exceed the demands of the electric
power plant for water by no less than two-three times.
The service water can be supplied through closed water lines or with gentle relief
and large flow rates, along a supply canal. The water can also be removed by a ca-
nal where the water discharge must be no closer than 40 meters to the water intake
(Figure 1-17). A transfer canal is used to transfer the hot water to the water in-
take during the winter to control the frazil ice.
. . ,
r-- _,r.
-
� ~ ~
' 10
~ 6 7 17 B 9 ~
~ ~
i.-_ - - .
s s
~ ~z ~
Figure 1-17. Water supply system using rivers and reservoirs. 1--current in the
river with the direct-flow system; 2--current in a cooling pond with
circulating system; 3--screens; 4--circulating pumps; 5--delivery
lines; 6--discharge siphon wells; 7--discharge water lines; 8--
switching sump; 9--discharge channel; 10--water outlet; 11--transfer
drainage canal; 12--turbine condensers.
The circulating water supply system finds broad application in the construction of
large condensation nuclear power plants in densely populated areas ~n the absence
of reliable water supplies and also when building ATETs which are located near pop-
ulated areas.
For tlie circulating water supply system, the irrecoverable losses of water which
must be made up from the outside, amount to 4-5 percent of the total circulating
water flow rate for cooling tower.s, 5-6 percent for spray basins, and 0.7-0.8 per-
cent Cor cooling ponds.
The cooling ponds find the broadest application for the circulating water supply of
powerful nuclear power plants. In order to increase the relative cooling area of
the cooling ponds, special jet-guiding dams are built which deflect the flows o~
discharge water from the condensers away from the water-receiving devices.
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rc~k orrtrtn~. t?sF: o~t.~~
The depth of the cooling pond must be no less than 3 meters. It is necessary to
provide for the possibility of filling it from inflowing streams or springs or by
artif icial water supply. If it is impossible to build a cooling pond, a circulat-
~ ing water supply is used with the application of cooling towers which can have ar-
tif icial and natural drawing of air through them. In the cooling towers with arti-
ficial draft, the air circulation is provided by fans which makes it possible to
decrease their height.
The schematic diagram of the circulating water supply with cooling tower is pre-
sented in Figure 1-18~ Depending on the method by which the contact surface of the
~ cooled water with the air is achieved, the cooling towers are divided into drop- and
film-type cooling towers. The most widespread at the large nuclear power plants
are the film-type towers which have better technical-economic indices than the drop
towers and, especially, the spray basins.
6
= f~ .
, ~ Z ~ ~ I ~ '
3
~ Addition ~
i
9~ of water Air
~p intake
I N /
7 /I Y
~ 13 12 - - ` _ - ~ _ 9
- 8 - -
_ _ S
Figure 1-18. Circulating water system for the circulating water supply with a
cooling ~tower. 1--delivery lines; 2--flume with discharge tubes; 3--
spray heads; 4--lattices; 5--collection basin; 6--exhaust tower; 7--
water supply channel; 8--water-receivi.r.g sump; 9--blowing; 10--cal-
cium hypochlorite input; 11--level indicator; 12--pump receiving
valve; 13--circulating pump; 14--turbine condenser.
When it is necessary to build nuclear power plants in waterless areas, systems with
cooling of the water in Heller towers or fan towers can be used. The water ~Iow
rates for malceup of such cooling system~ are much lower than for ordinary cooling
methods, but the effectiveness of the cooling is reduced, and the electric power
generation oF the nuclear power plant is reduced, correspondingly, and the electric
power consumption for the circulating systems of this type increases sharply. In
this case, along with using a circulating system, it is possible to use a mixed wa-
ter supply system; during~the low-water periods part of the warm water is dis-
- charged into the river above the water intake and after mixing with the cold river
water it is again fed to the electric power plant.
In addition to cooling the turbine condensers, the service water is needed at the
nuclear power plant to cool the equipment. In cases where this equipment is part
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of the safety system of the electric power plant, special requirements are imposed
on the reliability of the cooling water feed. The guaranteed water feed under
emergency conditions and if the electric power plant is deenergized is provided by
installing emergency service water pumps, three independent groups for each power
unit. In order to prevent simultaneous failure of all the pumps in the case of a
fire, each group of pumps is installed in isolated facilities. All of the emer-
gency pumps for the service water supply are connected to a reliable power supply
from a diesel electric power plant. The degree of reliability of the water supply
_ must be very high;. therefore in case of an emergency with the hydroengineering
structures which can lead to loss of water in the basic service water source, it is
necessary to provide for water to be obtained from a reserve water supply.
Equipment of the Condensation-Feed Channel
The entire water feed channel from the condenser to the steam generator (or sepa-
rator of the single-circuit nuclear power plant) is called the condensation-feed
char.nel.(see Figure 1-9), and the part of the circuit from the condenser to the de-
aerator is called the condensation part, and from the deaerator to the steam gen-
erator (separator), feed.
The heat transferred in the condenser to the cooling water is irreversibly lost.
The heat losses can be reduced by directing part of the steam into the recovery-
heat heater system. The low-pressure recovery-heat heaters are installed between
the turbine condensers and the deaerators, and the condensate is heated in them by
tapping steam from the low-pressure cylinders of the turbine. The high-pressure
heaters are located between the deaerators and the steam generators, and they are
fed steam from the high-pressure cylinders of the turbine.
The recovery-heat heaters used at nuclear power plants are surface heat exchangers,
the advantage of which is the possibility of operation independently of the water
and heating steam rressures. The water can be pumped through several heaters by a
single pump.
The recovery-heat low-pressure heaters are made with tube banks located inside the
, vessel. The steam from the taps of the low-pressure cylinders of the turbine is
fed upward to the heater, it washes over the U-tubes through which the feedwater
passes. The condensate is collected in the lower part of the heater and by gravity
or by means of a drainage pump it goes to the space between the tubes of the next
feedwater heating stage. From the last heater the drainage is sent to the turbine
- condenser. ~
The high-pressure recovery-heat heaters are made with plenums to which the horizon-
tal coils of tubes made in the form of spirals are connected. The steam washing
over the coils is condensed. The recovery-heat high- and low-pressure heaters have
a removablP top cover which permits repairs to be made easily.
The basic characteristics of the low- and high-pressure heaters are presented in
[82J.
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The recovery-heat feedwater heaters must be located near the turbounit and the con-
denser of the turbine, for the heating is done by steam picked up from the turbines.
In the ceiling over the heaters there must be holes left for possible dismantling
of them for repairs. The installation of the heaters is by the machine room crane
equipment.
The recovery-heat heaters of single-circuit nuclear power plants, which are sources
of radiation, are located in unmanned facilities under the shielding ceiling of the
machine room, the thickness of which is determined considering the location of the
sources (the turbine condensers, the live steam lines, the feedwater lines, and so
on).
The deaerators are designed to remove dissolved gases from the feedwater, for mix-
ing condensate of different temperature, pressure, gas content and also heating the
feedwater. At the nuclear power plant usually thermal mixing deaerating columns
are used with a pressure of 0.4-0.7 MPa combined with deaeration feeder tanks for
collecting condensate. The basic parameters of the deaeration columns of the
Chernovitskiy and the Barnaul plants and also the deaerator tanks are presented in
[82], and the plate-type deaeration column is diagrammed in Figure 1-19.
' . .
. ~
6 ~ .
Z
~ f. ~
; ~6 ~
~ _
f f
. 6 .
00 00~ =
. ~
8 ~
~ , .
_ ; -
Figure 1-19. Diagram of a deaeration column with tank. 1--supply of the basic
feedwater flow; 2--supply of condensate from the high-pressure
heater; 3--supply of evaporator condensate; 4--connection for vapor
discharge; 5--heating steam feed; 6--plates with holes; 7--deaerator
rank; 8--feedwater level in the tank.
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The water to be deareated is fed to the upper part of the column through pipes, and
it drains subsequently through the plates with holes (perforated panels). During
movement of the streams dowiiward throug?. the plates the water is heated to the
saturation temperature. The ta,ater released from the gases is collected in the de-
aerator tank located under the~.,column. The heating steam, rising upward through
the gaps between the plates alt~rnately intersects the jets of falling water. The
uncondensed steam together with gases is discharged through the connection pipe
to the vapor cooler.
The deaerator, which has a signific�nt reserve of seawater usually is placed on the
u~per levels of the stack of electri 1a1 units (or, as it is called, the deaerator
stack) in order to increase the pressi~`e at the input of the feed pumps.
Lifts are required to service the deaer2~tors, the lifting capacity of which is de-
termined by the weight of the dry deaeration column.
The generally accepted arrangement of the~`;deaerators has two deficiencies:
in case of a possible loss of seal of the d~aerator, the water can get into the
lower facilities where the electrical units `~~ire located;
the filled deaerator tanks located at the higlier levels, transfer significant
static loads to the structural elements, which`,co:~tradicts the basic structural
principle of placing light equipment at the upp~r levels and heavy equipment at the
lower =evels. The large volumes of shielding a~'ound the deaerators for nuclear
power plants with single-circuit boiling reactors cause additional loads on the
lower structura? elements.
1-3. Characteristic Features of the Engineering'Equipment
The engineering cquipment includes auxiliary sys�ems that provide normal conditions
for the service personnel and also required to aCcomplish the basic production pro-
cess. This includes the service and drinking water surnly, lighting, process and
general exchange ventilation, sewage and heatin~.
A distinguishing feature of a nuclear power plant ~s radioactivity of the coolant
(and the working medium of the single-circuit nuclear�power plants) with the forma-
tion of liquid, solid and gaseous waste, losses of which in the production process
are unavoidable.
In order to remove the radioactive waste at a nuclear power plant, in addition to
ttie ordinary en~ineerin~ equipment systems, special systems are built which are
speci('ic to ttie nuclear plants---special process ventilation, special sewage and a
system for deactivation and burial of radioactive waste.
Special Ventilation
Whereas solid and liquid waste can be comparatively easily localized in closed con-
tainers (tanks, pipelines), air pollution with radioactive materials (gases or
aerosols) can be signif icant.
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Special ventilation at a nuclear power plant is designed for purifying the air and
creating safe and normal working conditions for the service personnel.
At the nuclear power plant, the radioactive waste can get into the air as a result
of leaks of radioactive coolant containing gaseous and aerosol fission products
(xenon, krypton, iodine, and so on) and also during operation of the auxiliary
- units (the "dirty" condensate tanks, the fuel element holding pools, and so on).
Another source of air pollution is the formation of gaseous radioactive isotopes
(above all, argon-41) and radioactive aerosols of complex isotopic composition on
irradiation by neutrons of elements entering into the composition of the air and
dust.
The usual method of controlling air pollution is purification of the air by filters
or dilution by pure air to permissible concentrations.
However, since the entry of radioactive materials having high toxicity into the air
of the work spaces of nuclear power plants is signiflicant, n~rmal conditions in the
nuclear power plant facilities can be created primarily as a result of sealing the
equipment, placement of it in sealed boYes with remote control, zonal planning, and
with such measures ventilation can have only auxiliary significance.
As experience shows, the air of the work areas in nuclear power plants is basically
polluted in connection with loss of seal of the equipment and boxes when performing
preventive maintenance and repair operations. Taking this fact into account and
also beginning with the requirements of not allowing irradiation of the personnel
, by external or internal sources of radiation above the permissible limit, at the
- nuclear power plant, just as at any nuclear installation, it is necessary to site
the equipment by the zonal principle (see Chapter 3) with all of the facilities be-
ing broken down into zones with strict and free conditions and, in turn, the fa-
cilities in the strict conditions zone are divided into unmanned, semimanned and
manned facilities. The requirements on the radioactive materials concentration in
the air of the zone where highly toxic unmanned equipment is located can be re-
duced. The maximum concentration level here will be determined by the condition of
not allowing activity to accumulate. It is necessary to ensure permissible concen-
trations of radioactive materials in such facilities only for the short time inter-
val required to service the equipment.
Accordingly, several ventilation systems are set up at the nuclear power plants,
each of which has defined purposes:
~ the constantly operating special process ventilation systems for maintaining given
concentration levels of radioactive materials during normal operation of the nu-
clear power plant;
periodically operating process ventilation systems which are switched on for pre-
ventive repairs or when recharging the reactor core;
special gas purification designed to remove radioactive and explosive gases with
the air directly from the points of their formation (blowdown of the reactor, the
dirty condensate tanks, and so on) and purification on special units.
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The normative materials [59] have established the maximum permissible intake of
radioactive materials by the organism of man and the mean annual concentrations of
radioactive materials in the air and water.around nuclear power plants. Therefore
the air from the ventilation system which is to a defined degree enriched by radio-
active isotopes must be diluted before it is released into the atmosphere. For
this purpose air from the ventilation system which has been previously purifiec: by
the filters (if required) is directed to the exhaust vent pipe and ejected into the
upper layers of the atmosphere. The height of the ve~nt pipe of a nuclear power
plant is determined from the condition of dilution of the stream of e~ected air to
the permissible limit when it settles to the surface a,f the ground.
The special ventilation must also provide for admissible temperatures in all of the
strict conditions areas (the dirty zone): no more than SO� C in the semimanned
areas and no more than 70� C in unmanned areas.
Special Features of Nuclear Power Plant Ventilation Systems and General Design
Principles. Two types of nuclear power plant ventilation are distinguished:
local exhaust ventilation designed to remove the air from the shelters over places
that release radioactive gases, vapor, aerosols and excess heat. The concentration
of the radioactive materials in the air removed by the local exhaust ventilation
can exceed that permitted by the sanitary norms by many times. Therefore, as a
rule, such air is subject to purification before e3ection into the atmosphere;
the general exchange intake-exhaust ventilation which prevents the permissible con-
centrations of radioactive materials from being exceeded in the manned and semiman-
ned facilities by dil:ution of the polluted air with pure air.
The basic operating principle of the ventilation system of nuclear power plant
buildings is maintenance of increased pressure in the facilities with minimum pos-
sible pollution and 'siiffiicient rarefaction in Che facilities with maximum possible
pollution, which is realized by the forced intake of pure air in the cleanest areas
and exhaust from the dirtiest areas. The transfer of air from one facility to an-
other must be organized so that when one or two fans fail, the air from the dirtier
facilities cannot get into the cleaner ones. For this purpose, check valves are
installed in the openings in the walls between the facilities (excess pressure
valves), which open under the effect of a pressure difference in ad~acent facili=
ties of no less than 50 Pa. The excess pressure valves (KID) are produced for open-
ings with a diameter Dy from 100 to 400 mm with 50-mm spacing.
The three-zone planning of the nuclear power plant facilities makes it possible to
use a staged ventilation system or a system for direct supply of air to the zones.
In the staged ventilation syste~ the intake air is fed to the manned facilities,
and it is removed through the semimanned and unmanned facilities. The air from
the manned facilities goes to the semimanned facilities through excess pressure
valves installed in the wall between the zones as a result of the pressure differ-
ence; it goes from the semimanned to the unmanned facilities through analogous
valves. The manned facilities do not communicate with the unmanned facilities even
through filters.
42
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With the direct feed system the air is supplied individually to each facility and
removed from it. This system is used only on imposition of especially strict re-
quirements on the isolation of the manned facilities from the semimanned facilities
and when these facilities are separated by massive shielding walls. The air bal-
ance by zones in this case is as follows: the inflow to the manned facilities ex-
ceeds the exhaust (approximately twofold exchange per hour), and in the semimanned
facilities the exhaust is greater than the inflow.
The advantages of staged ventilation by comparison with direct supply of air to the
zones can include the following:
a decrease in the total volume of ventilating air, for it i~ first used to ventilate
the manned facilities and then the semimanned and unmanned facilities;
a reduction in cost as a result of a smaller number of ventilation systems.
However, the staged ventilation must be used only with round-the-clock operation of
the system, for in shutdown periods it would be possible for the dirty air to leak
from the unmanned facilities into the manned facilities or from the unmanned into
the semimanned facilities through cracks or failed excess pressure valves which is
inadmissible.
The choice of output capacity of the units for general exchange ventilation of the
reactor rooms of nuclear power plants and also the machine rooms of the single-
circuit nuclear power plants must be made considering the necessity for recha~ging
the core and the performance of repair operations beg~nning with the following mul-
tiplicities of air exchange:
Multiplicity of Air
Volume of Facility, m3 Exchange, 1/hr
To 100 10
' S00 5
1,000 3
5, 000 2
10,000 or more 1
When recharging the fuel and when performing the repair operations in the rer.ctor
sections and also the machine rooms of the single-circuit nuclear power plants no
less than twofold air exchange per hour must be ensured, and for repair operations
in the steam generato- and main circulating line areas of the two-circuit nuclear
power plants and also in the majority of unmanned areas of the single-circuit nu-
clear power plants three- to fivefold air exchange per hour must be provided.
All of the exhaust and intake systems of the dirty zone are equipped with reserve
ventilation units, and the exhaust ventilation systems which service the responsi-
ble users (the control panel, the SUZ cooling and other manned facilities of the
primary circuiC) are connected to a reliable electric power supply network, and
they are equipped t�~~th automatic starters after the power supply has been inter-
rupted.
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The local ventilation in the unmanned and semimanned facilities of the dirty zone
must provide for rarefaction with respect to the provisionally clean facilities
equal to no less than 30-50 Pa (3-5 mm of water). The calculated multiplicity of
the air exchange in the semimanned facilities is determined beginning with the na-
ture of the facility. However, the air flow rate must be such that the velocity of
the air in the opening will be no less than 0.2 m/sec.
Frequently in the unmanned facilities of nuclear gower plants there is equipment
- with large heat releases (the separator boxes of nuclear power plants with RBMK-
1000 reactors, the pipeline corridors, and so on). For such facilities it is inex-
pedient to provide cooling by a common ventilation system. In these cases it is
permissible to build a recirculating air-cooling system in which the air is cooled
by service wafer or water from refrigeration units. For the two-circuit nu~:lear
power plant with water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors it is possible to com-
bine the recirculating cooling systems of the reactor pit and the steam generator
box.
In facilities with constant release of aerosols and radioactive gases in which it
is possible for people to be present (*_he envelope over the reactor, the steam gen-
erator box of nuclear power plants with water-cooled, water-inoderated power reac-
tors, and so on), a recirculating filter system is installed to purify the air.
This system must have redundant fans and filters. At the entrance to these facili-
ties, connections are installed for the individual protection means (air suits, air
helmets). The output capacity of the air supply system to the air suits must be no
- less than 15 m3/hr per suit, and the pressure at the connection point, no less than
4.5 kPa (450 mm of water). The intakE of air for the air suits can be from any in-
take ventilation chamber through an aerosol fabric filter.
In the process of performing the recharging and repair operations, additional air
flow rates are required. For these purposes repair ventilation is installed which
is switched on for t~emtmusttbetnohless thantonesvolumeeofgtherla gest ofhthe man
capacity of this sys
ned facilities.
In order to prevent the escape of radioactive gases and aerosols from the fuel
holding and recharging pools, an air curtain is designed over them. The removed
air is directed into ttie repair ventilation system. During the repair operations
the exhaust ventilation systems in the openings of the unmanned facilities must
create an air velocity of no less than 1 m/sec.
The air ducts of the local exhaust ventilation become golluted with radioactive
aerosols during operation, in connection with which it is necessary to provide bio-
logical shielding around them. Usually when trying to keep down the capital expen-
ditures, the exhaust ventilation ducts are built insid.e the massive concrete
shieldir.^ walls or in underground corridors. ~
When routing the air ducts it is necessary to consider that the intake ventilation
ducts cannat be laid through the unmanned facilities, and the local ventilation
ducts, in manned facilities.
44
FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY
I ~
I
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f'OR OFFICIAL USE Ov[,Y
In addition to shielding it is necessary to provide for the possibility of deacti-
vating the local exhaust systems. For Chese purposes, special hatches are con-
_ structed in the air ducts and their shielding, and the air ducts are laid with a
slope in the direction o~ the drainage traps which are used to remove the deacti-
vating solutions or condensate which are used to wash out the air ducts and for
special air purification.
The presence of chemically active materials in the deactivating solutions and in
the air removed from various enclosures and also the presence of radioactive mate-
rials in it impose special requirements on the materials from which the air ducts
of the local exhaust ventilation are made.
. The materials must not be subjected to the chemical effects of acids or bases; they
must have sufficient radiation resistance and low absorption capacity. These con-
ditions are set aside by expensive steel and aluminum. Recently the possibility
has appeared for the use of chemically stable polymer materials to line the air
ducts.
Filters. Depending on the requirements on the degree of removal of pollutants from
the air and also materials used for filtration, the filters can provide both fine
and rough purification.
Special fabrics based on polyvinyl chloride and acety1ce11ulose are used to con~
struct the fine purification filters.
For the rough purification filters, a fibrous packing of fiberglass or lavsan waste
is used.
The frame-type filters have become the most widespread. The filter fabric is
stretched on II-type wooden frames, and the filter with the required f iltering area
' is assembled from these frames by successive rotation of each of them by 180�. The
spent filters can be destroyed by burning with subsequent purification of the com--
bustion products.
Vent Pipes. As has already been stated, the dilution of radioactive discharge to
permissiUle concentrations at ground level is ensured by using vent pipes at the
= nuclear power plant.
- The dispersion of the radioactive materials in the atmosphere depends on the wind
velocity and the height of the pipe. The velocities and prevailing directions of .
the winds can be determined from climatic reference data where the wind velocity is
presented at an altitude of 10 meters from ground level. At other altitudes the
wind velocity is determined by introducing a correction factor which varies within
the limits of 0.666 (for a height of 2 meters) to 1.8 (for a height of 200 meters).
~ The wind direction is determined from the "wind rose" on the points of which the
prevailing monthly, quarterly or annual wind direction is plotted.
When developi.ng the master plan for a nuclear nower plant it is necessary to con-
sider the prevailin~ wind direction so that the vent pipe and the "dirty" buildings
will be located downwind from the "clean" buildings at the electric power plant
site and the housing facilities.
45
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FOR OFFICIAL USE OVLY
The calculation of the vent height for given discharge can be made by the procedure
discussed in [47]. When calculating the vent pipes it is possible to use the data
presented below on maximum permissible discharges, curies/day, at nuclear power,
plants with a vent pipe 100 meters high:
Total strontium-90, strontium-99 10-3
0.1
Iodine-131
Total beta- and gamma-active isotopes, except strontium and iodine 0.5
_ isotopes
Total radioactive inert gases (krypton, xenon and argon isotopes) 3,500
The daily discharge of all groups of isotopea simultaneously is permissible, but it
must not exceed the values indicated in the table with respect to each group.
Special Gas Purification. During normal operation, the radioactive process gas
blowoffs are partially directed i.nto the special ventilation system. However, dur-
ing recharging or when a significant number of fuel elements are unsealed, the gas
activity in the vent pipe discharge can increase sharply, primarily from iodine and
inert gases. In this case a special gas purification system is used to purify the
air.
The removal of inert gases from the air is possible by pumping them into gas hold-
ers and holding it there for several hours. During this time the radioactive decay
of the gases takes place with the formation of materials which can be trapged by
the aerosol f ilters. For large nuclear power plants holding the radioactive gases
in the gas holders is combined with adsorption of them on adsorber f~lters where
activated charcoal is used as the sorbent. The main process equipment of the spe-
cial gas purification system must have 100-percent redundancy.
The fans and filters of the intake and exhaust ventilation systems at nuclear power
plant buildings must be combined in centralized intake and exhaust ventilation cen-
ters, the location of which in separate buildings is possible. In the case where
they are placed in the nuclear power plant buildings it is necessary to be guided
by the following principles:
the chambers of the intake systems (the intake ventilation center) must be located
at Lhe top levels of the building on the windward side;
entrance to the intake ventilation center must be provided from a clean zone;
the exhaust ventilation center must be located on the downwind side of tht building
in the reactor section near the vent pipe.
The f ans and filters of the exhaust systems of the unmanned facilities must be lo-
cated in a separate box with biological shielding. The drives and electric motors
of these Eans must be located in manned facilities.
To allow for the possibility of installation, dismantling and repair, all of the
fans weighing more than 50 kg must be in range of the lift machinery. It is neces-
sary to provide openings over the filter storages.
46
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. rok o~~~rc�~~~~. ~~s~: c~~,~.ti~ .
It is expedient to locate the gas holders of the special gas purification system
near the exhaust vent pipe.
Radioactive Waste
The operation of a nuclear power plant is accompanied by the formation of a signifi-
cant amount of radioactive solid and, primarily, liquid waste. Therefore when de-
signing nuclear power plants, in addition to the .foul sewage and industrial waste
sewage, a system must be planned which provides for the collection, transportation
and burial of radioactive waste.
Liquid waste formed during operation of the nuclear power plant is considered to be
radioactive if the radioactive materials content in it exceeds the mean annual per-
- missible concentrations established for drinking water and the water in open water
areas [59].
The solid waste of nuclesr power plants (the materials of the core, the reactor,
dismantled equipment, and so on) are considered to be radioactive if the exposure
dosage of gamma radiation at a distance cf 10 cm from their surface exceeds 2.8
A � kg-1 (0.3 mR/hr).
Depending on the total specific activity, the liquid waste is divided into three
categories: slightly active to 10'4 curies/liter,* medium active from 10-4 to
1 curie/liter and highly active, more than 1 curie/liter. The highly active waste
is not formed directly at the nuclear power plant.
Depending on the exposure dosage of the gamra radiation at a distance of 10 cm from
the surface, the solid waste is divided inta slightly active from 0.28 � 10-4 to
280 � 10-4 A� kg-1 (from 0.03 to 30 mR/hr), medium active from 280 � 10-4 to
9.28 � 10-4 A� kg'1 (from 30 to 1,000 mR/hr) and highly active, over 9.28 � 10^4
' A� kg'1 (>1,000 mR/hr). The radioactive waste formed during operation of the nu-
clear power plant is distinguished not only with respect to phase composition and
activity, but also with respect to radiochemical and chemical composition.
Liquid Radioactive Waste. The sources of the formation of liquid radioactive waste
at nuclear power plants are the blowdown systems of the reac~or and auxiliary
equipment, purif ication systems for the organized leaks, special water purifica-
tion, deactivation, showers, special laundry, and so on.
The total volume of radioactive wastewater subject to localization at large mociern
nuclear power plants does not exceed S00 m3/day with a specific activity of 10'"5 to
10'6 curies/liter. The one-time discharges can be 1,000 m3.
The planned radioactive leaks must be removed by the organized leak system to spe-
cial tanks. They are not mixed with other water, if necessary they are purified
and returned to the circuit. ,
* The upper activity limit of slightly active waste at the present time has not
been determined anc~ fluctuates in the USSR from 10"5 to 10 "4 curies/liter. In the
_ United States waste with an activity of several millicuries per liter is considered
to be slightly active waste.
- 47
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(~OR UI~l~ICIA1. USF. ONI.Y
The water and solutions getting on the floor of the facilities in case of leaks
(unorganized leaks) or deactivation of equipment are collected by the gravity flow
sewage system in separate tanks.
In order to exclude water from one facility getting into another through the spe~
cial sewage system it is necessary to provide a system of hydraulic back-pressure
valves. The air from the tanks with an activity of more than 10"~ curies/liter is
sent to the special ventilation system.
The medium active waste (more than 10-5 curies/liter) is collected in stainless
steel or carbon steel tanks with reliable anticorrosion coating. The facilities
for installation of the tanks are equipped with carbon steel trays. The capacity
of the trays is determined from the leakage conditions of the largest tank in-
stalled in the facility.
Al1 of the liquid waste is subjected to deactivation in the purification struc-
tures, and the purif ied water must be returned to the production cycle. Purified
unbalanced water from the decontamination locks, decontamination stations, special
laundries and laboratory sinks which by agreement with the Gossannadzor [State Sani-
tary Inspectorate] can be discharged into the industrial service or foul sewage sys-
tem after dosimetric monitoring in an intermediate tank, constitute an exception.
In connection with the different nature and degree of contamination of the circuit,
trap, laundry and other water, separate special sewage systems are designed for
them.
Internal Special Sewage Networks. For the internal special sewage networks located
at points that are inaccessible for repair, stainless pipe is used. It is also
possible to use thick-wall carbon steel pipe to transport nonaggressive waste.
Traps made of stainless steel are installed in the unmanned facilities, and traps
made of steel or cast iron are installed in the decontamination stations and the
semimanned facil~_ties.
'fhe pipe diameters and the slopes of the gravity feed internal special sewage net-
work are taken in accordance with the effective norms for designing the internal
industrial sewage networks with complete emptying of the tubes.
When laying the internal special sewage networks it is necessary to strive to group
them and lay them in pipe corridors. The necessity for constructing biological
shielding for the special sewage networks is established by physical calculations.
Open laying of the special sewage lines for transporting slightly active waste in
the semimanned facilities with mandatory special painting of them is permitted.
On intersection of the shielding walls by the special sewage network, possibilities
of loca] radiation leaks must be excluded.
The drives for the special sewage cutoff valves are located in the semimanned or
manned facilities.
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f~OR OFNICIAI_ USF. Ovl,l'
i The floors in the facilities where the traps are installed must be made with a
slope in their direction of no less than 0.01, and the top of the trap grating must
be 5-10 mm below the clean floor level.
- The ventilation of the special sewage lines with an activity of less than 10-~
_ curies/liter is realized through ordinary standpipes. For higher activity the air
j from the special sewage is sent to the special ventilation system.
If it is impossible to organize a gravity special sewage system, pumping transfer
stations are used. When pumping waste with an activity to 10-5 curies/liter, sub-
mersible pumps are used, and with an activity of more than 10'5 curies/liter, air
lifts or packless pumps are used.
Outside Special Sewage Networks. The purpose of the outside special sewage net-
works is to transport radioactive waste to the storage facilities or waste process-
ing points. The outside networks are divided by nature of operation into pressure
and gravity networks and also those operating constantly or periodically. In addi-
_ tion, they must be divided with respect to activity, aggressiveness, temperature
' and mechanical contamination content.
By designation the special sewage waste is divided into process waste which is
stored, slightly contaminated waste which is purified and also slurries, acids and
bases, desorbing solutions, return water, condensate from the special ventilation,
and so on [9].
- The special sewage lines for the low-active liquid waste can be laid directly in
the ground above the groundwater level. In the c~se of activity of the waste of
10-`' curies/liter and higher or when building a special sewage system for slightly
active waste in water-saturated ground the special sewage lines are laid in rein-
forced concrete conduits lined with stainless steel or with epoxy coating (Figure
1-20) to keep the liquid waste out of the soil in case the sewage line leaks.
In addition, this construction makes it possible to deactivate the insidQ surfaces
of the conduits.
b~ ~ -
;e '
dy ~ ~a N ~
v
~ ~ �
~ r
, o , . .
~
R b
- a~ . Q1 b~
Figure 1-20. Conduits and pits of special networks with pipelines dy = 40-200.
' a--section o~ the conduit with epoxy coating (for channels lined with
j stainless steel bl = b); b--plan view of ~he installation-welding pit
I (hzight of the pit chamber is equal to the height of the channel).
i; For thp dimensions see Table 1~6.
49
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F'OR OFFICIAL USF. ONI.Y
Table 1-6. Dimensions of Reinforced Concrete Conduits and Pits for the Special
Sewage System (Figure 1-20)
Provisional
~ Diameter of Cross Sectional
Special Sew Dimensions. mm
age Pipes dX: I H I b I b~ I' b~ I b'
I
~ 40-70' . 100 200 300 2(~0 2I6 600 600 ,
'100-125 100 250 350 200 216 600 600
150 150 300 450 250 2TD ?00 700
' 200 150 300 450 300 320 800 800.
>200 ~ 190 260 45A 400 420 900 900~
In the straight sections the conduits are made of prefabricated reinforced concrete
blocks 6, 4 and 2 meters long. For installation and welding of the pipelines it is
' necessary to build installation-welding pits. The spacing between them must be 50-
100 meters. The dimensions of the conduits and the pits when laying one special
- sewage line as a function of its ~iameter are presented in Table 1~6.
The special sewage networks must be laid with a slape in the direction of the col-
lection plant which is no less than 3 mm per meter of running length.
The lines are installed in the conduits on moving and stationary supports tack
welded to the fittings in the walls of the conduit. The stationary supports which
are used to restrict deformations of the pipes during thermal expansion are in-
stalled every 50-70 meters.
Inspection and emergency pits are installed along the length of the special sewage
route. The spacing between these pits must be no more than 100 meters for pipe up
to S00 mm in diameter and 200-250 meters for pipe more than 500 mm in diameter. In
' the emergency p:ts dosimetric monitoring instruments are installed, the readings of
which are transmitted to the dosimetric monitoring station of the nuclear power
plant.
It is necessary to consider the following when routing the medium-- and high-activ-
ity sewage networks:
the special sewage networks must be laid along "dirty" paths. The distance from
the domestic and drinlcing water lines must be no less than 3 meters in the case of
channel laying of the pipes and 5 meters in the case of channelless laying in
clayey soil and 10 meters for channelless laying in percolating soil;
on intersection with the special sewage lines the water lines must be laid above in
a shielded metal jacket (pipe in pipe);
the depth of the special sewage networks is determined by the heat engineering cal-
culations under conditions of observing the PDU at ground surface and in the pits.
The dosage at the surface of the ground or the cover of a pit must not exceed
I.03 � 10-10 A� kg-1 (0.4 uR/sec), and in a pit 7.22 � 10-10 A� kg-1 (2.8 uR/sec).
In all cases the thickness of the fill over the special sewage network must be no
less than 70 cm. The recommended depth of the special sewage is about 4 meters.
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FOR OI~HICIAI, iISE~. ON1.1' .
The concentrated solutions are transported using packless (sealed) pumps or com-
pressed air.
In the case of concentrated solutions with high salt content, to avoid fouling of
the pipes with precipitating crystals it is necessary to install a final evaporator
for the solutions directly before they are fed to storage. This type of evaporator,
in particular, has been provided at the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant.
' Storage of Liquid and Solid Waste. For concentrated solutions and for slurries,
the following methods of storage and removal are permissible: temporary storage in
tanks, deep storage (burial), solidification by the methods of bituminization or
cementing with subsequent burial.
The tanks for storing liquid and solid waste are designed for no less than 5 years
~ of operation of the.nuclear power plants considering the possibility of expanding
the plant during operation. The waste storage pits at the power plant site are lo-
cated considering the zonal planning of the master plan (see Chapter 2) necessarily
within the limits of the secured zone of the enterprise or in a separate secure
zone in an area with low groundwater levEy, The permissible distance of the stor-
age pits from t:~e water mains is no less than 50 meters and from open water areas,
5G0 meters. The lowest level of storage of liquid wa~te is 4 meters above the
highest groundwater level. The tanks must be located only underground.
For storage of concentrated solutions two types of storage pits are used. The
first type has the tank installed directly in the ground; the second type has the
tank installed in a special facility (the casemate-type tank). The casemate-type
tanks, as a rule, are used to store highly active liquid waste.
For the storage of slurries, both ordinary tanks and tanks with a drainage system
and a special system for pumping out the clarified solution after settling and con-
solidation of the suspensions are used. The clarified, drained filtrate is pumped
from the pit to the bottom of the reservoir, as a result of which the bottom is de-
signed with a slope in the direction of this pit. For pumping the remaining clari-
fied solution from different levels (as the consolida~ed suspensions accumulate),
intake lines are provided. Other structural features of the tanks and the remain-
ing storage pit construction depend on the level of activity d:id type of radiator
(alpha, beta, gamma). Thus, the tanks, equipment and service lines for liquid
waste with alpha-radiators without noticeable gamma-radiation do not require ~~e-
cial shielding, but they require reliable seal; for highly active waste with gamma-
radiators biological shielding is required. For removal of the released heat, ex-
plosive hydrogen and other gases from the tanks, special arrangements are provided.
The operating experiQnce of the storage pits in the USSR indicate that the tempera-
ture of highly active liquid ~taaste contained in the tanks is, as a rule, close to
50� C. In order to maintain such a temperature in the highly active waste it is
necessary to remove excess heat. This is done by special cooling systems.
For liquid waste with an activity to 8 curies/liter the heat can be removed by pro-
cess ventilation, bl~~oing with air over the surface of the solution in the tank.
The multiplicity of the air exchanged in this case is determined by the heat
51
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~ f~OR OI~FICIAL USE ON1.1'
~
f
~
j engineering calculations. For more highly active waste the heat is removed by
j coils with water cooling.
~
; The dilution of hydrogen to explosion-safe concentration and its removal are accom-
~ plished by special process ventilation. In order to avoid the formation of pockets
for the accumulation of explosive gases in the points of maximum rise of the sur-
i face of ~the tank cover pipes are cut in to exhaust these gases.
! The construction material for tanks, lining and other parts of the storage pit is
~ selected depending on the characteristics of the liquid waste medium (acid, neutral,
~ ~ basic) .
; For acid solutions, the tanks, their lining, lines, and so on are made of cnrrosion-
! resistant steels, the types of which are determined depending on the chemical compo-
sition of the acids and their concentration and also the temperature of the solu-
~ tion.
I
; For neutral and alkaline solutions, low-carbon steel can be used. In Soviet prac-
i tice the storage tanks made completely of carbon steel have not become widespread,
but in some of the constructed storage pits the tanks (with a capacity of 6,000 m3)
i are lined with carbon steel. At a number of the electric power plants where the
i waste is converted to the alkaline state for safety reasons, corrosion-resistant
i steel is still used to line the tanks.
.
( Taking advantage of Soviet and foreign experience, it is necessary to more broadly
introduce low-carbon steel for building storage pits. For this purpose it is neces-
~ sary to improve the operating culture of the storage pits and also to take measures
~ to prevent the steel from corrosion. Such measures include primarily painting with
~ radiation- and acid-resistant paints and coatings based on epoxy resins.
' In each individu~l case the choice of material for the tank or for lining it and
i
~ also the chemical protection of carbon steel are determined by the process engineer
I beginning with the corrosiveness of the medium and the operating time.
i
' In USSR practice the storage pits are designed considering the possibility of trans-
~ ferring the solutions from one tank to another by special vacuum pumps, the intake
~ capacity of which is no more than 7 meters for liquid waste density of 1 ton/m3 and
, less than 7 meters for higher density. Accordingly, the height of the storage
~ tanks is limited. ~
! The volume of each group of tanks (for concentrated solutions, slurries, spent res-
ins and sorbents) and the total capacity of the storage pits are determined by the
following arguments: the amount of waste of each type, the time in which filling
I of the tanks is calculated, th~ proposed storage time of the waste (long-term or
' tempora:~~ storage considering transfer of the waste after reduction of activity to
~ cheaper tanks), the possibility of using viable components contained in the waste,
~ the half-life 'of the isotopes contained in the waste, physical and chemical changes
in the process of storing this waste, the required reserve (in established practice
~ one additional tank is provided as the reserve in case of emergency), and so on.
Some of the problems of optimizing the liquid radioactive waste storage pits are
discuss~d in [28].
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A-A
?o ~
.
. ~ M M �
A1
5~ 1~~`~ .1~6`~
a` ~ -
~
,~0 w
~\S~ ,,5~
. ; � + I o
I. .
AAA~~1 4BAM
r ~
Figure 1-21. Storage pit for liquid radioactive waste with 2,400 m3 capacity.
As an example, the space planning of a standard liquid waste storage pit with ca-
pacity of 2,400 m3 is presented in Figure 1-21. It is necessary to set up inspec-
tion pits to monitor possible leaks around the storage pits of nuclear power plants.
One of the prospective methods of solidifying the liquid waste from nuclear power
plants must be considered to be the bituminization method. The bituminized blocks
with a specific activity to 1 curie/liter can be stored in concrete boxes without
waterproofing.
The solid waste is sorted before storage with respect to contamination level, and
it is placed in the burial pit consisting of individual boxes for storing waste of
different activity. Usually the waste is transported in.special trucks or battery-
, operated vehicles equipped with shielding. The set of structures of the solid
waste storage pits includes the following: a facility for collection, temporary
storage and conversion of flammable and explosive radioactive waste material to a
harmless state, a facility for deactivation of the special motor transportation,
containers and equipment, storage for the rotating containers, a garage for the
special vehicles, tanks for burying the waste by contamination groups.
The burial of low-active solid waste is permitted in closed-type trenches with low
groundwater levels in argillaceous soils. The trench~s must be far from the water
intakes and open water areas.
The solid waste of inedium activity is buried in concrete burial pits, and highly
active, in underground waterproofed tanks.
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For storing the combustible solid waste, separate tanks are provided. Special
safety measures are taken to prevent spontaneous combustion of the waste, and spe-
cial ventilation is installed. The propagation of the radioactivity around the
solid waste storage pits is monitored by using inspection pits around the perimeter
of the storage pit 10-15 meters away.
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j
CHAPTER 2. CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION SITES AND MASTER PLANS FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
2-1. Special Features of Nuclear Power Plants and Construction Site Requirements
With an increase in the number of nuclear power plants, the choice of the site for
their construction is becoming more and more complicated. The most optimal version
of the siting of a nuclear power plant which insures minimum expenditures when
building the plant and maximum convenience when operating it is selected on the
basis of analyzing all of the investigated versions of the sites. For this purpose
it is necessary to make a careful study of the local conditions and to know the
construction and operating characteristics of nuclear power plants thoroughly as a
function of their specific location.
When selecting the site f or nuclear power plants it is ncessary clearly to represent
- an entire complex of structures forming the nuclear power plant, their functional
purpose and the possibilities of the arrangement of one structure relative to
another. When choosing the site for building a nuclear power plant problems of its
relationship to the outside world during construction and operation must be talcen
into account.
Establishment of the necessity for building a nuclear power plant in a given re-
gion from the condition of an electric power shortage and the plan for the develop-
ment of the power system, determination of the possibility of building the nuclear
power plant beginning with insuring operating safety, satisfaction of the sanitary
norms, meeting the requirements for water to cool the turbour.its, admissibility of
- using the planned construction site in connection with long range plans for building
other enterprises and environmental protection, finding the most economical version
of building the nuclear power plant based on analyzing the entire set of construc-
tion and operating problems these are the large-scale, complicated problems which
face the specialists in charg~e of choosing the site for the nuclear power plant.
Errors in selecting the construction site for a nuclear power plant can lead to cost
overruns of tens of millions of rubles.
The necessity for building a nuclear power plant, just as any new electric power
plant, is established as a function of the plans for development of the national
economy and an increase in the power users in the given area. A predicted shortage
of electric power in an investigated region determines the final power of the elec-
tric power plant and the introduction of the power, correspondingly, by years to
meet the electr;.c power demand [34].
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Z,Then choosing the type of electric power plant, the peculiarities of nuclear power
plants are taken into account. From the point of view of siting, nuclear power
plants have greater mobility than thermal or hydroelectric power plants. They are
not rigidly tied to rivers with high energy potential, such as hydroelectric power
plants, and they do not need a continuous supply of fuel in connection with the
fact that the fuel consumption is comparatively smaller than that of thermal elec-
tric pQwer plants. Thus, for the operation of a modern coal-f ired electric power
plant of 1 million kilowatts it takes about 8000 tons of coal a day. For continuous
operation of such a plant for a year it is necessary to haul in about 60,000 50-ton
cars of coal. For the operation of a nuclear power plant of the same power the
annual uranium fuel requirement is only about 50 tons.
In the power system the nuclear power plants function primarily in the base part of
the load chart. This arises from the peculiarities of the cost structure o~ electric
power generated at a nuclear power plant.
Since at nuclear power plants the fuel component is ~ lower part of the cost of
electric power than at thermoelectric power plants operating on organic fuel, it is
naturally advantageous to insure maximum generation by the nuclear power plant.
The efficiency of the use of the installed capacity of�the power plant is character-
ized by the use coefficient which reflects the operating time of the electric power
plant with maximum possible power for the investigated time interval. The use co-
_ efficient Kuse depends on the quality of the equipment and operation of the power
plant and the loading of the nuclear power plant in the power system:
K = ~R /Q ) 100%, (2-1)
use act poss
where Qact is the actually generated amount of electric power in the investigated
~ time interval (month, quarter, year); 4Poss is the possible amount of electric power
which the plant could put into the system during operation for the entire investi-
gated time interval at 100% of the installed capacity.
One of the possible versions when estimating the possibility of building a nuclear
power plant is insurance of the safety of its operation for the surrounding popula-
tion which is regulated by the radiation safety standards. In the USSR radiation
safety norms are in effect [59] which reflect the recommendations of the Internatio-
nal Co~ittee on Radiation Saf ety (ICRS) an1 the International Atomic Power Agency
(IAPA). According to these norms the maximum admissible releases of radioactive
materials into the atmosphere and open bodies of water are determined beginning with
the fact that irradiation of man caused by the operation of a nuclear power plant
must not differ significantly from the irradiation from the natural radioactive
background.
In connection with large-scale plan s for the development of nuclear power engineer-
ing, the growth of the number and total power of the nuclear power plants it is
necessary continuously to achieve a decrease in radioactive d~scharge into the en-
vironment during normal operation of the nuclear power plant and a reduction in the
probability of such discharges in case of emergency. This is necessary in order
that the total discharge from all nuclear power plants in operation considering the
probability of emergencies will not exceed the limit alloted to the nuclear power
plant in the overall irradiation of the population not leading to harmful
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consequences. It is necessary to limit irradiation of the entire population in every
possible way by decreasing the dosage obtained by individual people and as a result
of limiting the number of people subjected to irradiation.
One of the environmental protection measures, including both territory and popula-
tion to be protected against harmful effects of the operation of nuclear power
plants is the organization of a sanitary safety zone around it.
When choosing the construction site for a nuclear power plant consideration must be
given to the possibility of creating the sanitary safety zone def ined by a circle
the center of which is the vent pipe of the nuclear power plant. At the present
time in the sanitary requirements the size of the sanitary zone has not been delimi-
ted [77]; it is established in each specific case by agreement with the agencies
of the government sanitary inspectorate as a function of the type and power of the
- reactor, the calculated amount of radioactive discharge, climatic, meteorologic,
and topographic conditions in the vicinity of the nuclear power plant site, con-
sidering the proposed (ground level) concentrations of radioactive materials and
gamma radiation caused by the discharge. The annual dosage of irradiation of the
population living in the vicinity of a nuclear power plant must not exceed 0.17 rem
per year.
If the monitoring of the radiation situation during operation of the nuclear power
plant demonstrates that the actual discharge exceeds the calculated discharge, the
dimensions of the sanitary safety zone can be increased.
It is forbidden that the population live in the sanitary safety zone, but buildings
and structures for subsidiary purposes, fire houses, garages, warehouses (except for
produce), dining rooms for the service personnel of the nuclear power plant, and so
on are permitted to be located there. The territory of the sanitary safety zone
can be used for growing agricultural crops and pasturing livestock with the manda-
tory condition of dosimetric monitoring of the territory and the f arm products
; growing there by the external dosimetry service of the nuclear power plant.
- Special attention must be given to investigation of wind conditions in the vicinity
of the con~truction site in order to locate the nuclear power plant downwind from
~ the populated areas.
Beginning.with the possibility of emergency leakage of active fluids preference is
given to sites with deep ground water levels. The highest level of such watEr must
be no less than 1.5 meters below the floor level of the planned underground struc-
tures of the nuclear power plant in which the presence of radioactive fluids is
possible.
When selecting the site for building a nuclear power plant the service water supply
has gxeat significance [22, 60]. A nuclear power plant is a large water user. The
water~consumption of the nuclear power plant is insignificant, and the use of water
is high, tiiat is, basically the water is returned to the water supply source. An
enormous amount of water is required to condense the spent steam of the turbines.
In addition, service water is used to cool other equipment of the nuclear power
plant, to make up wu~er losses from the closed circuits, to provide for the drink-
I ing water needs of the electric power plant personnel and the residents of the
. settlement.
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The expenditures on the water supply of a powerful nuclear power plant are reckoned
in millions of rubles, and all possible versions of the service water supply of a
nuclear power plant must be carefully substantiated technically and economically
when selecting the site. When selecting the water supply system it is necessary
to ma.ke maximum use of natural water areas, strive to limit the construction of
new hydroengineering complexes, long canals and artificial hydroengineering struc-
tures.
~nvironmental protection requirements are imposed on nuclear power plants, just as
on all industrial structures in the construction phase. The use of a large amount
of water at nuclear power plants for service needs leads to the possibility of in-
creased water losses in the water supply sources by comparison with natural condi-
ti~ns. In order to prevent inadmissible lowering of the water level in rivPrs and
reservoirs as a result of irrecoverable losses of water used in the operation of
nuclear power plants to evaporation and leakage into the ground, these losses are
- limited as a function of the specific conditions of the siting of the power plant.
Beginning with these conditions an analysis must be made of the possibility of
building the power plant and defining its final power.
The standards regulate the conditions of intake and discharge of water at nuclear
power plants so as not to exceed the maximum permissible heating of the water in
open bodies of water having national economic signif icance. In order to protect
the plant and animal world, the water temperature in the bodies of water must not
rise by more than 3-5� C depending on the time of year. For observation of this
condition it is necessary that the water consumption in a river exceeds by no less
than threefold the f low rate of discharged cooling water during the calculated
period [67]. At this time a study is being made of the possibility of using heat
= discharged from nuclear power plants for thermal irrigation, the breeding of f ish
and the creation of agroindustrial complexes based on electric power plants.
When choosing the site for construction of a nuclear power plant it is necessary
to be guided by the f ollowing requirements:
The ground set aside to build the nuclear power plant is unsuitable or has low
suitability for agricultural purposes;
The construction site is located on bodies of water and rivers, in coastal regions
which will not be inundated by flood waters (considering the lowest lif t height of
the cooling water);
The soil of the site permits construction of buildings and structures~without
additional expensive measures;
The ground water level is below the depth of occurrence of the basements of build-
ings and underground engineering service lines and no additional expenditures are
required on lowering the water when building the nuclear power plant;
The site has relatively level surface with a slope providing for surface runoff of
the water; the earthwork will be reduced to a minimum in this case.
In the case of a departure from these requirements when comparing the versions of
- the proposed nuclear power plant construction sites a careful technical-economic
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analysis must be made that takes into account additional expenditures caused by
unfavorable conditions of the construction site.
The construction of nuclear power plants is not recommended in seismic zones in
the presence of flooded sof t ground (unstable sandy loams, unstable clayey loams
and clays, ooze and peaty soils, backf ill, and so on). If the necessity for build-
ing the nuclear power plant buildings and structures under these conditions is
substantiated, it is necessary to take additional measures to reinforce the foun-
dations or replace the soft ground. Sites within the boundaries of which or in
the direct pr~ximity to which seismic fractures or faults have occurred should not
be used for building nuclear power plants [74].
As a rule, it is forbidden to build nuclear power plants:
In active karst zones;
In areas with serious (mas~:ive) avalanches and mud flows;
In areas with possible snow avalanches;
In swampy and superwet areas with constant inflow of rising ground water. The
extreme necessity for locating a nuclear power plant in such a region must be con-
firmed by a technical-economic analysis, and the additional expenditures for build-
ing and operating the nuclear power plant with elimination of the nnfavorable con-
ditions must be defined;
In large-scale downwarp zones caused by mining;
' ~
In the primary and secondary belts of the sanitary safety zones of kurorts [health
resorts] and water supply sources;
In sections contaminated with organic and radioactive waste before the expiration
of the times established by the USSR State Sanitary Inspectorate;
In areas of occurrence of minerals without agreement with the Gostortekhnadzor
agencies;
In a possible zone of flooding from rupture of dams located above tne proposed elec-
tric power plant construction site;
- In regions subject to the effect of disastrous phenomena such as tsunami, and so on.
The level of the nuclear power plant site must not be less than 0.5 meters above the
calculated high water level of bodies of water or rivers considering backwater and
slope of the stream and also the wave height and incursion. The highest water level
caculating the probability of repetition once in 10,000 years, that is, with a
calculated guarantee of 0.01%.
2-2. ~ngineering Surveys ~
In order to determine the possibility of building nuclear power plants in planned
areas and for comparison of the versions with respect to geological, topographic and
hydrometeorological conditions in the site selection phase, specific studies are
made with respect to investigated versions of siting the power plant [33, 60].
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The engineering-geological surveys are performed in two steps. In the first step
materials are gathered on previously performed surveys in the investigated region,
and the degree to which the proposed construction site has been studied is deter*~.
mined. In the second step, if necessary, special engineering-geological surveys are
made, boring holes and taking soil samples, and also geological reconnaissance
studies are made of the site. By the results of office processing of the gathered
data and additional studies, an engineering-geological description of the construc-
tion area is obtained which def ines the relief and the geomorphology of the terri-
tory, the stratigraphy, the thickness and lithologic composition of the basement
and Quaternary deposits in the region to a depth of 50-100 meters, the number, the
nature, and the level of occurrence and conditions of propagation of individual
aquifers within the boundaries of the overall depth (for the first aquifer from the
surf ace, it is mandatory to obtain thP annual amplitude of the level fluctuations),
the nature and intensity of the physical-geological processes and phenomena (ava- ~
lanches, karst, erosion, marshiness, gully formation, and so on).
~dhen performing the engineering-geological surveys in the site selection phase in-
formation is gathered on the presence of local building materials workable rock,
sand and gravel pits, quarries and deposi.ts, and other sources of building materials.
In the same period possibilities are determined for using the groundwater for pro-
duction and general services-potable Water.
The cartographic materials and the plan height of the geodetic base of the site are
obtained as a result of the topographic-geodetic surveys. In the f irst phase of
these surveys the available cartographic material on' the proposed nuclear power
plant construction site are gathered and analyzed. The outlines of the site are
planned on the basis of this study, the prof iles of the transverse cross section of
a river valley or water area are compiled, the plants at which the access routes
are adjacent to existing roads and railroads are noted, and possible routes for
electric power transmission lines are defined.
For determination of the sanitary-safety zone data are gathered on the populated
areas and the construction in the vicinity of the proposed nuclear power plant with
application of the number of residents, the number of buildings and types of struc-
tures and also the areas of cultivated ground with indication of the type of crops
and forested areas. The distances to the nearest large population centers are de-
tennined.
In estimating the overall situation in the vicinity of the construction site, 1:
100,000 and 1:50,000 scale maps are used; for more detailed analysis in the site
selection phase, maps are needed with a scale of no less than 1:25,000 or 1:10,000
with horizontals every 2-S meters. In the absence of 1:25,000 scale maps and larger,
the site is surveyed and represented on a 1:25,000 scale with horizontal sections
~ of the relief altitude every 5 meters.
Whei; selecting a nuclear power plant site; hydrologic surveys are made to evaluate
the water reserves, choose the water supply source and the part of the river suit-
able for water intake and for preliminary planning of the water supply system.
_ In the first phase of these operations all of the available published data, the
observation data of the stationary hydrometeorological network, the data on the
water management of the river and the operating conditions of existing hydroengin-
eering structures are gathered and analyzed. In the second phase of the operations,
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aI'ter analyzing tlie bathered data, a program of engineering-tiydrologic investi-
gation is defined, as a result of which the missing data is obtained. From the
hydrologic surveys, a stream description is obtained which contains the following
data: water level characteristics (maximum, minimum, and so on) and information
about ice conditions, the water flow curve, the annual total, the norms, variabil-
ity, the water flows with different guarantees, seasoual (monthly) runoff distri-
bution in years that are characteristic with respect to wa.ter supply, minimum run-
off, maximum (ca~.culated) flow rates of the water, chemical composition of the
water, pollution and other information about water quality.
The meteorological characteristics of the regions are established during the site
selection phase by the data from the existing meteorological stations and official
climatic ref erences.
When selecting a nuclear power plant site, special attention must be given to de-
termining the seismicity and a careful study of seismic activity [39, 43, 44] of the
proposed region in which the nuclear power plant is to built and the microseismic~
ity of the plot directly set aside for siting the power plant. This is especially
important when selecting the building site for the nuclear power plants, for nuclear
power plants are still not being built in regions with seismicity of more than 9.
Tlie requirements with respect.to seismic stability imposed on the structures and
equipment of nuclear power plants are much more rigid than for ordinary responsible
industrial structures.
The seismic activity of the region of construction of nuclear power plants is con-
sidered beginning with four on the Mercalli Cancani scale which was used as the
basis for the system of estimating earthquake activity in our country. The necess-
ity for considering earthquakes beginning with four and not with six as SNiP require
for ordinary structures arises from the increased requirements on preserving the
equipment and the pipelines of the radioactive circuit of the nuclear power plant
and systems insuring radiation safety of the plant.
When determining the calculated seismicity of the nuclear power plant construction
site it is necessary to consider that the seismicity of the region presented on the
seismic regionalization maps is established for sections witl. medium soil conditions
sandy-clayey soils with low groundwater level.
For a specific building site it is necessary more precisely to define the seisiaicity
in accordance with the actual soil conditions by the engineering-geological and
hydrologic survey data. Gravelly,sandy and clayey (macroporous) soils saturated
water and also plastic and unstable argillaceous soils are unsuitable for construc-
tion under seismic conditions, and the calculated seismic rating must be increased
f or them.
The nuclear power plant structures and equipment are designed for the.maximum pos-
sible predictable seismic activity in the given region. In the practice of design-
ing nuclear power plant structures for seismic effects in Japan and the United
States the accelerations in the case of maximum possible earthquakes ar:~ taken twice
as large as for the maximum recorded earthquakes,that is, for e specially responsible
structures of the nuclear power plant the calculated accelerations are doubled as
compared to the calculated forces f rom the seismic effects for ordinary buildings in
the given regi.on.
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In the USSR the possible seismicity of the region with a probability of once every
10,000 years is considered in calculating the seismic effects on the structures in
which the systems guaranteeing radiation safety of the nuclear power plant are lo-
~ cated.
The importance of proper evaluation of the calculated forces from earthquakes
for all of the electric power plant elements without exception is explained by t he
fact that the earthquake has a simultaneous effect on all systems and structures
guaranteeing the safety of the nuclear power plant, and in case of failure
of even one responsible link in this complex, expensive chain the safety of the
nuclear power plant can be v~olated.
2-3. Master Plan
When designing nuclear power plants, just as other large industrial complexes, con-
struction site plans, master plan diagrams and master plans for the industrial
site of the nuclear power plant are created.
In order to obtain the general idea of the power plant construction site, a site plan
is drawn up (Figure 2-1) usually on a 1:10,000 scale on which the location of the
industrial site, the construction base, the housing and other structures are indi.-
cated. The connections of roads and railroads to the government main lines are de-
picted on the plan, and the boundaries or the sanitary zone are plotted.
- In the early phases of the design work in the technical-economic substantiation
and when selecting the building site a general master plan is put together show-
ing the layout of the nuclear power plant structures and their mutual coordination
on the building site, on which the main structures of the nuclear pow~r plant and
their proposed locations are given without plan and altitude coordination. The
master plan diagrams are also made in later design phases, in the contract and de-
tailed design phase, as illustrative, demonstration ma.terial. Examples of master
plan diagrams are presented in Figures 2-2 to 2-6 f or various projects.
- The master plan developed in the contract design phase defines the specific place-
ment of the nuclear powQr plant building structures on the industrial site in plan
with indication of their dimensions also with respect to altitude. On the ma.ster
- plan a11 of the electric power plant structures are tied to the structural net
- (Figure 2-7), that is, the coordinates are indicated for each of them. The struc-
tural net is a provisional orthogonal system of lines forming squa.res with spacing
of 100 meters as a rule. The structural net usually is indicated by the letter B
on the horizontal and the letter A on the vertical.
The master plan drawings are basically executed at 1:1000 sca~e. The following are
indicated on them:
The cooilinate grid in the structureal coordinate system;
The topographic true basis in sections where there are no provisions for organizing
the relief by leveling;
Datum marks, prospecting pits, bore holes and reference symbols of the structural
net;
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Grading and water drainage elements (ba.nks, retaining walls, steps, gutters, catch
basins, and so on);
The buildings and structures, including the service line structures (tunnels,
trestles, galleries), production and storage areas;
Roads and paved areas, passages through the planned territory;
Railroads, transformer tracks, crane tracks;
Open service water supply canals;
Electric power transmission line outlets;
Enclosure of the territory of the industrial site and the sites of individual struc-
tures.
~ .r
f s
4
B~'`~` = 3 7
Z ~ ~ _
6
~a) '
CaH~mapNaR
i
~ ~oNa
� -a~r
. za~
\ i
Figure 2-1. Example site plan of a nuclear power plant. 1-- indus-
trial site; 2-- construction base; 3-- open sw~tch gear; 4-- service
water supply pumping station; 5-- housing; 6-- railroad station;
7-- access road; 8-- drainage canal.
Key: a. decontamination zone
When developing master plans it is necessary to consider the possibility of the
development of the nuclear power plant to its final power, for which areas are pro-
vided for subsequent expansion of the plant and, beginning with this condition, in-
clividual power plaT~r structures are sited in plan. Usually the rules of not build-
ing auxiliary struc~ures in the direction of possible expansion of the rnain facil-
ity are adhere,: to.
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S (a) p.,GyHd~i ' - - -
_ .
\ I
l~ ~
~i� 9
I~~
i
I ~ ~ ,i~
~ii i
~ ~ i~ 17 ~
7 ~ / ~s .
~ 14
� /
' ~ 15
. O ~ `I 8 ~
f. . `_0' .
18 ' i - ~
13 ~ ~ - , 4 ~ 5
~0 ~ ~ I
~
i ~
. ~ 3 ~ ~
~ ?
O ~
_ , .
Figure 2-2. Master plan diagram of the Tulnerfeld nuclear power plant
with BWR (Austria). 1-- reactor section and auxiliary installation
complex; 2-- deactivation facility; 3-- distribution station; 4-- machine
room; 5-- emergency diesel engine building; 6-- water intake structures;
7-- service water pumping station; 8-- spent fuel element holding pool;
9-- water drainage structures; 10 water treatment structure; 11 vent
pipe; 12 workshop; 13 storage area; 14 security; 15 diningroom;
16 administrative building; 17 information buildirg; 18 garages.
Key: a. Danube River
When developing the master plan the proper choice of the routine for road5 and rail-
roads within the industrial site and efficient joining of them to the public right-
aways has great sign~.ficance. It is necessary that eacr. building have convenient
accesses and approaches and at the same time that the areas occupied by the roads
and railroads be mini.mized. The railroad routes must be especially carefully de-
veloped, for the standards of the Ministry of Railways with respect to permissible
grades and turning radii lead to great complications when laying..out the master
plans.
The master plans must be developed in accordance with the iequirements of the con-
struction norms and rules, the sanitary norms with respect to designing nuclear
power plants and the norms for the engineering design of thermoelectric power
plants.
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, ~ �
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Figure 2-3. Master plan diagram of the Surrey nuclear power plant
' with water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors (United States).
1-- reactor envelope; 2-- administration building; 3-- machine
room; 4-- fresh air intake; 5-- transformer for general plant in-
; house needs; 6-- water storage tanks; 7-- fire pumping stations;
i 8-- water intake structures; 9-- reser~e transformers; 10 control
panels; 11 work shop; 12 storage area; 13 laboratories, decon-
~ tamination station; 14 tanks; 15 fresh fuel storag~; 16 special
purification building; 17 fuel oil storage tanks; 18 primary water
storage tanks; 19 drainage canal; 20 automobile parking; 21
~ drainage; 22 condensate tank; 23 sewage settling tank; 24
temporary substation; 25 auxiliary building.
;
Comprehensive reduction of the ground condemned for construction of the nuclear
power plant is the primary goal in the design work. The analysis of the condemned
area of existing nuclear power plants and those under construction indicates that
the greatest proportion goes to the cooling ponds (if a water supply of this type
is used), and then for housing, the construction-installation base and, f inally,
the industrial site of the nuclear power plant.
The best indexPS on the master plan are achieved when designing the nuclear power
plant directly for total power with compact arrangement of the structures in the
relief, maximum blocking of the buildings and structures of the nuclear power plant
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and reduction of aur.iliary structuzes by using outside services, centralized
supply with the required components for operation and maintenance: oxygen, acety-
lene, and so on.
The volume of earthwork performed when grading the industrial site for the nuclear
power plant and organizing access routes must be minimized. If the slope of the
natural. relief of the construction site exceeds 0.03, usually terraci~g of the
power plant site is used. This type of grading is also recommended when locating
nuclear power plants on rocky ground in order to reduce the expensive operations of
moving rock. Economicalness of terracing is estimated with respect to the overall
- complex of operations of building the power plant considering, if necessary, pos-
sible changes in the expenses of operating and maintaining it.
The location of the construction base is indicated on the site plan for the nuclear
power plant construction zone. A construction master plan is developed as part of
the contract design on which the locations of the assembly areas, the production-
auxiliary and administrative and general services buildings of the construction
base, communications and service lines, and so on are indicated.
The set of temporary structures which must be built is determined considering the
possibility of using permanent auxiliary service buildings of the nuclear po~wer
plant during the construction period.
The nuclear power plant complex includes the basic production building structures
and subsidiary production and auxiliary building structures.
't
The basic production buildings and structures include the f ollowing:
The reactor section in which the reactor and its service systems are located;
The machine room in which the turbogenerator, the high and low pressure heater sys-
tems, deaerators, and so on are located;
Electrical year high-rise annexes with control panels, cable distribution inatalla-
tions, and so on;
The special service building which includes the systems for special cleaning of the
radioactive circuit and the liquid and solid radioactive waste storages;
The diesel generator plant where the reliable power plants diesel generators
are installed;
Hydroengi?ieering structures supplying the nuclear power plant with water: pumping
stations, cooling towers, canals, and so on.
The subsidiary production and auxiliary building structures include the following:
The sanitation and general services building in which the sanitation and general
services are located with a special laundry;
Acetylene-generator plant;
Electrolysis;
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- Figure 2-6. Master plan diagram of a nuclear power plant. 1-- main facility; 2--
vent pipe; 3-- open transformer installation; 4-- administrative and general ser-
vices building and dining room; 5-- transformer inspection tower; 6-- oil station;
7-- service water supply pumping station; 8-- supply channel; 9-- delivery basin;
10 water intake structures; 11 discharge channel; 12 combined auxiliary
facility; 13 diesel generator plant; 14 compressor station;~15 nitrogen-
oxygen station; 16 liquid waste storage; 17 wastewater tank; 18 solid waste
storage; 19 gas folding chambers (UPAK); 20 discharge water treatment facility;
21 garage and washing of transport systems; 22 chemical reagents storage;
23 hydrogen receivers; 24 fresh fuel storage; 25 acetylene generator plant;
26 diesel fuel storage; 27 graphite storage; 28 open area with gantry
cranes.
Key: a. phase II site
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Nitrogen-oxygen station;
Material storage, and so on;
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Figure 2-7. Example of gridding the structures on the master plan.
1-- combined auxiliary facility; 2-~ materials storage (shed);
= 3 approach route.
The nuclear power plant structures must be located beginning with the process engi-
neering relation of the auxiliary services to the basic production, placing the
services as close as possible, observation of sanitation, fire safety and other
norms at the same time which establish the minimum allowable distances between the
various production buildings.
In urder to reduce the covered area and the length of the service lines, maximum
blocking of the building structures by functional purpose is u~ed.
An example of the itemized list of some of the structures of nuclear power plants
with the W~R-440 water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors is presented in
Table 2-1.. The itemized list of hydroengineering structures is not included.
The layout of the hydroengineering structures is determined by the selected service
water supply system. The carrying capacity of the service water supply structures
usually is adopted for the total power of the plant considering its possible expan-
sion.
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~
~
; Table 2-1. Descriptions of some of the structures of nuclear poraer
! plants zaith two WER-440 reactors
Structures Covered area, Building
m2 space, m3
i
Ma.in facility: 19,440 627,310
machine room: 9,700 323,865
' above ground section 288,500

~ underground section 35,465
electrical equipment stacks: 3,150 86,470
above ground section 75,930
' underground section 10,540
reactor divisign: 4,950 184,395
above ground section 174,755
underground section 9,640
ventilation center: 1,640 32,580
above ground section 28,400
- underground section 4,180
Special service building: 3,780 42,280
ab~e ground section 36,610
un3erground.section 5,670
Vent pipe
Trestles between the ventilation center, 54 meters
auxiliary facility and vent pipe long
Sanitation-general services and laboratory 1,385 27,895
f acility and crosswalk
above ground section 26,200
underground section 1,695
Nitrogen station 240 1,800
Diesel generator piant 570 6,750
Outdoor transfr,rmer installation 980
Underground tunrels and corridors
Desalinated water tanks, boron solution
and condensate reserve
As an example it is possible to consi:ier the service water supply of the Novovoro-
nezh Nuclear Power Plant at which various water cooling systems were used. It must
be noted that the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant was a type of test area for in-
dustrial testing of pilot power units with water-cooled, water-moderated power
reactors. Three power plants with different main facilities were in practice built
at the Novovoronezh power plant site.
In the f irst two power units with.a total power of:560 megawatts in which eight K-70-
29 turbounits were installed, the through-f low water supply system is used. Pumgs
installed in the pumping station on the banks of the Don River pumped the water
from the Don to the turbine condensers through the pressurized circulating water ~
lines. From the turbine condensers the warm water fZows by gravity through a
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reinforced concrete dischaxge channel that is enclosed in. the power plant area, and
the water is dischazged downstream.
In the third and fourth power units with two WER-440 reactors and four K-220-44
turbounits, the circulating water supply system with cooling towers is used. Seven
cooling towers have been installed for the two power units.
The water that is cooled in the cooling towers is directed through an open canal to
the circulating pumping station from which it is delivered to the turbine conden-
sers. The warm water from the turbine condensers is lifted to the cooli:tg towers.
Flowing down through the louvered slate trickles, the warm water is ~ooled and '
- flows by gravity through an open canal to the circulating pumping station. A closed
circulating cooling system circuit is obtained: cooling towers, canal, circulating
pumps, turbine condensers, cooling towers.
As a result of the enormous flow rates of the water required to cool the turbines,
the dimensions of all of the structures of the service water supply system are sig-
nif icant: the hyperbolic cooling towers are 90 meters high and 90 ~eters in diame-
ter at the bottom; the supply channel is 5 meters deep and 30 meters wide at the
top; for the pressurized circulating water lines, metal pipe u~ to 3 meters in
diameter is used.
For the fif th power unit of the 1000 kilowatt Novovoronezh nuclear power plant with
three K-1000-60 turbounits, a circulating service water supply system with cooling
pond was adopted. Tt~e cooling pond was organized by building earthen dams in the
floo~lplain of the Don. In order not to allow the warm water from the discharge
channel to enter the water intake of the pumping station dii.�ectly, a separating
e~rthen dam was built in the reservoir which lengthens the path of the warm water
and insures that it is mixed with cold water, involving all of the reservoir water
in active cooling.
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~
CHAPTER 3. FLOOR SPACE DESIGNS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT BUILDINGS
3-l. Requirements on the Layouts of the Facilities ~
The goal when designing nuclear power plants is the creation of the most efficient
(optimal) design. For this purpose it is necessary t~ discover functional (pr,ocess),
factors, determine thEir influence on the shaping of all the facilities and build-
ings of the nuclear power plants and also to formalize the design process for use
of computers and modern mathematical methods.
The basic requirements to which the nuclear power plant buildings must correspond
are as follows:
Convenience for performance of the basic technological process for which they are
designed(functional expediency of the building);
_ The reliability under environmental eff ects, strength and service lif e(technical
expediency of the building);
Aesthetics (architectural-artistic expediency);
~ Economicalness, not at the expense of service lif e(economic expediency).
The layout of a nuclear power plant is created by a collective of designers of dif-
fer~ent specialties. The layout of the nuclear power plant is made up of the follow-
ing processes:
1. In the design assignment, the type and power of the nuclear power plant is de-
fined, in accordance with which the basic equipment of the power plant is selected.
2. The overall dimensions of the basic equipment are determined by the plant
studies, and the cells for siting in plan and with respect to altitude are deter-
mined in accordance with the modular spacing for the structural component.
3. The layout of the structures at the nuclear power plant is planned, and approxi-
mate siting of them is done on the master plan.
4. The services tc be placed in each structure and communications between them
are determined, and the dimensions of the facilities for these services are approxi-
mately noted. This is the most responsible period, for the theoretical distribu-
tion of the building volumes determines the effectiveness of the layout. In this
period:
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The process engineers arrange the production equipment in accordance with the selec-
ted flow chart, and they plan the theoretical layouts of the reactor section, ma-
chine room and special water purif ication;
The electricians site the electrotechnical equipment, layout the cables and theore-
tically layout the stack of electrical devices and plan the locations of the cable
flows;
The specialists in monitoring and measuring instruments and process automation site
the monitoring and measuring instrument equipment an3 organize the panels in accord-
ance with the adopted principles of automation, process monitoring aad control;
The specialists in heating and ventilation determine the overall dimension~ of the
facilities and their location for ventilation equipment and air conditioners;
The specialists in physical calculations plan the wall. thickness between the radio-
active circuit facilities which will provide shielding for the power plant personnel
from radioactive radiation;
The specialists in construction determine the design layouts of the structures and
the dimensions of the structural components and the "inside dimensions" of the
facilities respectively;
- The architects trace the ratio of the spaces of individual elements of the build-
ings and the building complex on the site, they determine the volumetric solution
for the nuclear power plant structure; they define the people flows in plan and
with respect to height in accordance with the division into zones and safety en-
gineering rules.
The space planning and structural design of the building are determined first of
all by the inductrial process f or which it is designed.
The form of the building depends on the form of the equipment and also the engineer-
ing requirements connected with the necessity or the possibility of access of
people to the individual units of equipment. The united modular system (YeMS),
standardization and unitization adopted in construction must be observed here.
The dimensions of the building depend on the space occupied by the equipment, the
space required for the service personnel and the space taken up by the biological
shielding; the weight of the shielding will have a signif icant influence on the
structural solution of the building as a whole.
Building Layout Principle. The buildings or blocks of buildings for a given pur-
pose are formed in accordance with the basic functional purpose of the main part of
the fac;tities. For example, the set of facilities that service the reactor of a
nuclear power plant is joined to the reactor section, the set of f acilities that
service the turbines are joined to the machine room.
- The main building of modern nuclear power plant is the main facility in which the
services that provide for generation of the electric power are concentrated.
Usually the main facility consists of the reactor room and machine room, a specia-
lized facility and electrical gear high-rise annex.
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- The equipment directly connected with the operation of the reactor, creating the
necessary conditions for normal operation~ of it, and providing for safety in
emergency situations is installed in the reactor room. All of the equipment of the
primary circuit which operates with radioactive coolant and high pressure is placed
in the reactor room of the power engineering units with the water-cooled, water-
moderated power reactors having a two-circuit system.
The turbogenerator consisting of the turbines, the generator, condensers with con-
densate pumps, high and low pressure recovered hea~ heaters, the steam heater-
separators and the high-speed regulators (BIU) for discharge of steam to the con-
~ densers and to the atmosphere, is placed in the machine room. If provision is
not made for a complete deaeration of the condensate in the turbine condenser,
deaerators are used in the secondary circuit which are installed either in the
machine room or in the electrical equipment annex. The electrotechnical devices,
the areas for the block panel, the safety and specialized water purif ication (SUZ
and SVO) control system panels, the intake ventilation center, cable hookup and
other services are placed in the same annex.
The machine room and the reactor room are connected by the main steam lines and
feed water lines (for the two-circuit systems). Cables to the equipment in the
seactor room and the machine room are laid from the instruments on the control
panels in the control panel areas. Cables and pulse tubing f rom the equipment and
the facilities of the radioactive circuit of the reactor room are laid to the dosi-
metry panel instruments [45, 53J.
The Spetskorpus [special facility] can be designed either in the form of a separate
building or as an annex to the machine room and the reactor room. The primary
; circuit services which can be taken outside the sealed space are ?ocated in the
spetskorpus building. These include the units for purifying the coolant of the
primary circuit, the workshops for repairing radioactive equipment, the storage
areas for storing the fresh and spent fuel, the radioactive waste storage and other
services connected with cleaning the radioactive circuit and storage of radioac-
tive waste.
When laying out the structures of a nuclear power plant it is necessary to insure
optimal conditions for installation, operation, maintenance and repair of the
equipment in accordance with the requirements of the norms and rules and also to
arrange this equipment and the communications among it in the minimum possibte
spaces.
One of the most important technical-economic indices of the space designs of elec-
tric power plants is the specific bulk of the main facility determined by the vol-
ume of the main facility (m3) per kilowatt of installed power of the nuclear power
plant. The smaller the volume of the structures, the greater the efficiency of
the layout, the lower the capital expenditures when building the nuclear power
plants, the cheaper each kilowatt of installed power and the smaller the propor-
tion of the capital component in the cost of one kilowatt-hour of electric power
~enerated by the electric power plant.
Decreasing the volume of the facilities implies a reduction in the following:
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The consumption of materials and means for structural components, especially in
the reactor room where the volume of the massive reinforced concrete shielding ,
walls, floors and ceilings is measured in tens of thousands of cubic m~ters of re-
inforced concrete;
The consumption of lining and f inishing materials, including expensive coatings in
the radioactive circuit areas;
The expenditures on ventilation of the facilities which is especially important for
- the radioactive circuit areas where expensive f ilters are required to clean~the
v air and its cooling system;
The length of the communications between individual groups of equipment at the
nuclear power plants: the high and low pressure lines made of carbon and stainless
steel, the acutely short monitoring-measuring and power cables, the pulse tubes
made of stainless steel for the monitoring and measuring equipment.
- The effort to reduce the volumes of the nuclear power plant facilities and increase
the eff iciency of the layout has led to maximum blocking of the structures.
Whereas the first nuclear power plants were laid out by the principle of each
circuit in its own building, on the modern level a trend is clearly expressed
toward maximum closeness of all systems to each other and maximum blocking of the
main body of basic electric power plant services in one building. At the same
time, when laying out the main facilities an effort is made to creat e a modular
unit which can be repeated without alterations for nuclear power plants of differ-
ent power. For this purpose, the systems and services required fox the operation
of one power unit are placed in one building, and the general planc systems which
depend on the number of power units serviced by them are put in independent build-
ings. This layout principle makes it possible to create a standard power unit i.n
which all equipbent and communication systems between equipment are repeates~ with-
out alterations.
' The possibility of using the general plant systems not for one, but f or two
or several power units, naturally lowers the capital expenditures per kilowatt of
installed power and the operating and maintenance expenditures on generating the
~ electric power. Therefore the version is optimal where the final power of the
nuclear power plant, the type and number of power units are defined from the very
beLinning of construction of the plant. The layout solutions for the main faci-
lity in this case must provide for using general plant systems for the largest
number of power units.
The "startup complex" for which the required set of structures and services are
installed providing for the possibility of startup under normal operation of the
given p~:~er units before completion of the building of the entire pawer plant,
is determined f or each power unit.
If f urther expansion of the nuclear power pZant is plamied, this must be taken
into account when laying out the main facility, providing for the installation of
temporary ends and the possibility of communications between the power units under ~
construction and future ones.
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,
The layout of the nuclear power plant structures must correspond to the creation
of safe and convenient working conditions for the service personnel in accordance
with the requirements of the construction norms and rules SNiP II-M.2-72, SNiP II-
A.5-70, SNiP II-A.4-62, the process designed norms [60], sanitary norms and rulee
[76, 77], and rules for electrical installations [68].
Sanitary Requirements on the Layout of the Structures. The layout of nuclear power-
plant structures ::onnected with the operation of the radioactive circuit equipment �
must exclude the possibility of harmful effects of radioactivity on personnel that
service the nuclear power plant, the environment and the population living in the
vicinity of the electric power plant.
The nuclear power plant facilities must be laid out beginning with the differentia-
ted approach to the irradiation level. The norms NRB-69 [59] establi~hed three
categories of irradiated people: category A-- the person~el (profe~sional
workers), people who work directly with the radiation sources or can be subjected
to irradiation by the nature of their work; category B-- individual people from
the population, the contingent living near the nuclear power plant; category C--
the population as a whole.
Among the personnel (category A), two groups are isolated: category A(a) ~ �
people whose working conditions are such tha~ the irradiation dosescan exceed
0.3 of the annual MPD [maximum permissible dosage]; category A(b) people whose
working conditions are such that the irradiation doses cannot exceed 0.3 of the
annual MPD.
In connection with what has been indicated, all of the nucl~ar power plant terri-
tory, facilities and spaces must be divided into three zones [59]: monitored,
- sanitary-protected and observed.
The monitored zone includes the volumes, facilities and buildings or territory of
, the enterprise, organizations,laboratories, storage where it is possible to obtain
; more than 0.3 of the annual aosage permissible f or the personnel (category A).
' In the monitored zone there is ~andatory individual dosimetric monitoring.
The sanitary-protected zone is the territory around the enteiprise in ~ahich it is
forbidden to locate housing, children's institutions and aleo industrial and
auxiliary installations not belonging to the enterprise for which the sanitary-
protected zone has been established. The radiation situation must be monitored
in the sanitary-protection zone.
' The observed zone is the territory where the irradiation doses of the population
living there can exceed the established limits. The radiation situation is moni-
tored in the observed zone. The use of the land in this zone for agricultural
purposes is limited.
Beginning with the indicated requirements, all of the production facilities of the
nuclear power plant must be divided into two znnes:
The monitored strict conditions ("dirty") zone in which the personnel working with
the equipment c~ the radioactive circuit can come under the influence of radiation-
~ harmful factors such as external radioactive radiation, pollution of the air in
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the facilities with radioactive gases and aerosols, contamination of surfaces with
radioactive materials;
The unlimited free conditions ("clean") zone in which the effect of any radiation
factors on the personnel is completely excluded.
Direct access between these zones is not permitted and must be realized only '
through a decontamination station. Complete change of clothes by the personnel is
required.
Inside the zones, the facilities are laid out beginning with the requirements of
the production process.
The strict conditions zone, in turn, must be broken down into three groups:
Unmanned f acilities which the presence of people is forbidden when the reactor is
in operation;
Semimanned facilities in which the periodic presence of people during operation
of the reactor is possible for a time in which the total irradiation dosage re-
ceived by the personnel wi11 not exceed the permissible level [59];
Manned facilities where provision is made for the presence of personn~? a;.;cing the
entire shift.
The repair and rebuilding of equipment in the unmanned facilities are accomplished
with the reactor shut down. Personnel are allowed to pass from the semimanned
facilities to the unmanned facilities (with the reactor not operating) through de-
contamination locks. When per~odic visits to the unmanned facilities are required,
stationary decontamination locks are installed; for unplanned visits, portable de-
- contamination l~cks can be used.
When laying out the main facility, the operator and panel facilities (the modular
control panels, the dosimetric monitoring panels, and so on) where constant pre-
sence of personnel is required must be placed in the free conditions zone.
, Requirements on the Siting of Production Equipment. All of the equipment and lines
in the main facility must be ~.aid out so that when the reactor is not operating it
was possible to examine and test both welded joints and the basic material of the
equipment and lines, quickly replace and repair their basic subassemblies.
For the possibility of dismantling and installing the largest repairable pieces of
equipment or bringing in fuel containers, provision musC be made in the reactor
room for a hatch located above the transport routes (road or railroad).
For installing large equipment that cannot be dismantled, a temporary installation
opening is provided in the structural components of the reactor room.
Requirements on the Systems f~x Localizing Reactor Room Equipment Emergencies. The
concentration of the equipment Qf the primary circuit in one space permits
eff icient provision of a seal in the case of an emergency (even in the case of a
large scale emergency rupture of a pipe of maximum diameter), and it prevents
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discharge of radioactive materials, outside the reactor room into the environment.
Complete l.ocalization of radioactivity when there is a break in the seal of the
radioactive ci~cuit is achieved by closing the high-speed f ittings on the service
lines running through the wa11s of the sealed facilities. The high-speed fittings
are installed in~ide the sealed facility and must be protected from damage in
the case of a possible rupture of the primary circuit, for example, by a shielding
wall.
In order to perf orm the materials handling operaLions during operation of the nu-
clear power plant the following are provided:
As a rule one bridge crane is installed in the reactor room, the capacity of which
- is determined by the conditions of installation and dismantling of the heaviest
element (the reactor vessel or the separator housing, and so on). The crane is
controlled and guided rem~tely from portable and permanent, enclosed panels;
The auxiliary equipment located in the reactor room is ldid out considering the
possibility of servicing it by the main reactor room crane (special installation
and repair areas are not provided in the reactor room);
The reactor room is equipped with freight and passenger elevators;
Bridge electric cranes (usually two) are installed in the machine room, the capa-
city of which is determined, as a rule, from the condition of lifting the generator
stator;
, In the machine room provision is made for installation and repair areas, the equip-
ment for which is brought in by rail or motor transportation. In the machine room
it is necessary to have no less than two entrances wliich provide for transporting
equipm~nt to the operating and expanded parts of the nuclear power plant;
Auxiliary equipment located in the machine room is laid out beginning with the pos-
sibility of servicing it by the main cranes in this room. In the case of placement
' of the auxiliary equipment outside the range of the main cranes, the corresponding
lifting devices are used to service and repair it: overhead-track hoists, hoists
or winches. ~
Requirements on Structural Components. When laying out the structures of nuclear
power plants it is necessary t~ observe unitization and standardization of the
buildings and structures adopted in the SNiP II-M.2-72 for production enterprises.
For the possibility of using standardized elements of the coverings, floors and
ceilings, the dimensions of the bays of the nuclear power plant buildings must be
taken as multiples of three meters; the column spacing of the frames of the build-
ings must be 6 or 12 meters.
The height of single-story buildings to the bottom of the supporting structures of
the roofs and the heights of the floors of multistory production buildings at
nuclear power plants determined by the process requirements must be taken as
multiples of 0.6 meters. Deviation from this rule is permitted when laying out
the facilities and the structural elements of the underground part of the buildings
and structures.
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The inside dimensions of the facilities of the radioactive circuit must be multiples
of 100 mm.
The layout axes of the buildings and structures (tying of the walls to the layout axes
and also the height o.f individual parts of the buildings and structures) must be
designated in accordance with the SNiP II-A.4-62.
Requirements on the Layout of the Facilities in the Electrical Section. When lay-
ing out the main facility, the electrical section of the nuclear power plant (the
distribution circuits, control panels, storage batteries, cable halfstories, and
so on) must be designed considering the requirements of the Rules for Designing
Electrical Installations [68].
The facilities f or the distribution stations located within the main building are
made without windows, with artificial lighting, and they must be reliably protec-
ted from moisture and dust.
When laying out the machine room it is necessary to provide for the possibility of
assembly and repair of transformers in it using bridge cranes. For this purpose,
an installation area must be provided in the machine room on which it is possible
to roll the transformers from the transformer area beyond row A during repairs.
The dimensions of tlte area assigned for the central control panel of the nuclear
power plant are taken beginning with the total power of the electric power plant.
This facility must have no less than two exits (with a floor space of more than
200 m2). The construction of one of the exits on the fire ladder landing is per-
mitted.
The release of hydrogen and formation of explosive mixtures are nossible in the
storage battery facilities; therefore it is necesary to provide for entry in these
facilities through a vestibule with two doors. The floors and ceilings of the
battery room must be strictly horizontal and smooth. When using ~.rge-panel deck-
ing, holes are made in its ribs for free passage of air to the exhausL units in
order to avoid accumulation of the explosive battery mixture in the fac~.lity.
Fire Safety Requirements. The layout of the nuclear power plant structures must
be designed considering the possibility of safe evacuation of personnel through
the evacuation exits in case of fire. In accordance with SNiP II-A.5-70 the
exits are considered to be evacuation exits if they lead from the f irst floor
areas directly outside or through a corridor, vestibule or stairwell; from the
areas on any floor except the f irst, to a corridor or passage leading to a
stairwell or directly to a stairwell having independent exit outside or through
a vestibule; from one f acility to adjacent ones on the same f loor are provided
with exits indicated in the preceding items.
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The width of the evacuation doora must be no lesa than S00 mm, the height of the
doors and passageways to the evacuation routes, no less tha.n 2 meters. For the
evacuation corridors from basement floors this height can be decreased to 1.9 me-
ters, and for entrances to attics, to 1.5 meters. There must be no less than
two evacuation exits f rom buildings. The evacuation exits must be located
separately.
For facilities which are inside the building on any floor, it is permissible to
design one door leading to the evacuation exits if the production is in category D
and E1 with respect to fire hazard, no more than 50 people work in the facility,
and the area of the facility does not exceed 600 m2.
From facilities with production in category E with a floor space of no more than
300 m2 and no more than 5 people working per shift (on any floor except the f irst)
one evacuation exit is permissible, which can be organized through the door to a
steel Stair with a slope of no more than 1:1 and width of no less than 700 mm. The
enclosing structures of the stairs must be incombustible.
The fire safety measures must be taken into account when designing the cable lay-
- outs of nuc~lear power plants. The cable corridors and shaf ts are separated from
other facilities by fire safety partitions. The tunnels and corridors are divided
into compartments by partitions with self-closing fireproof doors. The passage of
electric cables through the walls and the ceilings of cable half-stories, control
panel facilities, cable tunnels, corridors, and so on is realized in metal tubes
with reliable seal of the holes with easily packed incombustible material.
In the cable tunnels and halfstories provision is made for automatic firefighting
equipment foam extinguishers.
3-2. Nuclear Power Plants with Vessel Type Reactors
The layout and the space planning designs of the principal structure of a nuclear
, power plant with vessel type water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors can be
considered in the example of t:ie Novovoronezh nuclear power plant. This electric
power plant is the first high-power nuclear power plant in our country. It is being
built in phases. Three phases have already been built, and the power of the four-
power units has reached almost 1500 megawatts. The fifth power unit with a 1000
megawatt reactor is being built, and with its introduction the nuclear power plant
will become one of the most powerful (2.5 million kilowatts) nuclear power plants
in the world [84].
During the design and construction of the individual phases of the ~Tovovoronezh
nuclear power plant, the layouts of the principal structure have changed. In the
example of the design and construction of the phases of the Novovoronezh nuclear
power plant it is possible to trace the trends and the development of the nuclear
power plants with water-cooled, water-moderated power reactors in our country and
the variation of their layouts, respectively.
lAll production fa~.~lities are divided into five ca.tegories with respect to fire
hazard: A, B, C, D and E. In categories A, B and C are production facilities
- connected with handling combustible substances and materials, and categories D and
E are incombustibles.
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First and Second Pl?ases oL the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant
In the building of the principal struc.ture of the nuclear power plant, the machine
room, the deaerator stock, the reactor room with exhaust ventilation center and the
spetskorpus [specialized facility] has been modulari2ed. The layout of the prin-
cipal structure is analogous to the layout of the principal structures of thermal
eiectric power plants (Figures 3-1 and 3-2).
The flow chart of the first phase of the NovovoroneLh nuclear pc~wer plant includes
the WER-210 reactor, six circulating loops consisting of the steam generator, the
main circulating pump, the main circulating lines on which two main slide valves
are installed to disconnect any loop from the reactor in case of emergency. Six
steam generators produce dry saturated steam with a pressure of 33 MPa and moisture
to 0.5%, which goes through the main steam lines and three AK-70 turbo-units with
a unit power of 70 megawatts.
~ 33, 0 -
5
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. ' B 17, D
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: ;
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~ ~
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- 3 6
36000 9r~000 31000 � � 0 D '
90000
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Figure 3-1. Transverse section of the principal structure of the f irst
phase of the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant. 1-- reactor pit; 2--
fuel recharging basin; 3-- transport corridor; 4-- spent fuel holding
basin; 5-- bridge crane; 6-- foundation under the turbo-unit; 7--
electrical equipment facil~ties; 8-- deaerator installation facilities.
Each loop of the primary circuit is placad in a separate rectangular box made of re-
inforced concerete providing biological shielding and taking an emergency pressure
of 0.3 MYa. There are six such boxes with respect to the number of main circu-
lating l~~ps. This layout was adopted from the condition of repairing each loop ~
- without shutting down the reactor.
The second phase of the nuclear power plant with a reactor of 365 megawatts and five
turbounits of 75 megawatts each has a mare powerful reactor by comparison with the
first phase; the modular consolidation of the f irst module is represented by the
remaining parameters.
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~ I oyepede (a) Il ovepeeb (a) .
lr1�oo 5
E~ ~
- H.o ~ ao ~ ao z , Z ~
a ao ~ oa ~ 6 .
~ N ~0 Z Z
o� . a
� 4 4
G~ .
3 3
. "o
�o
h ~ ,
A
v 1OZ000 � 150000 '
~ , � 18 ~S ~
- Figure 3-2. Plan view of the principal structure of the first and second
phases of the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant. 1-- reactor; 2- steam
generator; 3-- turbo-units; 4-- electrical equipment stack; 5-- spent
fuel holding basin; 6-- special water purification.
Key: a. phase
Third Phase of the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant
Two iden*_ical power units with WER-440 reactors are installed in the principal
structure in the third phase of the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant (F~gure 3-3).
The equipment of the primary circuit of each power unit includes the WEP�.-440 re-
actor and six circulating loops, each of which includes a steam generator, a main
circulating pump, circulating lines 550 mm in diameter and the main slide valves
(onefor the hot and cold lines of the loop). In the secondary circuit with one
power unit two turbounits of 220 megawatts each are installea. The reactor room
is equipped with a crane set up common to the two power units; many of the auxiliary
systems and equipment are also designed for the two power units.
All six circulating loops are place d in one common box having a special f acility, ,
the so-called deck, from which during operation of the power unit it is possible to
inspect and monitor the condition of the electric motors of the main circulat3.ng
pumps, the main slide valves and their auxiliary equipment. The electric motors ar^
placed on the deck and separated from the unmanned f acility the steam generator
box.
By comparison with the first two phases, the third phase of the nuclear power plant
includes significant alterations. �
. The principal structure of the third phase combines the machine room and the reac-
tor room, the electrical equipment stack and the exhaust ventilation center in one
building. In plan view the principal structure is two rectangles joined by the long
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sides, symmetrically arranged with respect to the transverse axis (Figure 3-4).
When designing the layout of the main facility of the third phase (Figures 3-5, 3-
6) an effort was made to do away with the traditional space design of the main
facilities of the thermoelectric power plants. The electrical equipment annexes
made in the form of glassed buildings are adjacent on one level with the exhaust
ventilation center stack around the rectangular, dead space of the reactor room.
The liff erence in height of these spaces emphasized by the vertical pull rods on
outside faces of the reactor room walls, isolates its space as predominant, corre-
sponding to its functioal signif icance. This relation of the spaces is intensif ied
by the flat roofs of the stacks, the reactor room and the machine room.
The reactor room is made up of the following basic units. Around the reactor pit
the facilities are located where the equipment belonging to each power unit is
placed the recharging and spent fuel holding basins with cooling circuit, the
steam generator and main circulatino pump boxes, the systems for makeup of the
primary circuit, compensation for blow down of the steam generators, the sensors
of the monitoring and measuring instruments and the intermediate cooling system cir-
cuits. With respect to height, this equipment occupies the space from the floor-
ceiling after the 10.5 meter level to the foundation plate. Between the two
power units (in plan view) the general station equipment is located consisting of
the units for purifying contaminated water, the local panel of the reactor room,
the repair workshops of the primary circuit, the transport railroad corridor, the
fresh fuel assembly, the column pipe service corridor, and the storage facilities
for the activated equipment and washing the large equipment.
The reactor is installed in a reinforced concrete shielding pit, in the upper
part of which annular cable service corridors have been provided. Around the reac-
tor in a single box 42 x 39 meters in size are six circulating loops of the power
unit. The electric mot~,:s, the auxiliary circuits of the pumps and their equip-
ment are in a senarate facility above the main ci.rculating loops.
The level of installation of the steam generator was determined from the condition
of creating natural circulation required to remove residual heat released during
shutdown cooling of the reactor.
The entrances to the pump and steam generator boxes were provided from the exhaust
ventilation center corridor, from the intermediate circuit facility of the main
circulating pumps through the vestibule of the valve chamber of the expansion tanks.
The trestles between the main facility and the spetskorpus [specialized facility] is
adjacent to the central part of the reactor room. The pipelines for hydraulic dis-
charge of the ion-exchange f-ilters are routed in the "dirty" pipe service corridor;
the corridor is also used for transporting the dry waste raised from the spent filters
of the Gpecial ventilation units to storage. In addition, the communications be-
tween the primary facility and spetskorpus are maintained through an underground
through pipe tunnel. The facilities of the primary circuit where the equipment is .
placed are laid out in a single sealed space, and they communicate with each other
througt~ openings. These facilities are designed for emergency pressure of 0.2 MPa�
TWO doors are installed at the entrance to the sealed facilities of the primary
circuit: shielding, located on the sealed facility side and designed for a pressure
of 0.2 MPa, and light sealed, designed for rarefaction to 5 Pa. The space between
these doors is connected to the exhaust ventilation.
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s ~ .L . . .
^r'f. _:Y:l _ ~.i ~:.y., _ lp~~ ';i*~;,;�.�;: .
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` ':,s _ ~ : � : : : ~ ' ' � . ir! . � ~i= . ~,b 1�.
4~.' . � jf.i'..-�r...~ ' ..ti~ ..ii7� .._i''ti
:r`.'r:~.::r;:if:~3~~
.y ~~�*t~.,:' . :irl ^ ~s rY ~t'_: ~ . . : . �
- Figure 3-3. General view of the third phase of the Novovoronezh nuclear
power plant. 1-- reactor room; 2-- machine room; 3-- electrical
equipment annex; 4-- ventilation center; 5-- auxiliary spetskorpus;
6-- vent pipe; 7-- sanitation and general services building; 8--
administrative building; 9-�� service water supply pumping station.
~ ~ 1Z00 ~ l 126000 11000
~
~ o ~
a J ~ J
h
6 $ . i
A ^
~ p' 6000�fJ~251000
Figure 3-4. Layout of the areas of the main facility of the third
stage of the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant. 1-- reactor room;
2-- ventilation center; 3-- transverse electrical equipment stack;
4-- longitudinal electrical equipment stack; 5-- machine room.
- The entrance to the facility for servicing the main circulating pumps and the emer-
gency exit from it are realized throughsealed locks which have two doors each de-
signed for a pressiS*-? of 0.2 MPa each. The door openings are 900 mm and 600 mm
wide for the possibility of transporting equipment and passage of personnel, re-
specively. Thc: height of the doors, as a rule, is 1600 mm, and in individual cases
where it is permissible by the operating conditions, 1200 mm. The sealed shielding
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_ ~6 ' .
. 8 4
L- . ~
9 ~ ,
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S , i'O'S 11,8 i i
10
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7 ~ ~I:~~' ~ p'~'
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qQ
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11 : ~ t. �
.:r: �:e:.
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�
. i .
Y~ ?
. � i.. . .~.'r:
' J9000 1Z000 39000 12000
U . ~
Figure 3-5. Transverse section of the main f acility of the third phase
of the idovovoronezh nuclear power plant. 1-- reactor; 2-- steam gene-
rator; 3-- main circulating pump; 4-- main circulating slide valve;
5-- turbo-unit; 6-- deaerator; 7-- fuel recharging pool; 8-- intake
ventilation center; 9-- pipe corridor; 10 panel facilities; 11
cable halfstory; 12 distribution station facility; 13 exYtaust
ventilation center.
~ 4 4
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N
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$ ~~S ~ i 3 -
3 ~ 1~�'�
. Q ~ ~ ~
00
O 6 ~ 6
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,s. v~ r~ .
'
' � , 7 .
O ' . . .
~'1
' 66000 ~ 60000
~ 660CD 60000
(72, ~~2)
Figure 3-6. Plan view of the main facilit5� of the third phase of the
Novovoronezh nuclear power plant. 1-- reactor; 2-- steam generator
box; 3-- facility for the modular control panel; 4-- exhaust ventila~ion
center; 5-- transport corridor; 6-- distribution station facilities;
7 turbounit.
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doors and also the factory-delivered hatches jointly with the fittings are subjected
to hydraulic testing at the factory.
Four 220 megawatt turbounits are located in the machine room. The machine room is
252 meters long: 42 spans of 6 meters each. The turbounits are installed two for
each power unit, one pair mi~roring the other. This installation of the turbo-
unit was selected to reduce and simplify the basic steam line routes.
The service level of the turbounits is 9.6 meters; the deaerator tanks are installed
- at the same level and in row B. The width and length of the machine room is deter-
mined by the dimensions of the turbounit ce]1$;and their orientation in the longitu-
dinal or transverse direction.
The performed technical-economic comparison demonstrated that the versions of arran-
gement of the turbounits are in practice ditferent. The version with longitudinal
arrangement of the turbounits is insignificantly more economical asax~sult of de-
creasing the routes of the circulating waterlines and reducing the cost of the
crane as a result of smaller dimensions of it. The practice of building electric
power plants permits the conclusion to be drawn that with an increase in power of
the turbounits, their transverse arrangement is more efficient.
In the machine room of the third phase of the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant the
turbounits are installed in the longitudinal direction which naturally has led to a
decrease in the span of the machine room from 51 meters (with transverse arrangement
of the turbounits) to 39 meters with simultaneous increase in length.
The entrance to the machine room is realized through a transverse railroad track
laid through the reactor room between axes 22-23. In addition, for repair of the
; transformers an entrance has been provided from the permanent end of the machine
room witt-~ coordination of the axis of the railroad track at a distance of 12.8 me-
ters to row A.
The erection sites in the machine room are located along the transverse railroad
track between the power units and at the permanent end.
The electrical equipment stacks have a span of 12 meters an~ are arranged as fol-
lows: longitudinal on axes 10-35 between the tnachine room and the reactor room, and
the transverse ones are ad~acenC to the ends of the reactor room.
The exhaust ventilation center with a span of 12 meters servicing the reactor room
is located along it between rows D and E. The floors of the ventilation center have
the following elevations: -1.8, +0.0, +2.7, +6.3, and +10.5 meters.
The fans of the recirculation systems in the concrete shielding, air coolers and
valves of the recirculation system installed in concrete niches covered by sealed
- hatch covers, aerosol and iodide filters, the intake plenums of the exhaust units,
the valves and gates (for the aerosol f ilters concrete shi:lded cells are provided)
and also the e~uipment and the collecting box for the removed air of the reactor
room are located in the ventilation center. Levels -1.8 meters ~.~d +0.0 are ser-
viced by monorails. -
The spent aerosol filters are transported in a shielded container which is moved to
the dry waste storage located in the spetskorpus by a battery-operated truck.
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~
The combined spetskorpus of the third phase of the Novovoronezh nuclear power plant
is an independent building in wiiich.the special water purif ication systems and the
liquid and dry waste storage are located.
- The special water purification (SVO) building is multistory with a basement; it is
78 meters long (13 spans of 6 meters each) and 18 meters wide. .
Stairwells are placed at the ends of the building. The entrances to all facilities
are from corridors connecting the stairwells. Motor vehicle entrance is provided to
the corridor located at the 0.0 level on. the principal facility side. Part.of this
corridor is used to wash the motor vehicles to remove radio-active contamination.
The assembly room serviced by a ten-ton bridge crane is located at the 7.2 meter
level; the crane track is at the 18.0 meter level.
The service personnel get into the special water purif ication building from the
sanitation and general services building, going through the corridor at the 6.3
meter level in the exhaust ventilation center of the reactor room and then over the
trestle between the principal facility and the spetskorpus. Using the monorail with
a 5 ton electric hoist, the containers with solid radio-active waste are transported
on the same trestle from th. prima.ry facility to the dry waste storage.
Thus, the special water purification building is included in the "dirty" zone com-
plex to which access is prohibited except through the decontamination station.
- The liquid waste storage, which has dimensions of 33 x 44 meters in p~an view and
-3.6 and 0.0 meter levels, is adjacent to the special water purification building
and is connected to it by a pipe corridor and service corridor at the 0.0 meter
level.
Transport Communication and Evacuation Exits. The transverse railroad intersects the
machine room an~ the reactor room, that is, it runs through the "dirty" and "clean"
zones; therefore Lhe gates at the exit from the reactor room are closed during nor-
mal operation of the nuclear power plant.
The reactor room which is common to the two power units is serviced by two electric
bridge cranes of 250/30 and 30/5 ton capacity. The highest crane capacity is
selected f rom the condition of lif ting the reactor vessel during installation.of it.
The level of the track for this crane is 28.~ meters. It is designed to transport
heavy equipment and subassemblies and also for equipment installation. The c~rane is
remote controlled. For handling radioactive loads the crane is equipped with a re-
- mote guidance system by means of which, by assignment of the operator it can service
points for which the coordinates have been selected in advance with an accuracy of
+10 mm.
In the automatic operating mode the crane is controlled from the central panel lo-
cated at L;ie 14.7 meter level of the reactor room through a special opening into
the reactor room. The control of the crane during operation s not connec-
ted with coordinate guidance is from two auxiliary panels located directly at each
reactor at the 10.6 meter level.
The 30/5 ton crane of the reactor ruom is designed to transport loads weighing up to
30 tons. Its track is at the 22.5 meter level. The speed af transporting Ioads by
this crane is higher than by the 250 ton crane. The operation of the two cranes
~ provides all of the required load lif ting and transporting operations in tt:e reactor
room.
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The machine room is servi,ced by two electric bridge cranes of 125/20 tons each.
The crane track is at the 17.5 meter level. The load lifting capacity of the crane
is calculated from the condition of lifting the generator stator by the two cranes,
using a crossarm. ~
The service personnel get into the strict conditions zone through a crosswalk from
the sanitation and general services and the laboratory building located on the per-
ma.nent end of the reactor room. The bridge is two-story, the lower story is de~
signed for passage to the free-conditions zone, and the upper story, for passage to
- the strict conditions zone.
The entrance and exit from the strict conditions facilities are realized through the
decontamination station located in the sanitation and general services building.
The dosimetric monitoring of the personnel entering and leaving the area is realized
from the work areas of the duty dosimetric specialist located at the entrance to
the decontamination station.
If it is necessary to perform repair work in the facilities with increased radio
activity, a portable decontamination lock is installed at the dooa of such a facility for
washing the film clothing and overalls of the service personnel.
In the facilities in the strict conditions zone four stairways are provided: two
basic three abreast with passenger elevators located in the exhaust ventilation cen-
ter with emergency exits to the street at the 0.0 meter level and two emergency two
abreast located in the reactor room and row C on both sides of the railroad tirack
with exit to the railroad corridor. The necessity for locating the stairs on two
sides arises from the fact that the :ransverse railroad entrance to the reactor room
breaks the service lines. The emergency exits from the stairs to the street and to
the railroad corridor from the strict conditions zone during normal operation of the
electric power plant are closed and sealed.
Two three-ton f reight elevators and two 100 kg freight elevators are provided for
bringing equipment up in the reactor room.
The floors of the machine room and the longitudinal electrical equipment stacks at
levels -3.6 to +9.6 meters are ~oined by two stairways with 350-kg passenger ele-
vators. The exit to the street from these stairways is provided at level 0.0 meters.
The stairway located on the per~nanent end of the principal facility communicates
through a corridor with i~he "clean" level of the crosswalk to the sanitation and
domestic services building. The levels of the longitudinal electrical equipment
annex at heights from 14.7 to 21.9 meters are serviced by their own two abreast
stairways with 350 kv passenger elevators.
Localiz