JPRS ID: 9624 USSR REPORT EARTH SCIENCES

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• Content Type: REPORTS

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JPRS L/9624
?4 ~iarch 1981
U SS R Re ort
p
EART'H SCIENCES
CFOUO 3/81)
.
F~1$ ~OREI~~! BRUADCAST ~NFOR~VIATION ~ERVICE
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JPRS L/9624
24 March 1981
- USSR REPORT
EARTH SCIENCES
_ (FOUO 3/81)
CONTENTS
METEOROLOGY
Problems in Atmospheric Optics 1
- OCEANOGRAPHY
Bionic Model.ing of Fish Electric Communication and Location Systems..... 5
Vertical Microstructiire of the Thin Ocean Surface Layer 20
Mathematical Models of Circulation in the Ocean 26
Mathematical Model of General Circulation of the Atmosphere and Ocean... 28
Possibilities of Summation of Reflected Signals in Seismic Profiling
Systems 34
TERRESTRIAL GEOPHYSICS
Seismic Investigations of the Lithc,sphere in the Pacific Ocean.......... 38
PHYSICS OF ATMOSPHERE
Modeling of Physical Processes in the Polar Ionosphere 43
- a- [zII - USSR ~ 21K S&T FOUO]
r,nn nr,r~~ ~ � � rc~c nwr~
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METEOROLOGY
UDC 551.51~:539.184
PROBLEMS IN ATMOSPHERIi. OPTICS
Leningrad PROBLEMY ATMOSFERNOY OPTIKI in Russian 1979 (signed to press 8 Jun 79)
pp ly1-195 -
[Table of contents and abstracts from collecCion "Problems in Atmospheric Optics",
' edited by A. L. Osherovich, Izdatzl'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1000 copies, ~
196 pages]
[Text] TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pavlova, V. S. "Sergey Fedorovich Rodionov" ..............oo..a.o.a............ 3
_ Kondrat'yev, K. Ya. (Leningrad University) "Present-Day Climate and Factors
Determining It" 11
Rozenberg, G. V. (Institute of Atmospheric Physics USSR Academy of Sciences)
"Origin of the Atmospneric Selective Transparericy Effect".........oa......�� 21
Khrgian, A. Kh. (Moscow University) "On the Theory of Glow Phenomena".......o0 25
Bol'shakova, L. G.,(Leningrad University) "Allowance for the Width of the Spec-
- tral Interval in Measurements of the Vertical Distribution of Ozone in the
Atmosphere ���~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~��~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~��~~o~~~�
" 40 -
Sulakvelidze, G. K. (Tbilisi University) "Some Problems in the Growth of Hail
in a Cloud" .................o...a......................o.................o.. 63
Osherovich, A. L., Verolaynen, Ya. F. (Leningrad University) "Method of Delayed
Coincidences in Atomic and Molecular Sp~ctroscopy"............o 80
Fishkova, L. M. (Abastumani Astrophy~ical Observatory Academy of Sciences
Georgian SSR) "Nighttime Emission ~f Sodium in the Earth's Upper Atmosphere" 154
Bol'shakova, L. G. (Leningrad University) "Decimal Coefficients of Rayleigh
Scattering of the Standard AtmoSphere in the Spectral Region 200-400 nm
Each 0.4 nm" .................................................o.............. 172
Georgiyevskiy, Yu. S., Shukurov, A. Kh. (Institute of Atmospheric Physics USSR
Academy of Sciences) "Variations in the Spectral Coefficient of Attenuation
of Radiation by Atmospheric Aerosol in the W Spectral Region" 180 _
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Pavlova, Ye. N. (Leningrad University) "Siz~e of Selectively Scattering Particles
of Atmospheric Aerosol Over E1'brus"..o ..............................e....... 187
Abstracts
1
UDC 551.583013
PRESENT-DAY CI,IMATE AND FACTORS DETERMINING IT ~
[Abstract of article by Kondra~'yev, K. Ya.]
[Text] A study was made of the problem of the possible effect exerted on climate
by factors related to variations of ozone and atmospheric aerosol. The author em-
. phasizes the important role of satellite observations of different parameters de-
termining the climate of the planet.
UDC 551.593.6
ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERIC RELA_TIVE TRANSPARENCY EFFECT
[Abstract of article by Roz~nberg, G. V.] -
[Text] The author discuss~es the theory of Che selective atmospheric transparency.ef-
~ect discovered by 5. F. Rodionov. The correctness of the interpretation of the ob-
served facts propo;~ed by S. F. Rodionov is demonstrated.
UDC 551.593.55
. ON THE THEORY OF GLOW PHENOMENA
jAbstract of article by Khrgian, A. Kh.]~ ~
[Text] The possible spectral effects~of light scattered by a layer of stratospheric
aerosol at an altitude of 20 km at twilight are examined. It is shown that such
scattering can create a red or yellow spot over the setting sun with a distinct
lower limb and a diffused upper limb. Thi.s gives an explanation for the-,observed
purple light and some other glow phenomena. ~
' ' UDC 551.510.534
,
- ALLOWANCE FOR THE WIDTH OF THE SPECTRAL INTERVAL IN MEASUREMENTS OF THE VERTICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF OZONE IN T~IE ATMOSPHERE
[Abstract of article by Bol'shakova, L. G.] .
[Text] A method for computing the vertical distribution of ozone on the basis of
ozonosonde data is ~escribed for a case ~ahen nai~::ow-band light filters are used.
A quantitative evaluation of the accuracy of the method is presented.
2
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UDC 551.509.616/617
SOME PROBLEMS IN THE GROWTH OF HAIL II~ A CLOUD _
[Abstract of artic?e by Sulakvelidze, G. K.]
- [Text] It is shown rhat the growth of hail occurs for the most part due to coagula-
tion with the supercaoled accumulated large-droplet fraction~ The conditions under
c,rhich rhe creation of artificial hail ~uclei can limit their groc�rth to Rf~< 0.55 cm
_ are evaluated. The number of collisions of hailstones with supercooled droplets,
leading to their growth, is computed. It is shown that the. number of collisions
is a function of the concentration of supercooled dr~plets in thE cloud and their
size distribution.
UDC 539.184 -
METHOD OF DELAYED COINCIDENCES IN A~~M1C AND MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
[Abstract of article by Osherovich, A. L., Verolaynen, Ya. F.]
[Text] The article describes one of the most universal and precise methods for in-
vestigating the excited states of atoms and molecules the delayed coincidences
- method. The accuracy of the method is evaluate.d. It is shown that the delayed co- ~
_ incidences method can be used in investigating the elementary processes of populat-
ing and destruction of energy levels.
UDC 550.388
NIGHTTIME ErffSSION OF SODTUM IN THE EARTH'S UPPER ATMCSPHERE
[Abstract of article by Fishkova, L. M.] -
[Text] The article presents the results of systematic observations (from 1958 to
1970) of sodium emissions ( a = 589.0 nm and ~12 = 589.6 nm) in the earth's night-
time sky obtained using a pho~oelectric photometer at the Abastumani Astrophysical
- Observatory. A study was made of the d.iurnal, seasonal and annual variations of
this emission. The theory of the observed patterns is discussed.
UDC 551.510.534
DECIMAL COEFFICIENTS OF RAYLEIGH SCATTERING OF THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE IN THE
- SPECTRAL REGION 200-400 nm EACH 0.4 nm
~ [Abstract of article by Bol'shakova, L. G.]
[Text] The article gives the results of computation of the volume coefficients of
Rayleigh scattering for a vertical column of the atmosphere with a base 1 cm2 each
- 0.4 nm in the spectral region of ozone absorption from 2QU to 400 nm.
3
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UDC 551.510.42:551.521.3
VARIA7:IONS IN THE SPECTRAL COEFFICIENT OF ATTENUATION OF RADIATION BY ATMOSPHERIC
AERO~OL IN THE W SPECTRAL REGION
[Abstract of article by Georgiyevskiy, Yu. S., Shukuro~r, A. Kh.J
[TextJ The results of ineasurements of spectral transparency and the spectral coef-
ficients of attenuation of radiation by atm~spheric aerosol on slant and horizon-
tal paths are presentQd and discussed. It is shown that the main influence on at-
~ mospheric transparency in the'CJV and visible spectral regions is exerted by par-
ticles with a radius of about 0.3}~tm, whose concentration correlates with air
humidity.
UDC 551.521.3
SIZE OF SELECTIVELY SCATTERING PARTICLES OF ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOL OVER EL~BRUS
jAbstract of article by Pavlova, Ye. N.]
[TextJ An estimate of the radius of selectively scattering particl.s in the air
layer at an altitude of 3-3.2 km over the glacier in the F1'brus region is given.
It is shown that the radius of the aerosol par.ticles can vary from 0.2 �m over firn
fields to 1.23 � m over the valley.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Leningradskogo universiteta, 1979
- [76-5303]
5303
CSO: 1865
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OCEANOGRAPHY
BIONIC MODELING OF FISH ELECTRIC CQMMUNICATION AND LOCATION SYSTEMS
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 1, Jan 81 pp 99-110
[Article by V. M. Ol'shanskiy, A. A.. Orlov, and Dr Biol Sci V. R. ProtasovJ
(Text] The methods of c.reating bionic models differ from methods usually employed
in biological researcr. to model any processes or phenomena. Every biological
object is typiried, on on~ hand, by universality in relation to the functions
it performs and, on the other hand, unique features inherent only to a living
organism. Using technical devices to direct~y copy biological structures per-
formir.g certain functions fails to produce optimum solutions. Therefore when
buildinq a b.ionic model, it wouid be best to use only ttie general phenomenological
characteristics typifying a particular aspect of *...he activity or function of a
living organism, agplying in this case the sum total of presently available
knowledge and technical devices.
Information on Electric Fish
About 30Q of the 20,000 presently existing fish sp~cies possess special electricity
generating tissues and are capable of ge:ierating electric fields. Among these,
only the electric eels, electric catfish, electric skates, and American stargazers
_ nave distir.ctly pronounced electric organs with which they create intense electric
fields about themselves, used in attack or defense. 'the electric organs of the
s;tate, for example, generate discharges having an amplitude of up to 50 w and a
current intensity of up to 50 amp in sea water. The energy of such a discharge
may be estimated as 1 mj per gram of electric organs. 'I'he frequency of 3ischarges
in response ta stimulation attains 150 Hz, each discharge lasting 3-5 msec.
The rest of the species make up a s~cond group of so-called weakly electric fish,
which generate relatively weak electric fields with amplitudes on the order of
5-10 w in water.
Weakly electric fish are divided in terms of the sort of discharges generated into
wave and pulsatinq species. Pulsating species include all Mormyriformes (except
_ for gymnarchids) and the bulk of the gymnotids. The duration of discharges pro-
duced by pulsating species i~ much shorter t.han the time interval between discharges;
- in this case the fish may vary the discharge fre~uency within broad limits. For
most pulsating species, this ranqe is 1-60 ~ulses/sec. Wave species generate
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quasisinusoidal discharges of practically constant frequency. These frequencies are
~ species-specific , and ~hey fall within the 50-2,000 Hz range.
~ Fields generated around fish differ from electric fields around dipole source9
(~'igtire 1} mainl~ due to nonuniform distribution of a fish's electric skin resistance. _
- The electric organs of fish consist of specialized cells (electric pla tes) trans-
- formed, as a rule, out of muscle fibers and, in some species, o ut of nerve fibers.
A typical feature of these cells is functional differentiation of cell membranes,
taking the form of innervation of just one side. At the moment of stimulation, _
the potential difference across an electric plate attains 40-120 mv. Electric
plate~ in electric organs are stacked into columns, which are in turn connected in
~ paraliel. Owing to this the emf and current produced by the whole electric organ
significantly exceed the corresponding outputs of a single electric pl ate. '!'he
orientation of these columns in electric organs located in the fish body predetermines
the palarity of the discharge and the current direction.
- ~
.
� a~ ~ l
~ ~ I
~ i
~ ~ \
~ ~ ? p \ /
1 / o ~ \ 1 100
~ ~ ~ /,o~ . ` ~1 250
~ ~ ~ J
~ ~ ~ r~ 1 1000 500 ~
~ 1 ~ 2500 ~ ~ /
? ~ \ ~ 1 1 ; ! ~ /
~ ~ ~ / ~ i
\
` ` f
O C~i_O . ~i `�~~G~p~~p
t~j 01/~ ~ ~o
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,n~O/ ,OO ~o \ ~
/ ~ / ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t ?
/ 1, 1} 2500 j 1~1
~ ~ , c t J ~000 ; 1 ~
~ , \ o fr 500 250 `
~ ~ O~ f 100
1 ` ~ ~ ' ~ ~
1 ~
1 i~! /
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ /
_ Figure 1. Electric Field of a 22 cm Long Apteronotu3 in Water ti�7ith Specific ~
Resistance Equal to 3.2 kohm~cm (From Knudsen, E. I., "Spatial
Aspects of the Electric Fields Generated by Weakly Electric
Fish," JOURN. COMP. PHYSIOL., Vol 99, 1975, pp 103-118): Field
potentials are indicated horizontally in uv on the equipotential
lines corresponding to them. Field intensities are indicated
vertically in uw/cm near the vectors associated with them.
All weakly electric and many strongly electric species have electroreceptors exhibit-
ing higti electric sensitivity. .They evolved from fish lateral line organs, and
they are situated in the skin, communicating to the bod1 surfac-e thro ugh pores.
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Their density is usually greatest in the anterior parts of the bod~~ and the head.
' In terms of Lheir physiological properties, electroreceptors are divided into two
basic types--tonic and phasal. Tonic electroreceptors adapt slowly, and they are
sensitive to low frequency electric fields in the 0.5-20 Hz range. Receptors of
this type nave also been found among both freshwater and marine electric fish,
as well as among some nonelectric species. Phasal electroreceptors have been
found only in freshwater weakly electric species and in the electric eel. These
quickly adapting high frequency receptors exhibit their greatest sensitivity in the
60-2,000 Hz range--tnat is, in the frequency range of electric organ discharges.
The joint operation of electric organs and electroreceptors of weakly electric
fish supoorts electrolocation and electrocommunication functions. Because tonic
electroreceptors are insensitive to the discharges of electric organs, their basic
purpose is apparently associated with so-ca lled passive location and orientation--
that is, wii:h registration of external elec tric fields of biotic and abiotic origin.
The ways fish use their bioelectric fields in their vital activities are diagramed
_ below (Diagram 1)..
Diagram 1 -
_ ; Fish Bioelectric Fields ;
t
i
- ~
I Power Applications i ~ Signals '
~ . ~
~
~ ~ ~
~ For ; For ~ ~ For i ~ For ~ For Maintenance I
' Attack Defense ' Locatio n ~Communication ~ of School Integrity
~ J ~ ~ ~
i ~ ~
t
~ ~ ~
(
~ Interspecific ~ ~
- ~ Defensive and ; ~ Intraspecific
~ Feeding ~
~
. .�--t
- ~ Territorial ! ' Intsr- ; ! ~
' ' ~ ; Group '
~ ; ~
sex~J
i
:".odeling Electrocommunication Systems
The principal carrier frequencies of the di scharges of the electric organs of weakly
, electric fish are species-specific as a rule, and therefore we can hypothesize that
electric fields are used by fish mainly fo r intraspecific communication. Experi-
ments nave demonstrated the existence of electrocommunication in a large number
of weakly electric fish, and that such communication has dominant significance in
sexual and territorial mutLal relationships. The range of electxocommunication
detected by R. Bauer in experiments with a 15 cm long Gnathonemus ~petersii is
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30 cm, which agrees with the theoretical estimate of this value for most weakly
electric species.
Investigation of fish ele~trocommunication requires thorough physicotechnical ~
an3lysis of close electromagnetic low frequency communication in conducting med~a. ~
Without clear physicotechnical premises, we cannot perform competent experiments, W
theoretically predict the poss ibilities of fish electrocommunication systems, re-
veal the mechanisms of their operation, adequately describe the parameters of
electtocommunication systems, and assess their optimum parameters from different
points of view. Moreover it would doubtlessly be interesting to develop elec tro-
conductive communication devices of direct practical significance. From a histori-
cal standpoint, most nioneering efforts in this direction were started under the
_ influence of id eas suggested in the biological literature.
Examining the problems associated with short-range underwater electrocommunication,
we should distinguisn the following pnysicotechnical aspects:
propagatior. of electro:^.agnetic fields in conducting media; effectiveness of trans-
mitting and re ceiving antennas, and matching antennas to the apparatus; factors
restricting transmission and reception possibilities; design of tne system as a
whole--selection of the operating frequency and type of mAdulation, estimation of
the range and dependability of communication in relation to given overall dimensions
of the apparatus and its power supply possibilities, and so on.
Let us examine these problems briefly.
Propagatio n
In most technical situations, the required ranges of communication significantly
exceed the necessary depths of communication. It would be advantageous in this
case to select the working frequency of communication such that the electromagnetic
signals would propagate as a so-called "surface wave", which may be arbitrarily
imagined as a signal propaaating upward from its source to the water surfa~e, then
through air along the surface and, finally, downward through water to the receiver.
The nature of propagation is basically defined as the product of tw~ terms:
1 _:+n
~ ~ and e o ~
~
where 1'--range of communication, z+h--total depth of comrnunication, d--magnitude of
skin layer in water. Approximation~ describing propagation of an electromagne tic
field in~ practically all real comn~unication situations have been published. *
i� Bannister, P. R., "Quasi-Static Fie],ds of Dipole Antennas at the Earth's Surface,"
RADIO SCI., Vol 1, No 11, 1966, pp 1321-1330; ?Craichman, M. B., "Handbook of
Electromagnetic Propagation in;Condueting Media," NAVMAT, 1970.
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In biological and some technical applications, meanwhile, the surface wave assump-
tion (the assumption that tne total depth of the source and receiver is much less
~ than the range of communication) is unacceptable. In these cases the simplest
approximat ion is ssed in the estimates as a rule--eqc,a;:ions for the field of a _
dipbZe sour ce in a boundless, uniform conducting medium.
In a conducting medium (in distinction from dielectric media), the polar diagrams
of a dipole source may be plotted only on the condition that the orientation of
the receiving antenna is determined. The receiver's polar diagram may also be
plotted only on the condition that tne coordinates of the reception point relative
to the source and the magnitude of the skin layer at the operating frequencies in
water are given. At ranges from the so urce commensurate w~th the magnitude of the
skin layer in water, elliptical-polarization of the electric field's intensity
vector is significant, and the polar diagram does not possess a zero point, no
matter what the orientation of the receiving dipole antenna in the polarization
- plane.
Assessment of Ar.tenna Effectiveness
An electric dipole source can be fully described by the dipole moment IZ. If we
represent IZ as
11-~ P �l=~aeN~
~ =e ~
where P--power, z--total impedance, and Z-�-effective antenna length, coefficient
ae = Z2/(Ize1) may be used as a measure of the effectiveness of an electric dipole
antenna: Of two idPntically situated and identically oriented antennas of equal
power, that having the greater ae will emit the greater signal at any distant
point.
If the class of antennas is given, we can optimize them--that is, we can find the
antenna with the greatest ae. For example in the class of dipole antennas with a
fi.ced ~otal length those antennas having elzctrodes with l~ngitudinal dimensions
on the order of 1/3L are optimum.
ae may be increased by placiiig an .inssrt made from insulating or fully conducting
material be tween~the elctrodes. This raises the effective length of the antenna.
ue may be used to assess the effectiveness of dipole antennas in terms of not only `
emission but also reception: The greater ae is, the greater is the signal to noise `
ratio. However, this is va~id only if two conditions are observed:
the length of the receiving antenna is much 1PSS than tne range of communication;
The: sensitivity of the receiver depends on the antenna's thermal noise, and not
~ some other factors (for example the level of atmospheric disturbances).
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There are ~any practical situations in which these conditions are not satisfied.
- Sucn situations require development of ways to suppress outside interference; .
. t'r.erarore it would be suit:~ble to use t~nilti-electrode anteruias, which would require
subsequent corre? ation processinq oi tne recorded potentials (recall that the ntlmber
- cf electroreceptors zn fish is very large) . Mu~ti-electrode antennas require a fund~.�~
mentally new approach to assessment of the effectiveness of recaiving antenn~s.
Daveloping such an appzoach is a pressing problem o= engineering and bionics. _
- The clectroma~7ne}ic Background
~'ne ~ 1~~~tromagnet~c ~ackground in water is the proauct of sources of different ~
~ origins (Diagram Z) . c,acn component in th:: 3iagrani may dominate under certain con- _
dit_or.s. However, at the frequencies used foY u.-~deraater electrocommunication,
fie;~s produced bY ~nun~erstorms iatmospheric disturbances} are dominant as a rule.
A largz number cr gapers devoted *o them not only cice experimental data but also _
thorougnly analyze the oriyi:~ and propagation of atmospheric disturbances. * ~ -
knowledge of the t'r,ecr~ of atmospheric dis*_urbances permits Ls to approximate
e:{peri:r,entally measured levels and s~ectrums 3t other depths, explain the tempQral
- an~: soatial teatures oi the background, and predict the unique icatures of the r;iven ~
region. It is important to study the electromagnetic background.both from tne .
star.C^oint o.~ practical engineering problems and from the standpoint of biological
problems (electro-ecological in aart~ cular) . Ir.vestigation of fie].ds of bioloai-
~a1 crig=n is an impor*a~t part of ~he study of electromagnetic fields i,-~ water.
_ The Design of Cor.crete Electrocommunication Systems �
~ IIi CO.^.~~dSt t0 thz Sltlldt10i1 W1~'P r~ost known communication systems (radio, dCOllSt1C~
o~ tLc~i i, =:~e design and ~arame ~ers of underwater e? ectrocommunication devices
~~@Dc'Cd t~ 3 S1C~riificant extent Orl t.^.2 concrete application, and dS 3 rll12, li
co,~~nunication is ~o ba rnaintairied witn a differPnt object, a rlew device of a differ-
- ent. ~o~ :'�~ould have ~o be dev2loped. Designi.ng such devices e~itails determining
th~ ~or,~unication fr2quenc1 , signal intensity (G~? at the :eception ooint re-
",uir~d ~or communication, and trans:nitter power (P) ; tne most suitable tyoes and
desiqns of sntennas are rev~aled, and *7eir u~ are computed. If the narLicular
commur.lC3~lOi1 proalem is fundamentally soluble, the dependai~ility of communication
;nay be a~sessed wit:~ a consideration for the possible mutual orientations o;: tze
trar.smitting and receiving antennas. The computations are usually made in several
stages, in each o~ s.ahicn tz~ values o= the parameters and the designs are narrowed
down more s~ Pcifi.cally.
Ne wi11 go t:~rougn t:ze r,~otions or making a tentative assessment of the operating
~requencl ~f communication as an illustration of the whole computation process.
Because *_nere is an ~~xpanential term in the equations for propagation in a con-
ducting m~dium, elec*romagnetic communication is impossible at fr~quencies at whicn
* 24a:rt~e11, E. L. ,"Atn~ospheric Noise Ftom 20 Hz to 30 kHz, " JGURN. Rr^,S. NBS, Vol 2,
ido 6, 1907.
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Diagram 2 -
, Sources of Electric Fields in an Aquatic Environment
~ i
' I. ~
' Abiotic Sources ~
~ ; ~ ,
i Telluric and~ ~ ; ~ Convection 'Fields of Thunder- ;
_ Induction ! Diffusion ~ i
i Currents Sea Swell ~ ~ Suspension ; storm Origin (At- ,
I Currents ; i :~Currents i ~ Currents ,mospheric Distur~~ ;
- I I I ~ ' ' i bances) ~
~ ~
~ II.
Biotic Sources
i ,
i ~
i
St~ rong
y I Weakly ~ Lone Nonelectric Schools of ~ j Accumulations
~Electric i I Electric ~ I Fish and Some f; Nonelectric ~ I of Zoo- and
~ Fish i Fish and ~ Other Aquatic Fish i~ Phytoplankton
f I Their Schools ! ~ Organ~.sms i j ~
I-.-
III. ~
~ Anthropogenic Sources ;
' 11
i i ~ ; ? i High-Power ~ , ,
- ; Electric Power, ~ ~ ' ~
~ Electric Fisn ~ Electric ' Superlow Radio Sets,~
~ Transmission ; ' ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~
! ; ~ Traps ~ ~ Reconnaissance I Frequency Radar Sets,i
- ; Lines ~ i t Eleci:ro- Direction _
; ~ ; ~ , '
~ ~ ~ i ; ~ ~ communication ; Finders ,
~ i � , ,
' ~ ~ , j ~ and Elect~o- ~ ~
,
~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ( navigation ~ , !
~ I , ! i Systems ; i '
i ~
the depth of the skin layer in the medium is significantly lower than the range
of communication (or, in the case of a surface wave, lower than the total depth of
the so~irce and receiver) .
On the other hand the low information content typical of communication at low fre-
quen:;ies and the usually observed decrease in the level af the electromagnetic
~
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- background in water in response to growth in frequency indicate to us that it would
be unsuitable to use frequencies so low that the depth of the skin layer in the
medium would significantly excePd the ra,zge of communication (or, correspondingly,
the total depth of the source and receiver). _
- Consequently it would be suitable to select the operating frequency such that the _
maximum communication range would be equivalent to several (three to five for
example) skin layers in water. Correspondingly, in the case of a surface wave � `
the operating frequency must be such that the total depth of the receiving and
transmitting apparatus would be equivalent to two or three skin layers. Thus if
commands must be transmitted from a vessel to fishing gear located up to 400 meters
below the surface in ocean water, the specific electroconductivity of which is
4 ohm l,m'1, then, considering that a skin layer of 100 meters corresponds here
.
to a frequency of 18 Hz, we can recommend this frequency as the one to be used.
In addition :tq these considerations, when selecting the operating frequency of _
communication we also account for the nature of the signal (for example, speech), _
the need for suppressing the industrial frequency (50 or 60 Hz) and its harmonics,
ar,d the possibilities and convenience of practical realization of tne device.
Thus if we are dealing with weakly electric fish communicating in fresh water (the
specific electroconductivity of which is about 10'1 ohm-1 m-1) at ranges on the
order of several meters, frequencies on the or3er of hundreds of ~II~iz would be the
most advantageous. But the known frequency range used by weakly electric fish
does not exceed units of kF~, which is apparently ~ssociated with the difficulties
of achieving high frequencies in biological structures.
We computed ~the parameters for several concrete systems on the basis of these
considerations.
`I'hey included a shipboard device to control apparatus mounted on a trawl (Figure 2),
a systam permitting communication among SCUBA divers (Figure 3), and "shore-to-
water" and "water-to-air" communication systems. The computation results were
checked out by natural e~cperiments conducted in the Sea of Japan. The parameters
of the systems are presented below.
For the shipboard device controlling apparatus mounted on a trawl: communication
range--1 km, depth--up to 400 meters, operating frequencies--10-16 Hz, dipole -
moment--10,000 amp�m.
For electrocommunication between;SCUBA divers: communication range--70 meters,
depth--up to SO meters, operating frequencies--300 Hz to 2 kHz, dipole moment--
_ 2 amp � m . .
For"water-to-air" communication: communication range--200 meters, transmitter
depth--50 meters, altitude of reception point--70 meters, communication frequency--
300 Hz, dipole moment--7.5 amp�m.
For "shore-to-water"~communication: communication range--2 km, communication
depth--50 meters, working frequer.cies--16 Hz to 2 kHz, dipole moment--1,000 amp�m.
These devices are now being introduced for practical use. ,
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0
000
- _ = =o
/ . . -
A0T4MM ti~,y~
:�~iii : .
.N? -
A.
_ Ffa6enb-rpoc / ' ~ ~
~ 2~ 6YHCHPy2MN11 � ~ T~ f li~" ?J~l~
anetiTpoA / /
f 3) ~
_ 3renrpoAd n~1YC:AMHH
= f~) (5) ~
Figure 2. Shipboard Device Controlling Apparatus Mounted on a Trawl
Key :
1. Transmitter 4. Electrodes
2. Cable 5. Receiver
3. Towed electrode
- - 2- - - - - - - - - - -
~ - - - - - - - _ . - -
- - 3 - - - - - - - - ~ -
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .1. _
- - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - ~ - 2- - -
- - - - - - - 3 - - - -
Figure 3. Electrocommunication Between SCUBA Divers: 1--apparatus,
2--leg-mounted electrode, 3--shoulder-mounted electrode
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lliscussing the prospects and limitations oF iiionic modeling of fish electro-
co~nunication systems, we should point out the following basic differences between
these systems and the underwater electrocommunication devices known today.
Biologic~l electrocommunic;dtion involves distances commensurate with the dimensions
of the object invelved. At the location of a rece.iving partner, the electric
=ield is significantly nonuniform, and it is picked up by a large quantity of =
electroreceptors located all over the body of the fish. In a tecnnical application,
meanwhile, communication entails distance5 significantly exceeding the dimensions
ot the object involved, the field near the receiving partner is quasiuniform,
and tne signal is picked up by dipole antennas. Fuller utilization of the spatial
structure of a signal and interference, and transition to dipole antennas from
multi-electrode receivers would be promising from the standpoint of solving the ~
most important problems of underwater electrocommunication, such as raising the
information content of communication, raising the signal to noise ratio, improving
electromaqnetic compatibility, and improving interaction with other systems _
(electric location and orientation sys*_ems).
On tne other hand, in distinction from the situation in the biological world,
t~chnical applications permit the use of components witn specifi~'electroconduc-
tivity signifi~antly exceeding the specific electroconductivity of water--components
made of superconducting metals. Such components make it possible to employ con-
cepts that are inapplicab 1e to livinq nature--that is, ones outside thP scope of.
bionic modeling.
Modeling Electrolocation Systems
Active electrolocation is defined as registering changes in the electric field
produced by weakly electric fish due to distortion of this field by objects
characterized by conductivitl different from the conductivity of the surrounding _
medium. Almost a11 known wealcl! electric fish of botn wave and pulsating species -
have an el2ctrolocation capa:nility. Zt should be noted in this cas2 that the
two b~sic taxonomic groups oi weakly electric fish--African Mormyriformes and
South Americar. ginnnotids--reside in the turbid waters of rivers and streams.
Tne capability ~~r detecting and discriminating between objects by means of an
electric field is a remarkable adaptation of a living organism to an environment
in which conventional visual orientation is difficult and often impossible. This
is precisely wny ~ fish's electrolocation system, which to some extent substitutes
for the animal's vision, :~epresents a new sensor~ system--"electrovision".
The electrolocation functicn was first discovered in 1958 b~ G. Lissmann and
K. Meychin in a represeritative of tne African i~.ormyriformes, syr,~.m.arhus p~~oticus.
Using a conditioned reflex technique, the scientists revealed that the fisn are _
capable of distinguishing between metallic and dielectric objncts enclosed in
porous cases, and distinguishing between fresh and salt water contained in these
cases. It was also demonstra~ed that the distribution of the potential of the _
electric field on the ~surface of the fish's skin � created by electric organ dis-
charges, becomes distorted when objects having ele~ctroconductivity diff2rent from -
that of water come near the fish bedy. ~Tt was hypo~nesized that channel-like
structures located in the skin--mo rnyromas~s--ar~ responsible for ,~icking up
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these distortions, and thus that they are electroreceptors--a new class of sensory
units discovered among representatives of the animal world. Numerous studies sub-
sequently performed* in this di.rection were devoted to the physiology and morphology
of electroreceptors and electric organs, as well as to the principles and mechanisms
of their joint work.
~
3 ~ 3 _
~ , , ~
_ 5
~
~ ~ 2 ~
~
~ ~ ,
~ ,
/
6
4
Figure 4. Active Electrolocation: 1--central nervous system, 2--electric
organ command (triggering) center, 3--electroreceptors,
4--electric organ, 5--object of detection, 6--~lectric field
- flux lines
Figure 4 provides a general diagramatic approximation of active electrolocation.
The field generated by the electric organ and distortions within it are picked up
by phasal electroreceptors located in the fish's skiz~ (the density of electro-
receptors in some s.pecies attains 80 per square millimeter). Then information is
successively transmitted by a system of nerve tracts to different divisions of the
central nervous system. In addition to processing signals structurally associated
with the lateral lobes of the medulla oblongata, the central nervous system monitors _
the work of the command center controlling the electric~organ. There are intra- -
central associations directly associated with the electrolocation function . One
of them manifests itself as avoidance of jamming signals by changing the fundamental
carrier frequency of the electric organ's discharges.
Electroreceptor systems participating in active location must react in the best way
possible not to the electric field itself but to changes within it, thus manifesting
a capability for so-ca~led relative sensitivity. The general functional character-
istics of any electroreceptor are: .
passive conduction of electric current through the tissues of the electroreceptor
to the surface of the receptor cell;
*Bennett, ri. V. L., "Electric Organs. Electroreception," in Hoar, W. S., and Randall,
D. J. (Edit~rs), "Fish Physiology," New York, 1971; Protasov, V. R., "Bioelektri-
cheskiye polya v zhizni ryb "[Bioelectric Fields in the Life ~f Fish], Moscow, 1972;
Heiligenberg, W., "Principles of Electrolocation and Jamming Avoidance in Electric
Fish," Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, Springer-Verlag, 1977.
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- the activity of the receptor cell itself, expressing itself as gener.ation of a
reception potential and synaptic transmission of a stimulus to nerve endings;
the capability for encoding signals in a form convenient for subsequent trsnsmission -
by an afferent fiber.
An adequate stimulus acting upon a receptor would consist of a potential difference
between the opening of the receptor pore on the skin surface and the basal membrane =
of the receptor cell. The mechanism of action of the receptor is as foll~ws:
Current generated either by an outside source or by the electric organ itself first
passes through the hignly conductive tissues of the channel, and then through the ~ -
apical nonconductive membrane of the receptor cell, which acts as a high frequency -
filter,~and through the basal membrane. If the voltage drop across it reaches
the absolute threshold, the cell generates a regenerative receptor potential, which . -
is responsible for activation of the nerve fiber innervating the cell. This activity
carries informatio.n on gradual changes in the elec~.:~ic current passing through the
receptor, and it is responsible for one of the types of codes carried by the fiber.
Mention should be made of the great diversity of information encoding methods
(four or five basic types are conditionally distinguished) correlating approximately
with this type of electroreceptor. The advantages of a particular type of encoding
used by fish are to a great extent hypothetical, though they are discussed in
detail in many papers. Incidentally, the large number of functional types of
electroreceptor units is obviously associated with the need for differentiating
their properties so as to permit their use in electrolocation and electrocommunica-
tion~ In this case even receptor units intended solely for location are character-
ized by different adaptation times in relation to a varying stimulus, which indi-
cates that they are predisposed for detecting either motionless or moving objects.
- Some phasal electroreceptors (the T-units of gymnotids) exhibit so-called phasal
sensitivity--that is, they respond differently to stimuli, producing either an
ohmic or a capacitive load of the same impedance. This is believed to be associated -
with the capability fish have for identifying plant and animal objects which, as we
- know, have significant capacitive properties.
Electrosensory information undergoes primary processing in the lateral lobes of
the medulla oblongata, when signals from a tremendous number of receptors covering
the entire surface of the animal's body experience temporal and spatial integra-
tion. Just at the level of the lateral lobes, a fish's sensitivity to objects
' rises by about one order of magnitude in comparison with the sensitivity of a
single electroreceptor, which agrees with data from conditioned reflex experiments
performed to determine tne threshold sensitivity of fish.
we can conditionally distinguish two directions in contemporary research on fish
electrolocation systems. The first concerns itself with the spatial aspects of
electrolocation and deals with the following problems:
investigation and numerical modeling of the geometry of fields generated by electric
- organs, and fields associated with introduced objects;
study of the spatial orientation of the electroreceptors with the purpose of re-
vealing how important it is to assessment of the dimensions of an object and the
range to it, and to precise determination of the object's conductive properties.
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The second direction is associated with the tem~oral aspects of electrolocation.
It deals with the following problems:
clarification of the way the rate or frequency of ele~tric organ discharge
,~ifects whether or not the electrolocation system is optimim?;
,
- investigation of the ways and means of functional differentiation of electro-
receptor units permitting their simultaneous participation in electrolocation,
_ using a single prccessing center in this case;
study of the electrolocation capability of fish in the presence of noise.
- The advances that have been made in both directions provide a sufficiently full
impression of the general peripheral phenomenology of fish electrolocation systems,
and thus allow us to construct its bionic model. It is also obvious that further
- study of the mechanisms and principles of information processing in the central
nervous system will make it possible to significantly update this model.
In its physical interpretation, the problem of modeling fish electro~ocation
systems boils down to building an electrolocation system which can detect an
object on the basis of the amount of distortion it creates in the primary electric
field, and to seeking optin~um circuits for the emitting and receiving devices.
For practical purposes this problem should be divided into two. The first con-
cerns close-range electrolocation, or "electrovision", which permits detailed
identification of tne object, to include its structure, shape, and dimensions.
Certain advances have already been made in this direction in our country by.
A. I. Bondarchuk (Minsk Radiotechnical Institute), but the resolution of his
system is satisfactory only when the array of ineasuring electrodes is located
right next to the object. The second problem, which will be examined below, con-
- sists of building a model capable of detecting objects at greater range. The first
step in this problem is to try ta formalize the basic principle of electrolocation,
so as to permit sensitive assessment of the object size which the model could de-
tect and the ranges within which it can function.
Sicr,ple mathematical expressions may be obtained, for example, for the case of a
metal ball located within the field of a dipole emitter (Figure 5). If the
distance d from the e mitter to the object is mach greater than the length Z of the
dipole and the diameter 2a of the ball being detected, a dipole approximation may
be used to describe the field of the emitter, and near the object the field itself
may be assumed to be uniform. If, moreover, the object is located on the axis of
the emitting dipole, then the intensity of the distorting field at the location
of the emitting antenna is
l1 a~ .
Ef - 'LZrti ' de '
_ In order to register the maximum difference of potentials, the measurir,g electrodes
must obviously be located as far apart as possible. But because the entire
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electrolocation model must obviously be contained within the same carrier. and -
= occupy a limited volume, the maximum spread between the measuring electrodes would
have to be limited to the length Z of the emitting dip~le. In this case the
maximum potentiai difference bearing information about the object is
- Qalz
Ul ` 1 2ncld� '
Thus if prior to introduction of the object the potential difference at the f
emitting electrodes ~aas U(assuming no change in current), then after the object
is introduced, we observe an increment in the potential difference across tl:e
electrodes, U1, whicn~depends on the dimensions of the object and the distance
to it. It is easy to see that the term
a,l~
~ 2:c;,~d6 -
has electric resistance as its unit, and the inclusion of an object in the circuit ~
of the emitting electrode changes the external load R, defined by the value of
interelectrode resistance, by the amount
a~1= ~
dR = 21;t ~ d" '
Similar expressions may be obtained for any solid having a shape different from
spherical.
C
. Q~
1i
d
8 ~ e
A � E:I
L
Figure 5. Emitting Electrodes A and B, Separated by Distance L, are
Contained in the Circuit of a Generator With an emf of E:
I--current in tne emitting circuit; a spherical~object of
detection with radius ~ and its center at point C is separated
from the emittinq dipole by distance d; (~--angle between dipole
axis and a radius-vector extended from the center oi the dipole
to point C; ~1, ~~~--specific electroconductivi*yo uf the medium
and the object ~
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In addit~on to a useful component bearing information on the object, dR would
also include all sorts of noise-producing fluctuations in electric resistance.
They include:
F~uctuations in in}erelectrode resistance occurrinq due tc temperature changes
in the meditun, changes in salinity, and so on;
noise-caused changes in electrode resistance associated with instability of the
d~uble electric layer an~ fluctuations of electric potential;
noise produced by the motion of water massPS, particularly by waves on the water
- surface.
The expression for U may thus be rewritten as:
a~l~ 1
Ul - ~ ( 2:cald� ~ dR~ J '
where dR' represents the total noise-caused fluctuations of impedance. In this
case the maximum possible electrolocation range would be defined by the ratio
~/c~t?', and it would not be a=fected by an increase in the power of the system,
as is the case in electrocommunication. In order to plan and tentatively assess
the possibilities of an electrolocation system, we would need to know the values
of all known noise parameters, and account for them.
One of the first systems based on this principle is a highly simple electrolocation
system* intended f~r installation aboard small vessels and yachts. Such a system
- is capable of detecting underwater obstacles within a range equivalent to 1.5-3
vessel lengths, and determining the direction of their movement.
Research aimed at improving this electrolocation syst~~ involves theoretical and
experinlental determination of all noise components. From the design aspect, this
means seeking optim~un electrode systems characterized by minimum impedance fluctua-
tions.
As far as the prospects of bionic modeling of fish electric systems in general are
_ concerned, electroconununication models are now the nearest to immediate practical
use in this vast area, and tne most enticing direction is that of creating "electro-
vision", which would have great significance not only to engineering but also to
biology, cybernetics, and medicine.
* See Swain, W. H., "An Electric Field Aid to Underwater Navigation" in "IEEE Int.
Conf. on Engineering in Ocean Environment. Panama, Florida," Vol 1, 1970,
pp 122-124.
COPYPIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "~auka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSP", 1981
[161-11U04 I
11004
CS 0 : 1840
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UDC 551.465.63
~
VERTICAL MLCROSTRUCTURE OF THE THIN OCEAN SURFACE LAYER
Moscow DOKLADY AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian Vol 256, No 3, 1981 pp 694-698
[Article by N. V. Vershinskiy, Yu. A. Volkov and A. V. Solov'yev, Institute of Phys-
- 'ics of the Atmosphere USSR Academy of Sciences, manuscript submitted 2 Ju1 80]
~Text] One of the tasks of the 29th voyage of the scientific research ship "Akad-
emik Kurchatov," carried out under the international FGGE program, was an invest-
- igation of the vertical structure of the thin surface layer of the Atlantic Ocean.
In the investigation use was made of a probe of a special design making measure-
ments as it rises to the surface j1,2]. Such a method makes it possible to obtain .
the vertical distributions of the investigated characteristics near the ocean sur-
face with minimum disruptions of natural conditions.
The probe was supplied with a low-inertia temperature sensor and a sens~r of fluc-
tuations of conductivity. The time constant of the temperature sensor was about
3 msec, which corresponds to approximately 3 mm vertically with a rate of movement
of the probe in a working regime of 1 m/sec. Th~ resolution of the conductivity
sensor was 1 mm. The mean square noise level during the time of one soim ding (~^'10
sec) was 0.0006�C for th~ temnerature channel and 5�10'S mho/m for the conductivity
channel. The zero drift of the temperature sensor between individual soundings was
�0.05�C. The conductivity sensor, due to the peculiarities of its design, made it
possible t~ register only relative changes in conductivity.
The measurements were made in July-August 1979 in two regions of the tropical zone
of the Atlantic Ocean: in tihe inCertropical convergence zone (ICZ) and at the equa-
tor, in the zone of Trades circulation.
In the ICZ region a substantial influence of rain on th~ vertical structure of the
thin surface layer was registered when there was a weak wind. During periods of
calm weather intensive solar heating here frequently alternated with heavy rain. At
the ocean surface there was formation of layers of freshened (lighter) water, mak-
ing difficult turbulent exchange with the lower-lying water mass. In combination
~ with intensive solar heating t.his led to the formation of sharp density drops. In -
the surface layer there was a rather complex pattern of vertical stratification.
The results of investigation of the patterns of daytime heating of the surface lay-
er of the ocean in the presence of a weak wind and in the absence of a rain [2-4J, -
as well as the availability of detailed information on the vertical distributions
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of temperature, salinity and density, made possible a rather reliable discrimina-
tion of the elements of fine structure forming due to daytime heating from the ~
strgtification due to rain.
As an example, Fig. la shows the vertical distributions of temperature T, changes
in conductivity G, and on their basis, the computed vertical dist.ributions of
- changes in salinity S and conditional density o"t near the ocean surface on 27 Aug-
ust 1979 at 1033 hours, after a heavy rain. Judging from the 3egree of freshening
of the surf ace layer, about 60 mm of precipitation fell. The wind veloc~ity, accord-
ing to data from standard meteorological observations, was U10~ 0.5-2.G m/sec.
_ _ _ _
OI1,61.~sT,~[ 5 G 6t I7,S ZE;O T;G eZB,l;t
~ 9
al~G� 10'~iq~ 0,01 l~~
u u u u
_
f
'C
~ au
u
e �
i
r s .
>1
Z,M
Fig. l. Vertical structure of thin surface layer of ocean after rain (in neighbor-
hood of the ICZ).
_ The vertical distribution of salinity (Fig. la) stiows the presence of freshening of
the surface layer of the ocean. Near the surface there is a quasihomogeneous (with
respect to salinity) layer (0-3.3 m), evidently forming as a result of occurrence
of nighttime thernial convection opposing stable salinity stratification.
Near the ocean surface there is a warm layer (0-0.8 m) forming as a result of morn-
ing heating due to the absorption of solar radiation (Fig. la). This warm layer,
in turn, consists of a very thin daytime quasihomogeneous layer (0-0.4 m) and the
thermocline at its lower boundary (0.4-0.8 m). The vertical distributions of temper-
ature and salinity in the sector 0-0.7 m are reduced to a more expanded scale in the
upper right corner in Fig. la.
The evolution of the fine structure of the surface layer of the ocean as a result
of daytime heating is clearly traced in the vertical distributions of temperature
- obtained during earlier and suhsequent soundings carried out on the same day. In
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- particular, Fig. lb,c shows the vertical temperatuxe distributions obtained at
1418 and 1802 hours respectively. The thickness of the daytime quasihomogeneous
layer at 1418 hours was about 0.4 m. Tfie vertical temperature gradient at a dep th
of 0.4 m attained 15�C/m. In the evening there was a deepening of the daytime
quasihomogeneous layer and a decrease in the temperature drop forming due to day-
tim~ heating (Fig. lc). ` ~ ~
a T,'6 6 T 6
o O
6
1
d
0,1 �L fo rOri'ri'
4 , ~ ~ ~ -
f '
6
- 6
B
B >O
>Z
>0
Z, M Z, CM _
Fig. 2. Vertical structure of the thin surface layer of the ocean under nighttime
cooling conditions in the presence of a weak wind..
_
- o
. a, u~cn/n '
' u
f /-o,~'c)
~o .
~s
zo
as
30 Registry
J,37 S, 43 � .f, SO .f,S7 6,09 6,>O 6,.17 t1.ii1Q
Z, tM , BpeM~r pesucmpaku~
~ig. 3. Series of vertical distributions of conductivity near the ocean surfac e un- _
der conditions of nighttime cooling in the prespnce of a weak wind.
22
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In the layer 3.3-4.2 m(Fig. la) there is a temperature inversion, evidently form-
ing as a result of nighttime convec*_ive cool~ng of the above-ly ing freshened layer.
Th~ unstabl.e temperature stratification in this layer is more than compensated by
the stable salinity stratification and therefore the corresponding distribution of _
~ conditional density is stable.
In the laysr with an inverse temperature distribution (3.3-4.2 m) there can be de-
velopment of layered convection due to the effects of double diffusion of heat and
salt j5]. This sector is shown at a more expanded scale in the lower part of Fig.
' la. A stepped structure is rather clearly seen here in the vertical distribution of
salinity.
Stable Trade winds predominated during measurements in the equatorial polygon (July-
August). With a wind force not greater than 3 scale units near the ocean surfa.ce
there was formation of a very thin daytime quasihomogeneous .layer and the thermo-
_ cline at its lower boundary. Corresponding conditions for this phenomenon in the
equatorial polygon (wind force < 3 scale units) were observed during almost 34% of
the total time in July and 10% in August.
At nighttime when there is a weak wind near the ocean surface the formation of dis-
crete convective elements was observed. This phenomenon was investigated thoroughly
in laboratory experiments (j6,7] and others), but evidently was observed for the
first time un3er the natuzal conditions of the ocean.
Figure 2a illus,trates one of the series of vertical temperature distributions in
_ the 10-m surface layer of the ocean obtained at night.time on 11 August 1979 in the
equatorial polygon (Ol�40'N, 18�51'W). At the time of these measurements the wind
velocity was U= 3 m/sec. The total heat flow from the ocean surface was Qsurf =-170
� W/m2; the heat flow due to evaporation was QL :-90 W/m2. The vertical temperature
- distribution revealed the presence of weak unstable stratification in the upper
meters, which was associated with cooling of the ocean through its free surface.
rigure 2b shows the vertical temperature distribution in the uppermost part of the
water layer and a synchronous record of the vertical distribution of conductivity.
These records evidently registered the moment of formation of a discrete convective
element in the upper centimeters of the ocean surface layer.
The vertical temperature distributions near the free surface of the water during the
formation of a thermal obtained in a laboratory experiment [7] had a similar form.
The vertical structure of the upper centimeters (Fig. 2b) was traced in particular
detail in the conductivity channel, having, as already noted, a better spatial res-
olution than the temperature channel.
The application of the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory [8] to the surface layer of
the ocean makes it po~sible to evaluate the characteristic scales of temperature T*
and salinity S* changes:
[7T = surf) T.~ -QnI~pPU.~ S'. ~ F~PU.,
23
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where U* is friction velocity ir. the water; F=-(S/,1 )QL is the salt flux due to
evaporation; S is salinity; ~ is the specific heat of evaporation; cp, ~o are spe-
cific heat capac~.ty aad water density respectively. For the dimensions of inhomo-
- geneities greater than the internal scales of turbulent disturbances of temperg-
ture ?~T and salinity ~S [5] the ratio of the characteristic changes of conductiv~-
ity due to temperature p GT and due to salinity Q Gg has the following form (in the
absence of freshening of the surface layer due to rain):
[T = surf ]
Q~iT/0GS STT.IQSS. - ~T~QnIRS~P SQL+ '
W11Er2
pT = (ac/ar~s p, ps = (ac/as)T P.
For t~1e conditions observed during the measurements, for example, on the night of
11 August 1979 in the equatorial polygon, the ratio dGT/ DGS = 25, ~S= 0.07 mm, fjT
= 0.7 mm (the r~ S and ~?T evaluations are somewhat exaggerated c;ue to the fact that _
- only the generation of turbulenCe due to buoyancy forces was examined).
Accordingl;~, in this case the changes in conductivity for scales greater than 1 mm
for the most part must be related to temperature changes. These evaluations ~ive
basis for using the vertical. conductivity distributions for an analysis of the
thermal structure of the surface layer of the ocean during nighttime convection.
- Figure 3 shows a serie~ of ? vertical distributions of conductivity obtained during
the dark time of day. The wind velocity during the measurements was U= 2 m/sec and -
the heat flows from the ocean surface were Qsurf= -120 W/m2, QL= -60 41/m2. The ob-
served variability of the vertical distribution of conductivity in the upper cen-
timeters of the ocean surface layer is in accordance with the phenou~enological
theory of free convection with large Raylei$h numbers [9]. _
tfere, however, it must be taken into account that the period of cyclic convective
processes near the ocean surface for our case should be N 40 sec [9, 10] and the
_ horizontal scale should be about 1 cm [9]. The rninimum time interval between two
= successive soundings was several minutes. The drift of the vessel between two suc-
- cessive soundings was tens of ineters. Therefore, in each sounding there was reg-
istry of the vertical structure of a cyclic convective process in some random
stage.
An analysis of the vertical distributions is somewhat difficult due to the funda-
- mental peculiarities of operation of the conductivity sensors near the water-air
discontinuity. In our case the vertical microstructure was conveyed without dis-
tortions beginning at a depth of 2 mm. Accordingly, the'sector of vertical dis-
tributions of conductivity in the depth range from 0 to 2 mm was excluded from -
consideration and is not shown in the figures.
- The vertical distributions obtained at 0543; OG03 and 0610 hours (Fig. 3) can be
interpreted as the stage of formation of the thermal boundary layer by means of
the molecular diffusion of heat. The thickness of tliis layer attained about 8 mm
in the vertical distribution obtained at 0610 fiours. The vertical distributions
obtained at 0537 and 0550 hours evidently belong to the stage of a convective
surge destroying the forming thermal boundary layer. The vertical distributions ob-
tained at 0557 and 0617 hours can be assigned L-o the stage of attenuation of the
24
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convective surge and the onset of for.mation of a new thermal boundary layer by
- means of the molecular diffusion of heat. ~
_ The results of investigations of the fine structure in the tropical region of ~h~
Atlantic Ocean confirmed the data available earlier for other regions [2,4]. New
, data were obtained on the influence of rain on the microstructure of the surfac~e
layer of the ocean. In addition, evidently for the first time in the ocean there
was registry of formation of discrete convective elements near ths surface at
nighttime.
The authors express appreciation to V. V. Turenko for developing the electronic -
circuitry of a conductivity sensor and to K. N. Fedorov and A. I. Ginzburg for
valuable comments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. Vershinskiy, N. V., Solov'yev, A. V., OKEANOLOGIYA (Oceanology), Vol 17, No 2,
_ 1977.
~
2. Vershinskiy, N. V., Nelepo, B. A., Solov'yev, A. V., DAN (Reports of the USSR
Academy of SciencFS), Vol 247, No 3, 1979.
3. So1ov'yev, A. V., Vershinskiy, N. V., DAN, Vol 240, No 5, 1978.
4. Solov'yev, A. V., IZV. AN SSSR, FIZ. ATM. I OKEANA (News of the USSR Academy of
Sciences: Physics of the Atmosphere and Ocean), Vol 15, No 7, 1979.
5. Fedorov, K. N., TONKAYA TERMOKHALINNAYA STRUKTURA VpD OKEANA (Fine Thermohaline
Structure of Acean Waters), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1976.
6. Sparrow, E. M., Husar, R. B., Goldstein, R. I., J. FLUID MECH., Vol 41, 793,
_ 1970.
7. Ginzburg, A. I., Zatsepin, A. G., Fedorov, K. N., IZV. AN SSSR, FIZ. ATM. I
~ OKEANA, Vol 13, No 12, 1977.
8. Monin, A. S., Yaglom, A. M., STATISTICHESKAYA GIDROMEKHANIKA (Statistical Hydro-
mechanics), Part 1, Moscow, "Nauka," 1965.
9. Foster, T. D., GEOPHYSICAL FLUID DYNArff CS, Vol 2, p 201, 1971.
la. Ginzburg, A. I., Golitsyn, G. S., Fedorov, K. N., IZV. AN SSSR, FIZ. ATM. I
OKEANA, Vol 15, No 3, 1979.
COPYRIGIiT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR", 1981 -
, I87-530,3] _
~ 5303
CSO: 1865
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UDC SS1o465011
MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF CIRCULATION IN THE OCEAN
Novosibirsk MATEMATICHESKIYE MODELI TSIRKULYATSII V OKEANE in Russian 1980 (signed
to press 19 May 80
[Annotation and table of contents from monograph edited by G. I. Marchuk, academ-
ician, and A. S. Sarkisyaz, doctor of physical and mathematical sciences, Izdatel'-
stvo "Naulca", Sibirskoye Otdeleniye, 1250 copies, 288 pages]
[Text] Annotation. This monograph is devoted to the theory and methods of mathe-
matical modeling of oceanic circulations developed at the Computation Center of the :
Siberian Department USSR Academy of Sciences. A number of formulations of the prob-
lem of ocean dynamics are considered, their resolution is investigated and effective
algorithms are proposed for their reaZization. Much attention is devoted to dif-
ference schemes and methods for solving the formulated problems. The results of
computati.ons of hydrothermodynamic fields are given and analyzed for individual
seas and ocEans and for the world ocean as a whole. The book is of interest for
specialists working in the field of computational mathematics, hydrodynamics,
oceanology and meteorology. ~
T.ABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword 3
Chapter l. Mathematical Problems of Dynamics of the Stratified Ocean............ 6
1.1. Linear model of a baroclinic ocean 7
1.2. Nonlinear models of a baroclinic ocean 17
1.3. Stabilization of solutions of linear problems in ocean dynamics......... 32
Chapter 2. Mathematical Modeling of the Thermocline and Vertical Turbulent
Exchange in the Ocean 44
2.1. On the problem of formation of the thermocline in the ocean 44
2.2. Turbulent energy equation 50
2.3. Equation of dissipation of turbulent energy 54
2.4. Determination of empirical constants 57
Chapter 3. Numerical Methods for Solving Problems in Macroscale 2~Iovements in
- the Ocean 64
3.1. Principal approaches to formulation of discrete models of ocean dynamics 64
3.2. Modeling of barotropic and baroclin{.c ocean currents 67
3.3. Numerical methods for solving nonstationary equations of ocean
thermodynamics ...........................................o........... 101
3.4. Difference schemes for solving problems in dynamics of a baroclinic
_ ocean 120
26
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Chapter 4. Increase in the Order of Approximation of Difference Schemes for
Equations of Ocean Dynamics ....................................o............. 135
4.1. Increase in the order of approximation by the embedded grids method.... 136
4.2. Exclusion of schematic viscosity by the successive approximations
method 144
4.3. Solution of equati4n for level surface 148
4.4. Difference scheme for'equation of densi,ty diffusion with stipulated
fluxes at boundary 152
4.5. Computation of difference solution gradients 156
Chapter 5. Spectral Methods for Solving Problems in Ocean Dynamics............ 161
5.1. Some problems in formulating spectral models of ocean dynamics......... 161
5.2. Formulation of problem of dyn~mics of tides of a barotropic world
ocean 162
5.3. Formulation of finite-differ~nce approximations 164 ~
5.4. Formulation of spectral problem for difference analogue of tidal
operator 166
5.5. Method of simultaneous iterations for solving the partial spectral
problem 167
5.6. Inverse iterations method for solving the problem of free oscillations. 170
5.7. Spectral method for solving the equations of dynamics of a baroclinic
world ocean 174
Chapter 6. Circulation of Waters of the World Ocean 180
6.1. Concise review of new foreign investigations of this problem........... 180
6.2. Model of thermohydrodynamics of the world ocean 183
6.3. Model of global circulation on basis of finite elements method......... 193
6.4. Modeling of macroscale fields of density and currents in the world
ocean 203
~ Chapter 7. Investigation of Patterns of Macroscale Circulation in the Example
of Individual Seas and Oceans 216
7.1. Ekman boundary layer 216
7.2. Upper quasihomogeneous layer in a three-dimensional model of ocean
circulation 226
7.3. Modeling of macroscale density fields in North Atlantic 238
7.4. Investigation of formation of hydrological characteristics in ocean.... 247
7.5. Numerical model of dynamics and thermal regime of Lake Baykal.......... 256
~ Notations Employed 273
Bibliography 274
Subject Index 285
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", 1980
[69-5303]
~303
CSO: 1865
~ 27
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UDC 551.46
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF GENERAL CIRCUI.ATION ~r THE ATMOSPHERE AND OCEAN
Moscow DOKLADY AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian Vol 253, No 3, 1980 pp 577-581
jArticle by G. I. Marchuk, academician, V. P. Dymnikov, V. B. Zalesnyy, V. N. Lyk-
osov, N. M. Bobyleva, V. Ya. Galin and V. L. Perov, Computation Center, Siberian �
Department USSR Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, ma~nuscript submitted 6 Mar 80]
[Text] The problem of creating mathematical models of general circulation of the
atmosphere and ocean is evidently one of the central problems in solving the
problem of long-range forecasting of weather and climate and its change. In this
article we examine a three-dimensional model of circulation of the atmosphere and
ocean is one of the possible variants i~lemented on the basis of a complex of al-
gorithms and programs developed at the Computation Center USSR Academy of Sciences.
This complex makes it possible to formulate models with different levels of com- -
plexity: atmospheric circulation with a stipulated temperature at the ocean sur-
- face [1], oceanic circulation with a stipulated temperature at its surface [2J,
atmospheric circulation with involvement of the upper quasihomogeneous layer of
the ocean [3], etc.
l. The system of differential equations describing the ~oint macroscale circulation
- of the atmosphere and ocean is conveniently represented in the form of two main
parts describing atm~ospheric and oceanic movements respectively. The equations of
atmospheric hydrothermodynamics are formulated in a spherical coordinate system
O ~l}ocr (the cr-coordinate is used vertically [i, 3] )
du - /1 + u tg ,p. \ t~ + __1 a~(~ + RT an _ F� ~1~
~ ,
clt ~ a % Q ~~,s aa n aa ~ n
~ 1 a~ RT an 1_ Ft,
+ ~ +-~K~ u -
~r Q ~ Q~ a,o 'n:` a~ l n
an ~ a,??~ ~os ~ a a~t~ xT
_ + + + - ~Q = o, - - - = o,
dt a cos ~p ~~p ) c~o ~a o ~
-
2g
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~IT R7' aa u ~n u aa 1 1�'T~
rr6+a r-+--.-- - l I - + e,
~ir ~oo- [ \ ar Q �,t ~ aa Q a~ / J ~ ~1~ -
- rlq _ Fy -
- -
~ ~li n
cr = o, ~S with d= i, a~= o with a'= o. ~2) ~
- In the a, c~p coordinates use is made of the condition of periodicity of the solu-
tion
r1=u�, u=u�, n=a�, T=T�, Q=Q�I ~3~
r-0'
The model of dynamics of the ocean [4] is f.ormulated in a spherical coordinate
system O~c~z:
a� ~ r~;, a au. ,
- lu = - +--r--+ FA,
ar a ~oS,~ aZ az -
a~ ~ a,~ a au an
- + !u = - - ~ v - + F = gP .
ar Q a,~ az aZ aZ ~4~
- ~ au a~