JPRS ID: 9689 USSR REPORT SPACE

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JPRS L/9689
27 April 1981
USSR Report
- SPACE
(FOUO 2/81)
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JPRS L/9689
27 April 1981
USSR REPORT
SPACE
(FOU4 2/81)
CONTENTS
rfANNED MISSION HIGHLIGHTS
Comparison of Soyuz-T and U. S. Shuttle 1
French Commentator Speculates on Final Phase of 'Salytit 6'
Flight 5
ZNTERPLANETARY SCIENCES
Monograph on Interplanetary Flights 10
Ra.dar Observations of Mars, Venus and Mercury on the 39-CM
Wavelength in 1980 13
LIFE SCIENCES Preliminary Results af Medical Studies Conducted During Manned
,Flights of the 'Salyut-6' Program 19
SPACF. ENGINFERING
- Astroorientation Methods and Instrur-:..;:aLIon Examined 42
Calculating Spacecraft Heat Exchange .................o..........,.. 46
- Theor.etical Principles of Developing Spacecraft 50
Some Problems of. Assembling and Servicing Objects in Space......... 52
SPACE APPLICATIONS
On the i'ossibility of the Remote Optical Registration of the
Parameters of Internal Waves on the Basis of Their
Manifestations on the Ocean Surface 58
- a - [ITI - USSR M 21L S&T FOUO]
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Thermal Aerial Surveying in the Study of Na~liral Resources......... 67
SPACE POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION
French Commentator Views Soviet Space Program 72
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MANNED MISSION HIGHLIGHTS
COMPp_RISON OF SOYUZ-T AND U. S. SHUTTLE
Paris AIR & COSMOS in French No 841, 3 Jan 81 pp 38-39
[Article by Albert Ducrocq: "Soviet Shuttle"]
[Text] The Soviets do have a space shuttle. It is the Soyuz T, as we had occasion
- to mention in an earlier article. The year 1980 marked a ma3or step forward in its
development with its first two manned flights. This spacecraft is expected to
be used more frequently in 1981 at a rate consistent with the adjustment and refine-
ment effort required with all new equipment. The Soviets have, however, very pru-
dently decided to keep the regular Soyuz in service for still some time to come.
The basic version is much less efficient than the Soyuz T, but Soviet technicians
are admirably familiar with it, having worked with it for more than 13 years,
whereas they have just barely started to familiarize themselves with the Soyuz T.
. Hence it is our opinion that we are now witn'essing the very gradual replacement
of one by the other.
Such being the case, there is no doubt that the Soyuz T is the Soviet space veni-
cle of the decade. And the fact of calling it a shuttle does not reflect a lin-
guistic contrivance. This spacecraft does actually meet all the criteria required
of a stzuttle. For the Russians, it is an answer to the American space shuttle
orbiter, or at least a different solution applied to the same basic problem which
faced scientists of the two space superpowers, namely how to build a vehicle that
can travel regularly between earth and near space as inexpensively as possible and
with equipment as reliable and as fl2xible as modern aircraft.
Two Sizes
The major difference between the American and Soviet solutions clearly has to do
with the size of the veh icle. The Soyuz T weighs only about 6.5 tonsc versus the
orbiter's 98 tons. As a result the scale is not at all the same, and this because
of a fundamentally different approach by both sides.
a. The Americans have na space station in arbit at the present time. They will
not have one for some number of years. In any case, whenever they do decide to
build one, they will build it in space with the help of the.shuttle which is
viewed as the spearhead of their space travel effort. During the next few years,
the space shuttle will serve as a transport, space residence, as we11 as an
orbital laboratory.
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_ b. The Soviets took the opposite approach. Since 1971, they have been regularly
placing a number of Salyut stations in orbit. The Soviet shuttle has the mission
of servicing and supplying these stations under operational conditions. The Soviets
have thus adopted the principle of using spaceeraft specifically designed to trans-
port men and supplies with maximum cost-effectiveness. They point out thaC with
Soyuz T, the cost of placing a cosmonaut into orbit is scarcely more than the cost
of placing 2 tons into low earth orbit, namely about $20,000, whereas with the
American system, some 14 tons costing $140,000 are necessary-per astronaut. This
expenditure is justified when you consider that with__ their astronaut, the Americans
simultaneously launch the equfpment that wi11 Enable him to live in space. This
expenditure would no longer be warranted if the orbiter was viewed as a means of
transporting men,to a structure already in space. In that case, the orbiter could
transport 10 men, but this would still bring the cost up to some $100,000 per man.
This difference in size is what was responsible for the dissimilarity of aspect
between rhe Soyuz and the orbiter. When the vehiele's weight is but a few tons,
rapid passage through Che dense layers of the atmosphere is possible with a thick-
~ walled compact spacecraft whose outer surface will withstand very high temperatures.
- Such is the reentry method used by the Soyuz spaeecraft. It cannot be employed
when the vehicle's weight amounts to several dozen tons. 'Other conditions being
_ equal, kinetic energy is, in fact, proportional to mass, and a spacecraft's outer
surface increases only as two-thirds the power of fts voltime: a spacecraft simtlar
in construction and position to the 3oyuz but 35 times heavier'would, the�refore,
have an outer surface only 10 times greater, thereby making it radiate 3.5 times
mors energy per unit of surface. That would be extremely difficult. And it would
be much worse with the fragility of this large spaeecraft that would have very
little mechanical strength. Techniaal experts categorically maintain that "if you
want to return to earth with dozens of tons, you have to proceed altogether ditfer-
ently. You must opt for--and this is the orbiter solution--the 'gliding flat-
iron' which approaches and enters the earth's atmosphere with a high-lift surface
- in order to extend reentry over a mueh longer period so as to reduce the energy
. dissipatEd per unit of surface."
Cunsidering the choices made, it is evident, therefore, that the Soyuz spacecraft
- and the American orbiter are preeminently logical solutions, each in its own size
category.
Selective Recovery
The number-one characteristic of a shuttle is to be recoverable. The Americans
~ have carried the principle of reuse to its maximum. Almost everything is or will
be recoverable. The solid rocket boosters will be recovered at sea, and the com-
plete orbiter will return to earth. Only the large oxygen-hydrngen tank will be
expendable, but even this may not bP definitive policy. NASA is known to be
giving very serious consideration to collecting the tanks left in space by succes-
sive orbiter flights. It would thus have, at no extra cost, structural material
that might prove useful when building orbital stations. The Russians, on the con-
~b.' trary, seem to have minimal interest in recoverability, inasmuch as they bring
y ~F
V back to earth only what is strictly necessary, namely the capsule carrying the
~ astronauts.
Whose approach is right?
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Here again, we must consider the choices that have been made. Space specialists
know, in fact, that while space trsvel, in iCs initial form, might appear to be an
- aberration in that it requires sacrificing a rocket and several modules with each
launch--imagine an aircraft that would be scrapped after completing its maiden
_ flight--the diametrically opposed solution of wanting to recover everytliing as a
matter of principle, ts no more advisable. It is indeed uaeful to recover whatever
is valuable. On the other hand, it is false economy to recover items of equipment
whose post-fli-ght reconditioning costs would be greater than their production cost.
The cost of Soviet equipment is undoubtedly quite low when we consider the large
number of items of the same type and model produced. For instance, the R-7 launch
vehicle, as we have repeatedly mentioned, has been 3n service sinee 1957 and will
probably continue to be throughout thie decade. The R-7's basic vehicle has five
100-tan engines--RD-107 or RD-108--each cons3sCing of four identical components--
combustion chamber plus nozzle--thereby representing 20 standard components per
launch vehicle. This mears that some 16,000 of these components have been expended
since the start of the space age. No aerospace production line elsewhere in the
world can boast of such an achievement. The init_al cost of production facilities
was redeemed a long time ago and we imagine that the Sovi.ets are in no hurry to
- adopt another approach. Nevertheless, there is no indication that the Soviets have not considered recoveries.
- It is certain, in fact, that, even when mass produced on a large scale, an engine is
still an expensive part of a launch vehicle. The four conical engines that form
the R-7's first stage are separated from its mafn body relatively soon enough to i.
drop to earth under conditions permitting their reeovery if they are equipped with
parachutes. This inevitably brings one thought to mind: if we consider tha flight
paths of rockets leaving the two large Soviet cosmodromes--Plesetsk and Baikonur--
from which the R-7's are launched, we must conclude that the first stage's reentry
- points have now become the center of veritable "deposits" in which there should be
= a total of more than 3,000 engines, unless Soviet technicians have removed them,
which seems probable, and we can preeume they have certainly thought of reusing
them.
In this connection, there is a surprising convergence between the American space
, shuttle and the Soviet launch vehicle-Soyuz combination. The big item currently
expended by the Americans is the external tank for the shuttle's main engines,
whereas for the Soviets it is the main body of the R-7, but here again this may
possibly change. In the beginning, this main body was placed intQ orbit. Today it
includes a second and third stage with the latter steadily increasing in size. But
as it is, this third stage is placed into orbit and nothing would prevent putting
it aside in the same way, as we nozed above, the Americans are thinking of doing
with their shuttle's large tank.
- Controlled Reentry
One characteristic feature of the shuttle is its ability to glide in the atmosphere
during reentry with the resultant capab ility of controlling its rate of descent, and
even of steering it laterally so as to arrive just exactly where it is expected.
- The American orhi.ter touches down on a Boeing runway, landing horizontally like an
aircraft.
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This sort of landing is most attractive. It is not, however, fre e of risk, even if
the Americans have taken all the precautions to reduce the probab ility of a bad land-
ing to what must be considered practically zero on the human scal e of values.
Because of its gize and configuration, the orbiter cannot land j ust anywhere. Only
a limited number of landing sites on the earth's surface will be capable of handl ing
it. In addition, the absence of an airbreathing engire precludes a go-arotmd, in
othe-r words, making a second approach as an aircraft does when fo r any reason it
cannot use the landing site on its first approach.
Unlike the orbiter, the Soyua spacecraft's earth touchdown is accomplished verti-
cally. Although this is considered a less luxurious method, it i s actually more
satisfactory for a small-size vehicle. As a matter of fact, it permits landing
almost anywhere on earth, on the ocean as well as on the continent, and with a cer-
tain degree of comfort because at 1 meter from the ground, landing retrorockets
can reduce the spacecraft's speed to very nearly zero.
'?'he big question is maneuvering capability, in other words, to what extent can the
spacecraft's occupants choose their landizg site during the vehicle's descent?
- in the days of the Vostok spacecraft, this question did not arise. A sphere havi.n g
zero lift--regardless of its attitude, its reentry trajectory will be the same--it
was impossible to change its reentry trajectory by atmospheric means. But the situa-
tion has changed with the Soyuz spacecraft whose litt coefficient is above 0.2.
With this in mind, the Soviets have given their spacecraft an odd bell-like shape
to reconcile mechanical strength, stability when penetrating the dense layers of
the atmosphere, and the maneuvering systems in the final part of the flight like
the Americans with their Gemini and Apollo spacecraft.
Landing Within 1 Kilometer of Predetermined Touchdown Point
We remember a most interesting conversation between.che American astronaut Alan
Shepard and the Soviet cosmonaat Vitali Sevastyanov,a conversation whose main top ic
was a spacecraft's glide capability. This conversation took place in front of an
Apollo spacecr:Art, and Sevastyanov's close attention, the questions he aaked the
American, and his comments had ultimately conninced us of the maj or role the Soyuz
system was undoubtedly long destined to play in S-viet space travel, particularly
in succeeding to change the spacecraft's course in the final part of the flight by
exploiting the vehicle's lift.
The regular version of the Soyuz already had an attitude control program which
kept the vehicle's reentry trajectory.locked onto a theoretical curve. p.nother
step forward has been made with Soyuz-T- which reportedly can actually be piloted
in the atmosphere so as to correct any deviations. According to the Soviets, the
spacecraft can now definitely land within 1 kilometer of its predetermiiied touch-
down point. 1fie Russians can be expected to do even better, because their obvious
goal is to make their Soyuz shuttle as sophisticated as possible.
COPYRIGHT: A. & C. 1981
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FRENCH CONIlMENTATOR SPECULATES ON FINAL PHASE OF 'SALYUT 6' FLIGHT
Paris AIR & COSMOS in French No 844, 24 Jan 81 pp 53-54
� [Article by Albert Ducrocq: "Descent Begun"]
[Text] An airliner sametimes begins its descent several quarters of an hou.r before
_ landing, which period of time can represent an appreciable portion of the trip. We
are seeing the same scenario with Salyut 6.
- Put into orbit on 29 September 1977, the Soviet orbital station spent 3 years at an
average altitude of almost exactly 341 1m, for reasons known to us. At such an
- altitude, one revolution actually takes 91.35 minutes and at that rate, 31 revolu-
tions would take 2,831.03 minutes, or two times 1,419.925 minutes.' A total of
1,419.925 minutes (24 hours = 24,035 minutes) makes one day for the satellite, at
the end of which, considering its precession, the orbit will again pass over the
= same earth track. In particular, when the orbit has been perfectly adjusted, it
_ results in one regular flight over Baykonur every 2 days. This situation is of
obvious interest for earth tracking of the station.
This was the situation until mid 1979, except for the free flight period which
Salyut 6 experienced because of an irregularity in its�engine system. But Pro-
gresses then raised the orbit again. Today, it would appear that the Soviets have
decided to allow their'station to revolve at a lower altitude. On 9 December,
_ Progress 11 left Salyut 6 at an altitude of 290-374 km, an average altitude of 332 km, which since that time has steadily dropped, indicating that for the fi.nal
ghase of the operations, the Russians have seemingly opted for a new formula. It
is easy to understand the reason: It responds to a concern for optimization.
Cost of Iluration
Two factors are in fact involve3.
The higher the station, the lower the resistance to movement because the density of
- the atmosphere is very low. We know the effect of th3s resistance: It results in
the descent of the satellite. AL 340 km, in order to avoid this natural drop,
a total thrust of 0.1 m/s per day must be created, a thrust that requires approxi-
mately 0.6 liters of fuel. At 320 km, the price is a little higher, on the order
of 1 liter. If the altitude is furrher reduced, the conformation becomes very
costly: It will require S liters at 260 1m and 30 liters at 200 lm.
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Naturall;, these are only orders of magnitude. As we know, the upper atmosphere
- is characterized by relatively substantial and unpredictable variations in
d ensity (singularly linked to solar activity). Furthermore, resistance to the pro-
gress of a Salyut station varies practically from 1 ta 3 times depending on its
o rientation. The fact remains that these figures constitute a valuable reference,
bearing ir, mir.d that if a st2tion wants to have a long life and be economical at the
s ame time, it must be very high. Any loss in altitude will result in an increase
in the amount of fuel consumed. At any rate, this use of fuel is the price paid for
duration: In order to keep a station at a given altitiide, one must foresee a
proportional expenditure in time.
Price of Altitude
On the other hand, altitude is the source of expenditures in two ways.
The higher a station, the greater the consumption of fuel imposed on any Soyuz
- wishing to join it. We have pointed this out on varicus occasions and the state-
ment is also naturally valid for the Frogress. In order to attain a circular orbit
at 240 lan from a low orbit (200 to 220 lm) , a Progress has to use 40 kg of fuel,
- while in order to arrive at 340 km, 170 kg would be necessary, meaning 130 kg less
b eing taken to the station. A compromise will not f ail to be made, depending on
the nature of the mission, for a routine :.ourse of operation.
When the end of the operation approaches, another consideration comes into play.
I t is necessary that the station be thrust into the dense strata of the atmosphere
above an unpopulated area (in practice, the Pacific). This requires an engine
s ysteni in good operating condition. We have already had occasion to describe the
r eaction which a Soviet Skylab whose reentry could not be controlled would cause.
A"clean f all" would require additional fuel depending on the altitude of the
s tation: approximately 600 kg from 350 km, 400 kg from 250 km, 240 kg from
180 km, and so on.
When one brings these elements together, one immediately understands the meaning ~
of the strategy chosen by the Soviets. I If our calculatioizs are accurate, they will continue to use Salyut 6 but with a
natural descent that will present the triple advantage of enabling the station to
b e reached more economically, future Progresses to bring the maximum load and
f ollowing its service, the reentry of Salyut 6 to be controlled by a reduced mass
of fuel.
F our-Month Flight
And the schedule?
- At an altitude of 340 km, the gross daily loss of altitude is about 0.2 km per day,
~ or 6 km per month. But during the following month and we have already reached
that stage the drop will exceed 10 km. When the station is under 305 km, it
wi11 lose 18 lan during the third month, 30 km the fourth and 50 km the fifth. Fin-
ally, the splashdown would come during the summer.
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;
At least, this is the situation that one foresees in the absence of any maneuver.
If they were not to use Salyut 1(sic) beyond the middle of 1981, the Russians would
have an interest in letting their station come down by itself. If, on the other
hand, they wanted to prolong the existence of their station and not bring it down
until the fall or even the beginning of 1982, then it is now that they must slow
the descent because oneration remainc possible under relat{vely economical condi-
tions, while it will be costly if they wait and ruinous if they wait longPr. For
that reason, we must watch the evolution of the Salyut program with particular
' interest. If several weeks go by without the Russians trying to take their station
' back up, then one will be able to conclude that they have definitely decided to
make it disappear from space during the year after a f inal phase of operation that
_ would take place during the descent.
Providing, of course, that there is a f inal phase of operation.
- This in fact appears likely. The Russians have indeed announced the flight of the
Mongolian cosmonaut for April and the Romanian cosmonaut should be put in orbit in
July. One can therefore imagi.ne that a fifth maintenance teaL1, including a new
_ cosuionaut, would be launched in March shortly before the shuttle so that cosmonaut
No 1110 will be a Soviet. This maintenance team would successively host the last
- two teams of the current series of Tntercosmbs piloted flights and leave the sta-
tion :Ln July or August, shortly before its splashdown.
_ The '.'ifth maintenance crew's stay on board the Salyut 6 would be shorter than that
= of '_he previous two crews, much closer to the 4-month than the 6-month range. The
pi:rpose would not be to take a new step in the length of flights we continue to
believe that in its current form, the.Salyut station is not far from having been
used to the maximum with the 6-month fligh*_ but essentially to close the great
Salyut 6 operation, taking advantage of the passibility it offers of completing
a program in the black inasmuch as the operations are particularl.y economical, as
= we have just seen, when one uses a station in its descent phase.
Naturally, the question wili not fail to be asked: Is it wise to continue to use a
statien that is coming back to Earth? Since the loss in altitude is to a certain
extent unpredictable, is it not to be f eared that the cosmonauts could be trapped
in a station whose reentry might suddenly begin to accelerate?
Such fears scarcely seem grounded. As long as a station is above 200 km, officials
know that in no case could the returning vehicle suddenly change speed. There is
still sufficient time ta meet any eventuality. It is worthwhile to recall that up
to and including Salyut 3-- at a time when operations were not planned for over
6 months the stations maneuvered at an altitude of under 300 lan.
The real concern of the Soviets is the condition of the station, whose equipment
is now more than old. The Soyuz T-3 crew did naturally make major repairs, but it
did not restore the station to its original condition. The Russians will launch
their maintenance crew only when they have assurance that no risk is ynvolved.
Naturally, the situation could change during the mission. More than ever, in the
- case of this operation, one must speak about an open mission which officials might
order ended a.t any time. As we know, the Salyut 6 operation program has been
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largely improvised over the past 18 mon.ths. I* could continue to be so until the
end and the Soviets have reason to be satisfied with the course of events, insofar
as if this final phase of operation of Salyut 6 comev during the descent, as we
think it will, the balance sheet will show the economy of the station. In fact the,
Russians will have managed to put on board Salyut 6 a total of nine Intercosmos
c;,smoaasts w:om they had originally anticipated dividing between Salyut 6 and 7.
,
End of a Tunnel
_ in addition, the descent of Salyut 6 presents another aspect because precisely as a
- result of the additional program it will have made possible, the completion of this
mission may be considered as marking the end of an era in Soviet astronautics.
Naturally, the Russians will not fail to launch Salyut 7, a station that l:as long
been ready and concerning which we already have many details, a station that will
b e substantia lly different from the preceding ones, if not in size, then at least
in design. It will eEsentially be a large "living room," the specialized equip-
ment to be outside the station.
But zhis launching of Salyut 7 will take place in a different context, with the
startup of new programs, some of which promise to oe spectacular.
Like the Americans, the Soviets seem to have concluded their trek through the
desert. In the United States, the past decade ha-i the "shuttle tunnel" during which
time NASA's forces were essentially involved in the creation of a new space vehicle.
The Soviet Union had the Salyut tunnel. After all, ":ialyut" means "salvo" in
Russian. Since the cosmos is the testing beneh for technologies with respect to
satellites, the Soviets decided to devote the decade from 1970 to 1980 to the
launching of a salvo of stations destined to enable them to acquire all the tech-
nology necassary f or the maintenance of a space house and the conneetions between
that house and Earth.
Qne can now consider that this is a fait ar_compli and that the Soviets have devel-
oped "their" space transport system, a system in which the rocket complex + 5oyuz
is the counterpart of the American shuttle and in which Salyut represents something
- without any equivalent in the American program, in this case, a living module that
- can be operated anywhere, just as the Soyuz T can itself claim to go anywhere, in-
asmuch as it has navigational systems with which the Zond could not be equipped.
It would be logical and it is in this sense that one must speak of a new epoch in
5oviet astronautics that in this way, Russian piloted vehicles will go far in the
cosmos. At the present time, let us recall that no cosmonaut has yet gone 500 km from
the Earth. In the USSR, there will definitely be a.desire to get revenge for the
- 1950-1970 decade, a decade that came to a close with the spectacular leap of the
Americans to the moon, while the Soviets had to face the opposite situation. Now,
with the shuttle, the Americans are goi.ng to remain in circumterrestrial space
no piloted vehicle will enable astronauts to get far from Earth in the foreseeable
f uture the Russians now have instruments that will allow their cosmonauts to
embark upon the path of distant spaceo
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We must understand that all their thoughts run in that direction: While Salyut 6
descends, the Soviets are dreanming of nothing but that great leap.
- [Editor's note: The "Progress-12" transport ship docked with "Salyut-6" on
26 January 1981. On 28 January a"Progress-12" engine burn raised the orbit of
- "Salyut-6'� to 359 by 307 kilometers with a period of revolution of 90.9 minutes.]
COPYRIGHT : A . & C. 1981
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INTERPLANETARY SCIENCES
_ UDC 629a78o015:s31o55:52302/07
MONOGRAPH ON INTERPLANETARY FLIGHTS
~ Moscow MEZHPLANETNYYE POLETY in Russian 1979 pp 1, 270-271
[Annotation and table of contents from book "Interplanetary Flights", by V. N.
Kubasov and A. A. Dashkov, Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 272 pages ]
[Text] Annotation. The book discusses methods for solving the problems involved in
selecting the trajectories of space vehicles. Methods for computing the optimum
dates of launching from the earth and flight approach to the planets are outlined.
- Methods for correcting the trajectories and controlling the motion of interplanet-
ary space vehicles are described. The problems involved in autonomous navigation
are considered.
- The book is intended for scientific and engineering technical workers engaged in
the development of space technology.
TABLE OF CONZ'ENTS
Page
. FOYflWOYClessooonossese see ****too* �***e&*9*99oe*ee a* o asseoaaaaaoogaoooauaooooooo-0 3
P rincipal notations.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~ou~~~a~�ooo~auoooeooooooooo~~oo0 5
Introduction.oooooo*oooo*oooeeooooosoooo*ooooooo-**ooaoooouccaoooooooooooo00000 7
Chapter I. Selection of Trajectories for Interplanetary Flightso � o,oooo.ooo0 11
1.1. Systems of Coordinates, Equations of Motion, Orbital Elementso,oo,noo. 13
1.1.1. Principal Systems of Coordinates.........o.o...ooooo0oooooao.�oa. � 13
1.1.2. Equations of Motion of Space Vehicle.......o.ooooo.oaooooooaoooooa 15
1.1.3. Integrals of Tao-Body Problem. Keplerian Motionoo.o.ooooooao~oo�o0 16
1.1.4. Relationship Between Orbital Elements, Coordinates and Velocity
Components." @awoooooo0 uaooof 0000 000 0 00*0906004090* . 0 v0 0 0 oooooo� 21
_ 1.2. Planetary Model of Solar Jy$temaoo*oe*eooeoooooeoooooooooo@ooooaeoaooo 24
1.2.1. Mean Elements of Planetary Orbits..,....o......oo.o....oaaoooaooa a 24
1.2.2. Planetary Spheres of Action........oooo.......o.oooooo..oooo�oo , ao 26
1.3. Determination of Interplanetary Traj ectories..o...oo..oooooooooo��ooo0 28
1.3.1. Classifica.tion of Orbits..........ooo..oao,o.oooooooooo�ooou o*a* oo 28
1.3.2. Periodicity of Flight Intervals to Planets..ooo..oaoooooooo�oocoo0 30
1.3.3. Geometric Characteristics of Orbitsooooooooooaoooaoaooooooooooooo0 32
1.3.4. Lambert Theorem on Flight Time Between Two Points.,00o000000000000 34
1.3.5. Demonstration of Lambert Theorem by N. Yeo Zhukovskiy Methodooooo. 35
1.3.6. Analysis of Lambert Equation and Determination of Semimajor Orbital
Axiso.ooo.ooooo000000000000000000000000..0.0.0.000.oooooa.o....0 41
1.3.7. Determination of Parameter, Eccentricity and True Anomalieso.aoooo 45
1.3.8. Determination of Components of Relative Velocity Vector for Space
Vehicle Near Planets. Isoenergetic She1ls...9999o.oo9oo0000009�0 47
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1.4. Placement in Interplanetary Orbits....o.ooo.oo..ooo.ooo � o..o..o,o,,,., 55
1.4.1. Determinatiofl of Elements of Geocentric Orbit With Motion in the
- Earth's Sphere of Action (Inrernal Problem)...o....oao.o.oo..ooo0 55
1.4.2, Determination of Time of Launching Inta Intermediate Orbit,ooa.o.aa 60
1.493. Flight Trajectories and Visibility Zones.oa......ooo.o.ooo.o..ooouv 61
1.4.4. Entry Into Sphere of Action and Motion Near Planets,,,0000.00069000 62
1.5. riotion in Reference Orbits ...................................~oo.o.a.oo 65
1.5.1. Selection of Reference Fl,ight Trajectories to Venus and Ma.rs.o.o.., 66
1.5.2. Motion in the Earth's Sphere of Actionoooo.....oooo~oooo....o.o..o0 74
Y 1.5.3. Motion in Heliocentric Segment of Flighta.....oooooo.a...o...oooa.o 78
1.5.4. Characteristics of Motion of Space Vehicle Near Venus and Mars..... 85
1.6. Flight Aroimd Planets With Return to Earth................o.....e..a... 90
. 1.7. Flights to Jupiter and Use of Perturbation Effect........o.....ooo.... 101
1.7.1. Energetically Optimum Flights to Jupiter.......................... 101
1.7.2. Perturbation Maneuvers Near Jupiter.................o.........oo.. 105
- 1.7.3. Flights to the Sun ...............................o................ 108
1.8. Parking Orbits .........................o.oo........................... 111
1.8.1. Perturbed Motion of Satellites of Planets in Central Gravity Field 112
1.8.2. Parking Orbits Near the Earth........................ooo.........0 115
1.9. Speediest Return ......................a....o...........oa..........o.. 126
1.9.1. Formulation of Problem of Speediest Return................. ......0 126
Chapter 2. Correction of Interplanetary Trajectorieso,..,.......o..o..oo...a. 131
2.1. General Correction Theory ...........................................o. 133
2.1.1. Formulation of Trajectory Correction Problem,.........o...ooo..... 133
2.1.2. Classification of Different Correction Methods ..............oo.o.. 136
2.1.3. Selection of Correctable Parameters........o........o 138
2.1.4. Deterndnation of Region of Scattering in the Space of Correctable
Parameters...................................................... 140
2.1.5. Isochronal Derivatives ..........................o.oo....o......... 142
- 2.1.6. Three-Parameter Correction ......................o.a.oooo...ooo.... 143
- 2.1.7. Two-Parameter Correction.......................................... 146
2.1.8. Examples of One-Parameter Correction..o...oo...oo..a.o........ooo0 151
2.1.9. Related Corrections.....o ...................o............a......o0 154
2.2. Application of Universal "Star" Correction Method in Flight to Venus
and Mars..........................................oo.....o.oo....oo0 157
2.2.1. Scattering Region in Space of Correctable Parametersoo..,,.....oo0 158
2.2.2. Determination of Correcting Velocity Impulse..o..o.,,,,....o....o. 159
2.2.3. Errors in Making Correctiono.......................o,...........o. 163
2.2.4. Determination ,f Radius of Admissible Tube of Traji_ctories........ 170
2.2.5. Requirements on Accuracy in Making Correction.o..o.,,.,o.,..(....*0 171
2.2.6. Double Correction of Trajectory of Motion........QO..o..,o........ 180
2.3. Special Correction Methods .........ooa...o.o...ooo...o.....o,., 183
2.3.1. Correction Using Impulses of Radial Heliocentric Velocity Solar
183
2.3.2. Other Special Correction Methods.......o.......o..ooo...a........0 192
2.3.3. Solar and Orthogonal Corrections in Flights to Venus and Ma.rs...o. 195
- 2.4. Analysis of Effectiveness of Di,fferent Correction tiethods in Flight to
VeA11S and Mars..... ......~~~~~~~~~~~~~o~o~~~~~~ao~~su~o~~~a~~~~~~~~� 202
2,4.1. Principal Results of Analysis of Different Correction Combinations 202
2.4.2. Estimation of Total Fuel Suppiy for Implementing Correction....... 204
2.4.3. Practical Conclusions on Use of Different Correction Methodsooo.., 208
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Chapter 3. Autonomous Navigation and Autonomous Orientation.oo....o....o...... 209
3.1. Autonomoas Navigation and Correction of Interplanetary Trajectories...o 211
301.1. Method for Evaluating Accuracy of Prediction of Trajectory on the
Basis of Independent Measurements.a..oo.......o.ooo.o�oo���oo���� 211
3.1.2. Some Problems in Choice of Stars and Planets for Autonomous
Navigation..........oo.ooo........oo...o....oo.....o...oo.......0 219
3.1.3. Autonomous Navigation in Neari-Earth Segtnent (Space Vehicle Motion
- Before First Correction) .............o......o.ooooa.o....oo..a..o 226
3.1.4. Autonomous Navigation in Interplanetary Segment.o ..............o... 232
3.1.5. Autonomous Navigation in Segment Near Mars.....o...ooooo.ooo..o..a� 235
3.1.6. Method for Computing Autonomous Prediction and Correction.........0 236
3.1.7. Results of Correction Computation on Basis of Autonomous Prediction 239
3.2. Autonomous Orientation and Maneuvers Near P3anets,.9.....9o..oo6.6oo.o0 247
3.2.1. Autonomous Detexmination of Velocity Vector....m.o........oo......0 249
- 3.2.2. Remarkable Property of Beam of Hyperbolic Trajectories..oooooo..... 250
3.2.3. Choice of Method for Orienting Engine Axis Before Braking.........0 253
3.2.4. Development of Method for Autonomous Determination of Velocity
Vector Direction........a.......oo.oo.a....~.oa..o.oo.oo......o.. 256
3.2.5. Yroperty of Flight Time to Pericenter Along Beam Tra3ectory...o.... 261
Bibliography ...................o...o...........oo.........~o..ooo..oo..~..o...0 268
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1979
[42-5303]
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UDC 523.164.8
RADAR OBSERVATIONS OF MARS, VE*T[TS AND MERCURY ON THE 39-CM WAVELENGTH IN 1980
Moscow DOKLADY AKAUEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian Vol 255, No 6, 19$0 manuscript re-
ceived 4 Sep 80 pp 1334-1338
/Article by Yu.N. Aleksandrov, A.S. Vysl:lov, V.M. Dubrovin, A.L. Zaytsev, S.P.
Ignatov, V.I. Kayevitser, Academician V.A. Kotel'nikov, A.A. Krymov, G.M. Petrov,
O.N. Rzhiga, A.T. Tagayevskiy, A.F. Khasyanov and A.M. Shakhovskiy,_Institute of
Radio Engineering and Electronics, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow/
- /Text/ In the period from February to April 1980 at the Center for Long-Range
Space Comnunication in the Crimea, the USSR Academy of Sciences' Institute of Radio
Engineering and Electronics and a number of other organizations conducted radar ob-
servations of Mars, Venus and Mercury. During these observations a new, fully ro-
tatable parabolic antenna with a dish diameter of 70 m was used to study and r.e-
ceive the radio signals. The use of this highly efficient aatenna, as well as an
increase in the transmitter's power and an improvement in the receiver's sensitivi-
- ty, made it possible to increase the energy potential of the planetary radar by a
factor of 50 (while retaining the previous wavelength of 39 cm), which enlarged the
possibilities for radar investigations of the planets substantially. In particu-
lar, the maximum radar observation range was increased by a factor of more than 2.5.
" The observations made in 1980 encompassed significant sections of the planets' or-
- bits: 820 for Venus near the elongation, 1390 for Mercury in the region of its in-
ferior conjunction, and 290 for Mars in the area of its opposition; in connection
with this, the greatest distances to Venus, Mercury and Mars were, respectively,
161, 139 and 135 million km (these distances are not the maximum possible ones).
As a result of the observations we obtained highly accurate astrometric information
that made it possible to ascertain the actual accuracy of the theories of the inner
planets' motion. New information was also obtained about their relief and the re-
flective properties of their surfaces.
The distances and velocities of the planets were measured by techniques explained
in /1,2%.
Over the entire interval of the 1980 observations, the deviations in the theoreti-
cal distances to Venus (as predicted on the basis of the numerical theory / 3/)
from their measured values did not exceed 6 km (as was the case in the 1977 and
1978 observations). In connection with this, the root-mean-square values of the
equipment-methodological errors in the measurements were 300-500 m at distances o�
up to 140 million km and 1-1.5 km at greater distances. A graph of the measured
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dD=( ~FDmau~ KM
S
D
-.f
~S
Y
b
O
~
b 0 f00 .t17 2S0'
2 ~,Qo~:aina
Figure 1. Ueviations in the distances
to Venus (as calculated on the basis
of / 37) from their measured values
(above), as a function of longitude,
in the coordinate system adopted by
the MAS in 1976. The trace of the
point being observed moves from 1� S.
Lat. (left) to 3�.7 S.Lat. (right).
Below is the profile of the heights
of Venus's surface as obtained from
_ these measurements. The vertical
segments indicate the root-mean-
square errors in the measurements.
= Key: l. Height, km
2. Longitude
J
m Z
Y
- ~
deviations, as functions of the longitude
of the point being observed, is shown xn
the upper part of Figure 1 in the systern
of coordinates adopted by the MAS /Inter-
national Astronomical Union/ in 1976. A
straight line approximating the rzgular
component of the deviations caused by in-
accuracy of the prediction has been drawn
through the points that were obtained. In
connection with this, three points at lon-
gitudes 87, 193 and 2010 were eliminated;
according to / 47 these points are located
in mountainous areas.
Variations in the deviations relative to
the approximating line, as shown separate-
ly in the lower part of Figure 1, can be
regarded as the profile of the heights of
Venus's surface along the trace of the
point being observed~ the latitude of
which changed from 1.0 S.Lat. at longitude
700 to 3�7 S.Lat. at longitude 2300. As
is obvious from Figure 1, the trace inter-
sects a hilly plain about 8,000 km long
at longitudes 110-1850 and two extensive
mountainous areas about 4,000 and 2,500 km
long at longitudea 70-110� and 185-210�,
respectively. The first is the higher of
the two, reaching a height of about 4 km
at longitude 900, while the second area
achieves a height of 2.5 km at longitude
195�.
/JU /bu 170 fB0 f90 lU0 Zf0 ZlU LJu
(2)
,4aflW=
Figure 2. Profile of heights of Venus's surface, as obtained by simulta-
_ neous measurements of the distances to different points on the apparent
equator on the basis of frequency-temporal selection of the return sig-
nals. Longitudinal resolution is 0.�4, or 40 km along the equator.
Key: 1. Height, km 2. Longitude
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- The profile of the heights of 'ilenus`s surface at longitudes 145-2300 (see Figure 2)
was also investigated in more detail by another method / 27 that was based on the
simultaneous measurement of the distances to different points on the planet's ap-
parent equator, the return signals from which were separated according to lag and
Doppler frequency shift during processing. In this case the surface resolution was
- about 0.�4 with respect to longitude (or 40 km along the apparent equator), which
tuade it possible as is obvious from Figure 2-- to derive the structure of the
profile in more detail in the vicinities of the eight points used in Figure 1, and
' to distinguish some smaller details in the relief. Measurements made on different
- days are joined by broken lines in Figure 2.
In the 1980 observations the prediction of the distances to Mars was based on the
numerical theory presented in / 5/. During the time of the observations, the meas-
ured distances' deviations from their predicted values changed within limits of
_ 3-21 km and were caused to a considerable degree by the effect of surface relief;
in this case the root-mean-square errors in the measurements were 0.6-1.5 km, de-
pending on the distance to the planet. An analysis of the deviations showed that
during the time of the observations, the regular component caused by the inaccuracy
of the prediction changed monotonically from 13.5 to 21 km. Such a match can be
regarded as completely satisfactory if we consider that the actual interval in the
- prediction was 9 years,_since the latest radar information used in formulating the
numerical theory in / 5/ was obtained in 1971. The change in the prediction error
during the nocturnal cycle of observations (less than 8 h) did not basically exceed
100 m, which is significantly less than the measurement error. Therefore, it was
assumed that the variations in the deviations of the measured distances from the
prediction in each separate cycle were caused only by variations in the heights of
the sections of surface passing through the point being observed as Mars rotated.
The lengths of the traces along which the point being observed moved in 8 h aver-
aged 117� of longitude. Since Mars and the Earth have different (in both magnitude
and direction) velocity vectors for their intrinsic rotation and their revolution
in orbit, as time passed the traces shifted with respect to both longitude and lat-
itude. During the observations, this displacement was 8.5-90 of longitude and
1.5-3' of latitude per day, which means that the latitudin�1 change did not exceed
_ 1' in 8 h. From 15 February to 15 April the widths of the traces varied within
limits of 20001' and 21012'.
The profiles of the surface heights along the individual traces were processed by
the method of least squares in overlapping sections, so as to obtain an overall
_ profile of Mars's surface heights in the full interval of longitudes from 00 to
360�.
- The profile that was produced is shown in Figure 3. In order to correlate the pro-
file that was obtained with the average (zero) surface level, we~used the topo-
= graphic map of Mars that was compiled on the basis of television pictures transmit-
ted from the "Maxiner-9" spacecraft /6 The correlation was carried out for
equal sections in the longitudinal intervals 160-1900 and 230-2600 that lay on rhe
surface of an ellipsoid with axes A= 3,394.6 km, B= 3,393.3 km, C= 3,376.3 km.
The most noteworthy section of the prafile was that obtained by the passage of the
point being observed along the northern slope of the mountain Olympus Mons, where a
maximum height of 17.6+1.5 km was observed at latitude 20044'+20'. The average
steepness of the mountain's slopes, as estimated from the ratio of its height to
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�f �7
1S �2 'x8
Olynrpus 03 19
Mn~.r e y �JO
CS �11
06 �1'1
Y Thorais
� Manlis -
F
4
~ Elysium M~rja~
(1) s
.
Cb~yst ~ Amvso* I.ridir
.1 x
0
-L i i� ~ i i
0 SO f00 fS0 l00 Z.fO 300
( 2)QoArama
JSO�
Figure 3. Profile of Mars's surface heights along 20044'+20' N.Lat. Res-
olution was about 30 and 40 with respect to latitude and longitude. The
area in the interval 120-1500 was analyzed with a longitudinal resolution
of about 195 (90 km). The small number of ineasurements in the 32-950 in-
terval made it impossible to obtain a continuous profile of heights in
this area. Depending on the signal level, the accuracy of the height
measurement ranged from 0.6 to 1.5 km. The measurements were made on
different days during the observations: 1. 15-16 February; 2. 19-20 Feb-
ruary; 3. 21-22 February; 4. 26-27 February; 5. 28-29 February; 6. 18-19
March; 7. 21-22 March; 8. 25-26 March; 9. 2-3 April; 10. 8-9 April; 11.
11-12 April; 12. 15 April 1980.
the half-width of its base at the zero levPl, is 3�.6. This mountain, along ivith a
comparatively deep depression to the left o~ it at longitude 130� and a longer de-
pression 2 km deep at longitude 2700 , was not previously recorded on the profile
diagram of Mars produced by the American investigators in 1967 / 7/ for the same
interval of latitudes. The depression that were measured are not seen on the topo-
graphic map of Mars mentioned.above.
During the 1980 radar studies of Mars, we also measured the reflective properties
of its surface. The variations in the effective scattering area (ESA), as related
to the area of the planet's cross-section 7rR2d,as a function of the longitude of
the point being observed, are shown in Figure 4. Because in these measurements we
took into consideration only the signals reflected by th2 part of the planet repre-
senting the surface of a spherical segment with a diameter of 730 km (height of the
segment =-20 km), the data obtained correspond to the lower boundary of the plan-
et's ESA.
As is obvious from Figure 4, Mars's ESA changes by more than an or.der of magniCude,
' from 0.01 to 0.12. The anomalously low ESA values in the area of the mountainous
_ formations Olympus Mons and Elysium can be related to the special structure of the
surface in these regions, which results in a reduction in the area of the sections
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~
(1)
0,1
QOS
0
r ji
( 2 ),Qvwtoma.
- F i 9 ure 4. Variations in Mars's ESA in units of cross-section lCR26,along
20 44'+20' N.Lat. Measurement error did not exceed 30 percent.
_ Key: 1. ESA 2. Longitude
_ oriented perpendicularly to the radar beam. The highest ESA value is seen on the
_ plateau in the Syrtis Major area, where a strong, mirror-type reflection is seen
from large-scale smooth areas.
The first radar observations of Mercury were made in the USSR in the summer of 1962
/ 87. At that time, the reflective properties of its surface were investigated and
its rate of motion was measured. The sensitivity of the original planetary radar
was inadequace for making precise measurements of the distance to Mercury, so there
were no attempts to study it with radar in the USSR in the intervening years.
In the 1980 observations of Mercury (from 1 March to 5 April), the distance to it
was meastired with an accuracy of 1.2 km, and its rate of motion with an accuracy of
5 cm/s. In this case the distance to Mercury was 97-139 million km, while its rate
of motion relative to the Earth ranged from -27.3 to +26.3 km/s. The distances
measured during the observations_proved to be 120-420 km more than the figure pro-
vided by the analytical theory / 9/ constructed on the basis of optical observa-
tions. As should have been expected, the accuracy of the classical-analytical the-
ory of Mercury's motion turned out to be 1.5-2 orders of magnitude worse than the
accuracy of the numerical theories for Venus and Mars /3,5/.
- The authors wish to express their gratitude to R.A. Andreyev, S.M. Baraboshkin,
V.P. Davydov, O.N. Doroshchuk, V.P. Konofalov, A.G. Melikhov, A.S. Nabatov, V.M.
Podolyanyuk, L.F. Solov'yeva, Yu.V. Filin, O.S. Shamparova, S.A. Shchetinnikav,
V.N. Yurchenko and the other participants in the work done on studying the planets
- by radar.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Kotel'nikov, V.A., et al., ASTRON. ZHURN., Vol 57, 1980, p 3.
2. Aleksandrov, Yu.N., et al., ASTRON. ZHURN., Vol 57, 1980, p 237.
3. Kislik, M.D., et al., DOKLADY AN SSSR, Vol 241, 1978, p 1046.
4. Campbell, D.B., et al., SCIENCE, Vol 175, 1972, p 514.
5. Kislik, M.D., et al., DOKLADY AN SSSR, Vol 249, 1979, p 78�
6. "Atlas of Mars (M25 M3 RMS)," U.S. Geological Survey, 1967.
7. Pettengill, G.H., et al., ASTRON. J., Vol 74, 1969, p 461.
8. Kotel'nikov, V.A., et al., DOKLADY AN SSSR, Vol 147, 1962, p 1320.
9. "Astronomicheskiy yezhegodnik SSSR s prilozheniyem, 1980" /Astronomical Yearbook
of the USSR With Appendix, 19807/.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR", 1980
_ /44-117467
11746
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LIFE SCIENCES
- UDC: 613.693
. PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF MEDICAL STUDIES CONDUCTED DURING AIANNED
_ FLIGHTS OF THE 'SALYUT-6' PROGMN1
Moscow IZVES'FIYA AKADENIII NAUK SSSR: SERIYA BIOLOGICHESKAYA in
Russian No 1, Jan-Feb 81 p 5-20
[Article by Ye.I. Vorob'ev, O.G. Gazenko, N.N. Gurovskiy, A.D.
Yegorov, A.V. Beregovkin, V.A. Degtyarev, V.V. Kalinichenko and
= I.I. Kas'yan, submitted 26 May 80]
[Text] Physiological displacements were observed during space
flight which corresponded, on the whole, to preflight estimations
and reflected the phasic course of adaptational processes. The
displacements were seen in changes in circulatory patterns, vari-
ation in basic indices for hemodynamics at rest within the limits
of physiologic norms, increase of blood flow to the head and
decrease of blood flow to the tibia. The nature of changes in
circulation, caused by physical stress and the addition of nega-
tive pressure, varied and, in a number of studies during flight,
were more marked than on earth.
Changes were observed after flight during the period of readapta-
tion. These reactions were of a functional nature, qualitatively
not different from reactions observed after other flights. After
the 140 day flight they were less marked, on the whole, than
after the 96 day flight.
_ During the post-fliaht period, in order to accelerate the process
~ of readaptation, a complex of rehabilitative-therapeutic measures
was conducted, including regulat.ion of motor activity, rehabili-
tative muscle massage, therapeutic sports and water procedures.
Results from the 140 day flight did nct suggest any kind of contra-
indications for future planning of longer perieds of space flight
and once again demonstrated the possibilities for management of
health in fliaht and preparation of the organism for return to the
forces of earth's gravity.
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Introduction
In the USSR, from 1977-1978 during the orbital program "Salyut-
6"--"Soyuz11, manned flights of 96 day duration (the first main
crew: CC-1 jcommander of crew-1] Yu. V. Romanenko, FE-1 [flight
- engineer-1] G.M. Grechko) and of 140 day duration (the second
main crew: CC-Z V.V. Kovalenok, FE-2 A.S. Ivanchenkov) were
carried out. The basic landmarks of each of these flights of un-
precedented duration were: exit and work of the crew outside of
the orbital complex; the joint work during each flight with two
visiting crews as well as the first main crew's work with one trans-
- port freight ship and the second crew's work with three;
completion of a multitude of scientific, scientific-technical,
medical-biologic experiments and observations.
During the flight, the first main crew (MC-1) carried out ioint
wOrk with two visiting expeditions (EC-1 and EC-2) : personnel in
the first, V.A. Dzhanibekov and O.G. Maka-rov, pe rsonnel in the
second, A.A. Gubarev and citizen of the Czechoslovak Socialist
Republic V. Remek. The second main crew (MC-2) wo rked to;ether
wi*h the second international 5t3�siting expedition, the personnel
for which included P.I. Klimuk and M. Hermaszewski (polish Peoples _
Republic), V. F. Bykovskiy and s. Jaehn (German Democratic Republic)
The basic medical tasks consisted of maintaining the good health
a.nd adequate work capacity of the crew in flight, carrying out
medical examinations, managing a complex of prophylactic measures
to prevent the non-beneficial effects of space f light on the hu-
man organism and preparing the'main crews for th e effect of re-
turn to the forces of earth's gravity. This rep o rt presents re-
sults of inedical observations of the cosmonauts during and after
flight, as well as results of studies on body we ight and tibial
and cardio-vascular system capacity after a 140 day flight.
Characteristics of flight conditions in a orbita 1 complex
The atmosphere in the living quarters of the orb ital complex during
the flights of the first and second main expedit ions was similar
to the earth's atmosphere. Basic indices for the environment in
the living quarters were: general pressure 733-8 47 mm H;; partial
. pressure of carbon dioxide 158-229 mm Hg; partial pressure of
water vapor 7.0-16.4 mm Hg; air temperature 19.0-24.5�.
The cumulative dose of irradiation received during the flight of
MC-1 was 2.1 Rem, MC- 2- -approximately 3.0 Rem. N ourishment during
flight consisted of a six-day menu comprised of 70 designated
products. The caloric value of the food ration w as 3,100 Kcal
(on the "Salyut-4" station--2,800 Kcal). The con tent of the basic
faod and mineral ingre dients was: protein 140 g, fat 100 g, car-
- bohydrates 385 g, calcium 800 mg, potassium 3.0 g, phosphorus 1.7
g(norm 1.2-1.5 g), sodium 4.5-5.0 g(norm 4,0-6.0 g), magnesium
20
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0.4 g(norm 0. 3 g) iron 60 mg (norm 15 mg) . A vitamin pellet,
Airovit, was added daily to the food ration.
During flight, the visiting expeditions and cargo snips delivered
fresh products in accordancs with the desires of the crew. Water
requirements were, on the average, for MC-1--1.2-1,4 lir.ers and for MC-2
- - 1 . 4-1. 7 liters/day per person.
Conforming to a program �or worr and rest (PWR), nine hours (from
2300 to 0800 hours in the morning according to Moscow time) were
allocated for sleep, 2.5 hours for physical exercise, 2.5 hours for
four meals, about eight hours for conducting experiments and other
work, two hours for personal time of which one hour, as a rule,
was for an after-dinner rest. Days off for MC-1 were allowed after
five to six days and for MC-2--every Saturday and Sunday (with
certain exceptions). On the whole, the PWR was adhered to. Depart-
ures from the routine wer~- related to conducting the docking
operation with the transport ships and with unloading the "Progress"
shiPs, to j oint work with the expeditionary convoys and to com-
pletion of operation "Exit". In a number of cases, especially
during the flight of MC-1, deviation in PWR was related to the
initiative activity of the crew.
Prophylactic measures included: activities for physical training
on a veloergometer and running track (MC-1 completed training
30-40 percent of the planned time and NiC-2 to a significantly
_ greater extent; on an average, in a ten day period of flight, the
total time of training far MC-2 was for CC 42-87 minutes and for
_ FE 51-82 minutes every day) ; the wearing of weighted suits which
insure d constant weight on the motor apparatus: for MC-1 10-12
hours and for MC-2 15-16 hours/day; trainina by application of
negative pressure to the lower parts of the body; administration
_ of water-salt supplements at the day of flight completion; wearing
before re-entry and after flight of prophylactic anti-overload
suits.
Durin g the flight, showers using the cleanin~ agent, catamin, were
taken twice bv ~IC-1 and three times by MC-2.
To insure psychological balance, leisure activities were arranged
such as radio contact with interesting people (artists, commenta-
tors, scholars) and the families of the cosmonauts. Relay of musical
accompaniment durin~ radio contact sessions, as well as special
concerts and informational transmissions were provided.
General condition of the cosmonauts
The change to weightlessness was accompanied in all six crews
(two MC and four EC) by the development of sensations of increased
blood flow to the head, nasal congestion and puffiness of facial -
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skin. Certain cosmonauts, during this period, experienced transi-
tory spatial illusions, decrease in appetite, and discomfort with
head and trunk movement. The extent of manifestation of these re-
actions varied with each individual. Seme cosmonauts experienced
- vorniting after eating. Usually, autonamic disturbances disappeared
after four days. In MC-2, vPStibular-autonomic reactions were not
observed, but sensations of increased blood flow to the head and
nasal congestion were noted to some degree (on the first throu;h
sixth day of flignt). Sensations of increased blood flow to the
head decreased towards the end of the first week of flight, but
as a rule, MC-1 experienced fatigue durin g the whole flight. Their
fatigue increased at the beginnirig of physical work and they re-
= qLired larger quantities of fluids. Fatigue which developed
_ during the work day was usually resolved completely after a night's
sleep.
During the flight, mild illnesses developed. In the course of t}ie
96 day flioht, one of the cosmonauts on the SOth day became ill
with a common cold. He was treated with drugs from the flight
pharmacy. During this fiight, by the third month, both cosmonauts
experienced headaches and discomfort in the area of the heart.
For FE-1, these sensations were related to hunger. Dental problems
also developed during the 96 day flight.
During the 140 day flight, on the 21st day CC-2 developed paronychia
of the middle finger of the left hand af ter blood was drawn. Ther-
apy consisted of antibiotics, sulphamides and local application
of sintazol ointment. On the 49th day of flight, CC-2 reported
intermittent discomfort in the area of the heart without radia-
tion to other areas. These sensations disappeared independently
an d did not return. FE-2 was diagnosed retrospectively as having
had left-sided otitis of the middle ear manifested by ear pain on
the 112th day of flight. Warm alcohol compresses were used as
the rapy .
Mild, everyday traumas occurred such as a bruised onychia of the
iight thumb of FE-2 on the 39th day and bruises of the left talo-
crural ioint of CC-2 on the 47th day o� flight during work on
the veloergometer. Treatment was not required for these p roblems.
Both cosmonauts of MC-2 experienced headaches on the 29th, 39th
and 53rd day of flight, related, in their opinion, to increased
C02 in the atmasphere of a value greater thar. 5 mm Hg (up to 6-7
mm Hg). Subsequently, increase of C02 content to levels greater
than S mm Hg in the atmosphere was nct allowed.
During the 140 day flight, periodic sele ctive decrease of appetite
for certain products was observed, mainly in FE-2.
bTC-1 slept well as a rule. They fell asleep Quickly and sometimes
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- nad dreams. The length of s leep for MC-1 was, on the average, 7.5
-8.0 hours. However, during joint work with EC and during their
_ own independent wurk, the duration of sleep was shortened. During
the 140 day flight, the sleeping habits consisted of early awaken-
ing of CC-2 (especially at the beginning of the flights) with sub-
sequent difficulty falling back to sleep and wakefuZnsss in FE-2.
In general, these sleep habits were aggravated in flight, but also
occurred on earth. This sleep pattern did not interfere with work
- capacity. On the average, duration of sleep in the first seven
weeks of flight was four to six hours for CC-2 and eight -hours
- for FE-2. A subsequent tendency for normalization of sleep and
even lengthening of its diiration was noted in CC-2. However, CC-2
sometimes retired early. As a sleep aid, CC-2 once took eunoctin
(it caused headache and malaise) as well as the tranquilizer,
phenibut.
During prolonged flight, essential changes in the nervous-psycho-
logical sphere did not arise. However, in certain periods of
' fl.ight, signs of asthenia were observed (fatigue towards the end
of the work day, sleepiness, restlessness during sleep and rare
~ emotional outbursts in the form af inaccurate transmission of
information) which were somewhat more marked in MC-1. After touch-
down (at the Ianding sitP) the cosmonauts noted weakness, fatigue,
= a feeling of increase in body weight and surrounding ob j ects , an
. uncamfortable displacement of internal organs in the direction of
the vectors of gravitation and vertigo. Sharp movements of the
~ head during evacuation at the landing site caused vestibular dis-
comfort in CC-2 and FE-1.
Examinations, conducted immediately after flight, revealed pallor
of the skin and puffiness of the face, limitation of locomotive
function, and decrease in orthostatic stability (after two to
three minutes of standing in a vertical position, the commander
of MC-2 became faint). The inflated anti-overload suit did not
provide adequate protection on the day of landing.
Subsequently, the condition of the crew
and motor activity was increased. Also,
the 140 day flight (that is, after a ni
discomfort disappeared in CC-2, walkin;
the crew was able to walk unassisted to
tor.
improved progressively
on the first day after
ght' s s leep) ves tibuiar
became mo re s te ady and
a meeting with the direc-
Results of studies during and after flight
Change in body weight and leg mass
During the 140 day flight, body weight, measured in flight with
the 3id of the massmeter, decreased in both COSmonauts ( figure . In
CC-2, a clear relationship of 3ecrease in body weight to length
of flight was not evident. The greatest loss of weight (2.3-3.4
23 -
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kg) was observed in him in the 44-59th daqs. In other periods of
flight, the weight loss in CC-2 did not exceed 1.7 kg. In FE-2,
weight decreased progressively up to the 86th day of flight (-5.4
kg) but after providing a larger selection of '.od products, the
_ weight deficit was decreased by the 122nd day and was reduced to
a loss of -3.8 kg. After the flight, the decrease in body weight
was: in CC-1 -3.6 kg, in FE-1 -4.4 kg, in CC-2 -2.1 kg, in FE-2
-5.4 kg. CC-2 regained the lost weight in the course of three
days, FE-1 in the course af four to eight days, in CC-1 and FE-2
in the course of about two weeks.
GM?
2 !t3-!l
Zv00
K~ 2X3-ll f- 2d00 ~
BS .
14 Z 2206 81 2100
8Z ?000
s; 1900
e0 1800
1 6H-1! cMi
3
~ err---------- 1100
- 7S f
_ 74 2000
f900 ,
73 feo0
72 2 f700
71
1.2 >600
_ �
f0 10 d0 40 30 50 73 $0 90 OO 1fp 120 10 20 30 40 30 60 70 BO 90 l001f0110/30 ~40
4 CymKU 4 Cymxu,
Pxc. 1 PNC. 2
PNC. 1. ANN2MNK8 M2CCbi TEI(3 BTOPOI'0 OCNOBHOi'O 3KHIi8?K3 B f10.7CT2: I(3�2-KOMBHAHp
3KHi12?K8: 6N�2 - 6opTxxHCexep 3xHnaxta; cpeat+AA BEJIN4HH2 noKaaaTenA Ao nonera;
- Z- HE11A98H2 it0K232TCJIA H R011eTC
pHC. 2. qNH2MNKd 06'bCM2 i'OAEHN BTOpOfO OCHOBHOtO 3KHI12MC2 B II011CTE: KB'2 - XOM3HIjHp
3KHf12?K2; 5H�2 - 60pTxHKCexep 3KHna*a; cpeaxRA BC11N4NH2 rtoKasareAA AO I10+1QT2;
Z- BEJIHqNHB II0K238T21fA B R0112TC
_ Fi;ure 1. Dynamics of body weight of the second main crew in
flight: CC-2--commander of crew; FE-2--flight engineer
of crew; 1--average value of indices before flight;
2--value of indices during flight
- Figure 2. Dynamics of leg mass of the second main crew in flight:
- CC-2--commander of crew; FE-2--flight engineer of crew;
1--average value of indices before flight; 2--value of
indices in flight .
Key:
1, kg 3. FE-2
2. CC-2 4. Days
During the flight, periods of increased physical activity and
emotional tension (physical exercise, operation "Exit", re-entry)
as well as the limitations of the manner of eating, resulted in
24
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' loss of body weight. However, the loss of fluid in the organism
as a result of its re distribution at the inital period of iveight-
lessness, as well as loss of muscle mass as a result of underuse
o� the muscular system, were significant. A decrease in leg mass
_ also occurred (figure 2). Thus, in the 140 day flight, leg mass
- in both cosmonauts was decreased in the first 11 days of flight
by not more than 11-13 percent. By the 80-100th day, leg mass
was decreased progressively in CC-2 by 23.0 percent, in FE-2 by
- 19.6 percent and was stabilized subsequently. On the 96 day flight,
decrease in leg mass did not depend on length of fligtit--the de-
fi.cit in CC-1 was 17-20 percent, in FE-1--9-16 percent.
Study of the cardio-vascular system
During flight, the frequency of cardio-vascular contraction in
three of the-four cosmonauts exceeded the pre-flight frequency
and, in a number of cases, at the end of flight a tendency towards
progressive increase of this index was noted (figure 3). However,
in CC-1, the frequency of cardiac contraction during flight was,
as a rule, lower than the pre-flight frequency or not different
from it.
The indices for arterial pressure (terminal and peripheral systolic,
diastolic, cardiac and pulse) were altere d slightly and their dy-
- namics were different for each cosmonaut. Generally, changes in
_ arterial pressure developed at several stages of flight, with a
tendency for decrease in all or several related indices. Thus,
in CC-1 and CC-2, all the indices for arterial pressure decreased
by the second month and several indices (terminal systolic, dia-
_ stolic, pulse pressure) in CC-1 decreased by the third month of
_ flight. Pulse pressure in FE-1 and FE-2 was lower than the pre-
flight levels (figure 4).
Changes in the dynamics of contraction of the left ventricle of
the heart became apparent during the 140 day flight. These included
a shortening of the isometric contraction phase, less constant
relative and absolute lengthening of the ejection time, acceler-
ation of diastole and isometric relaxation, 3iastasis and length-
Pning (only in CC-2) o'L relative and absolute index values for
rapid filling. Changes in flight of central hemodynamics, based on rheographic
data, were characterized by initial (on the fourth to seventh
dsy) increase in the pulse volume of the heart (PV) in three of
the four cosmonauts (by 20-32 percent) and a slight tendency for
_ increase relative to pre-flight levels, of momentary circulation
volume (MCV) throughout the entire course of the flight (figure
5). In both crews, the indices for PV and MCV to the head, which
reached a maximum by the 50-85th day, were lowered to pre-flight
levels towards the end of the 140 day flight but incrt,ased through-
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out the entire course of the 96 day flight (figure 6). Indices
for tonus of small cranial vessels were decreased in three cos-
monauts. Seve ral studies during flight revealed asymmetry of in-
dices for blood supply to cranial vessels. This resolved towards
the end of the flight. Indices for blood supply to the leg decreased
given simultaneous increase ar absence of changes in indices for
blood supply to the forearm.
13-1
~1lIMUM ' _h�3-I I y!!i^+uN 4
BCI ---------Z BO
60 i - 60
40 , 40
ZO 20
- ZO 40 60 BO 100 ,0 JG ,50 70 90 110 1J0
- ~ I 6CymXrc . '
yQ/MUN 3 1 ya/ MUH S~y
BO 6N-r � BO
_ 60 60
40 wa
ZO ZO
_ ZO 40 60 BO f00 f0 d0 SO 70 90 110 130
6 CymKrc
Pac. 3. 1lxttaMqxa cpe,upHx aenxaax qacrorm ctplteqabta corcparaeRBit e none�
Te: f-48KTH9eCKHC CpOAHNe BGIA4AIiN IIOKS3MJ1A B p89Hb1e QeQROAb1 Op6S-
T8Ab80P0 QO11eT3; Z- CPlAHHG BGIA9RH6[ AOK8327GIR B DPl1(AOnCT90M DepHO-
j(e; 3 - IIpEAEJIb[ xone6asaA II0K338TlJIR B QQCA4oaeTH0Y I1tp NORE; K3'1 $
K3-2 - xoMaHAxp~ nepaoro x BTOporo ocHOBxaz ~xxnaACe!!; BH-1 x 5H-2 -
60pTxexcexepd nepeoro a eTOporo ocaoeaetx sKSSaaxceA
Figure 3. Dynamics of average frequency of cardiac contraction
in flight: 1--average value of indices in different
periods of orbital flight; 2--average value of indices
_ in the pre-flight period; 3--extent of variation of
indices in the pre-flight period; CC-1 and CC-2--comman-
ders of first and second main crews; FE-1 and FE-2--
flight engineers of first and second main crews
Key :
1. Beats/minute 4. CC-Z
2. CC-1 S. FE-2
- 3. FE-1 6. Days
During the 140 day flight, venous pressure, determined by phlebo-
gram of the jugular vein during application of negative pressure
- to the lower parts of the body, increased ini.tially by 1.5-2 times,
- normalized by the 85th day of flight and subsequently increased
again. In the 96 day flight, the level of venous pressure was in-
- creased to a still greater degree and did not decrease (figure 7).
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1 2 K3-I 3 KJ�!l
.,rr/m.cm. � .
J50 4 ADR0n.150
JJU ADl'i0 ~ r~, ADKON.
110 ~!M^-" ~i lr0 5 AD
` . .
90 J (.A D:p. 90 -aR ^
70 ~ 7 ADd. 70 - . ADCP
4
r
SO 8 Cym.KU 30 � 8 Cymnu A~d�
~ ,
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~ 06cneJoaaMU~ do nonema ~ 470nem 4 06catdoEoNU.o do noqtms /lanem 10
750 '~H-I !SO 1 6N-d
4 AoXO,,. 4 il DKaH.
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ADco 90 m~ ~nr~ - ADOo,r.S
A DcP.4
70 ADI 70 ~
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r~
J 2 j 4 70 40 60 BO 11 J45670910 70 40 60 s0 100 /20
06cnt1i0aMU.# do nonrma /lonim 06e71dnlaNUA Oo noaPma /lantm
9 g
PHC. 4. ~',xxa~exxa noxaaarene~i apzepxanbxoro Rasnexas e noneTe~ 1- xoHe4HOe cx-
-cTon$aecxue aptepaanvxce AaeneNae (AJE�o:); 2- 6oKOece csczonNaecxoe apTepa-
anbaoe.Aannegse (Alloox); 3- cpe.aaee aprepaanbeoe Aaeneaxe (Aj.[ov); 4- Aaacro-
naqecxoe apTepaanbsoe ttae,neaae (A,QA); sanpasneaaAua uUrpxxoa 0603eaqeao uynaca
eoe qaeneaxe. K3-1 a K3-2 - xoxaattxpb1 nepeoro H sroporo ocxoMIx sKaaaaceA;
BN-1 H 514-2 - Q0pTHH?K2HEp5t IICpBO['0 8 HTOp01'0 OCNOBHhi7C 3KHd3}KEA
Figure 4. Dynamics of indices fox arterial pressure in flight:
1--terminal systolic arterial pressure (APte ) ; 2--
pPripheral systolic arterial pressure (AP erT; 3--
average arterial pressure (APav ) ; 4--diastolic
arterial pressure (APdias); dirgE tion of strokes, mar-
king des ignated pulse pressure, CC-1 and CC- 2--comman-
ders of first and second main crews; FE-1 and FE-2--
flight engineers of first and s.econd main crews
Key.
1, mm Hg 7� APdi as
2. CC-1 8. Uays
3. CC-2 9. Examined prior to flight
4. aPter 10. Flight
5. APPer 11.-FF,-I
6. aPaver 12. FE��2
Based on data from plethysmographic studies, venous pressure in
the lower extremities in flight (studied only in MC-2) was on
the 130th day approximately 8 mm Hg in CC-2 and on the 125th day
approximately 6 mm Hg in FE-Z. During exit from the spaceship
the plethysmographic curve showed a maximum increase in the tibial
venous pressure, which, evidently, indicated a decrease in tonus
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of the vein and arl increase in elasticity. The volume rate of
1 L
n f MuH n/Aru;
2 X3 -1 �
9 tt -3 9 0
7 Z
s 7
J,
S
3 K3 --Y
--yn.------
20 4J 6J NJ f00 20 40 60 BO f00 1ZC
1~~MU.Y � ~ I ~3 MUN 5 6y-~
.!i 4 6N-1
F
�
_ 9 9
s y -
~ ~ 3 �
J
20 40 59 60 >00 20 40, 60 BO 100 120
= 6 Cymxu
Pxc. 5. LlNxaxxxa Maayrxoro o6bema xpoeoo6pacueHxa e nonere:
OaxrxyecxRe eenxqxad MxHyrHOro o6beNa Kpoeoo6paujexAS s
pa3Hde nepHOAbr 0p6xr3nbeoro nonera; 2- CptANAR BE1lH4NH2
MHN}tTHOCO 06bEMa Kp0B006p2I11eHN31 H npe,qnoneTHOM nepROtte; 3-
apeAena uone6axNA MHH}rTHOPO o6beMa xp0e006paWexxa e npelt-
nojierxoM nepxotte; K3-1 x K3-2 - x0M3HAxpt1 nepeoro s eroporo
ocsoextIa 3xxnaxceA; BN-1 x 5YI-2 - 60prHHmexepbi nepeoro s era
, pero ocxoexbIx 3xxnaMA.
Figure S. Dynamics of momentary circulation volume in flight: 1--
level of MCV in different periods of orbital flight;
2--average level of MCV in the pre-flight period; 3--
extent of variation of MCV in the pre-flight period;
C:.-i anet CC-2--:.cmnanders uz the first ar:d ~~.c^nd ma].n
crews; FE-1 and FE-2--flight engineers of the first
and second main crews
- Key:
1. Liters/minute 4. FE-1
2. CC-1 S. FE-2
3. CC-2 6. Days
blood flow to the tibi.a was decreased.
Eler-trocardiographic e:camination (12 separate EKG tests) revealed
no essential changes in bioelectrical activity of the myocardium
during flight. Minor variations in indices, not exceeding the
- norm3l limits were noted. Comparison with data, obtained at the
first EKG examination in fliaht (MC-1--seventh day, MC-?--Zlst
day) shawed that during the 140 3ay flight, the ampli-tude of the
QRS complex and the T waves did not change towards the end of
~ the flight. The R/T interval in comparison with pre-flight data
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1 A
om+. ed. 2 ~ cm93-z3
, 900 - -9 800
300 Z 600
400 ---------3 4J0
-200* L -1 100~___ ~
20 40 60 BD f00 20 40 60 BO ',09 110 fy0
6 Cymr.u
lomH.ca bN_j4 � lomH.ed. 6N-II 5
_ BDO $00
600 600 -
400 - - - - - - - - - 400
200 T J - - ~ - 1 ~ ZUO t - T - 7 - ~ - ~ - ~
ZD 40 60 SO 110 10 40 60 BO f00 110 140
- 6 CymKU . .
- Pac. 6A. IIxHaMNxa noxasaTenA nynbcoeoro xpoeexanonxeaxx cocyAOa rono-
ad s rtoneTe: 1-4)2KTN4lCKH2 82JIN9NHbf noKasarens nynbcoeoro xpoee-
xanonxeHxA cocyAOe ronosbc e pa3Hbie nepNOUlM op6xtaabHOro noaeTa; 2-
cpeltaAS eenxyxxa noKasaTens nynbcoeoro xpoeexartonaexxa cocyAOe rono-
sbt s npe,anonrrxow nepaoate; 3- npeAend xone6aHxfi n0K23aTe,nA aynb-
coeoro KpoaeeaaonxexxA cocyatoe roaoBbi e npennoneTxoM nepxoAe; K3�1
a KB-2 - xoxasAapui nepeoro e eTOporo OCHOBHhiX 3xxnawea; 5H-1 x
BM-2 - 6oprxaxcexepu nepeoro N aroporo OCAOBHh[E 3KNl12?KEA
omN.cd. X3-I Z ~ omN td. 0-d3
B00 --1 d00 -
- 60D 1 500
400 -----------J 400
200t L 200_
ZO 40 60 10 f00 ZO 40 60 BO f00 120 140
1 CymKU. b
omH. da EN-1. 4, 1 omH. td. 6N -115 .
� 890
B00
600 - - - - - - - - - - -
_ 600
400 ypp _ 1O0T ~ - ~ ZDO* ~ ~ - ~ - 7 - ~ - 7 - ~
Z9 40 60 Go 1Q0 20 4D 6o BO f00 1Z0 140
6 Gymx�
Psa 65. ,iIaHaxAxa noxaaaTeAA Uxayrxoro tspoeexanonsexxa cocyAOS ro-
nosbl s nonere: 1- 4)axTHtiecxae senaqxHu noxasaTenx usayTxoro xpoee-
saaoJraesaA cocyAoe ronoeu e paMte eepxoAM 0p6HT2nbHOro noneTa;
2- cpeltxxst HeaxqRxa rtoKasarenx xxxyrxoro xpoeeHaaoasesas cocyAoe
ronosu e apeanoneTxoM nepxoAe; 3- npeAelyd Kone6axHA noxasaTenA xa-
ayrxoro xpoaexaaoneeHxa cocy,noe ronoebi e apeAnoneraou nepyotte; K3-1
A K3-2 - 1CON3H1tqp6[ nepeoro R aroporo ocsoeqsrx 3KA112NC2A; BH-1 x
SN-2 - 60praaxceaepd nepeoro x eroporo ocROesstx 3ttstnaHteft
Figure 6A. The d.ynamics of in
vesse-ls in flight:
to cranial vessels
fliaht; 2--average
to cranial vessels
dices for blood suppiy to cranial
1--value of indices for blood supply
during different periods of orbital
value of indices for blood supply
in the pre-flight period; 3--extent
29
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of variation of indices for blood supply to the
cranial vessels in the pre-flight period; CC-1 and
CG-2--commande rs of first and second main crews;
FE-1 and FE-2--flight engineers of first and secund
main crews .
Figure
6B. Dynamics of indices for momentary blood supply to
cranial vessels in flight: 1--value of indices for
momentary blood supply to cranial vessels in different
periods of orbital flight; 2--average value of indices
for momentary blood supply to the cranial vessels in
the pre-flight period; 3--extent of variation of indices
for momentary blood supply to the cranial vessels in
the pre-flight period; CC-1 and CC-2--commanders of
the first and second main crews; FE-1 and FE-2--flight
enginee rs of the f irs t and s econd main crews
\ Key:
.
1.
Reference units 4. FE-1
2.
CC-1 S. FE-2
3.
CC-2 6. Days
although during flight specific dynamics were not ob-
increased
served
,
as a rule. After flight, decrease in T waves was noted on
EKG.
Tests for physical stress, using a veloergometer (five minutes
with a stress of 750 kg-m/min) during the course of the 140 day
flight (the test was conducted on the 29th, 41st, 62nd, 97th and
119th day) showed good or satisfactory results in both cosmonauts.
The frequency of cardiac contraction in flight at the time of
completion of the test reache d a somewhat higher level than prior
to the flight: in CC-2 prior to flight 116-120 beats/min, in flight
117-135 beats/min; in FE-2 prior to flight 103-107 beats/min, in
flight 108-115 beats/min (figure 8).
_ During the 96 day flight, the abso2ute and relative increase in
the frequency of cardiac contraction at several examinations w as
more marked than prior to flight. This was especially apparent
on the 24th day of flight when other nemodynamic indices were
altered essentially as well. The greatest increase in frequency
of cardiac contraction in response to physical stress occurred
. during a series of studies, especially marked in MC-1. These
shifts together with other hemodynamic changes, can be attributed
- to a definite decrease in the functional capacities af the cardio-
vascular system in flight. The more marked changes in MC-1 are.
related, possibly, to the fact that the recommended amount of
physical exercise was carried out to a lesser extent, th an the
amaunt undertaken by MC-2.
Post-flight tests for physical stress were conducted on the se-
venth day (three minutes with a stress of 600 kg-m) and revealed
30
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PHC. 7. ,CixxaMxxa noKasa-
TEAA HCHO3HOC0 A88J1eHHA B
noArre: 1 - epeAHas aena-
qsaa noxa3aTens e npeAno�
.nernou aepsoae; 2 - Beax-
9HH8 II0K838TCJIR 8 AOAGTl;
1(3-1 x K3�2 - xoKaxAapd
nepeoro H eTOPoro ocHUeeUx
3axxnanceg; 6N�1 x 6N�2 -
60praxncexepu nepeoro e
BTOPOiO OCHOBA61x 9KftII3-
HceA
Mrrprcr. j
L lf3 Il
.>O ZO.fO 40 30 60 70 BO 90 f001f01107,~0
Cymxtc
1
Mnrp~ tr. 6N-II 5
�g . �
7
3
~
f0 19 30 4: ;7 6910 BO 90 fOD1f01'L?!30
CymKU 6
Figure 7. Dynamics of indices for venous pressure in flight: 1-=
average value of indices in the pre-flight period; 2--
value of indices in flight; CC-1 and CC.-2--commanders
of first and second main crews; FE-1 and FE-2--flight
engineers of first and second main crews
Key:
1. mm Hg 4. FE-1
2. CC-1 S. FE-2
3. CC-2 6. Days
changes in the regulation of the cardio-pulmonary system (table).
For b4C-1, the frequency of cardiac contraction and systolic and
arterial pressure were increased at the time of the test in com-
parison with pre-flight data. These indices (the so-called cardiac
stress index of I.K. Shkhvatsabaya(1978)) were increased in the
commander by 10 percent and in the flight engineer by 28 percent.
This level of strength of cardiac activity insured an adequate
supply of oxygen not only for the commander but also for the
flight engineer. In far_t, the oxygen requirements were 11 per-
cent less than the pre-flight level, which, evidently, reflected
the extent of lack of conditioning for physical stress. In MC-Z,
an increase in the strength of cardiac activity was noted even
at rest: the cardiac load index exceeded the pre-flight level
in CC-2 by 44 percent and in FE-2 by 75 percent. However, this
reaction to physical stress, in comparison to the initial
level, was altered to a lesser degree: t}ie cardiac load index
in CC-2 increased at the time of the test by 20 percent and in
FE-2 by 34 percent in comparison with pxe-flight levels. although
the strength of cardiac activity was also increased, an adequate
supply of oxygen was obtained, reflecting the change in regula-
tion of cardio-pulmonary function, after five weeks of readapta-
tion, the reaction to physical stress was completely restored.
31
FOR OFFIC[AL USE ONLY
1- MM pT. tT. N32r
11 2 ,
9
7
J
d
10 ?D JO 4010 60 70 SO 90
1 MM pT.6T,
rd 6N-14
f1
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1 y~IMUH 1 yff'M4'H 3
f50 r3"j Z 150 ~3-a
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npada6
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90 90 ~ Qo ~pada
70 a npefi~ 70 - - - - - - - - - -
50 + . SO
' !0 10 J0 44 SO 60 70 BO 90 /D 10 JO 40 SO 6010 BO 90 1001fO /20
8 CymKu '
Pec. 8. AIiB2MHK8 R8CTOTbt CepAC9HHx COKpSU1Cti8ik fIPH iip08E1iCAHH npo6bt aa seno3protierpe. H noaere: 1- cpetlaaA eenHqxaa qacroTbr
cept[eqaux coxpautexxit e npeltnonereom nepqo.ae nepeA npo6oA; 2-
' uaxcsxanbaax senxqaxa qarrotti cepAeqRbIx coKpawesxA e npeAno-
- nerxox nepxoAe eo apee+a npo6ti; 3- cpeApaA H2JIN4NH3 98CT0?5i
- ceplteaauix coKpautexaii a nonere nepeA npo6oR; 9-caxcxxaJIb-
aaA aenxaHSa qacrorbi cepAeauWx coxpacueaaA e nonere ao apeuR
% apoft; K34 R K9�2 - Koxae,axpbc nepsoro H sTOporo ocxoaebiz
9Kxnaxei; BI-i-1 x 6N�2 - 60prxMeaepw nepeoro n sTOporo x-
_ scoexUz SKxnaMCeg .
Figure 8. Dynamics of frequency of cardiac contraction during
veloexgometric tests in flight: 1--average frec{uency
of cardiac contraction in the pre-flight period before
the test; 2--maximum frequency of cardiac contraction
_ in the pre-flight period at the time of the test; 3--
- average frequency of cardiac contraction in flight
before the test; 4--maximum frequency of cardiac con-
traction in flight at the time of the test; CC-1 and
CC-2--commanders of first and second main crews; FE-1
and FE-2--flight engineers of first and second main
crews
Key: It
1. Beats/minute S. FE-2
2. CC-1 6. Test
3. CC-2 7. Before test
4. FE-1 8. Days
A function test applying negative pressure to the lower parts
of the body (NPLB), carried out four times in the 140 day flight
- and five times in the 96 day flight, caused a circulatory re-
action, similar to the pre-flight reaction to the same test.
However, in flight, the increase in frequency of cardiac con-
32
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, HtXOTOQYC 110K23STlaM 1(2PAN0-QC[IINQBTOPH0A CNCTtMd y 4JIeHOS BKH113MLe11 Op6NT3J16H0k
C2'aHt(NN XaJ1107`80 Ha 3-A ,IS(i Ji CTYi1tHN (ON3N4lCI(0A NS!'py3KH 800 K 2.Kl,K'!t K
Sa MtCAQ A0 110At78 H 4CQE3 NeAGIIO IIOGIC !f0 OKOH48HNA ,
((10 J1SHNdM B. B. Ilikf0alY3 N Ap�)
2 3 96-CYfC9pY0 lIQACI 140-Cyt04NYA 110JIM
1 Bpmx rorauAxp 66opnmyceyeD ~ xwuar Hp prdMC.wep
� floraaaraAt � rccaa
' Jwww 7~ I'APY3'. I
~ I aapys ~ � ~ ba~ri-
~],qFm"% a cep,aeq~x coxpa- IIo9 75 it4 58 109 84 105 58 103
yd/xux Ilocal 80 !19 66 !19 82 !!8 86 i20
lt area,,A, .~c Ao 253 220 283 235 281 230 271 220
I7oc.:e 240 200 255 170 250 207 245 00
13riorpe6nexae xxc~opoAa, Ao 254 1206 238 1445 297 1350 313 1221
- .we/xax 17ocae 264 1209 254 5335 298 1343 313 1320
14 KirAapoAM$ nynbC, Ao 3,4 10,6 4,1 13,3 4,8 !!,8 5,4 ii*9
xA/yd Tlocae 3,3 10,2 3,8 11,2 3,6 11,4 3,6 11,0
1 SAprepeaabxoe A&B+se2+ee Ao 140 170 135 140 115 150 110 160
cacraRaqecxoe. x+spT.cr. I7ocue 140 180 i20 165 130 160 130 180
1GTo me, 1tHacraaxaecxoe Ao - 70 . 95 75 90 70 90 60 75
Ilocne 75 90 80 80 85 95 70 90
. 'JCepAeaxuA xarpysoYHwA Ao 105 194 78 153 74 158 64 165
axAexc, ycn. e1t. Docne 112 214 79 196 107 189 112 20
_ Table. Several indices for cardio-pulmonary function in crew
members of the orbital station "Salyut-6" given a three
minute interval of physical stress at a rate of-600 kg-m/
min for the month prior to flight and at the week after its
completion (based on the data of V.V. Shchigolev and
- others)
Key:
1. Indices 9. Before
2. Time of examination 10. After
3. 96 day flight 11. Frequency of cardiac contraction,
4. 140 day flight beats/min
5. Commander 12. Ejection phase, ms
6. Flight engineer 13. Need for oxygen, ml/min
7. Background 14. Oxygen pulse ml/beat
8. Load 15. 5ystolic arterial pressure, mm Hg
16. Diastolic arterial pressure
17. Cardiac load index, standard
units
traction was more marked, in the majority of cases, and was slightly
increased in some of the cosmonauts in relation to the length of
the flight (figure 9). Rheographic investigation, given a vacuum,
showed daEferent degrees of decrease in i-ndices for circulation to
the cranial vessels (�i~ure 10). This phenomenon was accompanied
by marked vaso-constriction.
In the post-flight period, a study was conducted to determine the
reaction of the organism to ortho- and anti-orthostatic effects
according to the following plan: horizontal position--30 min, 70�
--10 min, horizontal position--6 min,--150�--6 min, --30�--6 min.
33
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1 yQ ~ wuH 1 9,Q/ruM
v
I ,Y3-I 2
!1a t- . na
~
90 $ 9~
J
JS r.-r pm.cm.
Z 2Jr,npm.cntJ
. 78
~ ~ Qa n'o6u
,
i 30 9 Cymvu 7s
j ' 06enedoaa-70 40 60 00 !00
~ Nu.0 d0ea.+ima
x3-d3
JJ Mw pm.'cm.
~ ZS .�er pm. cm_
4o npolsi.1
CymKu
- � 9.
06ne0e0aNao 10 � v0 60 $17 100 120 !40
Oo nonrmQ
I - 6 _
4 ~y.('~MlfN ~ S~Q/Mt[N
4 6N -d 5
90 I.I.vM/T.LT.O Jf rMPT.CR7..
- ' 2.1 Ara /m. tm. I S MAr pm, cm.
7p~ Qa npo0ar7 70 ~ qo npod~i 7
sp 9 Gymxu 9 Cym,ru
~
OisnrArBaHUw 10 40 60 s0 I00 ' OQcnedoJaNU~ 10 40 60 80 100 120 140
dn nonema Oa nanema
6 6
pac. 9. ItxaaxHxa aacmrti ceplte4ab[x coKpauteaxA npa npoaeAeaxx npo6d c npHnoxceHxebr
0'I'p82(87PJ1bH0i'O AaB1leHHR K HHACHC$ 98CTH TG12 B i10J1ETC: I- CpCAHAA BCIIH4HH2 92CTOTH
. cepltaqsbcx coxpaMeaaii aepeu apo6oA; 2 - MSKCHM2JIbH3S B21IR4HH2 93CTOTbi cep4eqKwz
coxpau,teKait npa paapexxexxs - 25 .N.N QT. CT.; 3- MaxcNxan6xaA 821IN4HH8 92CTOTSi CeP-
Aeanbu coxpauxeexA nps pa3pe2xexxa - 35 AiM pr. cr.; K3-1 a K3-2 - xoxasttxpd nepeo-
ro x eroporo ocxoBadx 9Kanaxcefi; EN-1 8 BH-2 - 6UpTNH?KENCP61 nepeoro x aTOporo oc-
aoexuuc 3KxaaHCeft
Figure 9. Dynamics of frequency of cardiac contraction after
application of negative pressure to the lower parts
of the body in flight: 1--average freQuency of cardiac
contraction before test; 2--maximum frec{uency of car-
diac contraction in a vacuum--25 mm Hg; 3--maximum
freQuency of cardiac contraction in a vacuum--35 mm Hg;
� CC-1 and CC-2--commanders of first and second main
crews; FE-1 and FE-2--flight engineers of first and
second main crews
Key :
1. Beats/minute S. FE-2
2. CC-1 b. Examined before flight
3. CC-2 7. Before test
4. FE-1 8. mm Hg
9. Days
In all cosmonauts, decrease in orthostatic stability occurred
(figure 11) , which was more marked than before flighfi. An in-
crease in frequency of cardiac contraction, acceleration of ejec-
tion time and decrease in pulse and cardiac indices were also
noted. The decrease in orthostatic stability in MC-2 was more
resistant (seven weeks) than in MC-1 (three weeks). The charac-
teristics of the orthostatic reactions after these flights
deserve attention. Following the 96 day flight, after three and
34
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1 2 K3-ll
K3-I
/ jj MI/
~ JSMM IOO
--j~.rr 1s.rr
80 ~_~JSr,y QO
Js MM '
6p 60 lsrn
~ ~S MM
40 40 '
?0 5 20 GymRUS
� CymRu
- - 10 40 60 JO 100 ZO 40 6D 00 !00 /10 140
3 4
SN-i
100 100
JJ MM
' OO ~ 1SMM
~UM d0 TSMM
� _ MO ~ - - - - - - JSMM
60 JJM~ 60
yp 40
20 I S CymRu ZC S CymKu
10 40 60 60 JOD ZO 40 60 ?0 /00 110 !40
Pac. 10. aHxaKxxa noKaaarenA nyabcoeoro Kpoeexanonaexxa cocynoa ronoebi npx npo-
aeAeaHH npo6x c r,pxnoHCexxem orpHuaTeabtsoro ttaelcexxA x acxcxeA yacTa rena B noneTe:
1- aenNVexa noxa3arenA 1to npo6d: aenayaga noKaaaTenA npR pa3pexceHxK - 25xM
pr. cr.; 3- eenHqNaa noxa3azena apa p23pexcexxx - 35 MAl pr. cr.; K3-1 H K3-2 - xo-
xaxltxpbl nepeoro x eroporo ocaoeaax 3Kxnaxcd; bN-1 x BH-2 - 6opTxxxej+epa nepeoro'
x eTOporo ocaoaeUz sxanaHCefi .
Figure 10. Dynamics of indices for circulation to cranial
vessels during tests of applying negative pressure
to the lower parts of the body in flight: 1--value
of indices before tests; 2--value of indices in
a vacuum--25 mm Hg; 3--value of indices in a vacuum
_ --35 mm Hg; CC-1 and CC-2--commanders of first and
second main crews; FE-1 and FE-2--flight engineers
of first and second crews
Key :
_ 1. CC-1 3. FE-1
2. CC-2 4. FE-2
5. Days
five weeks, hypertensive reactions were observed, but following
the 140 day flight, the opposite tendency was note d. This may
be a sign of the greater resistant force of anti-gravitational
function of the circulatory system in a more prolonged flight.
After the flights, all cosmonauts could better endure, subjectively,
anti -orthostatic loads, noting the decrease of its "burden" by
appreximately 15�. An integral analysis of data for the cardiac
cycle showed that arterial pressure, tonus of the main arteries
and anti-orthostatic stability were increased in all cosmonauts
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~
90
60
/A `
0
70
PNC. 11. ~JNH2MNK3 NHTC-
['PdItbHOPO ROH23dTEJ1A Op-
TocrarsqecxoA ycTOAqx-
socrx B nocnenoneTxont
ttepHOAe: 1 - K3-1, 2 -
BI4-1; 3 - K3-2; 4 -
60 r~ I - t I I I bH'2 .
f 6 f3 1B 24 dq
GymKU aacne 170nem0 1
Figure 11. Dynamics of integral indices for orthostatic stability
in the post-flight period: 1--CC-1; 2--FE-1; 3--CC-2;
4--FE-2
Key :
1. Days after flight
(figure 12) and, gradually, over a course of five weeks of ob-
servation, returned to the initial level.
Thus, in prolon ged flights, the circulatory system can adapt to
- weightlessness as seen in increased ability to counteiact the
redistribution of blood to the cranial area. The manifestation
of adaptive changes depends on the plasticity of the individual
circulatory system and its resistance to the effects of prolonged
- space flight.
NnAy
. . : ym.ta. -2 .
. too .
Pxc. 12. AHxaWSSxa gt�- 80
rerpanbxoro noxasaTens
' aH'fHOQTOCTdTH42C1COF1 yC- 70
TOit9NBOCTH B ROCACIta12T� 6a b{/'Z ~J~ ~ ~ ~
xoM, nepxone: 1- I(34, 30 R-2 6
- 2- 8H-1; 3- K3�2, 4- 40 ~ 6N-1 7
, bH'2 o- n_f $
3 do 1 6 13 y6 iN 3S
� natcmc
4CymKU nocAe nonema
Figure 12. Dynamics of integral indices for anti-orthostatic
- stability in the post-flight period: 1--CC-1; 2--FE-1;
3--CC-2; 4--FE-2
Key :
1. Integral indices for anti- S. FE-2
orthostatic stability 6. CC-2
2. Standard unit 7. FE-1
3. Pre-flight 8. CC-1
4. Days af ter flight
Based on echocardiographic data (O.Yu At'kov, G.A. Fomina), after
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_ the 96 day flight on the day of landing and on the first day
after flight, a decrease in the capacity of th- left ventricle
and cardiac ejection was noted, as well as a decrease in :nass
_ (estimated method) of the le�t ventricle. The dimensions of the
left atrium were somewhat increased. In the first three days
after flight, a paradoxical movement of the inter - ventri-cular
wall was recorded in FE-1. This phenomenen is usually obsexved
when a small circulatory region is over-loaded. After the 140
day flight, a decrease in the dimensions and capacity of the
left ventricle was noted. A decrease in the pulse voiume by
33 percent was observed in CC-2. These changes were not observed
on the seventh 3ay after flight. The indices for contraction
function of the myocardium di d not differ, for al l practical
purgases, from the pre-flight levels.
- tiVeightlessness is currently thought to be the basic factor which
determines the Qualitatively unique and specific physiologic
shi,fts which occux in an organism during space flight (Gazenko,
Yegorov, 1976; Gurovskiy, Yegorov, 1976). The mechanism for the
effect of weightlessness is, evidently, a decrease in the func-
t?onal load on a number ot systems oombined with the absence
of weight and the resulting mechanical stress on the body struc-
tures (Gazenko, Yegorov, 1976; Gurovskiy, Yegorov, 1976; Kovalen-
ko, 1973) .
During weightlessness, a redistribution of fluid in an orgazism
towards the cranial direction occurs . This process is reinforced
during the fligrt (chart 1) . Studies conducted during the "Sky-
lab" program revealed relocation of the center of body mass (Thorn-
ton, 1977) as well as a tendency towards an increase in cardiac
ejection, venous pressure and indices for circulation to the
cranial area. Such data were also recorded during flights of
the "Salyut" program.
Chart 1. Over-view of inechanisms for ch, - ges in physiological
functions jJ}11C}1 cause relocation of fluids towards
the crayiial area
--increase in transmural absorption of tissue fluid;
--lowering of tissue pressure in the lower extremities (decrease
in mass of ? ower extremities) ;
--increase in transmural pressure and filtration in the capillaries
of the ugper part of the body (edema of the tis s ues at the upper
regions of the heart) ;
--increase of venous return, tension on the central and pre-car-
diac ve ins and increase in ;:ardiac ejection;
--increase in indices of circulation to the cranial and jugular
ve ins ; --increase of venous pressure (pressure in jugular veins recorded
during flight) which is regulated to the level of central venous
37
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N~ or right arterial pressure (Thornton, 1977) ;
--decrease of the pressure gradient in the venous system;
--increase of the role of acti.ve diastole in hemodynamics;
--development of a phasic syndrome in load capacity;
- --increase of pressure in the cardio-pulmonary area and inhi-
bition of the vasomotor centers (Shepherd, 1979);
--inc rease in tonus of the vagus nerve and activation of re-
lief reflexes (Parin, Meyerson, 1965; Kitayev, 1931; Dexter,
Dow, 1950) for receptors af the pulmonary vessels which limit
the flow of blood to the heart and whzch decrease the tonus
, of vessels of the large chamber (tendency towards decrease
_of arterial pressure and peripheral resistance);
--elimination of fluid accorcting to *he xenry-Gauer mechanism
(loss of weight and certain electrolytes) and increase of
san guineous deposition as a result of stimulation of the
receptors of ths pre-cardiac and pulmonary vessels (Parin,
Meyerson, 1965; Ganer, 1974; Chernigovskiy, 1960; Dickinson,
1950), which partially compensate for the manifested shifts
(decrease of facial edema and sensations of increased blood
- flow, etc.);
--stabilization of a new functional level of circulation be-
cause of.activation of compensatory mechanisms for the
carotid sinus (Shepherd,1979; Marshall, Shepherd, 1968).
'fhis redistribution of fluid, possibly, is the basis for the
activation of a number of inechanisms which cause changes in
- physiological functions (chart 2).
Chart 2. Mechaai -:zms for changes in certain functions of an
organism during keightlessness
1. Sensation of increased blood flow to the head:--relocation
of fluid towards the cranial direction.
2. E dema of body tissue, distributed to the upper areas of the
heart:
--increase of transmural pressure in the capillaries, dis-
tributed to the upper areas rf the heart.
3, Weight loss.:
--pressure from fluid on the organism;
--partial loss of muscle mass;
--increased physical activity and emotional stress;
--restriction of types of food,
4. Decrease of lower extremity mass :
--relocation of fluid in the cra,zial direCtion;
--increase in r.ransmural absorptioz of tissue fluid and
decrease in tissue p-,esssra;
--decrease of mn.scl� tonus azd soaie loss of mascle mass.
5. A tendency for increase in ca.rdiac ejectien;
--r�location of fluid in the cranial direction;
- - increase of venous return.
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- 6. Increase of venous pressure and circulation to the jugular
vein;
--relocation of fluid in the cranial direction;
- --development of general venous stasis because of decrease in
the pressure gradient in the venous svstem and, possibly,
because of decrease in the activity of the intra-muscular
- peripheral heart;
--Tendency for increased cardiac ejection.
7. Increase of elasticity of the tibial veins:
--decrease of muscular tonus; --decrease of tissue pressure.
8. Reconstruction of the p:iasic structures of the cardiac cycle
(inci�ease of strength and effective length of cardiac con-
traction, increase in rapid �illing time, shortening of
- the hemodynamically non-effective isometric phase and
decrease of the time for cardiac muscle rest):
--stress on the heart capacity (increase of the role, of
the indraft function of the heart and of active diastole)
and changes in hemodynamics because of decrease of pressure
gradient in the venous system.
9. Marked reaction to the tests which apply negative pressure
to the lower parts of the budy:
--greater relocation of blood to organs of abdominal cavity
and to lower extremities, leading to decreased activity
. of the receptors in the cardio-pulmonary area and increased
- activity of vasomotor centers (Shepherd, 1979) with strength-
ening of the adrenal influence;
_ --increased elasticity of the veins of the lower extremities.
10. Decrease of orthostatic stability after flight;
--increase of elasticit.y of veins in lower e:ctremities;
--decrease of venous returi~.
. 11. Decrease of endurance to physical stress:
--development of general deconditioning Of the organism
because of inadequate load on the muscular system;
--difficulty iti venous return (after flight).
_ During the last stages of residence in weightless conditions,
because of constant physical underloadi-ng of the organism
(especially given inadequate physical training) and decrease
in position-related tonic function of the muscle (no need for
the body to resist the forces of gravity), the muscular system,
to a greater or lesser degree, becomes deconditioned. As a result,
the activity of the intra-muscular peripheral heart is decreased.
Blood is moved by this part of the heart from the arterv through
the capillaries of the skeletal muscles to the veins, thus de-
creasing the work of the heart and enabli.ng the return of venous
blood to the righ.t heart (Arinchin, tiedvetskaya, 1974). The de-
crease in intra-organ pumping function of the skeletal muscles
also promotes the development of venous stasis and increased
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venous pressure.
- Post-flight medical studies revealed a number of more or less
clearly outlined syndromes. Thes.e included:
--general fatigue and asthenia (rapid physical and psychic ex-
haustion, irritability) ;
deconditioning of the organism to orthostatic and physical
- effects ;
--residual phenomena of redistribution of blood (pastiness of
the face and upper half of the chest in NiC-1, dilatation and
overflow of the venous network with peri-capillary edema,
decreased respiratory capacity) ;
--statokinetic disturbances. Based on data collected by I.B.
Kozlovska and co-workers, the cosmonauts developed distur-
bances in co-ordination of movement and regulation of the
verticle position, increase in sensitivity to muscular
afferent input and disturbances in inter-extremity refle:c
interaction, increase in electromyographic indices for
muscular strength and decrease in the maximum level of
reflex response;
--atrophy of the muscles of the lower extremities (decrease
of the perimeters of the tibia and femur, body weight, decrease
- of tonus and muscle strength) ;
--anemia in the form of decrease in general volume of hemoglobin
(in MC-1 by 24 percent), decrease in the number of erythro-
cytes (in MC-2 the most marked decrease was observed in CC-2
on the 20th day after flight, in FE-2, on the 34th day) and
the content of hemoglobin. After the 96 day flight, changes
in the dimensions and form of erythrocytes were observed (aniso-
- and poikilocytes--15-20 percent of them were abnormal);
_ --changes in electrolyte metabolism;
- --changes in immunologic reactivity.
The complex of rehabilitative measures included functional ex-
ercises to regulate motor activity, therapeutic-rehabilitative
muscle massage, therapeutic sports and monitored walking, water
procedures and psycho-emotional therapy. The effectiveness of
these measures was evaluated according to subjective percer*ions,
the dynamics of pulse and arterial pressure during the procedure
a.nd results of clinical-physiological studies.
After the 140 day flight, the rehabilitative measures were
carried out in two stages: the first stage (two weeks) at the
space port and the second stage (four weeks) in the central
mountains (Northern Caucasus).
BIBLIOGRAPF,Y
Arinchin, N.v., ;Jedvetskaya, G.O. 1974. The intra-muscular
40
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I.
peripheral heart. Minsk ~
~ Gazenko, O.G., Yegorov, A.D. 1976. Proceedings of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, No. 4. Turovskiy, N.N. Yegorov, A.D. 1976. Space biology and aero-
space medicine, 10, No. 6,3.
Kitayev, F.Ya. 1931, sov. klin., 15, 83. _
Kovalenko, Ye.A. 1973. In: Pathologic physiology in extreme
- conditions. Moscow, "Meditsina", p 312.
- Parin, V.V., Meyerson, F.A. 1965. Synopsis on clinical physi-
ology of circulation, Moscow, "Meditsina". `
Shkhvatsabaya, I.K., Aronov, D.M., Zaytsev, V.P. 1978. Rehabili-
tation of patients with ischemic disease of the heart. Moscow,
- "Meditsina",
Chernigovskiy, V.N. 1960, Interoceptors. Moscow, "Medgiz".

Dexter, L., Dow, I.W. 1950. J. Clin. Invest., 29, 602.
- -Dickinson, S.J.J. 1950. Physiol., 111, 339.
Ganer, 0. 1974. In: Man in space. Proceedings of the Fourth
International Symposium. Nioscow, 1976.
Gorlin, R., Lewis, B.M. 1951. Amer. Heart J., 41, 834-854.
Marshall, R.J., Shepherd, S.T. 1968. Cardiac function in health .
and d4sease. Philadelphia--London--Toronto.
- Shepherd, S.T. 1979. In: The Proceedings of the Skylab Life -
Science Symposium, August 27-29, NASA, vol. II , p 393.
Thornton, W.E. 1977. In: Biomedical Results from Skylab, NASA. ,
Washington, D.C., 330.
COPYRIGHT: Izdate2'stvo "Nauka", "Izvestiya :4N SSSR, seriya
_ biologicheskaya", 1978
[62-9139]
9139
CSO: 1866
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- SPACE ENGINEERING
L~DC 629., 054 . 07 :629 . 78 . 058 .53
ASTROORIENTATION METHODS AND L'`iSTRUMENTATION EXAMINED
Moscow SISTEMY ASTRONOMICHESKOY ORIYENTATS II KOSMICHESKIKH APPARAI OV in Russ ian
- 1980 (signed to press 24 Mar 80) pp 2-4, 144
[Annotation, foreword and table of contents from book "Space Vehiclc., Astroorientation
Systems", by Valentin ivanovich Kochetkov, Izdatel'stvo "MashinostroYeniye",
950 copies, 144 pages ]
[Text] This book presents the basic questions of the theory and princa.ple of con-
structing space vehicle orientation-control systems with the help of star-tracking
- sensors which sight on sjngle stars in the star field.
Equations are introduced which relate the orientation parameters to astronomical
measurements. Laws of reorientation control are syathesized which are optimal
with respect to response time and energy expenditure. Considerable attention is
devoted to the desiga and *_he statistical analysis and optimization of parameters
. of astrosystems which are subject to random perturbations.
This book is intended for senior technical personnel engaged in the design of space
vehicle control systems.
Foreword
A space vehicle flight-control system is designed to control the uovement of the
~ vehicle's center of mass and to control its orientation (its movement around tne
center of the mass). For the majority of space vehicles, orientation control is
the basic mode of movement control and is carried out continuously or periodically
during the operation of onboard scientific apparatus requiring a specific attitude
for the space vehicle.
The accuracy of orientation control can vary and is determined by the vehicle's
purpose. For example, an accuracy of 10-20� [28] is suff icient for the orientation
of solar batteries and antennas with a wide aperture of directivity. The majority
of space vehicles require an accuracy of orientation on the order of a f ew degrees
or a little more. There are, however, a number of missions, such as the study
of space and the trajectory correction f or interplanetary space vehicles, which
require an accuracy of orientation control no worse than a few degrees or even
fractions of angular minutes [2, 281.
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VariouR means can be employed for orientation control. Optical means based on
the use of solar, planetary and astral seneors are the most widely used. At the
present time, the accuracy of solar and planetary sensors is limited to tens of
angular minutes [15].
Star sensors (astrosensors) can, in essence, off er very high accuracy (up to a
few angular seconds [28]), since stars are point-sourcV.- of light and their coordi-
nates in the celestial sphere are known with very great accuracy. This is explain-
ed by the fact that experts in recent years have devoted a great deal of attention
to the problems of construct3ng highly accurate astronomical systems for space
vehicle orientation control.
At the present time, va.rious types of star sensors have been created which can
be successfullq employed on space vehicles. A number of books and articles [5,
11, 13, 17, 19, 24, 30, et al.] are devoted to questions of employing star sensors
for navigatian an aircraft and space vehicles.
This book is an attempt to summarize and systematize certain data. Along with
the theoretical aspects (the derivation of the basic equations relating celestial
measurements ta the parameters of orientation, the synthesis of laws of reorienta-
tion coatrol, etc.), data are presented on the selection of func*.'.onal arrangements
for the various types of astrooriertation systems. Examples of solutions to prob-
lems of statistically optimizing their parameters are also cited.
. The book is logically structured in the following manner:
- principles for the construction and classif ication of astroorientation systems
are presented; data for celestial reference points and the characteristics of prac-
_ ticable instruments for their direction finding are cited (chapters 1 and 2);
- basic astroorientation equations aze derived and opt3mal laws for reorientation
(turn) control of space vehicles are syuthesized (chapters 3 and 4);
- different versions for the construction of functional arrangements realizing
the astroorientation equations are proven to be valid; steps are proposed for the
= statistical optimization of the parameters of the arrangement selected; the criter-
ion of "maximum probab ilitq" and the method of "statistical points" are substan-
- ti3ted for this purpose (chapters 5 and 6).
- The applicatian of astronomical devices which insure a high degree of accuracy
to orie*+t space vehicles is expedient onlq on those segments of the orbit where
high accuracy is necessary, for example, during the operation of the scientific
apparatus. This is explained by the fact that highly accurate orientation demands
a higher than usual expenditure of energy (propellant). For this reason, when
a high degree of orientation is not required, the space vehicle, as a rule, is
oriented in an economical mode with reduced accuracy and the use of simpler methods
and instruments, without calling upon complicated computer equipment.
A number of the astroorientation equations presented in the book belong to the
"accuracy" stage of dual-mode sFac e vehicle angular movement control. With the
aid of other equations (when using star sensors that sight on the star f ield),
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one can determine the space vehicle's attitude with great accuracy, even when it
is grossly disoriented in space; that is, when its prior attitude is not known.
After determining the attitude of such a space vehicle, it is necessary to reorient
the craft in the required attitude by turning it about its center of ma.ss.
The author expresses gratitude toward his reviewer, Candidate of Physicomathemati-
cal Sciences P. A. Barankov, for his valuable advice and notes which contributed
to improving the book.
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter l. Principles of Construction and Classification of Space Vehicle
_ Astroorientation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Problems of controlling the orientation of space vehicles
1.2. Priaciples of space vehicle astroorientation. Coordinate sy stems. .
1.3. Classif ication of astroorientation systems . . . . � � � � �
- Chapter 2. Celestial Reference Points and Instruments for Their
Direc tion-f inding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. The celestial sphere and systems of celestial coordinates
2.2. Celestial reference points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Characteristics of star sensors . . . . . . � � � � � � �
Chapter 3. Determining the Attitude of Space Vehicles Using Celestial
Reference Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Determining the attitude of a space vehicle in an orb ital system of
coordinates when utilizing incomplete data from two star sensors
sighted on single celestial ref erence points
3.2. Determining the attitude of a space vehicle in aa orbital system of
coordinates when utilizing complete data from two star sensors
sighted on single celestial reference points . . . . . . . .
3.3. Determining the attitude of a space vehicle in an inertial system of
coordinates, using star sensors sighted on single celestial
reference points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Determining the attitude of a space vehicle with the aid of a single
source of radiation " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Determining the attitude of a space vehicle using the star field
3.6. Evaluating the accuracy of astroorientation . . . . . . . . ,
Chapter 4. Synthesis of Laws for the Control of Space Vehicle Reorientation.
4.1. Problems and criteria of space vehicle reorientation control
4.2. Synthesis of a reorientation control law, optimized f or speed of
reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Synthesis of a reorientation control law, optimized f or energy
expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. Synthesis of a reorientation control law, optimized for energy
expenditure during a fixed period of time for the transition
process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. Determining the weight coefficient X. Special control laws.
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Page
3
5
5
6
8
12
12
14
20
38
38
43
48
52
55
63
72
72
74
79
80
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Chapter 5. Functional Arrangement of Space Vehicle Orientation Control
_ Systems Using Star Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 95
5.1.
Astroorieatation systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 95
5.2.
Stellar monitoring systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 98
5.3.
Manually controlled astroorientation systems. . . . . . . .
. 101
5.4.
Principles of constructing a single self-reacting space vehicle
navigation and orientation system using si:ar sensors
. 104
5.5.
Star seasor alignment and celestial ref erence point search and
acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 107
Chapter
6. Statistical Analysis and Optimization of Astroorientation
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 111
6.1.
Stating the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 111
6.2.
Selecting the method and criteria f or statistical analysis of
astroorientation systems. Steps in the analqsis.
. 112
- 6.3.
Statistical analysis of astroorientation systems
. 114
6.4.
Statistical optimization of the parameters of astroorientation
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 125
6.5.
Applying the method of statistical optimization to the problem
-
of synthesizing a semiautomatic digital space vehfcle attitude
control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 130
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 140
Bibliographq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 142
COPYRIGAT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1980
[132-9512 ]
9512
CSO: 1860
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UDC 629.78
CALCULATING SPACECRAFT HEAT EXCHANGE
Moscow RASCHET TEPLOOBMENA KOSMICHESKOGO APPARATA in Russian 1979(signed to press 28
Sep 79)pp 2, 5-6, 207-208 :
[Annotation, introduction and table of contents from book "Calculating Spacecraft
Heat Exchange", by Vasiliy Mikhaylovich Zaletayev, Yuriy Vasil'yevich Kapinos and
Oleg Vladimirovich Surguchev, Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1,330 copies,
208 pages] ,
/T ex t / ANNOTAT ION
The authors discuss typical problems of the theory of heat exchange that are related
to the calculation of the thermal conditions of spacecraft and the planning of tem-
- perature control systems. They devote particular attenCion zo the speci.fic nature of
a spacecraft's heat exchange with the surrounding medium in space.
This book is intended f or eng ineering and technical personnel who are engaged in
rocket building and cosmaiautics.
- INTRODUCTION
One of the necessary conditi.ons for the reliable functioning of a spacecraft and its
systems and, consequently, the justification for significant expenditures for its
creation, is the provision of the necessary heat conditions for all its elements.
H ow ev er, this problem has its own specific factors under the conditions encountered -
in outer space: a spacecraft that is outside the limits of the Earth's atmosphere is
itself figuratively speaking a tiny planet, wherein the temperature distribu-
tian is determined by the field of external heat flows, the properties of the space- _
craf t's surface and the ship's orientation in space (in space, when the same surface
is oriented differently relative to the field of external heat flaws it will have :
- diff erent temperatures), the power consumption of the on-board equipment, the thermal
relationships inside the ship and a number of other factors. �
At the same time, many elements and instruments in a spacecraft are capable of work-
ing only in strictly defined temperature ranges. Therefore, a modern spacecr4ft is
unt hinkable without a special an-board sysLem: a temperature condition control sys-
tem (SOTR).
46
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The creation of a SOTR for a specific spacecraft takes place in three mutually relar.-
ed stages:
a theoretical, eal.c-lative analysis of the heat exchange processes in the spncec�raft
and the thermal conditions in it as a whole, a comparison of thn pussib.lo w:iys tiI
solving the temperature condition control problem, and a final calculative tesr of
the selected SOTR variant;
experimental testing and development of the SOTR under terrestrial conditions, pri-
marily on the basis of modeling of the actual thermal conditions under whic.h the
spacecraft will function;
final testing and development of the SOTR on the basis of the results of full-scale
_ tests. �
In view of the fact that experimental development requires the creation of a unique
experimental base, and because development under full-scale conditions entails con-
siderable material expenditures, the calculative-theoretical methods for analyzing
and testing thermal conditions and the effectiveness of a SOTR play an extremely im-
portant role in the solution of the problem of controlling the thermal conditions in
a spacecraft. They are needed not only during the SOTR planning stage, but also dur-
ing the stages of experimental and full-scale testing of the technical decisions that
- hav e b een mad e.
The optimum path for the solution of the spacecraft temperature condition control
problem is, obviously, a combination of the calculative-theoretical methods of analy-
sis with ground-based experimental development and a final check with full-scale
tests.
The design of a spacecraft is quite camplicated as far as the precise theoretical
calculation of its thermal conditions is concerned. Th2 special features of heat ex-
change inside a spacecraft and with the space surrounding it complicate the calcula-
tions even more. This makes clear the urgency of the development and systematization
of those calculative methods that would make it possible to make the entire series of
necessary evaluations and produce a sufficiently complete representation of a space-
, craft's thermal conditions with a degree of accuracy adequate for practical engineer-
- ing and minimal expenditures of effort.
Approxiznative engineering methods for analyzing the particular problems of spacecraft
heat exchange are not only necessary, but are irreplaceable at the most critical
stage of SOTR development, which is that of selecting the general plan for the sys-
ten. Durifig the stage of test calculations of the thermal regime of individual
spacecraft eletaents and the craft as a whole, as well as during the stages of ground-
based experimental development and fu).1-scale testing, they are used as an auxiliary
- method, and sometimes as the basic one. With rare exceptions that are basically the
result of attempts to maintain consistency in our explication, the materials present-
ed in this book only supplement works that are already known. Therefore, many of the
known solutions for particular problems are not presented, but references are made to
them in the appropriate sections.
To som e degree or another, all of the particular solutions allow for the specific na- '
ture of heat exchange processes in a spacecraft and, in particular, the periodicity
of the changes in spacecraft temperatures with respect to time and spatial coordi- -
nates ttiat are related to a spacecraft's design. Special attention is given to this
feature. In the appendix we present a method of periodic integral transformations
47
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that was developed especially f or the analysis of such processes and the use of which
leads to a substantial simplification of the solution of many applied problems.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pagi,
. Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 1. Spacecraft Thermal Canditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1. Spac ecraft Heat Exchang e C ond it ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2. Thermal Condition Control on Board Spacecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
_ 1.2.1. Thermal Conditions; Requirements for Thermal Conditions. 15
1.2.2. Temperature Condition Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3. Experimental Development and Calculation of Spacecraft Heat Exchange 24
1.3.1. Experimental Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.2. Basic Problems in Calculating Spacecraft Heat Exchange 26
1.3.3. Methods for Calculating Spacecraft Heat Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.4. Order of Development of a Mathematical Model of Heat Exchange. 30
Chapter 2. Calculation of External Heat Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1. External Sources of Thermal Effects on Spacecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2. Models of the Sun and Planets for Calculating the External Thermal Load on
Spacecraft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3. Basic Initial Equations for Calculating the External Thermal Load on Space-
craft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4. Relative Maximum Cross-Section of a Spacecraft's Surface 41
2.5. Calculation of the Angular Coefficient T1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.1. The Angular Coefficient for an Element of the Surface (Local Angular Co-
efficient) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5.2. The Angular Coefficient for a Finite Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.6. Calculat,on of the Combined Angular Coefficient 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.6.1. The Combined Angular Coefficient for an Element of the Surface 74
2.6.2. The Combined Angular Coefficient for a Finite Surface. 78
2.7. Spacecraft Trajectory Parameters That Determine External Thermal Eftects 79
Chapter 3. Calculation of the Field of Temperatures for Spacecraft Structural E1-
ements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
3.1. Basic Problems and Special Features of the Calculations...........
86
3.2. Linearization in Calculations of Spacecraft Heat Exchange.
87
3.3. Unidimensional, Steady-State Temperature Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
3.3.1. Temperature Field on a Plate (Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
3.3.2 Temperature Field on a Plate Covered With Thermal Insulation
97
3.3.3. Thermal Localization of a Spacecraft's External Elements by Heterogene-
ous Treatment of the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
3.4. Temperature Field of Elements With Circular and Annular Shapes
102
3.4.1. A Solid Plate: On the Edge the Temperature is Constant at Tp.
103
3.4.2. A Circular Disk: On the Inner Edge the Temperature is Constant at Tp. .
104
3.5. Temperature Field on a Spacecraft's Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
3.5.1. Cylindrical Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
3.5.2. Problems Solvable for a Cylindrical Hull . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
3.5.3. Temperature Field of a Hollow, Thin-Walled, Spherical Hull, as Caused by
Radiant Heat Exchange in the Internal Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
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Chapter 4. Calculation of the Steady-State Thermal Conditions of Radiation Heat
E:cchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 117
4.1. Basic Problems in the Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 117
4.2. Heat Exchange in a Radiator Cross-Section Perpendicular to the Direction of
~ the Heat Carrier's Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 118
4.3. Temperature Field of a Radiator With a Constant Surface TViermal Load
. 122
4.4. T emperature Field of a Radiator With a Variable Surface Thermal Load
. 123
4.5. Tenperature Field in the Absence of an Internal Supply of Heat to the Heat
Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 128
4.6. Investigation of the Effect of Different Components of Heat Exchange on the
Temperature Field of a Radiator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 129
4.6.1. Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 129
4.6.2. System of Equations Describing the Heat Exchange Process
131
- 4.6.3. Solution of the Linearized System of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
133
4.6.4. Analysis of the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
134
Chapt er 5. Calculation of Steady-State Heat Exchange in a Spacecraft's 7nner
Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 141
5.1.
Basic Problems in the Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 141
- 5.2.
Heat Exchange Through the Walls of a Sealed Spacecraft Compartment and Its
R elationship to the Average Temperature in the Compartment
. 142
5.3.
Effect of Equipment Placement and the Direction of Gas Circulation on the
Temperature Conditions in a C anpartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 148
5.4.
Radiant Heat Exchange in a Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 150
5.5.
Calculation of the Angular Coefficients by the Circumscribed.Sphere Method
. 154
Chapter 6. Non-Steady-State Heat Exchange in a Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . .
. 159
6.1.
Elementary Model of Spacecraft Heat Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 160
6.2.
Simplif ied M odel of Non-Steady-State Heat Exchange in a Spacecraft
. 165
6.3.
D etermination of the Effective Internal Thermal Load on Environmental Tern-
perature Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168
6.4.
T emperature Field of a Cylindrical Hull in a Periodic Heat Exchange Mod.e
171
Appendix. Method of Periodic Integral Transformations as Applied to the Analysis
of Periodic Heat Exchange Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
- A1. Physical Premises of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
A2. Basic Properties of the Integral Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A3. Transformation and Conversion of Differential and Integrodifferential Systems 184
A4. Fourier Series of a Transformed Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.89
A5. Some Generalizations on the Properties of the Periodic Transformation 5A (f;a,) 190
A6. Transformation of Standard Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Bib 1 iography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Mashinostroyeniye", 1979
/9-11746/
11746
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UDC 62-50
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPING SPACECRAFT
Moscow TEORETICHESKIYE OSNOVY RAZRABOTKI KOSMICHESKIKH APPARATOV in Russian 1980
(signed to press 26 Mar 80) pp 2--4
[Annotation and table of contents from book by G. Yu. Maksimov, Izdatel'stvo
"Nauka", 1800 copies, 320 pages]
[Text] A discussion is presented of the physical-mechanical principles of
developing automatic spacecraft. The prerequisites are presented for selecting
the parameters of the basic on-board systems which include the radiotelemetric
system, the electric power supply system, the orientation control system and the
- on-board antenna;.. The principles of the development of the composition and
structural design are discussed. In particular, the peculiarities of developing
unsealed compartments with equipment are analyzed. Significant attention has
been given to the problems of in-f light spacecraf t control. In the last chapter
a version of an algorithm for efficienC spacecraf t design is presented. The book
is intended for engineers and scientific workers involved with the development of
_ spacecraft and also for students studying the fundamentals of space engineering.
Contents
Foreword
Introduction
Page
5
9
Chapter 1. Spacecraf t Composition and B asic Service Systems
1.1. Scientif.ic and Service Equipment. Composition and Furpose of
Service Systems 17
1.2. Radiotelemetric syste.m 24
1.'. On-board antennas 33
1.4. Electric power supply system 40
Chapter 2. Spacecraft Orier:tation
2.1. Primary problems and basic attitude conditions 62
2.2. Meana of solving some orienta-t3.on problems. Disturbing
moments 69
2.3. Solar-stellar orientation 99
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Chapter 3. Control of On-Board Systems. Interaction of 5pacecra�t
3.1. Concepts of the logic of the operation and the logic of the
interaction of on-board systems 116
3.2. Use af on-board digital compiiters for control 134
3.3, Combination of on-board and ground control means 153
3.4. Interaction of spacecraf t 176
Chapter
4. Providing for the Operating Conn? tions of Instruments and
Systems. Basic Structural Requirements
4.1.
Some definitions and basic requirements on composition and
structural design
198
4.2.
Tnsurance of given temperatures and heat co^.trol pr.inciples
203
4.3.
Gas environment in sealed compartments
217
4.4.
Peculiarities of the develapment of unsealed compartments
233
4.5.
Provision for the operation of an orientation control system
249
4.6,
External composition of spacecraft. Determination of forces
and moments from light pressure
266
Chapter
5. Statement of the Problem of Efficient Spacecraft Design
5.1.
Concept of the design process
292
5.2.
Version of an efficient design algorithm
310
Bibliography 319
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", Clavnaya redaktsiya fiziko-matematicheskoy
literatury, 1980
[32-10845]
10845
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UDC 629.78.018
SOME PROBLEMS OF ASSEMBLING AND SERVICING OBJECTS IN SPACE
Moscow NAUCHNYYE CHTENIYA PO AVIATSII I KOSMONAVTIKE 1978 in Russian 1980
(signed to press 5 Mar 80) pp 94-99
[P aper by I.T. Belyakov and Yu.D. Borisov: "Problems of Assembling and Servicing
Obj ects in Space"]
" [Text] A real expansion in the mastery of the space near the earth in conjunc-
t3on with the mastery of the planets of the solar system requires that cosmo-
nauts execute diverse technological operations rel3ted to the assembly of
space stations, the building of special structuies in near-earth space, on the
Moon and other planets, as well as the servicing of orbiting and interplanetary
_ ships in space and other space f acilities.
The unique properties of outer space at the same time create the vrerequisites
for the organization of production and engineering complexes in space.
Thus, the f.ollowing major types of human activity in outer space are ascertained:
1. The control of spacecraft.
2. The performance of scientif ic research.
3. The technical servicing of spacecraft, including repair.
. 4. The assembly, installation and construction of space facilities.
5. Production activity.
. As is well known, the first manned flight into space took 108 minutes. The
crews of modern orbital stations are now remaining in space for several
� months each. Years will be required for flights to the nearest planets of
the solar system. With such timeframes, it is very difficult to provide for
reliable long teYm operation of the numerous systems of a spacecraft or
station. The probab ility of f ailure of individual units increases and various
systems and subsystems can disrupt their operationn Under these conditions,
it is essential to restore the operability of a system or instrument, replace
them in flight with spares or repair them. There is a third way of increasing
reliability: this is system duplication. However, this approach entails a
sharp increase in the weight of the system and the spacecra=t as a whole.
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For long tenn manned flights, serviceable systems are preferable, since they
- are less expeiisive and more reliable tttan unserviceable ones. Moreover, the
capability of repairing a system, is also of psychological importance in
addition to the engineering significance, in imparting confidence in the crp-w
in their own abilities and in the successful completion of the flight.
The necessity for technical servicing and repair of space facilities during
flight follows directly from experience with their operation, while the perform-
ance of such work is a new direction in the field of efficient utilization of
space facilities.
'Three variants are possible for the technical operation of facilities:
1. Insertion in orbit without returning to earth.
2. Launching and return to earth for repair and repeated utilization.
3. Launching and periodic servicing 3nd repair in orbit.
Tt is more expedient frrnn an economic viewpoint ii: a number of cases to
perform the technical servicing of objects in orb it during operation, rather
than to return them to earth for repair and repeat utilization.
Technical servicing of objects from the outside can be accomplished by means uf
a special auxiliary module or directly by the cosmonauts going into open space.
Analysis shows that the requirements for constantly increasing the eff iciency
and minimixing the economic expenditures for the operation of space facilities
govern the necessity for the performance of prevenrive and repair work. �
Technical servicing and repair are included in thati %�ork, the execution of
which is practically impassible to fully automate. For tnis reason, the
performance of such work is incorporated in the functional obligations of the
_ crew, because of which, its part in providing for the normal functioning of
facilities increases considerably.
To provide for the technical servicing and repair of systems and plants, it is
essential to design into the complement of facilities a sophisticated and
technically sound on-board system for preventive maintenance and repair, which
_ has not been included in the camplement of such facilities up to the pre:;ent
t_ime.
The following problems are to be solved in the development of this kind of
system: Work planning and organization; the development and realization of
specialized technology; providing the tools for preventive and repair work;
special training of the crew; and experimental debugging of the work perform-
ance procedures and technology.
_ During the process of technical operation of facilities, the following two
types of work are performed by the crew: technical servicing and restorative
_ repair.
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Such an organizational engineering system pravides for three work categories:
- routine, emergency repair and experimental.
Attention is to be devoted to the advanced expansion of experimental and
- research work, a result of the performance of which is the replenishment of
the routine and emergency repair work categories. This approach will promote
an improvement in the engineering and technical level of the servicing, as
well as a reduction in the weight of the spare parts and the delivered loads.
The primary method of routine work is the replacement of units, modules and
assemblies with the execution of the installation and remaval operations inside
and outside the facilities.
The replacement of components in units can be carried out as emergency repair
work, as well as the execution of inechanical machining oper-at?c*_?s, soldering,
welding and cutting, which are matched to the actual conditions.
The design of the equipment, as well as the creation of the technology and
procedures for preventive and repair work makes it necessary to develop them
under conditions approaching actu3l conditions, specifically, in airborne
laboratories, under conditions simulating the cambined action of factors in
vacuum test stands installed on board a flying laboratory, as well as under
conditions of water simulated weightlessess, samething which is eapecially
important for training crews.
The same attention should be devoted to the deve'lopment of systems for pre-
ventive and repair work as to other systems which provide for normal functioning
of the units of a camplex.
Technical work can be classified by function as work to preserve, renew,
rebuild or eliminate products. Preservation work is performed for the purpose
of maintaining a specified level of reliability and service life and is of a
preventive and prophylactic nature. Renewal work involves the restoration of
the reliability and service life characteristics of the products. Reconstruction
u;ork has the purpose of eliminating obsolescence by means of modernizing or
- replacing units. Work to eliminate products (partially or comnletely) consists
in removing valuable equipment in the case where further operation and return
- to earth is not expedient for technical or economic reasoizs.
Depending on the nature and camplexity ei the operations, the requisite techno-
logical equipment and the kind of crew, the following servicing level can be
esi-ablished: automated elimination of defects; simple adjustments, manual
changeover to a standby, manual servicing operations; the replacement of a
failed unit with a spare (using tools and employing repair instructions); the
repair of a failed unit in a specialized work position with technological
eo,uipment and tools; the replacement of inechanically secured components in a
unit with its partial disassembly; the replacement of camponents with non-
disconnectable cannections, as well as resoldering camponents, preparation,
machining, welding and restoring coatings.
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= The specific features of servicing and repair are found as a function of the
functional principles for the syst mts, subsystems and units of the spacecraft.
The equipment subjected to repair and servicing is broken down into the following
groups on this basis: modular equipment; mechanical equipment; electromechanical
equipment; radioelectronics and electrical systems; chassis and metal structures.
An analysis of repair and sen�icing facilities makes it possible to ascertain
the nomenclature of the technological processes. Such technological operations
are: resetting and adjustment; cleaning, washing, lubrication and filling;
securing and check operations; installation and demounting ogerations; assembly
and disassembly work; load transportation; gluing; hermetic sealing; soldering;
_ monitor and measurement operations and fault detection; mechanical processing
(drilling, cleaning, cutting, bending, straightening); welding and cutting;
- restoring coatings by spraying.
The nature and content of technological servicing and repair operations set the
conditions for the necessity of outfitting a crew with the means of performing
this work: tools and accessaries, specially designed for the specifics of the
execution of the work activity under space f light conditions, taking into account
both the technical and organizational engineering as well as the ergonomic
aspects.
- Based on theoretical research and experimental test st;xdies, as well as the
results of operation under full-scale conditions, we have formulated a set of
requireraents for the design of special tools.
The following requirements can be formulated based on the ergoaomic aspect:
1. The basic structural design of the tool should assure the possibility of
its convenienfi layout, taking into account ergonamics and esthetics.
- 2. It is essential to strive to use cutting tools (such a drill, milling cutter,
etc.) with autamatic feed or automatic clamping of the tool iu welding and
assembly operation. In this case, the application of large energy reserves
on the part of the cosmonaut is not required.
3. Fastening components (screws, bolts, nuts) and the tools should take the
form of a unified, mutually related, easily fitted together "screw--tool"
system with a rigid mechanical connection between them. A coaxial configuration
should be structurally provided for the fastening elements and the.tool, without
the application of effort on the part of the cosmonaut and without the necessity
of monitoring.
4. During the process of executing an operation, a tool should require the
application of force by the operator in only one profile, for example, a
torsional mament or an axial force.
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5. Transitions in an assembly operation, such as the setting of a tool, backing
off, setting a component in a holder, removing a tool, etc., should be siznple,
have a minimal number of work movements and where necessary, be perf ormed with
one hand.
6. It is essential to strive for maximum mechanization of a cosmonaut's labor,
- giving preference to mechanized tools over manual nonmechanized ones.
- In considering the technical aspects, yet another series of requirements can
- be sited.
1. Avoid using mechanisms with reciprocating motion. It is necessary to replace
them where possible with less energy intensive mechanisms with rotorary motion,
since the reaction to a torsional moment is more easily neutralized than the
reactian to a reciprocating motion.
2. The reactive eff ect on the hand of the working cosmonaut should be either
absent or minimal. It is essential to use a closed system of forces, including
the main working force and the reaction to it.
- 3. Strive to minimize the weight and power consumption. The preferable form of
- energy is electrical.
- 4. A structure should have high reliability in operation, an adequate service
life, operational reliability, reparability and servicing simplicity.
5. The construction of a tool should provide for a minimum number of adjustments
- during the operational process; it is essential to provide for ease and speed of
insertion and removal of attachments and preclude the possibility of their
incorrect insertion.
- 6. It is necessary to provide for an efficient structural design and production
process articulation breakdown of Che structure into modules, which makes it
possible "o test the modules in parallel, and where necessary, replace them
during the process of modernizing the modules as well as during the operational
process (for example, a drive, handles, tool heads).
7. It is essential to provide for the maximum degree of universality of a tool
and its modules, as well as the fastening camponents in the structural design
= of a spacecraft arid all of the technological equipment.
The principles treated here should not be considered final. They are subject
to further improvement, correction and possibly, some of them will be dropped
in the future.
Taking the necessity for complete work saf ety into aczount, a number of require-
ments can be formulated by working from the technical-organizational aspect:
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- 1. It is essential to equip tools with mechanical and electrical interlocking,
which prevents actuating or turning mechanisms off without aL�.thorization;
2. A tool should provide for holding a fastening before and after the completion
of the operation to preclude its free drifting in weightless;
3. Machining tools (especially when they are used inside a spacecraft) should
~ be equipped with highly reliable shaving trapp ing devices;
4. It is essential to provide for a means of securing a tool in the hand, in
the clothing of the operator or in the work position.
5. The structural design of a system should b e rigid, since vibrations and even
elastic deformations within the tolerances allowed make it difficult to hold,
something which cdn lead to the loss of the tool, and th is, in turn, can produce
the undesired feeling of danger for the cosmonauts.
In analyzing the group of problems confronting space technologists, the conclu-
sion must be drawn that the structural design of the space facility (and
possibly also the equipnent for experiments) should be linked to its servicing
and repair technology, i.e., it should be suitable for repair. A more general
conclusion is that the structural design should be technologically feasible.
The realization of this principle f irst of all presupposes the standardization
and matching of fastenings (under conditions of inechanical assembly) and tools
(manual and mechanized). This will also be of no small significance with possible
efforts to render mutual international assistance in space. It must be noted
that the design of a space facility should provide for convenience in the
execution of repair and servicing operations for practically all of its assemblies
and units, provide access for the cosmonaut to all of the vitally impcrtant
points in the spacecraft, to the equipment and units, fur which there is a
probability of failure. In step with the increasing operational life of space
facilities in orbit as well as the nLUnber of them, the necessity arises for
~ creating specialized "repair spacecraft", as well as "assembler spacecraft".
Only the creation of a"repair spacecraft", outfitted with all of the necessary
equipment and tools, fastening facilities, work positions, etic. will make it
possible to resolve the entire set of problems involving the servicir_g and
reapir of objects in space.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1990
[58-8225]
8225
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,
SPACE APPLICATIONS
UDC 551.466.8:551.4E3.5:535.31
ON THE POSSIBILITY OF THE REMOTE OPTICAL REGISTRATION OF THE PARAMETERS OF INTERNAL
WAVES ON THE BASIS OF THEIR MANIFESTATIONS ON THE OCEAN SURFACE
Moscow IZVESTIYA AKADEMII NAUK SSSR: FIZIKA ATMOSFERY I OKEANA in Russian Vol 16)
No 12, 1980 manuscript received 2 Jul 79 pp 1284-1290
/Article by A.G. Luchinin and V.I. Titov, Institute of Applied Physics, USSR
Academy of Sciences/
/Text/ The authors examine the mechanism of the formation of the sea
surface's image during observation of the solar track and a sec-
tion of the surface that is free from patches of sunlight. They
derive relationships connecting the average values of signals and
the dispersion of the surface's slopes. They determine the level
af the signals' fluctuations and evaluate the minimum magnitude
of the subsurfdcc disturbances caused by an internal wave for
which changes in the surface's images can be observed (for wind
velocities above the surface that are less than 10 m/s).
The measuremPnt of the parameters of internal waves by contact methods is a tradi-
tional question in oceanography (see, for example, survey / 1/ and the literature
cited there). At the same time as is demonstrated by the results of ineasure-
ments made on board ships simultaneously with photographing of the sea surface from
airplanes and spacecraft /2-47/ internal waves can be observed on the basis of
their manifestaCions on the surface. The possibility of observing internai waves
from space is extremely tempting, primarily from the viewpoint of determining their
two-dimensional spatial spectra, since only the frequency or unidimensional spatial
spectra can be determined by contact methods 117. However, for the correct inter-
pretation of data obtained by aerospace photography (without enlisting contact
- measurement methods) it is necessary to have information, in the first place, on
how an internal wave changes the structure of the surface wave action and, in the
second place, on how and under what conditions these changes are manifested in the
image of the sea surface. Actually, what we are talking about is constructing some
"transfer function" for the system internal wave-agitated surface-measuring
instrument. Works /5-9/ are devoted to a theoretical investigation of the first
- (hydrodynamic) part^of this problem, while /10-12/ describe the results of experi-
mental research performed in the laboratory and under natural conditions. The most
= significant work in this respect is /12/, in which the authors describe a cycle of
investigations of the interaction of internal and surface waves that was carried
out in a bay on the west coast of Canada. In this work, in particular, Che authors
establish a relationship between the parameters of internal waves and the
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dispersion of the slopes of the surface wave action. The existence of this rela-
tionship makes it possible to proceed to the solution of the second (optical) part
of the problem and, in the end, construct the desired transfer function for some
typical observation conditions, which is the subject of this article. We are dis-
cussing the properties of the sea surface's image during observation of the solar
track and a section of the surface that is free from patches of sunlight. For
these cases we evaluate the level of noise in the image that is caused by wave ac-
tion. In the final part of this article we present relationships that make it pos-
sible to evaluate the minimum level o� subsurface wave disturbances at which an in-
ternal wave can cause noticeable changes in the surface's image.
Measuring the Dispzrsion of the Slopes During Observation of the Sea Sur�ace
1. It is a well known fact, that on the basis of the characteristics of the solar
_ track obser.ved on the surface of the sea, it is possible to form an oginion about
the distribution function of the surface's slopes and, in particular, on the dis-
persion of th-is distribution. This fact was used in the work of Cox and Munk,
where they studied the dependence of the slopes' distribution function on the wind
_ velocity above the surface /13,14/ and which has already become a classic. On the
other hand, in /15/ the author investigated the mechanism of light-spot signal for-
- mation and evaluated the level of the wave-related noise �or optical scatterometers,
in which the radiation source and the receiver are collocated. The analysis
performed in thiG work is also correct for signals registered during observation
of the solar track; the slight dxfference consists only of the geometry of the
observation setup. Therefore, we will omit all the intermediate calculations
in our description of the properties of, the solar track's image..
Let the image of the solar light spots on the sea surface be formed in a receiving
device that is placed at height h above sea level and consists of a large number of
elementary receivers with narrow radiation patterns that, as a whole, form the in-
strument's field of view (this can be a camera, a transmitting television tube and
so on). For the purpose of simplification in the calculations, we assume that the
distribution of brightness on the solar disk and the elementary receiver's input
parameters can be approximated by Gaussian functionsl and that the size of a resolu-
tion element on the sea surface is much greater `:han the size of the receiving ap-
erture. In this case, the random realization of the power striking an elementary
receiver can be described by the following expression /15/:
E,SZZ ~ (r-r,)' (ra-r--3,qh-x,l-x,l)=
, (1)
P = ~ ~~=+~2) ~~exP ~ - 02h' h= (0+922). dr
_r
where EQ = intensity of illumination of the sea surface by direct solar rays; W and
Sl = angular dimensions of the solar disk and the receiving aperture from the sur-
face; S= width of the radiation pattern; itl and 3t2 = unit vectors characterizing
the direction of the solar rays and the receiving pattern; 7e11 and k2,L = their pro-
jections on the horizontal plane; r0 = the vector describing the receiver's posi-
tion in this plane; -9 = the projection on it of the local normal to the surface.
1Such an assumption for larger (in comparison with the correlation distance of wave
action) dimensions of a resolution element does not affect the final result of the
calculations.
59
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000300100052-0

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000300100052-0
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Apart from the assumptions indicated above, expression (1) is correct when iKll~,
~?i2 l`: Inl>qyy without any particular loss of accuracy. Formula (12) then
. takes on the form
_ IAQ,'IMI~I a 1/ M. (13)
As far as the value of C is concerned, for the sake of determinacy we will assume
that the energy spectrum of the surface prominences is described by the (Pirson-
Moskovits) formula /177. In this caae,
_ Wye'lNw a 1g y 2 , (14)
�
where a= a dimensionless numerical coefficient equal to ^,4�10'3; 6"~~ =
= apV4/ .48g 2, w here g= gravitational acceleration.
The formulas that have been derived (0), (5), (9), (14)) make it possible to re-
late changes in the power of the received signal to wave action parameters (more
precisely, to the dispersion of the slopes) and to evaluate with what accuracy
these changes can be registered under different surface illumination conditions and
under different degrees of wave action inten-ity.
Effect of an Internal Wave on the Surface's Image. Minimally Registerable Level of
Wave Disturbances
According to data published in /127 there exists a relatAOnstiip between the parame-
ters of an internal wave and the dispersion of the slopes that is expressed by the
formula
aes=CFo0:eau/.
where Q0e = dispersion of the slopes of a surface "undisturbed" by an internal
wave; u= orbital velocity of particles in an internal wave under the surface; c=
= phase velocity of the internal wave; R= some dimensionless coefficient that de-
pends on wind speed, the internal wave's phase velocity and, rrobably, a number of
other factors that have not been accounted for. However, it is important to men-
tion that as the wind speed increases, as a rule the value of R decreases. On the
basis of a statistical analysis of the results of ineasurements (for V,