JPRS ID: 9274 USSR REPORT EARTH SCIENCES

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JPRS L/9563
23 February 1981 �
USSR Re ort
p
M~TEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
No. 10, October 1980
FB~$ FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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~ JPRS L/9563
23 February 2981
USSR REPORT
METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
No. 10, October 1980
Translation of the Russian-language monthly ~ournal METEOROLOGIY:~ I
GIDROLOGIYA published in Moscow by Gidrometeoizdat.
CONTENTS
Formulation af Boundaxy Conditions for the Foz:ecasting Problem Using Nested
Grids ............................................~....~.o.oo.o................o. 1
Variational Princ~ple and Splitting Method.......o....o.........o.....o.......... 10
Effect of Air Entrainment on Stabi.lity of a Thprmal....oo..o.a....o.o~........... 22
Operational Radar Display of the Structure of Thunderstorm-Hail Cloudsa.......... 27
Principles for Determining the Maximum Layer of Precipitation During a
' Computation Time Interval..........o .................o..o...a.o.o..oo...o.o.... 38
Nature of Equatorial Westerlies in the Indian Ocean......o......o..oo..o..,..a,.. 44
Aeration-Climatic Mode~ of a City .............o...o................ooo.ooo.....o. 53
Reaction of an Axially Symmetric Tropical G~clone to Changes in Ocean
Temperature ai~d Evaporation.........o...........o.........oo..o.....o.....,... 62
' Structure of Active Layer in Southeastern Caribbeaz~ Sea...o.o.o...ooa~...o.o.... 69
Some Characteristics of Va.riability of the Thermohaline Structure of the
Equatorial Region of the Atlantic,...o ................a.o...........o.....o... 75
Modeling of Processes of Runoff Formation in the Rivers of the Forest Zone of
the European USSR....o...........oo...o ..............ooooo...o.,oooo..o.oo...a. 86
Principal Characteristics of Maximum Annual Runoff of Mountain Rivers in the
Northern Caucasus~~~~~.~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o~~~o~o~o~~~~~o~~~~~~o~~~~~~oo~� 96
General Scheme for Computing and Predicting the Break-Up of Rivers....o.,a..... 105
- a- [III - USSR - 33 S&T FGUO]
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Himnmocking and the Resistan~ce of Ice to a Moving Ship.........a 114
- Objective Analysis of the Quantity of Clouds ....................o............o. 120
Determination of Ice Viscosity Under I~atural Conditionsooooooo....o..........~. 124
Storing Data-From Regularly Scheduled R~diosonde Observations and Their
Computerized Processing ...............a.a....o..oo.���o��������~~�����~����� 128
Deployment of FGGE Drifting Buoys in Southern Hemisphere.o...o.a...������a��a~ 136
Review of Monograph by B. B. Shumakov: 'liydromelioration Principles of
Estuary ~rrigation' (GIDROMELIORATIVNYYE OSNOVY LIMANNOGO OROSHENIYA),
~
Leningrad, 1979, 215 Pages........o ...............oo.......o........oo...... 1 5
Sixtieth Birthday of Boris Morisovich Ginzburg.......oooo...o���a��~����~����� 149
Seventy-Fifth Bii�thday of Pavel Pavlovich Voronkov ..................v......oo0 151
~
Conferences, Meetings and Seminars .....................~v...o��������������~~~ 153
- Notes From Abroad .....................oo....................oo....o.oa.o...... 161
- b
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UDC 551.509.313
FORMULATION OF BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR THE FORECASTING FR6BLEM USING NESTED GRIDS
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 5-12
[Article by Candidate of Physical a~d Mathematical Sciences Ye. Ye. Kalen~COVich
and I. V. Cholakh, West Siberian Regiox~al Scientific P.esEarch Institute, manu-
script submitted 24 Dec 79]
[TextJ Abstract: T1-:e pxoblem of formulation of boun-
dary conditions for a regional forecast, which
' is computed jointly with a forecast for an ex-
' panded territory, is considered. The derivation
of the bc~undary conditions adequate for coin-
cSdence of solutions of discrete approximations
of problems within the internal region of tele-
scoping is given, taking into account use of the
splitting method. The results of computations `
- using real data are presented.
_ Telescoping techniques have developed intensively during recent years. The es- -
sence of this technique is that within a large prognostic region, where a grid
with large space variables intervals is used, a smalYer r~gion with a fine grid
- (mesh) is defined. In solving the problem in the fine grid use is made of infornr-
ation obtained in the course of forecasting f:,r a Iarge territory [7, 12, 13]. In
forecasts for a hemisphere and region use is made of telescoping with a unidirec-
tional effect (the results of computations in the fine grid ara not used for cor-
recting the forecast in the coarse grid). Such a telescoping version makes it pos-
sible to improve the approximation without a substantial increase in the require-
ments on the size of computer memory or greater computer speed and at the boundar-
ies of the region with a fine grid use time-dependent boun3ary conditions.
Figure 1 shows the trajectories of particles which at the initial moment are at
the boundary of the region of telescoping, tracked over a 24-hour period when
computing a forecast for a hemisphere. In order to obtain the trajectories in
, each time interval the coordinates of the particles were scaled using the velo-
city values at these points interpolated from the adjacent points of grid inter-
section. The figure gives some idea of how substantially the fields can be dis-
torted by stipulating time-constant value~ of the functions at the boundary of
the region. In this connection it was of interest to clarify what the model gives
if real values are stipulated at the boundaries. Table 1 gives the values of the
1
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evaluations of a forecast u~ing a regional model with boundary condit~-ons close
to the actual boundary conditions, obtained using the formula
' act(ual)] Hboun~t) _ ~x(t)H~; + (1 -x(>))H;p,
where Hact' Ha4t are the actual values of the meteorological elements at the in-
itial moment an~d after 24 hours and QC(t) changes linearly in the course of the
forecast from 0 to 1. Although such boundary conditions can only conditionally be
called "actual," in. real computations at the present time it is scarcely possible -
to obtain such a success in a forecast. _
. \
,
/ !r ~
~
Fig. 1. Predicted tra~ectories of particles after 24 hours.
Table 1
, Evaluation of Forecast With Actual Boundary Conditions
Relative Error, r-- Correlat3on Coefficlent)
- Level, mb
1000 500 200
~ 0.53 0.34 Oo43
~ r 0.85 0.95 0.91
Several telescoped models [8, 11] have now been created and are being used in rou-
tine practice. Their use has made it possible to improve the quality of forecasts.
The development and testing of such schemes has shown that the success in use of
telescoping to a very great degree is dependent on the methods for stipulating
the boundary conditions. The difficulties in formulating tlie boundary conditions _
ensuring correctness of the problem for a system of primitive equations are relat-
ed to the mathematical properties of the system itself [1] and the presence of
angles at the boundary o� the region. Sometimes overdetermined boundary conditions
are used in combination w:[th different methods for suppress~ng reflected waves
[7, 9, 13J. Attempts at Formulating boundary conditions not allowing w~ve reflec-
tions meet with considerable mathematical difficultieso Conditions of the total
~ absorption type and their local approximations [6, 10] defined for simpler prob-
lems for the time being have not been applied to the case of a system of primitive
equations in a region with angles.
The realization of a prognostic algorithm on the basis of the splitting method [5~
used in the mc~del in j2] makes it possible to avoid these diff iculties and in each
splitting stage define boundary conditions making it possible to avoid overdeter-
mination and ensuring correctness of the problem. This was done in [4] for the
2
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initial differential problem. It was found that at the ~ateral boundaries in the
transfer stage it is necESSary to stipulate the velocity, temperature and geo-
potiential values for the lower level only at the inflow points, and in the adap- -
tation stage geopotential or the normal velocity component at each point of
the lateral boundary.
In [2] the system of primitive equations was written in a stereographic projec-
tion. The vertical coordinate is pressure. The problem is solved by the splitt-
ing method [5]. The evolutionary equations are first reduced to a skew-symmetric
form. This facilitates the formulation of stable difference schemes which in an
- adiabatic approximation in the transfer stage retain the mean squares of the com-
puted values, and in the adaptation stage a finite-difference analogue of total
energy.
The problem is solved for two territories. The outer region is a square taking in
the greater part of the northern hemisphere, at wh~se boundaries the conditions
of absence of flows are stipulatedo The inner region is a rectangle on a map in
a stereographic projection with sides parallel to the sides of the squareo The
extent of the inner region is 4800 x 7200 lma. The interval in horizontal coordin-
ates is half as great as for the larger territory. Values obtained in the course
of a"hemisphere" forecast are used at the boundaries.
In this article the proofs are presented with use of the energy methodo In [2]
this method (with some assumptions) was used in demonstrating the stability of
the finite-diff erence scheme for the large territory in the sense of con~erva- _
~tion (or noninerease in the presence of turbulent terms) of a quadratic function-
al the difference analogue of energy. Assume that th.~ problem for the inner
region is solved using the same scheme and in this same grid. We will select the -
lateral boundary conditions in such a way that the solutions of both problems with-
in the sma17 region coincide. This ensures the stability and uniqueness of solu-
tion of the regional model. The advaatage of the constructed boundary conditions is
a method for taking into account the time-dependent values of the meteorological
elements at the boundaries of the region which is rather simple from the point
of view of computational procedures.
Now we will examine a system of equations in the stage of transfer in horizontal
coordinates. Taking into account the parameterization of horizontal turbulence
used at the present time [3], the system assumes the form
~ + ~ m" u -r ; ( m= cl ~ ).r + ; m''u + 1 (nt'v = Fc ,
d d~ d dV
F- - aX K ax + vy K dy ~
K=a h2D,
a=const>0,
D-~llr~-'U~,~.
3
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~
Here _ I T j
- L `1' v' ,n
T 3.s temperature, u, v are the velocity components, m is a cartographic factor,
h is the horizontal gric: in~erval.
It is possible to limit ourselves to the first fractional interval transfer
along x: a d~
qt 2 ~?u ~x ~ -2 ~m'u :~.r = ~ K d.e '
As the difference approximation we use the scheme
a}t n
- (
~ 1 ~ + 2 h I `1!1"l1~RL~~~ ~~i - ~1iLZU~t 1/2 '1 +ltl=~ _ /
\1~
n ~n~-~l~_' ~ n ~ n Yn=-7/? n n-Li/2~� t=~ .!y
_ /i. Ki-I/2 i-l k�;_~!= K(+~/ 1 , .F.K~~.I~., , , ,
where n is the time index, i is an index along x(as a simplification the remain-
ing indices are omitted), ~ t is a time interval.
The sought-for boundary conditions are the least complete conditions ensuring the ~
coincidence in the time interval of n+l solutions of two discrete problems in the
region of telescoping on the assumption that in the preceding n iaterval these so-
lutions coincided. Assume that ~ is the solution of the problem for a large terri-
tory within the region of telescoping, ~ is the solution of the problem for the
inner region and SP' S~. Taking into accotmt that ~ n=~~ the difference
of equations (1) for these two problems assumes the form
~'~T~ ~ in'+'~ 'nT~
~ t + ~
h ~a~�{-t l ! ~ t+~ - x~-~!"- T r- ~ ~ -
n+t ,rt-{-1
_ ' ~~i_1 J:`1~i~
1' (~i-l~2 ~ c'iTl/': ~ ~~l ~i-LlJ'-' ~ ~'4.~ I'
2 K= '
Here ~i =(m2u)i, ~ i= Ki. After multiplying the i-th equation of the system by
cp in+l we obtain _ ~ r ,
4
h (x;+~l~ ~r ~~~ll - z,_~~~~ )
~t ( q ' -3 ~ ' -p 'I~' ' =0. (2)
1~1' 1~1''~--1~_' +~Ij-I/?~~~~ j_~~~ i~_~ (i~ J~l~/~ ~Yj ~i~~~I
Here and in the text which follows the time indices have been omitted. The summa-
tion of (2) for i gives
,
~ ~ ~h (2n'1~1=?~~. e:~,+i -a~~.c.~, -f-
i
'1" ~ t ~ ~t'~-1~-' r ~yJ"}'~~= I fi - ~ ~1-1 ~ - r ~-L1 `
2 A~ i-1
i-1 ~O ~
We will transform the terms in the brackets:
4
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N ly n.
fr ~'r'J~_I/2 + t'i~-1~ ~ ~ ,yf _ YI-~~2 y7~_~ zl - ~ ~j~.~~_ tpl+~ ~
J= 1 1= 1 i= 1
N '
~V -
- ~ ~!-1/=' ~Q~ - NI/4 YO 11 + ~/Y? 1/^ ~N �fl~.f 1 ir ~i-F1/31~~" - 2Q~~ ~i�~~~ _
j-~ i-1
N ~I ~
= ~ ~Dr. - L rr1il? - r~~~`?~ x~ ~N+~/= ~N ;,N t
+
i=1
N N .
+ ~ ~?+~11~'?i-~f,+~~2 = G ~1+~12 - ~~+1)'' -~-8~/2 ~P~. ` ~tv+~/s 'PN+1 -
l=1 r::t
- ~~l2'Fo ~1 -F 3N+~~~ ~rn~ ~n~+~'
Finally we obtain
n~ N
~ > ~ ~ . , ~ r +
L~~ ~ 2 h= sl~~ c.l ;~~yi+~/" (ry~ - Y~+~)z
' ~=i
~t , .
-f- 4
h (a~y~~ f., YN :h.+~ - ai~, wa ~p~) - .
~t , ~
lh= ~d~/2 ~o c,~ YN ~f.~'�}t 3~+1/~, ~h..}~~ _
Wi th p= N+1 - 0 we have
~
~ ~1~ ' 2ht ~gj-F~/2 ~~F; - ~~+~)Z = 0. .
t=?
Hence, because ~ is positive, it follows that 0. Thus, the stipulation of
boundary conditions in the form Sp0 =~pp and ~PN+1 -~N+1 ~nsures coincidence
of the solution of the discrete problem for the inner region and.the solution of
the discrete problem for the large territory within the limits of this region in
the stage of transfer.along x. Transfer along y is examined in exactly the same
way.
The following system of equations [2] is solved in the adaptation stage:
n-Fl o n
R ft , fv~.~~~~~ _ _~A.~.~~�i
' ~ l ' J z + ~3~
I ~~n`1,-v/' - fll~y~~~ -
J ~
Ta-+-t _ 7-n _ R_ ~ - 0
~ ~ p
~x ~
5
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ~NLY ~
Trti ~ _ _ P ~n+t
!1 n '
. ti+' + m` (!l`~+' + � (3)
~
where ~ is geopotential, f is the Coriolis parameter, p is pressure, _~7a _ 7~ T'~
Again we will examine two problems: the problem for the large territory and the
problem for the inner regi.on. The system is linear and therefore it can be assum-
ed that it was written in deviations and its solution is identically equa.l to zeroo
Assuming the solutions of the two problems in the n-th iaterval to coicide, and ap-
plying the method of biorthogonalization for the ~ertical coordinate [5], system
(3) can be reduced to the form ~
rh+r~r�~~=_~~+ ~2 ~~`1Q=0.
l l 2~ 1 c4>
Here 2h2 > 0 are the eigenvalues of the vertical operator, ~ are the Four-
T = ~2 � �
ier coefficients in the expansion of ~ in the eigenfunctions of the vertical oper-
_ ator,
(l~i~?~l. ~=~f't)~.Li/:, i1i/�_~':i--~. i- ~P1� t+i~'~- ~fi)/-~/z. r+i/~(r~ ,+i- c:~_i.~)-
(f Y~l+~!'~ ~-UZ ~'?i+i. 1 - ~J� ~-t ~ - ~f 'i ~1-~/'-', i-Ul ~~1, i-~ - `?!-1. i
(~1~) ~t, ~ _ ~ ; ~li/s. ~+~/1 ~ 1-~!=� 71+i/'-. r-tls -i- 'i!-~/^. r-i/s) '~1,1-
- ~+~i/�s. 1~~~~ .~Ti. rTi - ~I-i/?, ;*~/~~'~l-~. ~1~ -
,
-'i;y~~.~, ~_~~,Yf~.i. - ~i!-U'� t-~/^-~f/-i. r-?~
_ (1 ( f ~ t/2)7~-', i = 1, . . . , N; j = l, . . . , M.
This approximation was obtained taking into account [2] that the u, v values were
determined at the centers of the squares in the main grid for 5Go Scalarly we mul-
tiply (4) by ~ .
-
~',1 - ~~\f i~~1t-h~/=~ i~l/.' - ~{~~~~Ntlj'?. i-I,.'?~TM.i~.11=1.i
- lol
, N M
" ~ ~~f ~ ~+i/: ~f i)t/:. ~o. r ~ -F- ~ ~~f ~ )1-~1_~. -
~-i 1=1
.N
_'(f ~ ))--~1'-� U:~ u mi. ~ - L. (~f ~ )~_~~�s, n~+~~^ - ~f i ~l-~/s. n~rti/�r~ h~ `~i, n'+ i '
i- ~
.tr-i n'-~
_ ~ '~i_r~/~', ;+~1., r-~ - r ~
r=i
6
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I .11 N 1 . ~Y
' !.r ~ 1~-~f_. i~l~=' 1~T1� ~ - 7f-1. i-~1 ~ ( 11(3. i-1 ~ ~ ~
1=' ic~ 1~/_',i 1/_ ~'I~i
i=1
A
,tl--1
~ ,,tit+~/_~. r-~/� ~.iii ;-~t/: ~'"n:. ; + ~ �
i ~7/-~/:, + ~ /+i/2, t~~ ) ~j, ,
1-
.t~-~
+ `'~~/-1/-'� A'+1/? ~1--1/.'. ~\'~'1/-' ~ ~I~ N-~ 1 yyi~ i ~ ~ ~
~ -~-1 j_ ~ ,1f }l, i-i 1 ~ .41 , i -
~ ? i= 1
.ll-I .N
- r- Y1=1: A+1/= ~i-1. N~ t A' i 1/�! i_1/-' /-1 ~1~ J
+=1
AI-1
~ G~ i~_~~2. ~Pi-~. u ~ - ~ i r+i/= ~Po, i-{-~ ~P~, ; -
1=~ i_t
' :{f - I N
- ~ ~i-~l'..~+i!�'~fi-~. Na~ n i,yy, t-t 2 ~ -
/ ?itt. t--~ ~,ti~. ;
t
- ` '/=~l?, ~/s "1+~. n ~1. ~ '
~=2 .
, S tipulation of ~ 0- ~j , A+l 0, i�~P M}~, i� 0 at the boundaries, which
correspon.ds to the boundary conditions Ieads to the eyu~a.lity
A1 N
' ~
I(/.1- ( 1 + r l_~t 1'~1 ~!'I = ~ ~ ~'l.! +
l 1 1 1 1 1 ~1-,~^~
~ t ,H-~ n~--i
+ � ~
1 ~ ~ (~+~/2. r+~~z - 4'~, ; 1-
!=i r_i '
~x n-i N
+ ` ~ "(~_~~s, rsi~~ ; - ~fI-~.~-; ~ ) -~-~~ii/~.r-i~~> ~i~Y', r+ll=~~i, r+
1-2 ~-1 -
I N M-1
. ~ i,lt-t-1/2, i-I/�1 +~.Ilii 2. if1(~) ~2N. 1+~, ~ i 1~2 ~ i/~1/', I(2 ~ J%, ~
i_1
i
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.u-? '
i
~ ~~~..~E�~..ti..~t~�~T i~.i~~p,ly+~!'=~~l.1V , ,
J=3 I
~ It follows from this equation, since the squared coefficients are positive, that ~
0�
Tab1e 2 ~
- Evaluation of Forecast With Constant Boundary Conditions
(1) and Telescoping Problem (2)
Level, mb 1 2
E r ~ r
j 1000 0.70 0.67 0.61 0.79
- 500 ~ 0.67 0.71 0.68 0.71 -
200 0.87 Oo52 0.83 0.64 _
Thus, in the adaptation stage the stipulation of the geopotential values at the ~
boundar;es from the problem for the large territory ensures a coincidence of the
solutions of this problem ar.d the problem for the inner region in a discrete case~.
We note that in the proofs c3ted above it is assumed that the computations for both -
territories are made in coinciding grids. In actuality, the forecast for the inner
region is computed with lesser intervals. Accordingly, the boundary values are ob- ,
tained from the hemisphere forecast by means of interpolation in time and horizon-
tal coordinates with some error. But if the scheme is convergent (unfortunately,
convergence cannot be dem~nstrated for nonlinear problems), applying interpolation
~ formulas with an order of m,agnitude not less tha.n the order of magnitude of ap-
' proximation of the difference scheme we obtain a coincidence of the solutions with ;
~ a corresponding accuracy.
1
I In conclusion, in Table 2 we give the results of one of the preliminary computa-
~ tions. In the first forecast we used boundary conditions constant in time; in the
second forecast the telescoping problem was solvedo Both variants were computed
with intervals t~ 30 min and h= 300 lmi and with very simple parameterization
of horizontal turbulence ~
c~r - K~~~ h= 5~0 5 m2/sec.
The estimates show that the use of telescoping made possible a considerable im-
provement in the forecast at the lower and upper levels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ka.dyshaikov, V. M., "Boundary Conditions in the Short-Range Weather Forecasting ~
- Problem Using a Baroclinic Atmospheric Model," IZV. AN SSSR, FIZIKA ATMOSFERY
I OKEANA (News of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and
Ocean), Vol 9, No 1, 1973.
8
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2. Kalenkovich, Ye. Ye., Novikova, N. V., Cholakh, I. V., "The Forecasting Prob-
lem for the Northern Hemisphere and a Region," TRUDY ZapSibRNIGMI (Transac-
tions of the West Siberian Regional Scientific Research Hydrometeorological
Institute), No 41, 1978. ~
3. Kalenkovich, Ye. Ye., Novikova, N. V., Cholakh, I. V,, "Some Methods for the
, Parameterization of Subgrid Processes," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteor-
ology and Hydrology), in press.
4. Kalenkovich, Ye. Ye., Cholakh, I. V., "Formulation of Boundary Conditions in
Computing a Forecast for Nested Territories With Use of the Splitting Method,"
TRUDY ZapSibRNI(~II, No 41, 1978. -
5. Marchuk, G. I. , CHISLENNYYE t~TGJ)Y V PROGNOZE POGODY (Numerical Methods in
- Weather Forecasting) , Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1967.
~ 6. Bennett, A. F. ,"Open Boundary Conditions for Dispe:sive Waves," J. ATMOS.
_ SCI., Vol 33, No 2, 1976.
7. Chen, J. H., Miyakoda, K. A., "Nested Grid Computation for the Barotropic
Free Atmosphere," MON. WEATHER REV., Vol 102, No 2, 1974,
8. Cooley, D. S. , TEIE LIMITED-AREA FINE MESH MODEL, U. S. Dep. Commer, Nat.
Ocean. and Atmos. Admin. Nat Weather Serv. Techno Proced. Bull., No 232,
1978.
9o Davies, H. C., "A Lateral Boundaiy Formulation for Multilevel Prediction
Models," QUART. J. ROY. METEOROL. SOC., Vol 102, No 432, 1976.
10. Enquist, B., Majda, A., "Absorbing Boundary Conditions for the Numerical Sim-
ulation of Waves," MATH. COMP., Vol 31, No 139, 1977.
11. Gaunlett, D. J., Leslie, L~ M., McGregor, J. L., Hincksman, D. R., "Recent
- Results from the ANNIIZC Limited Area Nested Model," ANN, METEOROL. NEUE
- FOLGE, No 11, 1976.
12. Hill, G. E., "Grid 'felescoping in Numerical Weather Prediction," J. APPL,
METEOROL., Vol 7, No 1, 1968.
13. Perkey, D. J. , Kreitzberg, C. W., "A Time-Dependent Boundary Scheme for Lim-
ited-Area Primitive Equation Models," MQN. WEATHER REV., Vol 104, No 6, 19760
~
g
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UDC 551.509.313
VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLE AND SPLITTING METHOD "
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russiaa No 10, Oct 80 pp 13-24
[Article by Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences V. V. Penenko, Computa-
tion Center Siberian Department USSR Academy of Sciences, manuscript submitted
20 Mar 80 ]
[Text] Abstract: Ttie article describes a m~thod
for constructing splitting schemes for
solving multidimensional problems on the ~
basis of the variational principleo The
splitting schemes are obtained from the
conditions of stationarit~ of a summator
functional formed in a special way by the
method of weak approximat:~~on with frac-
tional time intervalsa The best ~ualit-
ies of both are manifested in the combin-
ation of the splitting method with the '
variational principle. The splitting meth-
od leads to computation algorithms which -
are economical and simple in application
and the variational principle guarantees
their stability and ensures matchin~ of
all stages in solution of the problemo _
The splitting method is now used rather frequently in practical work for solving _
mvltidimensional problems in mathematical physics [2,4,8,9]. It has a great. many
good qualities and in particular it affords a possibility for development of
stable numerical schemes which are economical and simple in application. Such a
_ possibility follows from the very essence of the splitting method, whose basic
idea is that solution of a complex problem is reduced to solution of a set of
simpler problems. In formulating discrete models this method can be conveniently
examined from two points of view: as a method for the splitting of "physical pro-
cesses," by means of which the initial model, describing a complex physical sys-
tem, is represented in a quite small time interval in the form of a set of simpler
models, each of which describes one or more aspects of the studied process; and as
- a method forthe splitting of "space variables," making it possible to reduce the
solution of the multidimensional problem to subsequent solution of problems of a
lesser dimensionality. -
10
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The structure of computation algorithms based on these principles is very conven-
ient for solving pr~blems in the mathematical modeling of physical processes in
such complex systems as the atmosphere and ocean. In the splitting method the
problems of atmospheric dynamics can be regarded as one of the stages in a
more complex model of a climatic system consisting of the atmosphere~ ocean, con-
tinents and biosphere. The splitting method naturally is also consistent with the
modular prinr_iple for the formulation of computation algorithms and complexes of
programs for the application of the models on computers.
- The articie describes a method for the formulation of discrete models on the basis
of the variational principle in combination with the splitting method. With re-
spect to its content it must be regarded as a continuation of [6], which describes
= a method for construc.ting energetically balanced approximations by means of an in-
tegral identity, and as a component part of studies [5, 7], which set forth the
_use of,the methods of the theory of perturbations and optimization in problems
~I of dynamics of the atmosphere and ocean. In this case the splitting schemes are
obtained from the conditions of stationarity of a summator functional, formed in
a special way by the weak approximation method with fractional time intervals.
This functional and the splitting schemes generated by it constitute the construc-
zive basis for numerical methods for investigating sensitivity and identification
of mpdels of hydrothermodynamics of the arcmosphere and ocean [5, 7]. A variational
- interpretatian of th? splitting method makes it a very convenient means in solving
~ optimization problems in models described by multidimensional differentia'1 equa-
tiotis in partial derivatives.
' The proposed method is quite universal and therefore in order to make the following
exposition more specific all the constructions wi11 be presented using the same ex-
ample of a model of atmospheric dynamics in isobaric coordinates an a sphere as in
[6]. In order to save space we will omit a description of the model in a differen-
tial formulation and represent it at once in the form of an integral identity (3.3)
- from [6]. Since the subject of our examination is the construction of time approx-
imations, as a convenience we will rewrite this identity, first collecting together
all the integrals in space variables and specially discriminating only ti.me inte-
gration. Assume that D= {[S x(pT 0, figuring in the denominator (12), addi-
tionally decreases w(in comparison with the case s= 0), that is, the intensity
of exchange, accomplished by means of thermals in the form of bubbles, is sloweda
- Now we will proceed to a discussion of the influence of nonadiabaticity (mass ex-
change) on the atm~spheric equilibritan criterion. We will examine a particle of
finite size Rp whose characteristics at the initial level z= 0 do not differ
from the corresponding characteristics in the surrounding air: ,
aoT=aoq =~o =o. R=Ro with z= 0. ~14)
As a result of the initial displacement the particle moves upward (z~ 0), u the -
question arises as to the nature of its further behavior. This can be investigated
on the basis of the solution (7), with (14) taken into accounto We will assume that -
~ an.d yq are constant with altitude. Then it is easy to obtain the following ex-
- pressions for the characteristics of a nonadiabatic particle:
(15)
~aT+3,~q=r* 3
(16)
t d~,= d,~~ = I'H R c~, .
? dz - dr 3 b (17)
r: -'%~7-Ti1~-~~ t�r~--r~,)= r~,~t
dmrdt r: (~s)
3b T = ~~a9 - ~ ~ - = r* ~
3 ` - ~ C19)
~ - (R4 R~R~, - ~ ~ 1 - (1 rl'4]~ = b Ro ,
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where yi =-dTi/dz and Yqi =-dqi/dz are the nonadiabatic temperature and humid-
ity gradients of the particle respectively.
With ~ 1= 0 expressions (15)-(19) describe purely thermal convection, with ~
0, 0 is convection in the humidity field, but with ~41 q`= 0, ~B ~ 0 is the mix-
ed convection regime.
For an adiabatic thermal (aC-;0, R-i Rp) with cd = 0 the expressions (15)-(19) are
reduced to the known adiabatic equilibrium criteria
~ ~ar+~,~9=~~1. ~20~
am
ar = r~ 2~ (21>
dwldt r~
[H = non (adiabatic) J pa T 1 a,aq - l';, ~22)
From a comparison of (15)-(19) and (20)-(22) it is easy to ascertain the influence
of nonadiabaticity on the equilibriinn criterion. According to the adiabatic equil-
ibrium criterion (20)-(21) dw/dt ~ 0 and accordingly (~b T+ ~31 ~ qz~-- 0 with ~
0(the symbols relate ~o unstable, neutral and stable stratifications
respectively). In a nonadiabatic case in formulas (17) and (18) the nonadiabatic
correction factor (1 appears, replacing unityo In the general case of mixed
convection the adiabatic equilibriimm criterion is replaced by the nonadiab atic
equilibrium criterion r*~n = r~cl In special cases ~ 1= 0(Y - Ya) is re-
placed by ~`y- yi) _('y- 'Ya(1 but with 0 YQ is replaced by (y -~qi)
_'~'q(1 It a.s important that the adiabatic criteria ('Y- ya), and
the corresponding nonadiabatic criteria `"*on, (Y_ yi), ( yq _ yqi) alwaysQhave
identical signs since ~ is a nonne~ative monotonically increasing function limited
- with height (~(0) = 0~ 5~5~ = 3/4) and always (1 ~ Oo This means that
mass exchange does not change the type of equilibrium (stable, neutral, unstable),
but changes its degree.
~ In contrast to the constant r*, < Y- Ya) and Yq values, the r*�~, ( y- Yi) and
(y q- Yqi) values are dependent on z and the characteristics of the thermal b
and R~, in this case not on them separately, but on the dimensionless combina-
tion rj= b z/Rp. With ~-~0 we have (1 1 and *�n-, that is, the dif-
ference between t diabatic and nonadiabatic equilibrium criteria disappears.
With a fixed z th ition Yj-~ 0 is realized with b~ 0(little mixing) or RD ~oo
(large thermals) other hand, the maximtun difference between the adiabatic
and nonadiabatic cr eria is observed with Yj~+po, as is realized (z is fixed) w~ith
b-~cx~(great mixing) with Rp-~ 0(very small thermals)o Since the numerical value of
expansion coefficient for atmospheric thermals does not vary very significantly
(b = 0.2 [3, 5]), the above-mentioned conclusions are equivalent to the assertion
that with fixed z the difference in the criteria (~*�n and r* is considerable for
very small thermals and decreases with an increase in R~. For any specific case
the precise value of the difference betweenj~~on and can be computed usi.ng
formula (18).
25
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~�le will also briefly examine the influence of drag (cd ~ 0) on the equilibrium ~
criterion. It is easy to show that instead of (18) it is possible to obtain
_ . 0< ~T~ ~~a9 C~1-~1.
Evidently, the type of stability again does not change, but under identical condi-
tions the acceleration dw/dt with cd 0 at any level z is always less than the
corresponding acceleration with cd = 0.
The next problem is allowance for the mutual influence of nonadiabaticity and ~
phase transitions of water on the stability critetiono This can be done on the
basis of analytical solutions for a nonadiabatic moist thermal above the condensa-
tion level obtained in j7].
These problems will be dealt with in a separate studyo
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Andreyev, V., Panchev, S., DINAMLKA ATMOSFERNYKH TERMIKOV (Dynamics of Atmo- ~
spheric Thermals), L eningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1975. ,
2. Andreyev, V., Sirakov, E., "Interaction Between an Isolated Thermal and the
Surrounding Medium," KHIDROLOGIYA I METF.OROLOGIYA (Hydrology and Meteorology),
Vol XIX, No 6, Sofia, 1970.
3o Vul'fson, N., Levin, I. 0., "Form of Realization of Spontaneous Convective
Movements in the Atmosphere," IZV. AN SSSR, FIZIKA ATMOSFERY I OKEANA (News
of the USSR Acadeury of Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and Ocean), Vol
10, No 4, 1974.
4. Matveyev, L. T., OSNOVY OBSHCHEY METEOROLOGII (Principles of General Meteo~
ology), Leningrad, Gidr~meteoizdat, 1965.
5. Sirakov, E., "A Model of Nonadiabatic Thermal Convection in Dry Air," Diploma
Work, SU "K1. Okhridski," 1969.
6. Sirakov, E., Periodic Solutions for a Nonadiabatic Thermal in a Stratified
Atmosphere," COMP. REND. BULG. AK. SCI., Tome 29, No 1, 1976.
7. Sirakov, E., "Dynamics of Nonadiabatic Thermal in a Stratified Atmosphere Tak-
ing Into Account the Co-effect of Mass Exchange and Water's Phase Transition,"
COMP. REND. BULG. AK. SCI., Tome 31, No 9, 1978.
26 '
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UDC 5510576.1:621.396.969
OPERATIONAL RADAR DISPLAY OF THE STRUCTURE OF THUNDERSTORM-HAIL CLOUDS
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 29-38 ~
[Article by Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences M. T. abshayev, High-
Niountain Geophysical Institute, manuscript submitted 14 Jan 80]
[Text] Abstract: The article describes the meth-
ods and apparatus used in the routine col-
lection and graphic display of data on the
~ cellular structure of thunderstorm-hail
clouds which ensure a considerable increase
in the information yield of ineteoralogical
radars. The principle of the method is ob-
taining the cellular structure of the radio-
echoes of clouds in isolines of radar reflec-
tivity, against whose background it is pos-
sible to discr3.minate hail centers, bearings
of lightning discharges and zones of tur-
' bulence, discriminated by the simultaneous
, processing of data in several channels. Some
~ results of investigation of the structure
' and dynamics of development of hail clouds
~ obtained by the proposed method are presentedo
Introduction. The widespread use of radar apparatus in routine hail protection
work, in the storm warning service, in ensuring the safety of aircraft flights,
etc., requires the routine automation of the processin~ and graphic display of
information in a form easily comprehensible to users, not requiring high skills
of personnel in the interpretation of the observational results. For example,
the services for hail protection, storm warning and ensuring the safety of air
traffic require routine materials on the structure of hail clouds with the simul-
taneous discrimination, at a real time scale, of each convective cell, the
hail and thunderstorm centers in them, zones of increased turbulence and zones
of ordered jets of ascending currents.
In hail protection work the need for this method is dictated by the fact that
the scheme for the modification of hail processes is determined by the cellular
structure of the cloud (unicellular, multicellular, supercellular), stages of de-
velopment (hail or potentially hail stage), relative spatial position and config-
uration of the zone of localization of the hail and the zone of the ascending
' 27
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flow [3]. The expenditure of ineans on modification is determined by the transverse '
dimensions and rate of movement of the center of hail formation.
ICnown methods and apparatus for the processing of radar information on meteorolog-
ical objects do not ensure collection of information on the total structure of
radioechoes of clouds and because of this have an information yield inadequate
for practical purposes.
The method for discriminating hail centers used in hail protection work does not en-
sure the detection of jets of ascending currents and determination o~ the structure
of clouds, on the basis of which the technology and intensity of modification are
selected for the purpose of interrupting and preventing hailfalls.
The methods for discriminating zones of increased turbulence 8] make it pos-
sible for aircraft to avoid zones of dangerous bumping, but do not provide warn-
~ ings concerning large hail capable of inflicting serious mechar.ical damage to
them. In addition, with tlie existing method for the display of turbulence zones
there is a loss of information concerning the spatial positiQn of this zune rela-
tive to the boundaries of the radioecho, zone of enhanced reflectivity and hail
center.
- In turn, known methods~for obtaining a multicontour isoecho [4, 5, 10 and others]
ensure only the collection of information on the structure of radioechoes of
clouds and give no idea concerning the presence and location of hail centers,
ordered jets of ascending currents, zones of dangerous bumping, etc.
In this article we propose a method and apparatus for operational collection of
the total structure of radioechoes of hail clouds with the discrimination of hail
centers, zones of increased turbulence and zones of ordered ascending currents
against a background of the pattern of a radioecho in the form of a multicontour
isoecho.
Principle of Method
The principle of the method is as follows. Hail centers, bearings of lightning dis-
charges and zones of increased turbulence, simultaneously discriminated in dif-
ferent data processing channels, show up in the form of bright pips against the
background of the cellular structure of thunderstorm-hail clouds displayed on radar
screens in the form of a multicontour isoecho by means of thin reflectivity iso-
lines . ~
In this method the structure of radioechoes of clouds in the form of a multicon-
tour isoecho is obtained, in accordance with [4J, by the introduction of a correc-
tion for the square of distance, spatial-temporal averaging of the radioecho in
ma.ny range channels (192) for 16 successive signals, quantization with the select-
ed interval and the formation of narrow (0.5-1.0 msec) pulses which during radial-
circular scanning define reflectivity isocontours. The adopted quantization inter-
val was 10 db, Chis ensuring the necessary detail and adequate clarity of radioecho
structure. The first contour, representing the outer boundary of the cloud radio-
echo, is discriminated in the form of a dashed line, which �makes it possible to
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identify natural clearings in clouds and simplifies the interpretation of the
isoecho pattern.
The discrimination of the hail centers is accomplished, in accordance with [1]~ by _
the two-wave method by the subtraction of the logarithm of strength of a radio-
echo obtained in the 3.2 cm channel of a MRL-5 radar from the logarithm of the
strength of a radioecho obtained in its 10 cm channel. Neglecting the attenua-
tion of the 10-cm radiation, we have
R
~g E'~o (R) = ~g C~~~ ~ ~g, rno ~R) + ~,2, Ka..~(R)dR, ~1)
~3.2~k) L3,L' T~3: ~ff 1
where P3.2 and P1~ is the mean strength of the radioecho in the channels 3.2 and
10 cm respectively; C3~2 and Clp are the meteorological potentials of the chan-
nels 3.2 and 10 cm of the MRL-5 radar; 't~ 3~ 2 and 1'J 10 are the radar reflectivit-
ies of a cloud in the channels 3.2 and 10 cm; K3~2 is the coefficient of attenu-
ation of radiation at 3.2 cm.
In a rain zone the ratio of the radar reflectivities at wavelengths 3.2 and 10
~10~ ~ 3.2 regardle s of the intensity of the precipitation is a constant val-
ue and equal to a4/a 2,^; 0.01, but in the presence of hail with a maximum dia-
meter d~X > 0.8-1.~ cm this ratio increases with an increase in the diameter of
the hail and for large hail attains values ~ lp/'~3. 2~ 1 or more. Accordingly, sel-
_ ection of a cloud cover field where the value ~10/~~~~ 0,01 is observed en-
sures the discrimination of zones of localization of il with a maximum diameter
of more than 0.8-1.0 cm. The erro rs associated with the attenuation o:E 302 cm
radiation are eliminated by the introduction of a correction by means of a spe c-
ial device for the correction of attenuation.
Apparatus
- The method for obtaining the structure of thun3erstorm-hail clouds described above
- can be applied using specialized devices for the processing of information or us-
. ing an electronic computer. In both cases high requirements are imposed on the
processing apparatus: speed not less than 106 operations, memory unit volimme ~ 30
kbyte, high accuracy and clarity of data display.
In this article we examine specialized apparatus for obtaining the structure o f ~
thunderstorm-hail clouds. Figure 1 is a strtictural diagram of such apparatus,
built into a two-wave MRL-5 meteorological radar.
The apparatus for obtaining the structLre of thunderstornrhail clouds inciudes the
MRL-5 radar, a multicontour isoecho device, device for the selection of hail cen-
ters, turbulence indicator, thunderstorm direction finder, commutator and signal
mixera With respect to actual construction, the multicontour isoecho unit, tur-
_ bulence indicator and thunderstorm direction finder are enclosed in individual cab-
inets with their own current sources.
The principle of operation of the apparaL�us for obtaining the structure of thunder-
stornrhail clouds is as follows. The power of the radioecho is fed from the output
of the receiver for the 3.2 cm channel of the MRL-5 radar, corrected by 1/R2 (for
the SHF of a p-i-n diode attenuator), to the device for the selection of
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hail centers and the commutator Io
!
~
i 1
~ llepedorvuK putMnu,r c~paucrEo 7 IfoMnyrv ~
I xcyana I 4 KoPPeKWuu mnp 1 HlfOINQB I
1 KQNOnQ Na ocna6ar ,
1 ~ ~ �
1 ' cuNxao - 9c~pouc~eo 14 ~ �
~ N(/3Q70p ccnerr uu !
. 2 ANpICNNbII% LpQdO~b/X
~ nrAeBaavQ. o va za ~
~ mt/1e
pU~
NuR ~ C7p0(!CT
; ~ MHOLOKON- ~
i ANlIICNNb/U ~ TypNOLO
IfQNQqQ ROMHS/7C� CHCCU- ~
~ 2/ICPCMA~04tl I lI303XQ ~D 1 pl~pb ~
/ .71C/16 I
' ~ HMduKa - ' 15 ~ ~
~ ' I Tap 7yp6 . ~
; rtPtdarvun ~ nee~nocr l~l !
, 3 Q naNana ~ 1, ~
~----------------J i paao-
_ I R ~
'NZO� ~
Figo 1. Functional diagram of apparatus for obtaining structure of thunderstornt-
hail clouds. I) standard MRIrS meteorological radar; II) additional deviceso
KEY:
1. Transmitter of channel I l0o Turbulence indicator -
2o Antenna switch llo Thunderstorm direction finder
3. Transm.itter of channel II 12o Commutator I
4. Receiver of channel I 13. Commutator II
5. Synchronizer 14. IKO/IDV
6. Receiver of channel II 15. Mixer
7. Device for correction for attenuation
8. Device far selection of hail centers ~
9. Multicontour isoecho device
The power of the radioecho in the 10 cm channel of the MRIrS radar, also with the
1/R2 correction, is fed simultaneously to the commutator I, the multicontour iso-
echo device and the turbulence indicator. The commutator I ensures the possibility
For alternate indication on IKO/IDV displays of the MRL-5 radar of the videosig-
nals 1gP3~2 and 1gPlp, as we11 as the difference signals lg P3o2~P10 and lg P10~
P 3~2. In the device for the selection of hail centers and the multicontour iso-
echo device there is spatial-temporal averaging of the meteorological radioecho,
The averaging of lg P3~2 and lg Plp is ~ccomplished by selection of the meteorolog-
ical radioecho in 192 range and integration channels in RC circuits with a time
constant'G N 0.04 sec [4]. The schemes for the averaging of lg P3o2 and lg P10 are
identical and consist of a generator of cadence pulses (triggered by a triggering
pulse from the MRL-5) with a frequency divider, shaper of strobing pulses, shaper
of shifting pulses, eight-digit shifting register and a unit of 192 time selectors
with integrators.
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a~
.
~ , ~~,ICM?,~r
i~ � i
_
,
_ ~
,
_ _ _ .
~ ~ - -
_
~
-
-
~
. _
Fig, 2o Pattern of radioechoes of hail clouds on IKO and IDV displays, a) ordin-
ary pattern of radioechoes on IKO display. (The display shows the date, time,
sign of the norm for the energy potential for the meteorological radar (letter
Tf), scanning scale, antenna angle of elevation); b) structure of hail cloud on
IKO display in reflectivity isolines at T= 10 cm, with 10 db interval, (The out-
er dashed contour corresponds to ?'j10= 10-~-2 cm lo The hail center is discriminat-
ed from the solid white pip); c) structure of radioecho of hail cloud on IDV indi-
cator.
The nimmber of range channels in the averaging scheme is selected in such a way
as to ensure the necessary range resolution of 0,25 lan with a scanning sczle M<
50 1~, 0.5 lan with M= 100 km and 1.5 lan with M= 300 lan.
In the hail center selection device the averaged signals lg P3~2 and lg Plp(R)
are subtracted in the operational amplifieY and the difference signal is fed to
the commutators I and II through an amplifier-limiter shaping the boundaries of
the hail center. The averaged signal lg P10 in the multicontour isoecho unit is
fed to the input of th.e quantizer, ensuring parallel quantization at six levels
with a stipulated interval (for example, 10 db)o At the output of the threshold
devices in each quantizer channel pulse shapers (duration 1 � sec) are cut in,
; which during radial-circular scanning define the isolines of reflectivity (or
radioecho strength). In order to define the outer boundary of the radioecho
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by a dashed line the pulses from the first quantization level are fed to a coin-
cidence circuit ensuring the selection of output pulses by the pulses of a"64 .
counter," which first divides the MRL triggering frequencyo
' 11 JS 1~?0 '3 JB 1y 46 'S2B
NKn j. i ~ �iu.
1p ~ i xs:' I .~..~,c~..~~ ,
~ ~
~ ~ ~ i
V ! I ~ :I
~r' ~ ~ i ~
I ;;'_V.� I ~ ~ ~ ' ~
41. j ` j ~ `t-.
; .
I I : ~ .;i � :
_ . .I ` ~ . ~ i ~
. j ~ ~ ~ i ~
~ ~ :I .~?t
( ~ , ~ I ` r .
. ~ ~ r'
~ . o : ~ cP ~ I ~ ~ .
, I.
y 1` ' ~ a a~. ~
~ 0,0.: i ~ ~ . ~
i ~ ; , . , l`~
, ; ~_l
~ ~ : ~a ; ~ ; ~ :
; b> ; a� ; ; - ~
2 ; ~I . ,.J~ ~ ;
. : o:; : o ~ ~
;6: ~ ; ~ ;
1~. ; . 0
e~uKM
Fig. 3. Spatial structure of radioecho and dynamics of development of one of super-
cellular hail clouds observed on 13 August 1977 obtained by circular sections at
indicated altitude levels. The cloud structure in '~j10 isolines without revelation
of hail center is shown at 1528 hourso VS~ = 70 lan/hour is the velocity of the
steering current, Vicell = 40 lan/hour is the velocity of movement of the supercella
The turbulence indicator [7] consists of the limiter amplifier, a phase detector,
~ an ultrasonic delay line, a deyice for period-by-period subtraction and ensures
obtaining the fields of the difference of radial velocities of hydrometeors caused
for the most part by t~rbulence (scale 0.5 km). A detailed description of the tur-
bulence indicator and thunderstorm rangefinder, ensuring determination of the bear-
ings of the lightning discharges, and the MRIrS radar is given in [2, 6, 7] and
therefore they will not be discussed here.
The commutator II is used in sending signals from the output of the multicontour
isoecho unit, unit for the selection of hail centers and the lightning direction
finder to the input of the videosignal mixer.
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' i ~L~ _j . .
, - , .
u
; i's 6�-20� ~ 4' ~~n!/ ~
~ - ~ l ll~"_t__ _ ~ ~13
: ~___,~l
~~f;:~ - ;
; ~ ~ -
_ j'/ - ~ ,.,.c-~. '
U~% ; - - , ---i
, ~ ��i ~,'y
_ .:_.:-~.'~~i~~i~~ : ~_I,'
-
- - .
. , ' ~ ' ~\1: .
' ~~1"._" ~ ~ ll
, .,,f- ~ ~ ~
~ .
~ -
. , ,
; _ -
~ ~ ,
, ~ ;
' l J r;' ~ - ;
~ ~ I ~
~ ~ ~ O
; ~v
; , , I i . ~
' 0
S ,rn . .
J A'M
' Fig. 4. Structure of supercellular hail cloud observed on 20 August 1976 on IDV
display in indicated azimuths (at right). In the IKO display patterns (at left)
the lines represent the directions in which vertical sections were made. (The -
' arrows indicate the region of the jet of powerful ascending currents,)
The videosignal mixer is used for mixing the pulses outlining the cloud cover
' field by reflectivity isolines at ali quantization levels with additional infor-
mation arriving through the oth~r processing channels. In particular, the mixer
can be fed (simultaneously or altemately) the thunderstorm direction-finding
pulse and echo signals from the thunderstorm center selection device and the tur-
bulence indicator.
The total signal, containing total information on the structure of thunderstorm- .
hail clouds, is fed to the IKO and IDV standard displays of the meteorological
radar through the commutator I.
The clarity of data display can be enhanced by using a system for the color dis- '
play of signals (for example, reflectivity isolines in white, hail centers and
thunderstorm bearings in red, turbulence in green, etc.
The operation of all the apparatus is synchronized by MRL-5 triggering pulses. When
the turbulence indicator is cut in the MRL-5 synchronizer is triggered from ito
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Some Results of Experimental Investigations of the Structure of Thunderstorm-
Hail. Clouds
The use of several. models of apparatus for the routine determination of the
structure of thunderstorm-hail clouds under different regional conditions (North-
ern Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Leningradskaya and Volgogradskaya Oblasts) reveal-
ed that:
apparatus for determining the structure of thunderstorm-hail clouds is easily
coupled with the meteorological radars MRL-1, MRIr2, MRL-4, MRL-5 and MRIr 6 with-
out changes in their circuitry and design (however, the MRIr-1, MRL-2, MRIr4 and
MRIr6 radars do not ensure the discrimination of hail centers using formula (1)
and instead of them zones of enhanced radioechoes of clouds stand out in the
structure of the radioechoes);
obtaining a graphic picture of the structure of thunderstorm-hail clouds is
ensured in the tempo of automatic circular ~nd vertical scanning of space with
rates of rotation of the MRL antenna up to 6 rpm;
use of apparatus for obtaining the structure of thunderstorm-hail clouds con-
siderably increases the information yield from meteorological radars, by several
times reducing the time required for obtaining information on the cellular struc-
ture of clouds, about the location of hail centers, thunderstorm discharges, jets
of ordered ascending currents, on the relative position of all these zones in
clouds, etc.
The pattern of structure of radioechoes of a hail cloud on the IKO and IDtJ indi-
cators in isolines of radar reflectivity at a= 10 cm with the clear revelation
of hail centers is shown in Fig. 2. Comparison of the usual pattern of radio-
echoes of a hail cloud on the IKO indicator (Figo 2a) and the pattern obtained
using the considered apparatus (Fig. 2b,c) indicates a considerable increase in
the information yield from the meteorological radar.
The use of the apparatus ensures obtaining the spatial structure of cloud cover
in 1.5-2 minutes by photoregistry of the IKO and IDV indicators with different
_ angles of elevation and azimuths of the antenna respectively and also makes it
possible to trace the dynamics of development of thunderstorm-hail clouds (Fig-
ures 3 and 4), establish the site of generation of new convective cells, detect
the zone of maximum hail-forming activity of clouds, determine the altitude of
the layer of generation and growth of hail, study the characteristics of hail
formation and the nature of propagation of the hail formation process in space,
localize the region of ordered ascending currents, etc. For example, the region
of ascending currents (even in the absence of a turbulence indicator) is easily
detected by superposing the structure of the radioechoes on the IKO indicator at
an altitude of 6-7 km above sea level on the structure of the radioechoes at an
altitude of 1-2 km above sea level (Fig. 3) as a region of a weak radioecho
situated under the cover of a powerful radioecho. It is quite easy to discrimin-
ate zones of ascending currents in the structure of radioechoes of hail clouds
on the IDV indicator (Fig. 4).
The error in drawing the isolines of reflectivity, consisting of the errors in
calibrating the multicontour isoecho unit, time instability of the quantization
levels (caused by instability of the power sources for the threshold devices) and
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' the errors in averaging the meteorological radax echo, does not exceed �3 dbo
Tfiis causes some noncorrespondence of the position of reflectivity isolines L~L.
Tn tfie region of maximum reflectivity gradients (dPr/dR N 30-60 db/km) , observed
in hail clouds, !1 L does not exceed the duration of the range discretization in-
terval (Q I,min< 0.25 lan), wfiereas in the region of small reflectivity gradients
(dPr/dR~ 1-2 db/lan) 11 I,maX is about 1.5-3 km. The accuracy in 3etermining the _
, boundaries of the hail centers with a hail size greater than 1 cn is es timated at `
0.2-0.3 km. The error in correction for attenuation does not exceed 2.0 dbo
During the period 1976-1978 this apparatus was used in obtaining extensive mater-
ial on the structure and de'velopment of 104 thunderstorm-hail processes in the
Northern Caucasus and classifying them on the basis of cellular structure and dy-
namics of development. It was established that under the conditions prevailing
in the Northern Caucasus, depending on the structure of the wind in the tropo-
sphere, as unde r the conditions prevailing in North America [9 and others], there
are three types of hail processes: unicellular, multicellular and supercellular.
In turn the mult icellular processes in the Northern Caucasus are subda.vided into
- three subtypes: ordered, nonordered and weakly organized.
The most intensive and destructive hailfalls, covering area~ of a~bout Sd~-1500 km2,
are ohserved in the case of supercellular processes consisting of one enormous
(measuring 30 x 50 km) asymmetric cell (see Fig. 3) having a lifetime of 0,5-3
hours. Supercellular processes are observed in 12% of th.e cases of observations.
Multicellular processes are observed most frequently (in 64% of the cases). They
consist of several asymmetric convective cells in different stages of development.
New conve~t3ve cells in ordered multicellular processes are generated on the right
windward flank of the cloud system, old cells are destroyed on its leeward flanl;
and in nonordered multicellular processes this is noted in any part of the cloud
system. The greatest hail-forming activity in supercellular and multicellular pro-
cesses is also observed on the windw~ard flank of the cloud system. In unicellular
processes, observed in 24% of the cases and consisting of axisymmetric cells which
_ have low mobility with a minimum lifetime, hail formation is observed in their
; central part.
The hai]. format ion process in unicellular processes has a discrete spatial propaga-
tion, in multice llular processes hail formation has a discrete-continuous propaga-
tion (as a result of the continuous Fropagation of individual cells and the peri-
odic development of new cells on the right flank), and in supercellular processes
` continuous p ropagation in the direction of movement.
Powerful hail c ells usually move 30-60� to the right of the direction of the steer-
ing current, although in the developinent and dissipation stages they move along
~ the steering current. Jets of powerful ascending currents in powerful hail-forming _
- cells of supercellular and multicellular processes are also displaced toward the
windward flank, somewhat to the right of the hail center. The region of powerful
radioechaes, hanging over the ascending flows, extends forward and to the right (by
0-90�) relative to the direction of movement of the hail center.
35
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The velocity of movement of powerful hail clouds is 1.5-2 times less than the
velocity of the steering current and only Greak convective cells can virtually
completely entrain them.
Since the structure, dynamics of development and character of propagation of the
hail formation process in unicellular, multicellular and supercellular hail pro-
cesses are substantially different, a scheme for modification for the purpose of
interrupting and preventing hail formation should be differentiated with respect
- to the ty~es of hail processes [3]. The apparatus for determining the str~acture
' of the thunderstorm-iiail clouds will make it possible to carry out routine iden-
- tification of their types and choose optimum se.eding schemes. In addition, the
graphic display of the cellular structure of th~nderstorm-hail clouds with an in-
dication of the position of the hail centers and jets of ascending currents w111
ensure exclusion o~ many standard errors of operators in the modification of hail
processes (for er.ample, the seeding of the zone of localization of hail, regions
_ of the most powerful ascending currents, etc.) and will make it possible to carry
out a more purposefu~. modification, which evidently will make possible a substau-
tial increase in the effectiveness of hail protection and a reduction of the
means spent on modification.
- The positions of the zones of localization of hail, increased turbulen~e, light-
ning discharges and heavy precipitation, dangerous for aircraft flights, discri~-
inated against the background of the field of reflectivity of clouds, can be of
gr.eat importance for ensuring the safety of aircraft flights under complex meteor-
, ological conditions.
Summary
The operational radar method and apparatus for graphic display of the structure
- of thunderstorm-hail clouds, including a multicontour isoecho unit, a unit for
the discrimination of hail centers, a unit for making corrections for attenua-
tion, a turbulence indicator and a thun.derstorm direction finder, ensuring the
discrimination of hail centers, lightning discharges, zones of increased tur-
bulence and zones of ascending currents against the background of cloud structure
in the form ~f a multicontour isoecho, will considerably increase the meteorolog- -
ical information yield of ineteorological radars and can be used:
in the hail protection service for identifying types of hail processes, local-
ization of the object and zone to be modified, selection of the optimum seeding
scheme and monitoring the modification results;
in the storm warning service for the localization of thunderstorm and hail cen-
ters, zones of dangerous bumping, increased liquid-water content and heavy prec.i.p-
itation; '
~ in the monitoring of air movement for ensuring flight safety in zone with a
cumulonimbus cloud cover;
in investigating thunderstorm and hail clouds for study of their cellular
structure and dynamics of development under different regional conditions, for in-
vestigating the hail formation process and the nature of its spatial propagation,
positior~ and characteristics of hail centers, zones of ascer~ding currents, zones
of increased turbulence and thunderstorm activity, relative position of these
zones in clouds of different structure and their mutual influence, remote measure-
ment of areas of falling of hail, development of ex*~erimental models of ;
36 ~
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thunderstornrhail clouds, etc. In this connection it is evidently desirable
'i that the standard-produced MRL-5 meteorological radar and its~ single-wave
modifications MTtir4 and MRL-6 be supplied witIz attachments for the routine deter-
mination of the structure of thunderstorm-hail clouds,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. Anshayev, M. T., Dadali, Yu. A., "Locali.zation of Hai1 Centers ar.d Cumulo-
nimbus Clouds," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No
- 9, 1970. _
2. Abshayev, M. T., et al., "Specialiaed Radar for Hail Protection and Storm
Warning (MRIrS) and its Meteorological Effectiveness," TRUDY VGI (Transac-
tions of the High-Mountain Geophysical Institute), No 33, 1976. _
3. Abshayev, M. T., Zhuboyev, M. M., "Principles for the Modification of Unicel-
lular, Multicellular and Supercellular Hail Processes," TRUDY VGI, No 39,
1978. '
_ 4. Abshayev, M. T., Pashkevich, M. Yu., "Methods and Units for Display of the
Structure of Radioechoes of Meteorological Ob~ects on Black- and-White Radar
Screens," TRUDY VGI, No 33, 1976.
5. Author's Certificate 2531i8 (USSR), "Indicator Device of a Radar Station for
Determining the Parameters of Atmospheric Inhomogeneities," Io M, Baranov,
- Mezhdo Kl. G101S, 1967.
6. Baru, N. V., Kononov, I. I., Solomonik, M. Yeo, RADIOPELENGATORY-DAL~NOMERY
BLIZHNIKH GROZ (Radio Direction Finders for Itemote Range Determination of Near
Thunderstorms), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 19760 -
7. Mel'nichuk, Yu. V., Chernikov, A. A., "~perational Method for Detectj.ng Tur-
bulence in Clouds and Precipitation," TRUDY TsAO (Transactions of the Central
Aerological Observatory), No 110, 1973.
8. Atlas, D., "Method and A.pparatus for Radar Turbulence Detection," United
States Patent No 3646555, Int. C1. GOls9/02, G O1, No 1/OOo
9. Chisholm, A. J., Renick, J~ H., "Supercell and Multicell Alberta Hailstorms,"
INT. CLOUD PHYSICS CONF., London, 1972.
- 10. Lhermitte, R. M., Shreeve, Ko H., Erdahl, R. J., "Waveform Averaging and Con-
tinui.ng Device for Waa.ther Radar and the Like," United States Patent Office,
No 3366951, Int. Cl. , 343-5, 1968.
llo Marwitz, J. D., Auer, A. H,, "Locating the Urganized Updraft on Severe Thunder-
storms," J. APPL. METEOROL., No 11, 1972.
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_ UDC 5510577.21
PRINCIPLES FOR DETERMINING THE MAXIMUM LAYER OF PRECIPITATION DTJRING A ;
COMPUTATION TIME INTERVAL
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 39-43 -
[Article by Candidate of Geographical Sciences M. N. Sosedko, Ukrainiar. Regional
Scientific Research Institute, manuscript submitted 4 Apr 80]
[Text] Abstract: It is shown that tha approaches used
in the generalization of precipitation gage data
do not make it possible to obtain reliable in-
formation an the maximum quantities of precip-
itation during definite s~nmation intervalso ~
- ' Iu. this connection proposals are expressed con-
_ cerning improvement o� the processing of data
from standard measurements of precipitation
in the hydrometeorological network. _
The maximum quantity of precipitation during a definite time interval whose prob- ~
ability of recurrence or nonexcess is known, is an important cZimatic parameter
which can be used in many practical problems, especially in water management
planning. The most widely used characteristic of rain of this type is the diurnal -
precipitation ma.ximum. With respect to the problem of description, analysis and
computation of the maximum diurnal layers of precipitation of different probabil-
ity there are numerous publications, maps of their spatial distribution have been
published, and also reference aids. We will mention only some of the studies, in-
cluding those relating to the territory of the Ukraine [3-6, 8-10, 14].
The values of the diurnal precipitation maxima pmax are usually selected fron their
quantities computed as the stmn for all scheduleddo~iservation times of ineteorological
- (sometimes calendar) days. However, it must be noted that such an approach to the
generalization of precipitation can~ be legitimate only for deter.ni.ning its total ~
quantity for long time intervals (10-day period, month, etc.)o But with respect to _
the diurnal precipitation maxima such a processing procedure is in principle un-
substantiated. Indeed, by such an operation parts of one and the same rain can
fall on differ~nt (successive) days, alf~hough in practice the greatest layer of
precipitation for a meteorolo~ical day is usually identified with the precipita-
tion maximum for 24 hours (P
~
t= 24)o Thus, as a result of time shifts in the
falling of rain (especially advance of its "coie") with one and the same quantity
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' .
of precipitat3on registered in 24 hours when using the adopted processing scheme
; it i.s possible to obtain different values of the diurnal swns. Platurally, the
' diurnal precipitation sums will usually be less than the 24-hour values. This
circumstance has already been pointed out, especially in [11]0
Now we will cite a number of cha~acteristic examples,
Source [13] described a ve-ry heavy rain during which on 3-4 August 1959 in the
' neighborhood of Lutsk in Volynskaya Oblast the precipitation total was 179-192
umn. At Lutsk meteorolagical station~ the quantity of precipitation in 6 hours
(from 1810 hours on 3 August to 0010 hours on 4 August) was 179 mm, of which
� during the meteorol.ogical day 3 August 65 mm fell, whereas the remaining 114~mm,
as a rasult of such a time breakdown, was assigned to 4 Augusto Then these same
114 mm were included in the processing as the maximum observed layer of precipit-
ation for the HAIvDB00K OF USSR CLIMATE [14] with an indication of this value in
giving a precipitation maximum with a 1% probability equal to llb mm,
During the period 8-10 June c:onsiderable rains fell in the Ukrainian Carpathians
and over Ciscarpathia. The rain-induced high waters caused by them had a cata-
strophic character. However, the diurnal precipitation maxima registered during
_ this period do not give an adequately complete idea concerning the spatial dis-
, tribution of the principal centers of intensive runoff formatfono As indicated by
~ a comparison of the P~ and PQ
~t24 values (see Table 1), the difference~between
th~em attains 35-40%. Among the "l~ observation points, only at 10 do these char-
acteristics ~oincide.
The value of the difference between Paay and P~24 is dependent in each individ-
ual case on the position of the core of the precipitation on the time axiso Ac-
cordingly, it 3s entirely obvious that it is impossible to assume the presence
of any pattern in the variation of these deviations or their dapendence on phys-
iographic factors. It is only possible to judge the existence of a defi.nite, sig-
- uificant range of variation of this difference, attaining 50% of the P~24 valueo
In a general case the values of the characteristics of the maximun layers of pre-
cipitation are interrelated by the inequality
1 Pmtx24 ~ pday ~ O. SP~X24. ~1)
In addition, the PdaX values not only inadequately precisely reflect the condi-
tions for the format~on and the precipitation regime in some physiographic re-
= gion with respect to the quantity of maximum precipitati~n with a rarQ fre~uency
of occurrence, but also distor~ its distribution with respect to the frequency
ranges. This can be seen, for example, from a c~nmarison of the curves for the
probability of these characteristics on the basis of data for the.meteorological
- station Turka during 1946-1975. In this case the diurnal maxim~ of prec~pitation
with a 1% probability is 44 tran (34%) less than the corresponding maximum for the
24-hour interval (see Fig. 1).
Thus, it can be stated that the values of the maximum diurnal layers of precipit-
ation have an uncertainty caused by the method employed in obtaining them, As a
result, sets of Paay values are statistically inhomogeneous.
,
� 39
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A similar situation exists in the statistical generalization of the maximum lay-
ers of precipitation for shorter time intervals. As indicated by experimental
computations on the basis of data from the precipitation gage network in the
hasin of the upper Dnestr, the limitation of the computation interval to the
times at wfiich precipitation is measured (0300, 0900, 1500, 2100 hours at
meteorological statioiis and 0800 and 2000 hours at posts) creates different vari- '
ant~ of hreakd~wn of the rainfall hyetograph. The latter circumstance in turn
- leads to an understatement of the computed precipitation values in the same lim-
its as in a 24-hour summation interval (1). This is noted especially f requently
when pracessing heavy prolon~;ed rains, when we operate with the parameters most
important for practical pu.rposes: precipitation with a rare frequency of occur-
- rence.
A generalization of sets of maximi.mm precipitation values during time intervals
not tied 1n to definite tiun~as of onset, but established by means of discrimina.t-
ing the parts of the hyetog;raphs with the greatest rainfall intensity, is genet-
ically and statistically justified. With adherence to this principle we ascertain
the actual maximiun layers of precipitation during a computation interval. And
only with such an approach will the numerical values of the precipitation maxima
- reflect the conditions of shower activity and characterize the processes of for-
mation of precipitation in some physiographic region and can also constitute sets
of random values whose patterns can be determined by the methods of mathematical
statistics.
The principle for generalization of tne maximum layers of precipitation, excluding
the tie-in of the computation intervals of their summation to the limits of the
meteorological day, was used by G. Ao Alekseyev in computations of the maximum
~ discharges of rain-induced high waters on the basis of the limiting intensity
' formula which he proposed [1, 2], which subsequently was included in the nora~s-
- instructions for determining the computed hydrological characteristics [12], The
author of tlie re~.oumiendations [1, 2] developed a method for determining and ter-
_ ritorial generalization of precipitation layers for computation time intervals
~ t~qual to the travel time of the water to the lowest-lying station in the flu-
vial drainage basin.
However, due to the limited amount of information on precipitation during differ-
ent time intervals, in this method the diurnal precipitation layers were also
used as the initial parameter. The computations essentially involve construction
of regional precipitation reduction curves whose ordinates ~ o t are determined
from the ratio r
P� ~2~
j C~ T= day ] ~~or - Pp ,
C)'T
that is, are expressed in fractions of the diurnal sums of precipitation of the
same probability p% as the value of the maximum precipitation layer during the
interval ~ t- Po t.
In case of necessity the sought-for value of the precipitatioi~ layer with a stip-
- ulated probability of excess for any ti.me interval is obtained by multiplying
the diurnal precipitation layerg read, for example, from the map of the spatial
distribution of precipitation maxima of this same probability, by the
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i
Tab le 1
Max3mum Quantity of Precipitation in Meteorological Day Paay and 24-Hour Interval
I P 4 t=24 in June 1969 in Upper (Right-Bank) Dnestr Basin
Precipitation gage P~X,mm p~x pmax pmax
stations day ~ t=24 pt=24 - day .
_ mm %
; Strelki 73 112 39 35
Sambor 46 54 8 15
~ Rozdol 28 47 19 40
Galich 26 33 7 21
Ozimina 27 34 7 21
' Drogobych 39 45 6 13
' Matkov 55 65 10 15
Novyy Kropivnik 136 205 69 34
Verkh~aeye Sinevidnoye 97 '120 23 19
~ Str}ry 51 51 0 0
Turka 66 101 35 35
Rybnik 117 175 58 33
Skole 13I 138 7 5 ~
Slavskoye 81 85 4 5
Ruzhanka 113 134 21 16
Tukhlya 109 146 37 25
Svyatos~av 172 205 33 16
Oleksichi 54 54 0 0
Myslovka 164 175 11 6
Zarechnoye 53 58 5 9
Goshev 51 51 0 0
Tisov 113 113 0 0
Osmoloda 166 194 28 14
Pervozets 48 48 0 0
Spas 88 88 0 0
Guta 239 239 0 0
Pasechna 214 214 0 0
Dolina 88 88 0 0
Ivano-Frankovsk 75 75 0 0
Pno~cMM pmax ~ ~
140
.z
110
d 0 1~~~
10 �
1 5~0 20 y0 60 90 .95 p'e
Fig. l. Curve of probability of maximum diurnal and 24~hour sums of precipitation
P~X (1 and 2 respectively) according to data for Turka meteorological station.
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corresponding ordinate 4~dt. Thus, in this method as well the main computation ;
cha.racteristic is the maximum precipitation sum during the meteorological day.
tt 3.s impossible to deny the fact that the approach proposed by G. A. Alekseyev
for generalization of the maximum precipitation layers, which has come into wide
use (in particular, for the Ukrainian Carpathians region ~6, 9]), is a substantial
contribution to soluti~n of one of the most important problems in hydrological
- computations. Nevertheless, orientation in the determination of the computed lay- -
ers of precipitation on their maximum values for a meteorological day, although
this is attributable to the limited volume of detailed information, to a certain
degree lessens the value of this method. For this purpose it would be more valid
to use the generalized characteristics of precipitation maxima for a 24-hour suQr-
mation interval not tied into a constant initial reading timeo
Summary
1. The employed procedures for the generalization of precipitation do not ensure
obtaining their maximum values dur3ng definite summation intervalso The tie-in
of the limits of the time interval to the established times set for the measure-
ment of precipitation often leads to an understatement of their computed layers
by 30-50%. As a result of such a time bres~:down of the hyetograph there is a loss
of important information on the precipitation regime and the frequency of occur-
rence of its maximum levels.
2. The maximum diurnal layers of precipitation, which in actual practice are
identified with the maxima of precipitation falling in 24 hours, in many cases are
considerably understated in comparison with the latter, It is not precluded that
such information is not of high informative value for the user and may even lead
him astray. -
In addition, the statistical description of sets of maximum diurnal precipitation
sums in principle is not legitimate since they were formed from nonuniform ele- -
ments.
3. Due to the limited extent of the network of automatic rain recorders, whose
data are used in determining the precipitation maxima during the computation in-
tervals, regardless of the position of their summation limits on the time axis,
it is extremely desirable to use the entire precipitation gage network for this
purpose. Special difficulties are not foreseen here; it is only necessary to in-
� troduce additional characteristics of rains which in the processing of standard
meteorological observations would be includEd in the su~aries o'_ the TM-1 (TM-8)
tables. From observational data collected at meteorological stations it is pos-
sible to select the maximum precipitation.sums for 1200 and 2400 hours, and from
data for hydrometeorological posts, ~or 2400 hotirs, close to the true valueso
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l. Alekseyev, G. A., "Method for Computing the Maximum Rain Discharges of Water
from Precipitation Reduction Curves," TRUDY GGI (Tran,sactions of the State Hy-
drological Institute), No 107, 1963.
42
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2. Alekseyev, G. A., "Objective Statistical Methods for Determining the Charac-
teristics of Shower Precipitation," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology
and Hydrology), No 7, 1966.
3. ATLAS RASCHETNyKH KEI~RAKTERISTIK DOZHDEVYKH OSADKOV ZA TEPLYY (KHOLODNYY) PER-
IOD GODA PO TERRITORII UKRAINSKOY SSR (Atlas of Computed Characteristics of
Rain Precipitation During the Warm (Cold) Period of the Year Over the Terri-
tory of the Ukrainian SSR), edited by M. M. Ayzenberg, Kiev, Izd, UGMS UkrSSR,
1967.
4. Vishnevskiy, P. F., "Variability of the Maximum Shower and Allowance for This
Phenomenon in Hydrological'Computations," TRUDY UkrNIGMI (Transactions of the
Ukrainian Scientific Research Hydrometeorological Institute), No 123, 19730
, 5. Golub, Ye. V., "Catastrophic Precipitation in the Ukrainian Carpathians,"
METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA, No 7, 1971.
Kiptenko, Ye. N., Lyutik, P. M., "Maximum Diurnal Precipitation in the Ukrain-
ian Carpathians," TRUDY UkrNIGMI, No 147, 1976.
' 7. Lebedev, A. N., Fan, A. A., "Investigation of the Maximum Semic?iurnal and Diur-
~ nal Precipitation Sums," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDRO~,OGIYA, No 11, 19750
8. Loyeva, I. D., "On Investigation of Abundant Rains in the Ukrainian Carpath-
ians," TRUDY GGO (Transactions of the Main Geophysical Observatory), No 266,
19700
9. Lyutik, P. M., Kiptenko, Ye. N., Bedratenko, Vo T,, "Computed Characterisrics
of Rain Precipitation in the Carpathians," TRUDY UkrNIGMI, No 119, 1972,
10. MATERIALY PO RASCHETNYM HIiARAICTERISTIKAM DOZHDEVYKH NAVODKUV (Materials on
the Computed Characteristics of Rain-Induced Floods), Leningrad, Gidrometeo-
izdat, 1969.
11. "Computations of Maximum Rain-Induced Runoff in the Rivers of Primorskiy Kray
Using N~nlinear Electronic Analog Computers," TRUDY GGI, No 211, 19730
12,. RUI:OVODSTVO PO OPREDELENIYU RASCHETNYKH GIDROLOGICHESKIKH KHARAKTERISTIK (Man-
ual on Determination of Computed Hydrological Characteristics), Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1973. _
13. Sosedko, M. N., "Strong Shower in Volynskaya Oblast," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDRO-
LOGIYA, No 6, 1960.
14. SPRAVOCHN'~K PO KLIMATU SSSR (Handbook of USSR Climate), No 10, Part IV, Lenin-
grad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1969.
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~
UDC SS1o555(267)
NATURE OF EQUATORIAL WESTERLIES IN T~iE INDIAN OCEAN
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 44-51
[Article by Candidate of Physical and Mathema.tical Sciences L. M. Krivelevich and
Candidate of Geographical Sciences Yu. A. Romanov, Institute of.Oceanology USSR ,
Academy of Sciences, manuscript submitted 28 Dec 79]
[Text] Abstract: Within the framework of a zonal
model of the equatorial circulation of the
atmosphere the authors have computed the wind
velocity components in the lower troposphere
near the equator on the basis of stipulated
meridional profiles of surface atmospheric
- pressure. The analyais shows that whatever
may be the meridional surface pressure profile
observed in the Indian Ocean it is not pos-
sible to model any westerly flow at the equa-
tor of such an intensity as is observed in
nature. It is therefore concluded that the zon-
al pressure gradient must play aa important role
in formation of equatorial westerly winds in
the Indian Ocean.
In this article a study is made to ascertain to what degree meridional gradients of
atmospheric pressure can cause the appearance of equatorial westerlies in the In-
dian Ocean. The latter, as is well known, can be traced year-round in the lower
~ troposphere over virtually the entire eastern hemisphere [6], but tl~is element of
global circulation of the atmosphere attains its greatest spatial distribution, in-
tensity and regularity in the Indian Ocean, in the zone 60 and 90�Eo
Figure la, taken from a study by Ye. K. Semenov [7], shows that in the northern
summer the zone of equatorial westerlies (ZEW) at the center of the Indian Ocean
(at 75�E) is displaced northward and expands, in winter it shifts southward and
becomes narrower, whereas in the transition seasons it occupies a position ap-
proximately symmetric relative to the equator, at the 850-mb level occupying a
" zone from 5-7�S to 5-7�N. ~
Hypotheses
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Several different hypotheses have been expressed at different times concerning
the reasons for formation of the ZEW [5]o The classical hypothesis of "de~lected
Trades" attributes the equatorial westerlies to monsoonal pressure troughs devel-
oping in summer in the northern hemisphere in the northern part of India and in
winter in the southern hemisphere, at latitudes 10-15�S. A~cording to this hypo-
thesis, the Trades in the winter hemisphere, flowing across the equator into the
southern hemisphere, gradually enter into geostrophic equilibrium with the mer-
idional pressure gradient on the equatorial side of the monsoonal trough and there-
by acquire a westerly wind velocity component.
p 70 90
1 18,..f01~f .
~ ~ ~"'!'1/5..... �:{~;~'~~ti b, : fO1J.:
b) �
- n � `~~~r
a ) a ) ;:a ' ~ ~oa ~^im~. I
~N, ~~Oh 0 0
\2\4\B y �m i0f' ~ib~
?S 2~/ z \4 1 13 ~ � ,
v ,o~o o,o o., ~o~b
~ 20 r`~~O rb,a.. ~
~ ~.z ~ 0
~s y-:~ ~ ~ ~\~dg o tma~o~i
8 1; ~ ~
i~ ~~4 !Gl;~ I
'-4 3 1o12z~
E s -r-'
z
:s~e.a u � ;o,s.~..._.- zo
20 ~v~e
_ S~~y/ i~ p I10 g IT~
1C Z//i!
i ~~~~;`0
y;i/~ ~~~1 I
~ ~S ~ ~
~ i B ~ y 101~ I
-9 ~ _ S 77J9
10 ~ i
' i�~`~` yl 1 I
f'10. ~-1" 50 70 90
~ ~ ~adn B)c
~ J7f41B106 101~ I-4`-;0 1 6fO 1B?3
_
7vo ~ ; i 8 \ ~z
QO j~~ / i / ~ _ ~ \;9
~ . i _ i
_y ~ \ ~I
S09 %4~ i~ 6I
~i
~ %OJ ~ ~ ~6
Bi~~ ~1 t
~ ~ ~ - ~ i 3 ~ 8 :J~
JOuO~' 6 4?~ 0-1 -T 0~ ~ Z 0'7-4-6 -6
14 71 4 0-4-e�12 B 14 10 6 10 y B 7116\
100 3~ i~~I I /i=~=~=`I \
~ i ~ \,4
J00 / \1
~ ~s ~ ~ ~ ~s
SOa � ; e
700 6 I i~~~~ 4
~i~.i 3 '1~~~ B Ji\\~
1000 42 0-2-4 ~4-102 4 6B B 64T0 -4-6 '6-4 -2
N Gm. 30 10 IO O 1O ZO Nrv. S
Fig. 1. Annual variation of the zonal wind velocity component in the Indian Ocean
at meridian 75�E at the 850-mb surface [7] (a), mean long-term surface pressure
field in the Indian Ocean in November [13] (b) and meridional sections af zonal
wind component along 80�E in April and October [7] (c)o
45
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T'nis hypothesis is correct for the westerlies developing in the neighborhood of
a monsoonal trough far from the equator, but it cannot explain the presence of
westerlies at the equator itself, much less than in the zone ad~acent to the
equator in the direction of the winter hemisphere (Fig. 1). This is confirmed
by model computations of atmospheric circulation near the equator [1, 2] which
show that with a more or less uniform decrease in atmospheric pressure from the
winter to the summer hemisphere the easterly winds of the winter hemisphere must
reach the equator, under the influence of iner*_ia should cross into the summer
hemisphere and be replaced there by westerly winds only at a distance of several
degrees from the equator.
Figure la shows that westerly winds at the equator itself and near it are observed
virtually throughout the year but the factor of greatest interest for analysis is
the distribution of westerlies in the transitional seasons, quasisymmetric rela-
tive to the equator. It can be surmised that the mechanism of formation of west-
erlies at the equator itself is manifested during this period in the most explicit
form, whereas in winter and suum?er to gether with it a powerful influence on the
distribution of equatorial westerlies is exerted by the already mentioned mon-
soonal troughs.
There are several hypotheses explaining the presence of westerly winds at the .
equator and near it which can be divided roughly into two groups depending on
what pressure gradients, meridional or aonal, are considered most important in
the formation of these winds.
According to Fletcher [a_0], the equatorial westerlies develop under the influence
of ineridional pressure gradients caus ed by the presence of two pressure troughs
~ (one of which can be monsoonal), situated appro~cimately parallel to one another,
one on each side of the equator. Flet cher [5] proposed an interesting, although
not universal hypothesis concerning the mechanism of periodic formation of such
troughs. Such troughs are actually observed on the synoptic charts of the Indian
Ocean [5, 6] and are traced rather clearly on climatic charts of surface pressure
for the spring and autumn months. As an example, Fig. lb shows a chart of the -
mean long-term surface pressure for Navember on the basis of data in [13].
Palmer, ~ho investigated atmospheric circulation in the western tropical part of
the Pacific Ocean [12], assumes that the equatorial westerlies owe their origin
to tropical depressions moving from east to west, often developing sir~ultaneously
on ~he two sides of the equator. In actuality, the principal role in the forma-
tion of the equatorial westerlies is here once again assigned to the meridional
pressure gradients, but not constant, as indicated by Fletcher, but arising per-
iodically with the frequency of passage of tropical depressions. This hypothesis
- is supported in [8].
Tn contrast to the above-mentioned authors, Khromov [9], and also Frost and
Stephenson [11], assume that the main reason for the equatorial westerlies in the
Indian Ocean is the pressure drop in the zonal direction caused by more intensive
heating and accordingly the lower surface pressure over the region of Indonesia
and New Guinea in comparisori with the equatorial zone at the center of the Indian
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Ocean. This hypothesis also has its supporters [5], who indicate, in particular,
that the formation of the pressure lows on the boundary of the equatorial wester-
lies on both sides of the equator can be one of the consequences of and not the
, reason for the appearance of equatorial westerlies.
Checking of One of Hypotheses
' In order to check the correctness of the hypothesis of formation of the zone of
equatorial westerlies in the Indian Ocean under the influence of ineridional pres-
sure gradients we decided to use a zonal stationary "dry" model of equatorial cir-
culation which we described in detail in [1]. We recall that in the equations of
. motion in this model, in addition to the pressure gradient and Coriolis foxces,
an allowance is made for advective acceleration, and also vertical and ho rizontal
turbulent exchange with exchange coefficients equal to 105 and 1 m/sec2 respective-
' ly. The computations are made for a meridional section from 13�S to 13�N with an
, altitude of 11 lau, along which is stipulated a meridional profile of the surface
pressure gradient decreasing with altitude in conformity to the law e'aZ, and at
the northern and southern boundaries of the section it is necessary to have a
' geostrophic balance with vertical friction taken into account. As a result of
numerical computations we obtain the distribution of the wind velocity components
, u, v and w at all the internal points of the section.
Earlier, using this model, we succeeded in obtaining a pattern of equatorial =
circulation in the lower troposphere for a case characteristic for the Tropical
- Atlantic with one pressure trough asyimmetric to the equator [2],which is close `
' fo that actually observed. On this basis we assumed that by stipulating in the
model the profile of the meridional pressure gradient characteristic of regions
of the prevalence of the equatorial westerlies and by comparing the computed dis-
~ tribution of the wind velocity components with the actual distribution fo r these
' regions we wi11 be able to make a correct evaluation of how adequately the real
atmospheric circulation near the equator is reflected in such computations and
. it will be possible to draw conclusions concerning the correctness of the hypo-
; thesis relating the equatorial westerlies in the Indian Ocean to meridional pres-
' sure gradients.
' We note that the equatorial westerlies at the center of the Indian Ocean in the
transition seasons have some distinguishing characteristics which can serve as
points of reference in a comparison of the results of observations and the re-
sults of computations.
Figure lc shows that the intensity of equatorial westerlies can vary in dependence
on season, but in both April and in October the maximum velocity of the westerly ~
wind is observed in the central part of the zone, approximately at the equator,
at an altitude of about 1.5 km. Such a pa~tern in the distribution of the wester-
lies is traced both on the basis of inean long-term data and on the basis of data
f rom regularly scheduled observations [5].
Judging from satellite observations [3], as well as observational data collected
by ships [5], along the northern and southern boundaries of the ZEW in the Indian
Ocean there are usually thick concentrations of clouds forming the so-called north-
ern and southern branches of the ICZ.
47
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~o
z o
~ ~
0
~ W M
- ~ ~ o
- ~ _ ~ D, N ,
_ c e ~ �
~ ~I
,o O Q~i
a. ~ ; ~ ~ o !a A ~ O .
~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
~ N w
O ti
~ a ro u
i~ N i~ ~ .
I ~
. ~ ~ N ,iN
^ ~
r~ ~r ~ r Q ~ .
U ~
~ � ~ b W O
~ I o ~ ~
~ a r ~ � 3 ~ ~ 11
_.J ~ O ~
Qi
'y ~
~ f / w ~V
/
~ ~ ( ~ O 1"~ ~ .
~ ti ~ T ~ ~ ~
~ 1 ~ o ry~ ~
. ~~y 1 y ~p ~ ~
~ J : ~ I'~
~ 0.~~ O
I ~ ~ N N
~ ~ _ 'd
. _ _ . o ~ ~
~ ~ N
I ^ O
~ ~ ^ ~ ~
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O'
' ~p I ~ N 1 ~ m 'T'~ ~
~ ~ O b ~
~ ' f 1 O ~ O ~ ~
a ~ ~ 3 ~ ~ ~
� ~ C'.
u Q
' . ~ 1 ~ ~1
o ~ ~
~ � N
0
~ ~--1 J 0 W 4-1
Co o O o ~o p p
N ~
1 ~
O1 ~ 0 ' 'w N J N M
.Y N `O ~ ~
~ ~N .r�{
' ~ ~ ~ ~ h ~~y ~
V1~ ~ -
11 'p h ~Y Q+ Q)
~ c O _
o
y c~
cd o ~ V
o
~-I o ~ i ~ m ~ 41
o o w ~ �
tt1 - -o o O O
~ i\ ~ a C� 3 0 ' tl)
~ 3 1-~ ~ .
b = tp Ip p ey p O 0 ~e a N O ~ aD N P N O~
Z~~' Le
~ ~ ; ~
~ ~ ~
R~+ p V '
o ~ w -
N ~I V
Gl ~
0 4�1 fA
DO 4~ \ -
W 'd p
48
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! �E/s�~. Q
~ o ~ mb ' latitud f~
-z
_v
, p ~ ~ ,
~M u ; ~
~o
_i g i 0
6
_i ' 0~
z ~ i i o 0 D
i / ,t
4
0 I O ~ ~ - ~ ~ 2_.
10 v -1 i
i i ~ f1~ ,
8
~I i ~ r~~ ~0 1
6 0 ~ ~ 1` i 0 i
i ~
q ~ ~ j 1
~
~ ~ t 1 i~ ~
~,0 1~, p ii 1-1~ j1
, Z _ \ ~ I ~
? \
0 Z
~
p _l~ ~
JO w I I i ~ ~ ~ ~
B I l~ W ~ i i
I jl ( 1
6 'f ~ il i1 il
6 .y "y ~ ~ i ? ~0
h 'u 6 ~ ~t~ i i
, ? 4 Z, ~I s i, J i
~ ~ ~1i i
0 Z ~ pl4 4 -1 / ~'~i
t
_ S ro ur. f0 G 6 4 2 0 2 ~ 6 d 1~ ;?'~W. a: ~u. f0 9 6 ~ 2 0 1 f 6 F r0'c.m. N
Fig. 3. Results of computations of zonal, meridiunal and vertical wind velocity
components with A~ = 105 m2/sec for different profiles of ineridional surface
pressure gradient.
~ Ttae presence of the latter indicates the intensity of the ascending air flows in
these regions of the ocean, that is, at the boundaries of the ZEW, On the other
hand, at the equator itself, for example on Gan Island [11], the development of
cloud cover in general is suppressec~, which indicates the predominance of de-
, scending air flows here. Unfortunately, for the ZEW we did not find rep resenta-
tive sections of the meridional wind component, and accordingly, could not note
any distinguishing characteristics in its distributi~no
~ It should be noted that in the Indian Ocean, in the ZEW, insofar as we lc._now, oa
not a single one of the expeditions were there synchronous measurements of atmo-
spheric pressure on the many ships which might have been at differenc latitudes
along one and the same meridian, as was the case in the Atlantic Ocean dur-
ing the TROPEKS~-- J4 expedition [ 4]. Accordingly, in stipuiating the initial pro-
fi.les of ineridio~.~l surface pressure gradients for the computations we relied on
, ciimatic charts (see Fig. lb), as well as data from meteorological observations
on the scientific research ship "Vityaz"' when carrying out a series of ineridion-
al runs intersecting the ZEW jSJ.
- We note further that it scarcely makes sense to compare the results of numerical
comgutat ions with the actual distribution of the wind above 3-5 km because in all
the variants of the computati~ns in our model we stipulated a de crease in the
- 49
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,
gradient with altitude in conformity to the law e aZ, ~hich at great altitudes
can lead to substantial differences of the values in the model and reai pres-
sure gradients.
Now~we will proceed to an analysis of the results of the numerical computations
presented in Figures 2 and 3. '
In the upper part of each of these figures we have shown t~e profiles of iner-
idional surface pressure gradients for which computations of the wind velocity
_ components were made.
Figure 2a shows the results of computations for a case characteristic of the
transition seasons with two pressure troughs symmetric relative to the equator
whose axes are situated at 6�S and 6�N and with values of the pressure gradients
equal to 1 mb/5� latitude typical for the equatorial zone.
~ This figure shows that in the distribution of the vertical wind velocity component
there is clear manifestation of those pecul.iarities which, as noted above, are ,
c~~aracteristic of the ZEW in the Indian Ocean. At the equator there are in f act
descending currents, whereas at the boundaries there are ascending currents with
th~ possible vertical velocity values. However, there is so such agreement in the
distribution of tize zonal wind velocity compo~~nto Instead of one central core
with the maximum value of the westerly wind veloci~y component there are two cores
displaced teWwesterl bwind velocitytcompone ttishateanaaltitudeeofrl-2 km and ~
value of th Y
is only 0.3 m/sec.
With an increase in the meridional pressure gradients by double ~om~onentiare also
those shown in Fig. 2a the values of the westerly wind velocity p _
approximately doubled (this is not shown in the figure), but the two-core pattern ~
of distribution.of these components remains unchanged. Al.l this means that hori-
zontal turbulent exchange and flow inert.ia in such a formulation of the problem
(presence only of ineridional pressure gradients) are not capable of redistribut-
ing the wind flows in such a way that the greatest values of the westerly wind
velocity component would fall in the centra:l parz c~f this zone.
Despite the fact that in our earlier computations [1, 2] the best agreement with
- observational data was o~ta~ned when using a coefficient of horizontal turbulent
- exchange A~, equal to 10 m/sec, we nevertheless decided to check whether our
present result would improve if some other .A~,values were stipulateda _
An extremely interesting pattern is obtained with an increase in A~ to 3�la6 m2/
sec. In this ~ase (~ig. 2b),with the s~me pressure gradients as in the first var-
iant of the computationc, the westerlies completely disappear from .r,he equato rial
region. The isolines of equal wind velocities are smoother, but in the entire sec-
tion t:~ere is a prevalence cnly of winds of easterly directions, wrich still mc~re
diverges from the actual distribution than the results of the first variant of the
computations~ However, it is interesting that in the distribution of the vertical -
wind vel.ocity component this time as well in the equatorial region there are
~ 50
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- descending currents, whereas near the ax~s of the pressure troughs there are
ascending currents, although with lesser wind velocities than in Fig, 2ao ~
- Figure 2c shows the results of com~utations obtained with A~ = Oo We see that ell
the wind velocity components, especially the vertical component, increase consid~
erably in comparison with the computations in the f3.rst variant but the two-core
pattern of distribution of the westerly wind velocity component is still more ac-
_ centuated, so that at the equator the westerly component even becomes equal to
zero.
The res~lts of two other variants of the coz,iputations are presented in Fige 3. They
relate to cases when the pressure troughs are situated at different distances from
the equator and in the neighborhood of the trough more distant from the equator
the pressure gradient is stipulated greater than for the other trough, which can
. be interpreted as an accentuation of the corresponding trough and the development
_ of a tropical dep ression in it. In this case in the distribution of the wind velo-
city component there is found to�be a whole series of peculiarities, among which
we should note the following. First, there is an entirely understandable increase
in all the wind velocity components in the neighborhood of the deeper pressure
_ trough. Second, th~ere are secondary axes of ascending currents, somewhat raised
above the ocean, in the neighborhood of both troughs, and also splitting of the
region of descending movements, as a result of which the maximum velocities of
"settling" are not observed at the equator, but in regions situated on the equa-
torial side of the trough axes. Without discussing a number of interesting de-
tails in the distribution of the wind velo city components, in Figo 3 we present
the principal result: at the equator the westerlies at the equator in this case as
well do not ~ttain any significant values and above 1.5 km they are completely
replaced by easterly winds with a velocity up to Oo7 m/seco
S u~-~ nary
We see that in no variant of the computations could we ~btain westerly winds at
the equator with the velocities 4-8 m/sec really observed in nature (often more
than 10 m/sec [5]), In our opinion this is evidence that some meridional pressure -
gradients cannot create a westerly flow of such intensity at the equatoro Thus,
the results which we obtained give basis fo r assuming that zonal pressure gra- _
dients must play a significant role in forming the ZEW in the Indian Oceano
BIBLIOGRAPHY
" 1. Krivelevich, L~ M., Romanov, Yu. A., "Some Characteristics of Atmospheric Cir-
culation in the Equatorial .Latitudes of the Oceans," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDRO-
LOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No S, 1977. _
2. Krivelevich, L. M., Romanov, Yu. A., "Results of Computations of Equatorial
Circulation of the Atmosphere for a Zonal Pressure Field," METEOROLOGIYA I
GIDRULOGIYA, No 10, 1978.
3. Minina, L. S., PRAKTIKA NEFANALIZA (Practical Nephanalysis), Leningrad, Gidro-
meteoizdat, 1970.
~
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4. Petrosyants, M. A., "First Results of the TROPEKS-74 ixpediti~on," METF.ORO-
LOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA, No 3, 19750
S. Romanov, Yu. A., Luk'yanov, V,, "Some Peculiarities~o~~~TATYpISSLEDOVAN-
culation in the Equatorial Part of the Indian Ocean,
_ IY PO MEZHDUNARODNYM GEOFIZICHESKIM~Pe~YE~T~~te~tionalCProgramslSOceano-
VANIYA (Results of Invest~.gat
logical Research), No 19, 19680
6. Semenov, Ye. K., "Aeroclimatology of Equatorial Westerlies in the Lower Tro-
posphere," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOvIYA, No 2, 19740
n
7. Semenov, Ye. K., Structure and Migration of the Equatorial Zone of Wester-
lies in the Eastern Hemisphere," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIY^, No 9, 1974a
- 8. Solntseva, N. I., "Equatorial Westerlies in the Pacific Ocean According to
Observations of Soviet Expeditions," TRTJDY I~AN (Transactions of the Insti-
tute of Oceanology), Vol 78, 1965.
9. Khromov, S. P., "Types of 5urface Distribution of Wind Near the Equator,"
IZV. VSESOYZJZNOGO GEOGRAFICHESKOGO OBSHCHESTVA (News of the All-Union Geo-
graphical Society), Vol 93, No 2, 1961.
l0o Fletcher, R. D., "The General Circulation of the Tropical and Equatorial At-
mosphere," J. METEOFtOL. , Vol 2, No 3, 19450
11. Frost, R., Stephenson, P. M., "Mean Streamlines and Isotachs at Standard
Pressure L~vel Over the Indian and West Pacific Oceans and Ad~acent Areas,"
' GEOPHYS. MEM., No 109, 1965.
12. Palmer, C. E., TROPICAL METEOROLOGY, Boston, Waverly Press, 19550
' 13. G]eiclanan, L., "Mittlere Luftdruckverteilung in Meersniveau Wahrend der Haupt-
jahreszeitung in Bereiche um Afxica in dem Indischen Ozean under der angren-
zenden teilen Asie," METEOROLOGISCHE RUNDSCHAU, Jahro 16, No 4, 19630
52
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. UDC 551.584.5(574)
AERATIOh-CLIMATIC N~ODEL OF A CITY
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 52-58
[Article by V. I. Degtyarev, Kazakh Regional Scientific Research Institute, manu-
script submitted 8 Apr 80]
[Text] Abstract: It was established on the basis
; of a great number (about 6,000) of~field
measurements that the dynamics of the wind
velocity field around a building and differ-
~ ent fragments of a built-up area exhibits
considerable changes in dependence on the
flow angle (the wind factor K varies in the
~ range 2.00 > K> 0.00), wind velocity (up)
(0.83> K> 0.34), height of the structure
_ and density of tree stands. An aE.. :::ti on-
climatic model of a city is formulat::.~i fo-
the first time on the basis of the ~unction-
al dependence of the wind factor on wind
. velocity K= f(up) and the location of the
building fragment in the city.
~ In the purification of th~ air basins of cities and the creation of favorable
- microclimatic conditions the principal role is played by the wind regime, making
it possible to achieve aeration of residential ar.eas and the entire city.
The long-term wind regime of a city is reliably evaluated using data from meteoro-
logical stations. A knowledge of the wind resource~ of a populated place still
does not make it possible to clarify the nature of movement of air currents in the
built-up area of a city. Existing recommendations on computation of the influence
of wind on the micrcclimate of a built-up area still have an approximate character
[5-7J. The inadequacy of field observations has not tnade possible an approach to
formulation of an aeration-climatic model of a city. Accordingly, the need has
arisen for carrying out studies of this type and making the first generali2ations
along these lines.
As the principal method for making investigations of aeration and creating an a~r-
ation-climatic model we employed a method which we adopted for anemometer surveys
~ in the field, on a frequent time schedule, employing MS-13 anemometers and cloth
pennants at a height of 2 m with 10-minute averaging [1, 2]. In implementing this
53
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. I~
method in different parts of a city it is necessary to select several fragments
of structures of the same type in the direetion of the prevailing winds and per-
peridicular to them: at the center, at a distance of 3-S km from it in the four ,
cardinal directions and at the outskirts, In each f ragment it is necessary to make
observations at the 30-50 points most characteris tic with respect to aerodynamics
with their siting each 15-20 m in a chessboard fashion, which will ensure drawing ;
the wind isotachs with a great accuracy.
The wind field and factors (K ratio of wind velocity in the built-up area to
the velocity at a control point) in the fragments of the built-up area vary in
dependence on the velocity and therefare it is necessary to carry out 3-5 anemo-
meter surveys for all the selected fragments of the built-up areas in the velo-
city range from 1 to 20 m/sec with an interval 2- 3 m/sec. It is virtually impos-
sible to carry out observations si~ultaneously even in one fragment and therefore
- a"moving readings" method is proposed in which 6-10 observers ensure observations ,
at 10-18 points simultaneously. One of the observers constantly works at the con�
trol point and the others in the built-up area, each ensuring simultaneous observ-
ations at two points. After each working 10-minute period, a time of 5-10 minutes
is allocated, depending on the efficiency of the observers, for setting up the
anemometers at the appropriate points. Prior to beginning the work it is necessary
to prepare a diagram of the fragment of the built-up area and anemometric cards.
The observations are rigorously regulated in time.
In order to determine the free wind velocity it is more reliable to use informa-
tion from a control point situated at a distance of 200-300 m on the windward
side, depending on the height H of the structures, but in any case it must be at ~
a distance of not less than 6 H from the built-up area on a level or somewhat dom-
- inating sector. Prior to the onset of the investigations in all cases it is neces-
sary to carry out reconnaissance work for determining the representativeness of
the control point. ,
The "moving readings" method can be used with adherence to the following condi- ~
tions: the mean wind velocity during the period when the anemometric surveys is
carried out must not deviate from the initial velocity by more than t20% (accord-
ing to data at the control point) and the wind direction during this period must
not exceed the limits t22.5�. Accordingly, the surveys must be made in stable
weather.
In this method in the analysis of aeration of a built-up area it is recommended -
that use be made of the wind factors as being the most stable characteristics,
not the absolute velocities. The wind factors are computed as the ratio
K = u~ , (1)
- where ui is the wind velocity in the built-up area, up is the wind velocity at the
control point in m/sec.
- A six-year experiment (1969-1974) with field investigations of aeration of urban -
built-up areas in Alma-Ata, Kapchagay, Balkhash and Novyy Uzen' has indicated
that such surveys make possible a rather precis e evaluation of the character of
the wind field and its mapping in a complex buil t-up area with different wind ;
54
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directions and velocities in dependence on the height and density of the built-up
area, density of tree stand and location of the investigated types of built-up area
in a city. A total of about 6,000 measurements was used in investigating the aer-
at3on of buildings, different types of built-up area and the city as a wholeo AL1
the investigations of aeration of a built-up area were made detailed for cities
with weak wind velocities, which includes Alma-Ata, and cities with strong winds
Novyy Uzen' and Balkhash. It was established that the dynamics of the wind _
velocity field around a building and different fragments of built-up areas varies
ia a considerable range in dependence on the flow angle (the wind factor varies
in the range 2. 00> K> 0. 00) and the air flow velocity (0. 83> K> 0.34) . The aera-
tion regime, which can be established with different directions and velocities of
the basic wind, is represented in Figo lo
QJ ~
, a~ ~ u, b~6)
U~p -J,2M/C ~ ~ B � 0,4 qB
rcp � 0, 66 o,e9 4~ ~
p- 1,1 N/c o,,~ ~ Bqsa m c=
f ~4yf co' 0,71 J Qy9 /
_ cP = ~c �Qy Q� 0,4 oAs ~ m/sec
mean ' o~a o,~ ~ o,~s .e9g~y~
/n,s
0~1 Q6~ q7B 2 ~0,46
!6 ~
~0J4~ QE QAJ ~ 461 p~ -
~
~ ~ O,e Q+ 441 n J
~`r ;a , o,sr ~aw es~ ae\ ~ v~ qr
\ 0.46 y0,67 067 Q~ Qy 15 (Q76 r
\G,r4 D.10 ~~0,41'69 \ 0,7f/
y ~ 0, sJ~ ~ \ 1,00
~~4ss �y f ~ 4w
a,e
. . ~z
61 s~. 4f
u, a,e d~z) uo--~ 4~Qex2
~cp -12~/c �f q4 o,e y -
r~~ - 0, I6 ~tt~ ~cp' 1, Oh/c
~~p- 0,99 pp1 o,e
/Rse ay i 491 o.e
4y~ a,rc 0e ~+,6 Q4 ra~( U a,e
~ / p~~ 0, 9 ~ V 0,4
~ 0,9 1 ~ t ~~~Y1 0,69 ~
~ O,B6 ~ ~ 0;5
- Q9J QJS
4
4~ ~oa ~z0eqti
- 471 f. 0 3
~B \,L a~,~ ..sa,Fy q ;'~l ~a, y~, 1
y ~
93Q~r I JS
~..5- y OeQy ~ B 1,41 0.3~
/
0,00 0,70/ ' ~B~ 0~ ~
y 2e9
~oo af y ~ ~a~Qes
d 4e 4a
~ 11 o,s
4" Qe ny o,e
Fig. 1. Aeration regiune of fragment of alined-perimetral buiit-up area of south-
western part of Alma-Ata with different wind directions, summer 1973,
55
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Centers of intensification of wind velocities are observed at corner openings, in
this case constituting O.SH, and in the passages between the long sides of build-
~.ngs in the built-up area. These intensifications occur as a result of the join- _
ing of the flows bending around the buildings f rom above and from the sides, If
the onf low of the air current occurs at a right angle tn the wind-shielding body
of the building 4(Fig. la)the mean wind coefficient with a velocity 302 m/sec
is 0.66. Weak centers of wrnd intensification are observed only between the
buildings 1 and 2. A state of wind exposure of the built-up fragment which is
quite si.milar is observed with onflow of the air current at a right angle to the
buildings 1, 2, 3. Insignificant deviations of the onflow of the air current from
a right angle cause substantial changes in the wind field in the built-up area.
For example, wind deviations from the initial direction by approximately �15-20�
cause countercurrents behind buildings 3 and 4 and an increase of the wind coef-
ficients at a corner end to 1.28o However, at the center and corner end of build-
ings 4 and 1-- to 1.15 (Fig. lb). With directions of onflow to the built-up area
somewhat less than +45� there is also an increase of the coefficients and accord- .
ingly, an improvement in the conditions for ventilation of the residential block -
(Fige lc). Flow around the built-up area by an air flow at an angle close to -45�
(Fig. ld) creates conditions for maximtmn increases in the wind coefficients (to
2.05) at the corner ends of bui].dings 4 and 1. [Here and in the remainder of the
text the term "corner end" refers to the openings at the ends of the buildings
arranged in a four-building complex as illustrated in Figo lo] The mean wind co-
efficient attains values 0.99 with a velocity 2.0 m/seco Thus,.with angles of on- _
flaw close to 45� the best conditions are observed for the built-up area, as can
also be traced using data from investigations in a wind tunnel [3, 6]0
Table 1
Distribution of Wind Coefficients in Bu~lt-Up Areas of Different Height and
Different Tree Density
, Stories Tree plantings
none slight moderate dense
4-5 222 132 78 172
- 0.70 0.61 0,42 Oo31
2-3 12 12 . 12
0.38 Oo31 Oo18
Single-story barracks 54
0. 64
With sectors near farms 12 12 12
0.43 0,20 Oo04
Note. Numerator number of ineasurements, denominator wind coefficienta
It should be noted that the effect of an improvement in the ventilation of a
resident~al block with an air flow around it at angles close to 45� also per-
sists for perimetral fragments situated both at the center and on the leeward
niargin of a city with the single difference that the values of the mean wind
coefficients are considerably lower on the leeward margino Corners and gaps
56
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~ (passageways) favor an improvement in ventilation of the block, whereas clos-
ed corners create conditions for the total stagnation of air. A perimetral
built-up area with gaps at the corners is ventilated to a lesser degree than
- an alined-perimetral built-up areaa The absence of gaps at the corners in a
built-up area of this type considerably complicates ventilationo The air in ~.ts
territory flows in for the most part from above, bending around the windward
buildings, flows onto the opposite parallely standing building, is ref'lected
and creates low countercurrents, forming horizontal eddies. In this case the
entry of contaminated air directly from the streets becomes quite difficult,
but during a period of strong squally winds the horizontal eddies, intensify-
ing sharply, raise dust and trash f rom *.he area and cast it at the windows of
the leeward facade of the buildingo The dust, supported by the eddy currents,
for a long time remains in a suspended state. As a result, instead of the an-
ticipated improvement in microclimate in the territory of a perimetral-closed
courtyard which is poorly maintained it is possible to trace its worsening.
With approach to the center in all types of built-up area there is a deterior-
ation of ventilation conditions. Qn the ma.rgin, on the leeward side, there is
again some improvement in ventilation in comparison with the center as a re-
sult of better developed countercurrents, Accordingly, not only the type of
- built-up area, but also its location in the city determine the degree of ven-
tilation of the residential area.
K Q1
0,6 2 e j -
i~
�11
� \ ~
~6 ~
~ ~ �
3
0
0,4 ` �
o ~ -
_ ~
. .
0, 2
0,5 - 4 ~ `
b) ~'~`v~~
o~ o~~~
c
O,JO 1 4 6 B uo
Fig. 2. Dependence of wind coefficient in built-up area with four or five stor-
ies on wind velocity. a) windward, b) leeward side of city: I) Alma-Ata, II)
Balkhash; 1) alined-perimetral built-up area on outskirts of Novyy Uzen' city,
2) same 1-2 lan from outskirts on windward side, 3) perimetral built-up area at
center of city, 4) alined-perimetral built-up area on leeward margin of Kapchagay
city o
The greatest zone of calm with the maximum extinction of wind velocity is creat-
ed by buildings with a curvature of 120�, oriented with their convex side toward
the wind, and closed fragments of built-up areas of this same typea The degree
of ~vind extinction is furthei intensified in the case of double or triple block-
ing of huilt-up areas.
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The height of the built-up area and forest plantings play a definite role in
the ventilation of residential blocks in the city. It was possible to invest-
igate the naturE of the ventilation of built-up areas in dependence on their
height and the density of tree plantings only in small citieso The influence
of each type of built-up area individually is traced more clearly under these
conditions. Table 1 gives materials from expeditionary observations character-
izing the ventilation of Novyy Uzen' (1969) and Balkhash (1972) cities in de-
pendence on the height of the built-up area and the density of tree plantings
with velocities of the main wind 2-7 m/sec. W'ith an increase in the number of
stories in the built-up area from one to four there is an improvement in veir
tilation conditions in the city up to 20%. With an increase in the density of
the tree plantings the ventilation of the built-up area is sharply reduced
(in a built-up area with four stories up to 40~, in an area of one-story
huildings up to 60%).
Now we will examine an aeration-clima.tic model of a section of a city in the
direction of the prevailing winds for the widely used perimetral and alined-
perimetral types of built-up areas with four stories, constructed on the depen-
dence of the mean wind coefficients on free wind velocitya
With an increase in the velocity of onflow of the wind on diff erent types of
built-up areas and the city as a whole the wind coefficients decrease, as is
confirmed by all the materials from field investigations (Figo 2). The correla-
tion is almost linear. On the gr~ph, with approach to the center of the city
(and from the leeward side also to its outskirts) the steepness of the cor-
relation straight line decreases and approaches the horizontal straight line,
which is evidence of weakening of the correlation and a decrease in the wind
coefficient with an increase in velocity to a definite valueo If the correla-
tion straight lines are arbitrarily extended t~ their intersection, it is found
that with a wind not less than 15 m/sec the wind coefficient is virtually not
dependent on velocity.
The functional dependence of the wind coefficient on velocity can be written in
the general form
K=-Auo-~B, ~2~
where A, B are constant coefficients, computed by the least squares method, up
is wind velocity outside the built-up area.
As a result, for an alined-perimetral built-up area under the cover of a 1-2-km
zone of mixed built-up area on the outskirts on the windward side of the city
the formula has the form
K=-0,048 uo+0,825;
~ ~h. - 0,114; Ax = - 0,413; EK = -1,182. ~3~
For perimetral built-up areas with dense forest plantings at the center of the
c ity
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K=-0,020 uo+0,441;
= 0,069; AF - 4,389; EF = 0,764. ~4~
~'or an alined-perimetral built-up area Grith moderate tree plantings on the le~-
ward side of the city
K=-0,015 ito-I-0,511;
~F - 0,042; AF - 0,038; E~ - 0,02~, (5~
where a'K is the standard deviation, AK is the asymmetry coefficient, EK is
the excess coeffi.cient.
The initial formula for computing the wind velocity in the built-up area is de-
rived from formula (1):
u~ _ - Auo B. )
Hence ~
ul - - Atto ~-,Buo.
Formulas (3)-(5), (7) serve reliably for low and high wind velocities.
The lessening of the ventilation of residential blocks with approach to the cen-
ter is also confirmed by the data in Table 2.
Table 2
Distribution of Wind Coefficients in Residential Blocks ~
K Total number
of ineasure-
1.00 0.99-0.80 0.79-0.60 0.59-0.40 0.40 ments -
Alined-perimetral built-up area
Windward side of 97 87 151 123 55 5I3
city~ Outskirts 18 16 30 23 13 100
1-2 lan ~`rom out- 35 57 73 74 31 270
skirts 13 21 27 27 12 100
Center of city 25 18 43 88 83 257
10 7 16 34 33 100
Leeward side of 19 29 105 164 263 580
city. Outskirts 3 5 18 28 46 100
Perimetral built-up area
Center of city 9 8 28 79 16~ 293~
3 3 10 27 57 100
Tdote. Nuinerator number of cases, denominator percent,
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On the outskirts on the leeward s3de of the city there is some improvement in
ventilation in comparison with the center as a result of better developed coun-
tercurrents. If it is taken into account that measurements of wind velocity in
a built-up area were made in conformity to a rigorously uniform scheme, the per-
centage of frequency of recurrence of the wind coefficien~ by gradations also
gives a relative characteristic of the aeration regime over an area, which is a
supplement to the considered graph and formulaso This increases the information
y~eld of the considered aeration-climatic model.
The examined functional dependence K=f(u0) and all the mean wind coefficients
of different types of built-up areas, cited in this article, can be used in
corresponding computations of the wind coefficients and the velocity itself in
a built-up area in the range from 1 to 10 m/sec.
The considered characteristics of the wind flow in the built-up area of a city
represent only some of the changes which the wind component penetrating intcs
- the city experiences.
- The wind flow during passage over a city, under the influence of the built-up area
and the barrier effect of the "heat island," envelopes the city for the most part
from above, and in the presence of inversions over the city a 3et is formedo The
appearance, intensification and disappearance of inesojets, according to the in-
vestigations of F. Ya. Klinov [4], occurs simultaneously with the appearance,
deepening and disappearance of the inversio~x.
- The considered materials indicate the great possibilities of in situ investiga-
tions. It must be expected that ~he collection of experimental data on the aera-
tion of the built-up area and the microclimate of cities will in the future make
it possible to formulate a more rigorous aeration-climatic model and computation
model of urban microclimate.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Degtyarev, V. I., "Method for In Situ Investigations of Aeration of the
Built-up Area of a City, TRUDY ZSRNIGMI (Transactions of the West Siberian
Regional Scientific Research Hydrometeorological Institute), No 33, 19770
2. Degtyarev, V. I., "In Situ Investigations of Aeration of Traditional Methods
for Residential Construction in the Cities of Kazakhstan," TRUDY KazNIGMI
(Transactions of the Kazakh Scientific Research Hydrometeorological Insti-
tute), No 72, 1977.
3. Kalyuzhnyy, D. N., et al., "Influence of Nature of a Built-up Area on Change
~ in Insolation and Aeration in the UkrSSR," VOPROSY PRIKLADNOY KLIMATOLOGII
(Problems in Applied Climatology), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 19600
4o Klinov, F. Ya., "Mesoscale Inhomogeneities in the Lower 500-m Layer of the
Atmosphere," TRUDY TsVGMO (Transactions of the Central Volga Hydrometeorolog-
ical Observatory), No 6, 1975.
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5. Retter, E. I., "Aerodynamic Characteristics and Methods for Computing Aera-
tion in a Residential Microregion," VLIYANIYE MESTNYKIi P RI RODNO-KLIMATICHESK-
' IKH USLOVIY NA PROYEKTIROVANIYE GORODOV (Influence of Local Natural-Climatic -
~ Conditions on the Planning of Cities), Moscow, Gidrometeo izdat, 1974.
,
6. Semashko, K. I., "Investigation of the Wind Regime of a Territory of Residet~
tial Construction," VLIYANIYE MESTNYKH PRIRODNO-KI,IMATICHESKIKH USZOVIY NA
PROYEKTIROVANIYE GORODOV, Moscow, Gidrometeoizdat, 19740
7. Serebrovskiy, F. L., METODY RASCHETA AERATSII NASELENNYKH MEST (Methods for
' Computing Aeration of Populated Places), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 19730
~
.
,
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UDC 551.515.2 ~
~
REACTION OF AN AXIALLY SYNIMETRIC TROPICAL CYCLONE TO CHANGES IN OCEAN TEMPERATURE
AND EVAPORATION
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 59-~3
- [Article by Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sc~ences A. P. Khain, State 1
Oceanographic Institute, manuscript submitted 22 Apr 80]
[Text] Abstract: Using numerical experiments ~
with a 12-level axially symmetric mpdel
of a tropical cyclone (TC) a study is made
of its reaction to change in the tempera- ,
ture of the ocean surface by 1�C both un-
der the entire region of the TC and under
individual regions bounded by�the radii 0-
300, 300-480 and 480-540 km. The results
of the computations are compared with the
results of a control experimen~ in which
the surface te~mperature does not change.
In the second series of numerical experi- '
ments the surface temperature remained un-
changed but the moisture fluxes f rom the
surface were decreased by 30% both in Che .
entire region and alternately over the above-
mentioned regions. It is shown that the cen-
tral region of the TC plays a decisive role
in supplying the TC with moisture and heat,
in bringing the humidity in the boundary
layer to the level necessary for maiata3ning ,
~ the intensity of the TC.
The reaction of model axially symmetric TC to change in the temperatuxe of the
water surface has been studied in a number of investigations [2, 3, 7-9]o In
[2], where the model included a rather complex parameterization of the boundary
layer, the reaction to the change in surface temperature was essentially less
than in [7-9], and the change ir~ the inteusity of the TC did not occur i~ediate-
ly after the moment of decredse in water temperature, as in [7-O], but only after
6-10 hours, which is related to a gradual adaptation of the model boundary layer.
In [3], using this same model of a TC [2], the authors compared tae results of
two numerical experiments. In the first experiment the temperature instantaneously
62 '
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~
decreased by 2 degrees within the limits of a region with a radius of 300 km; in
the second experiment the surface temperature decreased by 2 degrees outside this
centiral region. The results indicated that in the first experiment the intensity
of the TC decreases substantially, whereas in the second experiment it virtua7.ly
; does not change.
In this artiGle we give an analysis of the r~sults of numerical experiments with
an axially symmetric model of a TC described in [1]o We studied th~ reaction of
' the TC to a decrease in the temperature of the water surface by 1� both under
' the entire region of the TC and under individual regions bounded by the radii 0-
, 300, 300-480 and 480-540 1~. These radii were selected in such a way that the re-
gions of the sur'~ace bounded by them had approximately identical areas. This makes
it possible to deteYciine the relative contribution of these zones to maintenance
of the intensity of t~e TC. The results of the computations are compared with the
results of a control ~xperiment (CE) in which the surface temperatnre did not
~ change. In the second series of numerical experiments the surface temperature re-
mained constant and the moisture fluxes from the surface decreased by 30% both in
the entire region and alternately over the above-mentioned regions.
i
Description of model. The experiments were made with an s:xial~y symmetric 12-level
model of a TC in a z coordinate system described in detait in [1]o The level
heights of the finite-difference grid are as follows: 0, 574, 1042, 1530, 2042,
! 1530, 2042, 3154, 5105, 7380, 9655, 11 915, 14 175 and 16 :i90 mo The vertical velo-
city is computed at these levels. The other components of velocity, temperature
and humidity are c~mputed at intermediate levelso The horiz;ontal grid interval is
60 km. The number of points in the �inite-difference grid is 10 (horizontally)o
The time interval is 1 min. The model includes an explicit moisture cycleo There
is a parameterization of the convective transfer of heat, moisture and the moment
of momentinn and also convective heating due to the condensation of vapor in cum-
ulus clouds. In computing pracip.itation it was divided into convective and large-
scale. It was assumed that macroscale condensation occurs when the mixing ratio,
computed at the grid points of intersection, exceeds a saturating valueo It was
� assumed that the entire excess of moisture under a saturating value is condensed
and forms macroscale precipitation. During condensatLon the temperature inereases
(macroscale heating), so that the final saturating value, naturally, differs from
the initial value.
' Convectiv~ heating was computed by the following method. The dis criminated column
of the atmosphere was broken down by horizontal planes (coinciding with the model
levels) into layers. It was assumed that the clouds can develop from the lower m
, layers in which there is moisture convergence. The heating of the atmosphere due
- to clouds arising from each of these m layers was computed by a method close to
the Kuo method [5]. It was assumed that the clouds arising from different 1evels
develop.independently of one another and total convec tive heating was computed
as the sum of heatings due to clouds arising from different levels,
Parameterization of the boundary layer by the Deardorff inethad is used in the mod-
el [4]. It is known that the Deardorff inethod makes it possible, on Che basis of
~ the mean values of wind velocity, potential temperature and the m.ixing ratio in
~
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the boundary layer (in this case in the mixing layer), its height and water tem-
perature at the surfachei hteofrthe mi.xingllayer was asesi~ed eqaualato thesheight ;
from the surface. The g
of the condensation level. The Charnok formula was used in determinin~ the rough~ ;
ness levelo
pon mb 31 -
~
oBg '
.~3 =
995
ax Eq~rOr
~
917 � 34
~ ~
_ 1f0 920 130 940 150 t v~ hours
Fig. 1. Dependence of pressure at center of T~C at surface on time for experiments '
with change in temperature of ocean surface.
As the initial state for numerical experiments we used a quasistationary typhoon
(t = 110 hours) having the fo llowing characteristics: pressure at the center at '
the surface 982 mb, pressure drop at the surface between the center and peri-
phery 30 mb, maximum wind velocity 36 m/sec, maximum wind velocity at sur-
face 27.5 m/sec. T'he radius of the maximum winds was 90 km. The maximwn rate
of evaporation was 2.7 cm/day and the mean rate of evaporation over an area with
a radius of 540 lan ~.*as about l07 cm/day.
fa~~f0 /c J/sec ...3y ~
~
Fs ~o~,4nr/(M'~c) J/ ~m2� sec) 5 3X
. '~jT,~ Equator
3J
s _ 3K Equator 4 . _ 32
-
4 34 31
2~ i~o ~20 ~~o ~4c t v hours
100 1CD J00 Y00 S00 ~ Kn
Fig. 2. Ra.dial distribution of m~isture Fig. 3. Dependence of total moisture
fluxes in experiment E4 and control ex- fluxes from entire region with radi- ,
periment CE at time t~ 130 hours. us 570 km on time in d;fferent ex- _
periments.
Results of n~erical experiments. Figure 1 shows the dependencE of pressure p .
at the center of a TC at the earthts surface on time, determined in experimen~s
with changes in temperature of the ocean surface TWa The temperature change oc-
curred at the time t= 110 hours (E1 experiment with a temperature decrease
by 1�C in the entire region under the TC, E2 experiment with a temperature de- ,
crease by 1�C in a region with a radius 300 lan, E3 experiment with a decrease _
64
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in temperature hy 1�C in a region situated b~tween the radii 300 and 480 lmi, E4
experiment in which the temperature decreased by 1�C outside the region with
- ~he radius 480 km, CE control experiment)o . -
F, ~rs(' mb 35
?~a.~ ,y;c Vmax m/sec a L
r ` p9
ax E uator
36 q
- 36
9B7 _ -
JZ . ~ ~ ' 3i
` ~
_ ~
, ~ 9B5 i 3B
,
?B : i-
i'
i~ oa3
1110 1?P ,',i0 i~.^ 1Jd . i y ~ 1~/.....:~ ....~9..
�BJ L--
hours l~~ ~y~ t y. hours
Fig. 4. Dependence of maximum wind velocity Fig. 5o Dependence of pressure at
on time in described experiments. center of TC at surface on time in
experiments with decrease in mois-
ture flux by 30% at constant temper-
ature.
Figure 1 shows that in all the experiments the intensity of the TC begins to
change 3-~4 hours after the decrease in surface temperatureo It should b~. noted
that in experiment E2 the TC attenuates almost as strongly as in the experiment
E1. This indicates a decisive role of the central region in the supply of the
TC with moisture and heat, in brznging the humidity of the boundary layer to Che -
- level neces;,ary for maintaining the intensity of the TC. On the other hand, the~:e
can be still another mechanism explaining the role of surface temperature in the -
central region for model TC. A decrease in surface temperature in the central re-
" gion leads to some decrease in the temperature in the boundary layer, Most of the ,
_ methods for the parameterization of convection make use of the condition that the -
air, rising in clouds in a zone of well-developed convection, at the level of the
cloud base has a temperature equal to the temperature of the boundary layer, If
the temperature at the cloud base is reduced, the height of the upper boundary
of the clouds is reduced, and in addition, there is a redistribution of vertical
convective heating with a greater decrease in heating at the upper levels than
at the lower levels (in a simple case the heating is proportional to the diff-
erence in the temperatures of the moist adiabat, reconstructed from the conden-
sation level, and the mean temperature computed at the points of grid intersection)o
. This can result in a decrease of the warm "core" and an attenuation of the TCo
- 65
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There was an interesting peculiarity of the behavior of a TC in experiment E4o
With a decrease in surface temperature the TC is not attenuated, but on the con-
trary is somewhat intensifiedo Such an evolution of a TC can be attributed to two
factorso First, to the fact that the cooling of water on the periphery of the TC
leads to a decrease in temperature in the boundary layero Thus, in the TC boundary
_ layer there is advection of cold airo The water-air temperature differen.ce in the
central region of the TC increases, which leads to an increase in the fluxes of
heat and moisture from the surf3ceo The increase in these fluxes is such that al-
. ready at a distance of 200 km from the center the values of the mixing ratio and
temperature virtually do not differ from the cc~rresponding values in the control
experiment. _
Second, a temperature decrease in the boundary layer on the periphery leads to an :
increase of surface pressure in this region. Thus, the pressure drop between the
= center and the periphery in the boundary layer decreases, which leads to an in- _
crease in i:b.~ r
~ ~
40 ~ 17'C ~ ,rA(U ~ 17 6,1
d ~26 1~~~ ~~~~YY '~;~e'~,.
~
z2 J ~~~Yt~,~'' :a,1.. ` L~z ~ ~la~
~3 9'~1tv hours
gp ~ ~~IJ"'' ~l~~1h ~6,J ,r�
~~r ~ ~B ~~9,~1''{~1 , ~I ~ Z~~
~ Ir~1r 15 r ~~I~'~~~I~7 .i5,~ ~Sf~r~r~~` ~1_-
120 U ~ Itiiji~ JSI-~j 1~ . -
I~.
d j. d~ s s lrb~2i~ F
~so YrI,~V' ; 4 ~ Y r. ,M
v,� ~ ,
zao ~
76 181( 1 4 6 9~ 16 ?gQ 2 4 6 0~ :
Fig. 1. Elements of thermohaline structure of upper layer of ocean. a) section of
density structure of waters in observation region. Upper isoline lower boundary
of layer quasihomogeneous with respect to density; b) vertical profiles of temper-
ature, salinity and density during period of separation of lower boundaries of
quasihomogeneous salinity and thermal layers (Q z-- distance between boundaries,
in density inversion); c) evolution of temperature and salinity profiles during ~
shallowing of quasihomogeneous layer; d) fragment of change of thermal (1) and
_ salinity (2) structure of upper layer of ocean (interval three hours); e) change
in water temperature in quasihomogeneous layer (dotted line lower boundary of
layer). _
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V m/sec~n/c
a) 9
. _
~ .
. n.-4~~ ~
2,0
1~ J
~,0
~S .
hM ~
50 !
~hM 6) b) 40 Z - . ~
~ ~JOt . . . .
60 ~.A ~P4 i i3'S i719212J _28JOI13 S 7 91113 25118 3 1 9111J10
_ ~p~ N' ~r ~v ~ ~j~M
2 rl
- d0
1013 15 11 19 11 13 2B J0, i J S 7 9 11 1J 25 Zlll 1.3 S 7 9 1~ 9319 -
B B~n/(cn~ v) 2 _
e~ B cal/ (cm �hour)
c) ~
rMc o �
1~a
17,4
Z7,0 ~ ' .
16b 1~ 15 17 1�?1 ZJ 1B 301 1 J S 7 9 11 1J 13 1711 ? 3 S 1 9 11 1J111
_ d) t1 _
l~~RnM) 131 15-161 171 2611
. FR-~SgNM �R=26,9nn ER�43~OMM ER-51,4Hn
1
n10 ;S ,'9 1 7 4 1U 16 7 93 99
?J~l5~'iB~j y~ 6eo . g�� 16! 1J01135019'S 11" 8n
J�l17~ S
10 1 -
20
Zy 35,1 J5.4 JS,2 35,4 35,4 J5, 6 35,5~5~6 35,535 F y
Fig. 2. Temporal variation of parameters of thermohaline structure of upper layer
of ocean and meteorological characteristics. a) wind velocity at level 26 m from _
' water surface, difference in water-air temperatures, thickness of layer quasihomo-
geneous with respect to temperature (1) and salinity (2) (mean daily values); b)
thickness of quasihomogeneous layer (interval three hours). 1) thermal, 2) sal-
inity, c) radiation thermal budget of surface ~interval one hour) and water
temperature at horizon 5 m(interval three hours); d) quantity of falling pre-
cipitation (R mm) during heaviest rains and change in vertical salinity profiles
- with time in upper 30-m layer. Ad~acent successive salitYity profiles are displaced
by 1�/00.
78
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~
~ ~ ~
~ t~ v~ ~ ~ ~
Q cA .C M ~-i rl
r-~I q i-~+ ~ ?C ri
H q W; ~ ~ ~ u~i
OU ~ .C rl N ~ ^ ~
~ ~ ~
O E] .rC ~ ri ~1 d ~
�r~
Gl I D N ~O O cpd
~-7 p N ~-1 N F+ ~
~ A .C O ~--i rl .a ~
4J . . .
: ~ ~ ~ ~ O ~ `
G1 i~
~
w G G O ~O c0 ~ U �
GJ V] iJ �C Ul ~7 M �,-~I Cl, o
q ~ cUd
~ O 4-i
U
~ 1~ 1~.~ ~
~ 3 ~
~
~n D rn u~ c~ ~
~ G A . . . ~ ~ t~
q O .7 N ~7 O cd
�rl O~ �rl C'.. Gl ,3
r-I I~ 1-~ -
.C r-1 ~ ~ b0 O _
_ ~'U Cl] vl N t!1 41 ~ 4-I
r~l W ~ N N rl OJ ~rl ~
Ei ? G ~ t~ ~O
w N ro cv
0 ~ i~.i ~ ~-i
N
N m H o0 rn N c~d N r~l
~ ~ N ~N rl .f+ td ~
y ri cd
- ~ r~ O ~t-~+ -
P+ N ~r1
~1 N O
O N cA r-1
U1 N
U tA ~ 7 t~ t~ n O ~ ' -
u ~
�r{ ~ U ~t".,
m ~ v -
~ cn r~ t~ rn a ~ 3
~ I.~ ~ ~ r~ .~.i
v w
ro a`~i ~ i � r
ro ~ H ~ ~ ~ ~
I.c u~ ~ r~ ~ ~
U
~ .a H ~ 'U
~i
fs+ ~ '~U .C ~
cd
- U ~ M ~7 i-. ~ ~
'r'~ ~d r-I e--1 ~-i cV M
u ti I 1 -
N h FL+ N
ro ~ i ~
�rl M o0 U1 p
- ~ E-+ rl N N ,7~
79 _
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~ra.,;Dc ~
1J'~ Q~ f ~
, ~�r
; ae~
! ~ o,sk
I Qy
I
1[~~~ QJ _._o
,
;
i
~ i
~ ~.e~
i v:,-~ ,
7 Q~
~ ~y ~
~1
~lOl1TS U ~U -G 14ii1?d v ~r :4 !o ~,,r :J 1? ,Y+ ,
Fig. 3. Normalized spectral density and cross-correlation functions. a) spectra
of fluctuations of thickness of quasihomogeneous layer (2) and isotherm 23�C
(1) (25 February-14 March 1979); b) wind v~locity cross-correlation functions
and thicknesses of homogeneous layer; 1) time f rom 28 January through 13 February,
2) from 25 February through 14 March 1979.
Shear and eddy-wave turbulence, free convection, usually create layers homogen-
eous with respect to temperature and salinity of approximately the same thick-
ness [2, 3]. The detected relative independence of the thermal and salinity
structure can be attributed, for example, to the influence of the boundary con-
ditions.
The considered series are short in extent and characterize the intramonthly vari.-
- ahility and therefore it is easy to trace the non~tationarity and trend of the
- mean (Fig. 2). This made it necessary to carry out smoothing of the series, which
was accomplished by means of two-day moving averaging (discreteness - three
hours). The two-da;~ period corresponds approximately to one-ninth - one-tenth of
~ the total. duration of the registered time serieso In computing the dispersions
(Tab1e 1), autocorrelation functions and spectral density functions (Fig, 3a)
the filtering of the initial series was accomplished by subtraction of the smooth-
ed series. However, for computing the cross-correlation functions between the
- wind and the quasihompgeneous layer (Fig. 3b), as will be demonstrated below, it
was desirable to filter out the low-frequency components. In this case processes
with a time scale of 12 hours or less were suppressedo
Table 1 shows that during the entire observation period on the average the thick-
ness of the quaslhomogeneous layer is decreasedo During this time the wind velo-~
city and its dispersi.on remain at the same levela The general decrease in the
thickness of the homogeneous 1ay~r is evidently associated with the constant heat
influx from the atmosphere, increasing hydrostatic stability (Fig. 2c)o However,
this process does not occur uniformly (Fig. 2b).
The mean amplitude of flucttcations of the thickness of the quasihomogeneous layer,
superposed on this general variation, is equal to 405 mo In general, however, the
thickness of the quasihomogeneous layer varied in the range fram 17 to 77 ma A1-
ways, even in a period of noncoincidence, the lower boundaries of layers quasi-
homogeneous with respect to temperature and salinity varied synchronously and
- therefore their statistical characteristics are similar,
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Typical spectra of fluctuations of the thickness of the quasihomogeneous layer
and isotherms in the seasonal thermocline have a similar form (Fig, 3a)o The
low-frequency peak corresponds to the maximum time scale of the filtered com-
ponents of the fluctuations and therefore should be excluded from the analysis.
- The high-frequency maximum, corresponding to a time scale 8-9 hours, is~possibly
, fictitious and with a discreteness of 3 hours can be caused by the effect of in-
, termingling of frequencies [4]. A semidiurnal period is clearly discriminated,
A distinguishing characteristic of the dyr_amics of the waters in the considered
region is the constant presence of internal tidal waves in the thermohaloclineo
These wave movemements occur isopycnically without "traumafiic" effects in the
thermohaline structure of the waters [7]o Their amplitude, averaging 5 m, vir-
tually does not change vertically in the seasonal pycnocline. The phase shift
here differs little from zero (Fig. ld). On the basis of the amplitude of fluctu-
ations of the isopycnic lines it can be concluded that in the upper part of the
main pycnocline the amplitude of the interna'1 waves increases and can exceed by
a factor of 2 to 4 the amplitude of waves in the seasonal pycnocline.
A joint analysis ~f fluctuations of the isopycnic lines in the seasonal pycno-
cline and the thickness of the quasihomogeneous layer shows that 12-hour fluctua-
tions of the lower boundary of thE quasihomogeneous layer are caused precisely by
internal waves. The amplitude of these fluctuations on the average is 4 mo In
general, however, it varies frem 2 to 5 m(Fig. 2b). The lower boundary of the
layer quasihomogeneous with respect to density in the process of semidiurnal fluc-
tuations moves synchronously with the isopycnic lines of the upper part of the
seasonal pycnocline (for example, see Fig. la). Accordingly, there is no sub-
stantial turbulent entrainment of ths waters of the seasonal thermocline into
the quasihomogeneous ldyer.
A period of 5-6 days is traced in fluctuations of the thickness of the quasihomogen-
eous layer (Fig. 2a). However, the length of the considered series is inadequa.te
for a more or less rigorous statistical analysis of the no~ed periodicityo The
amplitude of these fluctuations is equal to approximately 4~-7 m, Their period
is close to the inertial scale, which for the observation region is 5.75 days, and
also to the synoptic scale. A similar quasiperiodicity is noted in the wind velo-
city fluctuations.
The collected data make it possible to trace the evolution of the quasihomogeneous
layer, its dependence on external conditions. The greatest decrease in the thick-
~ ness of the quasihomogeneous layer occurs during the period 5-10 Februa~}?o During
this time the lower boundary moves from 60 m to the 30-m horizon (Figa 2a,b)o
This is associated with attenuation of wind velocity (Figo 2a) and intensive heat-
ing. The water temperature in the quasihomogeneous layer attains its maximum val-
ues 27.3-27.7�C (Fig. 2c), that is, with a decrease in wind velocity turbulence
in the upper layer decreases and the heat regularly arriving from the atmosphere
is distributed in~o a thinner layera The evolution of the temperature an.d salin-
ity p~ofiles in the process of formation of a secondary quasihomogeneous layer of
lesser thickness is shown in Figa lco
An appreciable decrease in the thickness of ttae quasihomogeneous layer occurred
during the period 15-18 January and during the period 27 February-1 March (Fig,
2a,b). Both these cases were related to a preliminary decrease in wind velocity.
81
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However, they were preceded hy situations of a decrease in the fluxes of direct
and scattered solar radiation associated with an increase in cloud cover (Figo
2c). Therefore, there was not such.an intensive decrease in the thickness of the
quasihomogeneous layer as during the period 5-10 Februarya
The wind exerts a significant influence on the thickness of the quasihomogeneous
layero With an increase in wind velocity the thickness of the layer increases.
For example, a velocity increase from 200 to 9.0 m/sec during the period 27 Feb-
ruary-4 Ma.rch corresponds to an increase in the thic'~ness of the quasihomogeneous
layer from 25-30 m on 1 March to 40-45 m on 6 March. However, with a decrease in
wind velocity, as indicated above, the lower boundary of the homogeneous layer .
rises upward. An appreciable decrease in the thickness of the quasihomogeneous
layer occurred with a wind velocity less than approximately So5 m/sec (Figa 2a)o
Figure 3b sho~as the cross-correlation functions for wind velocity and t~e thick- _
ness of the quasihomogeneous layer. 1'heir maxima correspond to a shift of about
2.5 days. In this case the positive correlation coefficient attains a value OoB,
which indicates a high degree of closeness of the positive linear dependenceo ~
Such a situation corresponded to a large part of the observation timeo
- The product of wind velocity and the water-air temperature difference is propor- -
tional to the quantity of heat lost by the ocean during evaporation and contact
heat exchange with the atmosphere [S]. Evaporation is combined with salinization
of the water surface layer. It can be seen that the temporal variation of wind
velocity and the water-air temperature difference is similar to the change in
the thickness of the quasihomogeneous layer (Figo 2a)o This indica~es ttia.t the
mechanism of the influence of the wind on the deepening of the lower boundary of
the quasihomogeneous layer has in part the nature of direct wind mixing, in part
a convective character associated with generation of hydrostatic instabilityo
~
The cited computations of the cross correlation relate to time intervals when
the heat flux through the ocean surface changed little from day to day (Fig.
2c)o Otherwise it would be difficult to trace the noted simple correlatiQn between
the wind and the thickness of the quasihomogeneous layer. In order to establish
more complete and reliable dependences of this type it is necessary to carry out,
for example, multiple correlation. For this purpose, in addition to the wind, it
is neces~axy to ma.ke use of data on all the heat balance components, the evapora-
tion-precipitation difference, and also take into account the influence of the
initial state of the thermohaline structure proper [9].
An important characteristic of the thermal structure of the active layer in the
ocean is the water temperature in the quasihomogeneous layero During the observa-
tion period it varied from 26.5�C to 27.8�C (Figo 2c). The water temperature dis-
turbances srising at the surface rapidly affect virtually the entire ~homogeneous
layer, which indicates its intensive turbulence. The magnitude of the phase shift
and the vertical decrease in the amplitudes of these disturbances in the quasihomo-
' geneous layer can be judged from the example cited in Fig. le. The change is the
radiation heat budget of the surface for the most part had a regular diurnal char-
acter (Fig. 2c). Within the quasihomogeneous layer, in accordance with the change
82 ~ ~
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in the radiation bud,get, a diurnal variation of water temperature ~ras observed.
The amplitude of the diurnal harmonic at tbe surface was 0.1�C. The shift of the
maximimm of surface temperature relative to the maximum of the radiation. budget
was 2-4 hours. The influence of the cloud cover changed the picture substantially -
(13-17 January, 25-26 F~bruary), complicating the variation of water temperature
with time in the quasihomogeneous layer.
The intensive falling of precipitation led to freshening in a layer with a thick-
ness of 1a-15 m(Figo 2d). The lower boundary of this layer was clearly express-
ed; the salinity gradients here attain values close to the gradients on the boun-
daries of the "core" of highly saline subtropical waters in the seasonal halo-
- cline. The lifetime of the freshened '~yer, dependent on the intensity of turbu-
lence in the upper layers of the water, the quantity and intensity of precipita-
tion, varied from 3 hours to 2 days (Fig. 2d, ld). The vertical heat� flux in the
c;nasihomogeneous layer changed considerably in such situations,
' A clearly expressed seasonal thermohalopycnocline is situated under the quasihomo-
geneous layer. It occupies the layer from 40-50 to 80-120 m. A singular character-
istic of the thermohaline structure of waters in the region is that the halocline
is represented by a clearly expressed tongue of water of increased salinity trans-
ported by the subsurface countercurrent from the subtropical regions of saliniza-
tion [8]. Here the salinity profile has several extrema (Fig. lb,c)o The vertical
salinity gradients under and over the tongue attain their maximum valueso The cen-
ter of the "core" experiences fluctuations in the range 55-85 m(Fi~o lb,c,d)o The
salinity here then increases to 36.2-36.3�/0o and sometimes to 3604 /oo in compar-
ison with 35.6-35.8�/00 outside the tongue of highly saline waterso
In the layer 60-70 m, corresponding appruximately to the center of the seasonal
thermocline and the core of waters of increased salinity, the temperature gradi-
ents change with time in the range from -0.10 to -0.35 C/m. The salinity gradi-
ents change fron, -0.05 to 0.05�/00. Whereas at the extrema of the vertical sal-
inity profile the grad~ents are equal to zero, afi the horizons of a sharp increase
� or decrease they attain in absolute value 0.07-0.09�/oo/m. The density gradients at
the center of the seasonal pycnocline vary with time from 0.3�10-6 g/cm4 to 1.2� ~
10-6 g/cm4, on the average approaching 0.7�10-6 g/cm4.
In the seasonal thermocline the temperature for the most part decreases linearly
from 26-27 to 15-16�C in a layer with a thickness 40-60 m, but its profile in many
cases is complicated by a well-expressed stepped structure, evidently representing
traces of turbulent deepenings uf the quasihomogeneous layer in the past. The ver-.
tical scales of these structural elements have values from 1 to 10 m or more. Pre-
cisely over the points of. tileir maximum curvature the temperature gradients attain
their maxi~um values.
The self-similarity hypothesis [6J was checked for the vertical structure of the
seasonal thermocline. This hypothesis assumes a universality of the distribution of
water temperature in the seasonal thermocline. In such a case the dimensionless
temperature profile ,
y (z, t) _ (TS - T (z, t))'(TS (t) - T~~ (t))
i's dependent only on the dimensionless parameter
- ~~(t)=(z-h(f))l(H-Ir(~)).
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~
Here TS is water temperature in a quasihomogeneous layer of the thickness h, Tg
is the temperature at the lower boundary of the seasonal thermocline H, T(z,t)
is the temperature at individual horizons of the seasonal thermocline, t, z are
time and depth.
Table 2
Statistical Characteristics for Checking Self-Similarity Hypothesis
(Notations in Text)
Situation of marked shallowing of Full series considered
= quasihomogeneous layer excluded
fram series
mean evaluation of inean mean evaluation of inean
value standard de- horizon, value standard de- horizon,
viation m viation m
0.3 0.538 0.110 78 0.459 Oo165 77
0.5 0.792 0.054 99 0.704 0.164 98
0.7 0.923 0.021 119 0.876 0.091 118
As the lower boundary of the seasonal thermocline we used the horizon 150 m, situ-
ated in the upper part of the msin thermocli.ne. The profiles for 1200 hours for
all days were subjected to processing. Individual results are given in Table 2.
In general, it can be said that the self-similarity hypothesis is satisfactorily
satisfied. The only exception is the period of intensive shallowing of the quasi-
homogeneous layer on 5-13 February. At this time the forms of the e(r~) profiles
were characterized by diversity. As a result, the mean dimensionless temperature
is decreased but the temperature dispersion increases sharply (see Tab1e 2). Indi-
vidual checks indicate that internal waves exert virtually no influence on self-
similarity. The normalization condition leads to a sma~.l dispersion e at the edgeG
of the profile. However, in general the fluctuations of e with depth attenuate
(Table 2).
The seasonal jump layer of characteristics is underlain by the main thermohalopycno-
cline (Fig. ld). The temperature and salinity gradients decrease sharply in its
upper part, in individual sectors of the profiles attaining values cl.ose to the
gradients in the upper quasihomogeneous layero The homog neity gradient in the
main pycnocline on the average is equal to 0.7�10-~ g/cm~, that is, an order of
magnitude less than the gradient in the seasonal pycnocline.
The author expresses appreciation to Yu. A. Ivanov for useful discussion of the
work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bakhvalov, N. S., CHISLENNYYE METODY (Numerical Methods), Moscow, Nauka, 19750
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2. Byshev, V. I., Ivanov, Yu. A., "Model of the Nonstationary Thermohaline Struc-
ture of the Upper L3yer in the Ocean," OKEANOLOGIYA (Oceanology), Vol 14, No
2, 19?4.
3. Byshev, V. I., Ivanov, Yu. A., "Dynamic Model of Formation of the Quasihomogen-
eous Layer in the Ocean," OKEANOLOGIYA, Vol 17, No 4, Z977o
4. Grigorkina, R. G., et al., PRIKLADNYYE METODY KORRELYATSIONNOGO I SPEKTRALT-
NOGO ANAi~IZA KRUPNOMASSHTABNYKH Oi~ANOLOGICHESKIKH PROTSESSOV (Applied Methods
of Correlation and Spectral Analysis of Macroscale Oceanological Processes),
- Leningrad, Izd-vo LGU, 1973.
~ 5. Kalatskiy, V. I., MODELIROVANIYE VERTIKAL'NOY TERMICHESKOY STRUKTURY DEYATEL'-
NOGO SLOYA OKEANA (Modeling of Vertical Therm~l Structure of Active Layer of -
- Ocean), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1978.
, 6. Kitaygorodskiy, S. A., Miropol'skiy, Yu. Z., "On the Theory of the Active Lay-
er in the Ocean," IZV. AN SSSR, FIZIKA ATMOSFERY I OKEANA (News of the USSR
' Academy of Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and Ocean), Vol 6, No 2, 19700 ,
7. Fedorov, K. N., TONKAYA TERMOKHALINNAYA STRUKTURA VOD OKEANA (Fine Thermohaline
Structure of Ocean Waters), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1976.
8. Khanaychenko, N. K., SISTEMA EKVATORIAL'NYKH PROTIVOTECHENIY V OKEANE (System
~ of Equatorial Countercurrents in the Ocean), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat� 1974.
9. Niiler, P. P., "Deepening of the Wind-Mixed Layer," J. MARINE RES., Vol 33, No
3, 1975.
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UDC 556o16vOL(47)
MODELING OF PROCESSES OF RUNOFF FORMATION IN THE RIVERS OF T[~ FOREST ZONE OF THE _
EUROPEAN USSR
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 78-85 .
[ArticZe by Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences V. Io Koren', USSR Hy-
drometeorological Scientific Research Center, manuscript submitted 27 Feb 80]
[Text] Abstract: A study was made of the charac-
teristics of formation of runoff in forest- -
ed and field sectors of watershedso The auth-
or proposes a mathematical model which takes -
into account the principal thermophysical
processes in the aeration zone and can be
used in continuous computation of ineltwater, ~
rain and mel~~water-rain runoff for rivers in~
areas with different degrees of forest covero
The model parameters are det~rmined by opti~-
ization methods. Checking of the formulated
model in a number of sma11 watersheds in the
forest zone indicated a good convergence of
the actual and computed hydrographs. The ratio
of volumes of runoff from field and forested
sectors agrees with physical conceptsa
A number of models of runoff �ormation are presently used in making hydrological _
computations. The most important of these include a mpdel of formation of rain-
induced high water [5] and a model of formation of tihe hydrograph of spring high
water [2]. Experience shows that in the application of these models great dif-
ficulties arise during the transition periods when there is very great change in
the water-absorption prope~ties o~ ~he watershed as a result of the freezing and
_ thawing of the soil. Because of this it is impossible to formulate a co.:*_inuous
model for the short-range forecasting of water discha.rgeo
In this article we propose a model which takes into account the principal thermo-
_ physica? processes transpiring in the aerati~n zone, as a result of which it can be
used for continuous cpmputation of ineltwater, rain and meltwater-rain runoff, The
considered model is a generalization of the model obtained earlier for completely
forested watersheds [1] fo~_ the case of partially forested river basinso
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The conditions for the formation of runoff in forested and field sectors are sub-
stantially different. One of the principal factors governing the great differences
in water absorption properties in the field and forest is the presence of a small
(about 5-10 cm) very loose soil surface layer in the foresto The data cited in ~7~
on the mechanical composition of different soils show that beginning at a depth of
5-10 cm the porosity of soils in field and forested sectors differs very i.nsig-
nificantly, whereas in the layer a-10 cm these differences are very significanto
This circumstance makes possible some simplification of ~he model of runoff forma-
tion for partially forested watershedso
We will arbitrarily shift the surface line in the forest to the interface between
the upper (5-10 cm), very permeable layer, and the lower-lying soil layer with a
considerably lesser porosity. In other words, we will assume that in the forest all
the water reaching the soil surface is instantaneously absorbed by the upper 5-10-
cm layer. Some af this water is filtered into the lower-lying layer and some flows
away in a network of streamlets forming a runoff close in time to the surface run-
off. In this case the model can be constructed in such a way that the dependences
for computing most of the balance components in the field and forest differ only
in the coPfficients.
We will discriminate an upper soil layer with the thickness z and a maximum mois-
ture capacity cJ m. In forested sectors the upper boundary of this layer will be
the line of t:~e arbitrary surface (Fig. 1). If it is assumed that phase transi-
- tions occur only on the freezing or thawing front, whereas in the zone of negative
_ temperatures all the moisture freezes, it is relatively simple to obtain balance
expressians for moisture in the solid and liquid phases
dW, ; _ ~ rT ~ (i = 1, ~1~
[T = thawed; M = frozen]
,~t~',~, _ ~2)
-r.,! fi-2. ~4),
ur
where Wthaw i~ Wfroz i are the reserves of liquid and solid moisture components in
the i-th layer, vi is the intensity of change in the liquid component as a result
of water exchange with the upper and lower layers, rthaw i~ rfroz i are the inten-
sities of change of the thawed and frozen components as a result of phase tiansi-
- tions at the upper or lower boundaries of the layer.
In accordance with Fig~ 1, we will write expressions for compuCing the balance com-
ponents (thawing of the soil from below is not taken into account):
; . ~ ' ~ j d Z~, ; ~t ~ - I
i-, ~ ~ ~nt ~ - int I .,-~~j ~ ~-~i - ~ z,fi~
i , - - ' - (3)
dZa ; 'x~, ~
- - dr zt (1 = 1, ~ ~ ~
/~LN j w,T~~=~) �GAi ~,I11 I ~ ~ r/
r,~ dt o Z;T, dt ~ Z; ~l 41~
_ [B = upper; H= lower~ z~~ = Z'Z~ (ho - E- q- 4i~ - 9i) ~i = 1, 2,..., 4), ~S)
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v5 =9, - 9z ~ 9~z~
(6)
where Z~ow i~ Zup i are the lower and upper boundaries of the i-th layer~respec-
tively, W is the total moisture reserve,
4 Zi = Zlow i"' Zup i~
hwater is water yield at the surface, E is total evaporation from a watershed, q is
~ surface runoff, qi 1, qI 2 is the soil runoff from the freezing and lower, not
freezing zones, ql, q2 is the loss of moisture through the lower boundaries of the
f reezing and nonfreezing zones, int(x) is the whole part of the variable xo ,
The interfaces between the frozen and thawed soil layers were computed using the
approximate dependence [6] derived from the heat transfer equations with the fol-
lowing fundamental assumptions: there is no inflaw of heat (cold) from below;
the distribution of temperatures in the frozen (thawed) layer and in the snow
cover is linear; with a negative (positive) temperature all the moisture is in a
solid (liquid) state; the water filtering during thawing does not participate in
the heat transfer processes:
[c = snow; /~B = PWater~
Z (t dt) _ - H (~i. H'i.~ Z (t)]Z + ~ ~EI TI dt. oe L (7)
where H and T are the depth of the snow cover and air temperature during the con-
sidered time interval dt; Z(t) and Z(t + dt) is the position of the interface
by the beginning and end of the camputation time interval respectively; w is the
volumetric moisture content at the freezing (thawing) front; water is water den-
sity; L is the latent heat of fusion for ice; ~snow is the thermal conductivity co-
efficient f or snow; a is the thermal conductivity coefficient for frozen (during
f reezing) and thawed (during thawing) soil.
Expressions (1)-(7) are correct for both field and forested sectors of a watershed.
ZJe will assume that the structure of the dependences for computing water yield,
evaporation, soil runoff and loss of moisture into the lower-lying layers is iden-
tical for field and forested sectors. Then for their computation it is possible to
use expressions obtained earlier for completely forested watersheds [1]. However,
the parameters of these expressions can be different for field and forested sec-
- tors.
Ano*:her fundamentally important distinguishing characteristic of Che formation of .
n:w?*water runoff in the f ield is the formation of "blocking" layers, as a result
of ~ahich infi.ltration in such sectors is virtually comFletely absento Such layers
are usually not formed in the forest. As a result, during the period of snow melt-
ing the expressions for computing the dynamics of surface runoff in the field and
forest should be fundamentally different. -
As noted above, by the term "surface runoff" in the forest we mean. run.off in the ~
uppermost 5-10-cro soil layer. In this case the intensity of infiltration will be
determined by the water absorption properties of the lower-lying soil lay~r4 If
the retention of water in the upper layer is also taken int~ account, it is
88
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~ possible to obtain a dependence for computing surface runoff in the forest
r
(hB-!){1-exp -m`(h,-l-E),~, ! ~ .x a - �
~d O O N rl cd aC 'J A A A ri O p, b0 O~~ RS td
~ oa ~d m o cd a cn o~ cn ~n q o0 00
v1 I 1 cE U b0 r1 D~~ cd Rf cd x rl 1~+ ~d ~~~,-1 R2 H
~ cd D, G1 O~-1 O y, D, i~+ ~d O~ I I+-~ .o I
i ~a~a~~n~~n~~o~a~o~ ba i ~a~v~~o~, -
c0 �rl N cd cd O ~ ~ cd oU I~ D H N
N r~ x aG a a~ o c7 a~ ca q o o ~ ~ v,
D C: ~ RS ~~~d td ~ 00 U~ N U U G"+ G.'' p
c~ ao~a .ra�~ooooo~~nmv~i~>~~aaaa~
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Transforming these inequalities, ~ze obtain the follor~ing: ,
( UJ5 ( ha ~,0.006 l ~19~
I~ /i~i~; r� � i.; i ~ J~ Qa I,
f o.1s, ( h_+ l-~- i~.onsl ( 20) '
Ig Itg~~.e; iK r-o.~a ~ J ~ I~ Qe ~ 1� .
=
Thus, we arrived at the dependence (11), common for different rivers, of the mod- '
ular coefficients of ice strength and water discharges on the day of the break- !
up (Fig. 2). This correlation indicates the fundamental possibility of obtaining ~
a general scheme for computing the time for the break-up of rivers. 7ts practical
importance i.s evident. It precludes the necessitp for constructing many variants
af the correlations for each point on the rivers and makes it possible to compute
and predict the time of opening-up on rivers with limited series of observations.
This ~orrelation was constructed on the basis of more thau 6OQ cases and there-
fore it is more reliable than the local correlations. However, its use, the same
as the local d~endences, is made difficult by the need for making computations
of ~ hsPr and Qspr and becomes campletely impossible on rivers with a poorly stud- ,
ied regime. Dependences (16), (19) and (20) are promising in this connectiono They ,
were checked on the bas is of data for 11 points on rivers with substantially dif-
ferent regime characteristics. The results of this checking were compared with the
evaluation of computations using dependence (11) (Table 2). '
It follows from this tab le that the substitution of empirically established cor-
relations into (11) naturally leads to some decrease in the accuracy of computa-
tions. In subsequent investigations it is necessary to use more data. Then it
will be possible to refine the dependences (6), (12), (13) by means of allowance '
for additional arguments . In this connection it seems possible to refine the in-
equalities (19), (20). The fact is tY?at using in the study data only on the ice
thick.ness hice~ We do no t take into account such important factors as th~ struc-
ture of the ice and the depth of the snow on the ice, and characterizing by the
period of ice melting (d) the quantity of heat received by the ice and in part ~
the peculiarities of river morphometry, we do not take into account the time
required for the meltiag of the snow on the ice and the intensity of the heat in-
f1ux, etc.
Table 2
Evaluation of Errors in.Computing River Lreak-Up
River-station P robability of nonexcess of admissible error, %
us ing empirical with computations using inequalities
correlation (11) (16) (19), (20)
Pripyatt-Mozyr' 89 $5
Berezina-Bobruysk 95 85 93
Don-Belyayevskiy 79
Dnepr-Rechitsa 8$ 8$ .
Oka-Kashira 97 97 90 _
Oka-Murom 8~ 89 ~ $
Severaaya Dvina-Abramkovo 100 93 93
Onega-Porog 86 81 80
Pechora-Ust'-Tsil'ma 89 87 86
Lena-Tabaga 100 97 89
Yenisey-Igarka ~7 92 76
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In conclusion we note that inequality (16) even now is of practical importanceo
For its application for any river it is sufficient to know the mean long-term
times for the disappearance of the snow from the ice, the times of break-up of
rivers, the greatest thickness of the ice and the mean long-term waCer discharge
~ on the day of the break-up. For hydrometric posts in operation for 15-20 years
the determination of these parameters will not be difficult,
BIBLIOGRAFHY
1. Bulatov, S. N., "Possibility of Creating a Universal Method for Computing
the Break-up of Rivers," TRUDY GIDROMETTSENTRA SSSR (Transactions of the USSR
Hydrometeorological Center), No 112, 1972.
2. Piotrovich, V. V., "Appearance, Growth and Disappearance of Ice on the Rivers ~
- of the European USSR," TRUDY TsIP (Transactions of the Central Institute of
- Forecasts), 1948.
3. Piotrovich, V. V., "Formation and Thawing of Ice on Lakes and Reservoirs and
Computation of the Times of Ice Setting-In and Going-Out," TRUDY TsIP, 1958.
4. Shulyakovskiy, L. G., POYAVLENIYE L'DA I NACHALO LEDOSTAVA NA REKAKH, OZERAKH
I VODOKHRANILISHCHAKH (Appearance of Ice and Onset of Ice Formation on Rivers,
Lakes and Reservoirs), Moacow, Gidrometeoizdat, 1960,
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i
UDC 551.326.3:629.1240791 .
HUI~4SOCKING AND THE RESISTANCE OF ICE TO A MOVTNG SHIP
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russi2n No 10, Oct 80 pp 100-104 ~
[Article by Candidate of Geographical Sciences G. N. Sergeyev and Yu. No Khromov, '
Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute, manuscript submitted 18 Eeb 80]
[TextJ Abstract: The article gives a generaliza-
tion of the principles for computing the
mean thicknesses of the ice cover develop-
ed by different authors, with ice hummock-
ing taken into account. It is shown that
they cannot be used in calculating the
ice penetrability of ships due to select-
ivity of the process of fracturing of ice
by a moving ship. A method is given for
computing the equivalent thicknesses of
. ice with hummocking taken into account
which correspond to the resistance of
smooth ice of a similar thickness.
The huumocking of the ice cover, forming under the influence of dynamic processes,
is one of the most important indices of its state. The hwnmocks cause not only an
increase in the nonuniformity of ice thickness, but also a considerable increase
in the mean thickness of the ice cover as a whole.
According to the computations of P. A. Gordiyenko, the thickness of the ice cover
in ice-covered seas, as a result of hu~nocking, increases on the a~verage by 30%
in comparison with the thickness of ice formed in a quiet ice formation process.
In regions of increased hu~nocking this increase can attain 80% or moreo
The ice volume in the hu~ao cks is dependent primarily on the area of the ice cover-
ed by the hummocks and on the magnitude of the parts of the hun~mocks above and be-
low the water which are in an isostatic state. This is indicated by the investiga-
tions of A. V. Bushuyev [2], which have convincingly shown that as a result of the
considerable plasticity of the ice individual sectors of the ice cover are in iso-
static equilibrium during both the summer and winter seasons. However, the mean
extent of the ice sectora in which isostatic equilibrium is manifested is about
30 m.
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_I ~
- Thus, the fundamental assumption of an isostatic state of hu~ocked areas, adopt-
ed by many researchers [1, 3, 6-8] in computations of the volume of ice in any
region, is entirely legitimateo The profiles of the parts of huffinocks above and
_ below the water have been assumed to be either triangular [7] or trapezoidal WSth
different ratios of their bases to the altitude [1, 3], The space factor of huffinock
' forma.tions with ice fragments has usually been assume~ to be 0.7. In old ice, as
-I a r.esult of the freezing of the fragments together, this factor is higher.
; Height and settling (draft) are important morphulogical characteristics of hummock
formations. The height of thP hummock formations on the drifting ice has a great
spatial var3,ability. But in different kinds of computations the authors usually
- employ a mean height of hummocks [1, 5, 7, 8J which in most cases has been assumed
, equal to the thickness of the ice in sectors without huumnocks. However, actual ob-
- servations o~ the parts of hu~?ock formations above and below the water, carried
out during recent years [3, 5], revealed that the mean height of h~unmocks on per-
ennial ice is 2.0-7.5 m, which is considerably less than the thickness of the ice
in smooth sectoxs. On shore ice, excluding regions along the edge with thick ridges
- of hummocked formations, the mean height of the hu~ocks is usually considerably
; less than the thickness of the ice in sectors without hummocks.
Thus, the principle of equality of the mean heights of the hum~ocks to the thick-
ness of the ice i.n sectors without hu~ocks is not always correct.
Actual observations of Soviet and foreign researchers, carried out by different
nethods, indicated that the mean ratio of the settling of the hw~?ocks to their
height above the water is in the range from 4.8 to 5.5 [3]. This ratio persists
for almost the entire range of heights of hummocks in ice of different agea
These investigations maka possible analytical computation of the approximate values
of the mean thi.cknesses of the ice cover, with hummocking taken into account, which
, is extremely important in a study of the ice balance of freezing seas, However,
the characteristics of h~mm~ocked formations and their distribution on different
types of ice require further study.
Data on the mean thickness of the ice cover are of great practical interest in en-
suring the navigation of ships in ice. In this case the humcnocking of ice as an
element increasing its mean thickness is regarded as a factor exerting additional
resistance to a moving ship in the ice. It is necessary to determine whether the
mean thickness of the ice cover, computed with hummocking taken into account, cor-
responds to the resistance of ice of a similar thickness without hu~nocks.
Special in situ observations were carried out for this purposeo The technical ice
speeds of movement of icebreakers of thP "Moskva" type were used as an index of
ice resistance. In this case the icebreaker served as a sort of tool for carrying
out measurements of resistance of the ice cover. By a comparison of the thickness-
es of hummocked (on smoothed sectors between hummocks) and unhummocked ice, corres-
ponding to identical values of the technical ice speed, it was possible to deter-
mine the corrections to the ice thickness necessitated by the different degree of
hummocking of the ice cover. It was found that the corrections for ice thickness
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in the case of identical huimnocking had a nigher value the greater was the to- ~
tal tfiickness of the ice ~seyond the himmmock fo~ationsa The results of the in-
- vesCigations indicated that the resistance of the ice cover with an increase
of hummocking by 1 scale unit on the average increases by as much as it would i~~ -
crease witfi an increase in the thickness of s~ooth ice by 25%o Thus, each scale
unit of fiuamnocking is equivalent to a layer of smooth ice equal to 25% of its
thickness.
The equivalent thickness of the ice, with allawance for hummocking, for computing
the ice passability of ships, can be computed approximately using the formula
H~equiv � Hsmooth~l + 0.25 T), ~1~
where Hequiv is the mean thickness of the ice, with hummocking taken into ac-
count, equivalent in resistance to smooth ice of similar thickness~ H~oth is the
ice thickness on smooth sectors amidst the hu~ocks, T is the hummoclc~ng of ice in
scale units.
It should be noted that the resulting regularity is based on in situ observations
carried out in drifting ice with increased hummaocking (from 2-3 to 5 scale units)o
With lesser huu~ocking values it was impossible to obtain reliable corrections
due to the inadequate accuracy in determining speeds and therefore they were ob-
tained by the graphic interpolation method. The corrections to the ice thickness
in smooth sectors obtained using formula (1) differ considerably from those ob- ~
tained by some authors on the basis of theoretical computationso
Later in situ observations, made using icebreakers with engines having a pawer ~
greater than 30,000 HP, indicated that the decrease in their technical ice speeds
of movement with an increase in hummocking does not occur as uniformly as would be
- indicated by formula (1). An increase in hu~ocking from 0 to 1 scale unit causes -
virtually no decrease in the rate of movement. Htmmmocking of 2 scale units causes ~
an appreciable decrease in speed, which becomes more clearly expressed with a fur-
ther increase in hummocking.
dH,
T = hummocking T=S
= smooth
- 6 J00 P -
~ ~ y~ 4
~ b
' ~ E 2~a
E 3 ~
.~G '
U ~ ~
O o? 1
~ ~ 900 Z
x jC 100 100 J00 400 5~0 600 700 T. ~
Ice thickr.ess, cm TnncuuNaneda,tn p '
900 Z00 300 Np CM
Fig. 1. Nomogram for det ermining the equiv- Fig. 2. Depeudence of correction QHT
alent thickness of hummocked ice. on ice thickness in sm~oth sectors
xsmooth and hummockin~ T in scale unitso
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This can be attributed only to the selectivity of the icebreaker path and the
process of fracturing of the ice by its fiull. When there is wide spacing of the
hummockad formations (infrequent hummocking) it is primarily sectors of even ice
beCween the hummocks which are subject to breaking. The individual hummocks en-
countered along the icebreaker path can be bypassed or the hummoeks force a
sudden deviation of the ship from its course and the icebreaker then breaks thinn-
er, smoother sectors of ice, bypassing the hummockso In the case of greater hum-
mocking (more than 2-3 scale units) the icebreaker is forced to break both smooth
ice sectors and hummocked formations.
With a hummocking of 5 scale units the corrections to the thickness of one-year
and younger ice are approximately 125% of the ice thickness in the unhummocked
sectors, which agrees with the conclusion obtained using tne velocities of move-
ment of icebreakers of the "Moskva" type. For perennial ice with a thickness of -
3.5-4.0 m the corrections for hummocking of 5 scale units could not be determined
from in situ observations. Un.der real conditions such hummocking of perennial ice
is encountered extremely rarely;since it is primarily younger ice which hummocks
up here, its quantity amidst the per.ennial ice is usually smalla Using extrapo-
lation methods, it can be assumed that in the case of hummocking of perennial ice
of 5 scale units the value of the correction to the thickness will not exceed 85-
90% of its thickness in unhummocked sectors. �
Our inves;.lgations made it possible to obtain a nomogram for determining the equiv-
alent thicknesses of the drifting ice, whose resistance to a moving ship corres-
ponds to the resistance of even ice of a similar thickness (Figo 1). A merit of
the nomogram is the possibility of direct determination of the equivalent thickness
of the ice on the basis of data on ice thickness in unhummocked sectors and the
degree of ice hummocking in scale units. The computed equivalent ice thicknesses
can be used in determining the technical ice speeds for the movement of ships.
This is done using ordinary graphs of their correlation with the thicknesses of
, smooth ice, representing the most widelq observed type of dependence for different
types of ships. -
Despite the considerable nonuniformity of spatial distribution of the heights of -
hummo cked Pormations on drifting ice, the cited graphs give entirely satisfactory
~esults whE~n carrying out computations of voyage planning of sea operations on ice
paths. The results of these computations represent the necessary expenditures of
time by the ship for covering segme,nts of the path considerable in length for which
the mean height of the hummocks is a reliable index.
In regions of well-developed shore ice (excluding edge zones with thick ridges of
hummocks) the mean height of the hummocks will usually be the greater the later
the shore ice sets in and in almost all cases is less than the thickness of the
shore ice. After.the shore ice sets in the formation of hu~ocks ceases and the
hummocking which was formed before it had set in persists. Therefore, in computing
the corrections to the thickness of the shore ice for allowing for hummocking (Fig,
2) as the initial thickness of the smooth ice it is necessary to use that at which
the setting-in of the shore ice occurred. The equivalent thickness of the shore
ice is computed using the formula
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2
Hequiv - Hsmooth +dHT' ~ )
where H~ooth is the thickness of the smooth shore ice at the moment of computa-
tion, Q H is the correction to the thickness af the shore ice for humanocking, de- ~
termined ~rom the graph (Figa 2) .
In Fig. 2 the dependence was approximated by tre equation I
z (3)
~ HTi ~smootn'
where J HT, is the correction to the ice thickness for different Y~ummocking values ;
~in scale units).
a,z ~
Q8 Z-.
g~
L
i
~ a Tb scale
~ 2 units
_ Fig. 3. Dependence of the coefficient a(1) and exponent z(2) in formula (4) on
hummocking.
For each hummocking value we determined the values of the coefficient a= f'(T) and
the exponents z= f"(T), represented in the graph (Fig. 3), which were also ap-
proximated and substituted into equation (3). As a result we obtain an analytical
dependence of the correction Q HT on the thickness of the shore ice in smooth sec-
tors and on hummocking ~ HT 7~~ ~ ~ ~ 25 7-
[p = smooth] - 0;1;62) HP~ r~ (4)
where Hsmooth is the thickness ~f the shore ice in smooth sectors at the time of
its setting-in, in m.
Formula (4) gives entirely reliable results of computations with thicknesses of
smooth ice HSmooth up to 3 m and humanocking more than 1 scale unit. With an ice
thickness greater than 4 m the errors in the computations can attain ZO-30 cmo
They must be taken into account by the ir~troduction of a constant correction. This
formula can also be used in computing corrections to the thicknesses of drifting
ice of different age, but then Hsmooth should represent the ice thickness in smooth
sectors at any moment in time of interest.
This investigation makes it possib le to exclude from the computations the most
cotranon and important of the characteristics of state of sea ice hummocking, re-
placing it by a correction to the thickness of smooth ice equal to the resistance
to a moving ship. This circumstance made possible a fivefold decrease in the num-
ber of graphs characterizing the ice passability of a ship and increases consider-
ably the volume of in situ observations necessary for obtaining the statistical
relationships of the technical ice speeds of a ship and ice thickness,
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The mean ice thicknesses computed by different methods, set forth in [1, in
most cases do not correspond to the resistance of smooth ice of a similar thick-
ness.
In order Co compare the resistance of smooth and hummocked ice it is f irst neces-
sary to com~ute the equivalent thickness of the latter. This thickness can be de-
termin.ed either graphically (see Fig. 1) or analytically using formula (2) and the
_ correction for htunmocking can be determined either from a graph (see Fig. 2) or
_ using formula (4).
The method for computing the equivalent thickness of ice can be used for both the
- cold 3nd warm seasons of the year if the ice destruction does not exceed 3 scale
units. I t must be remembered that the data used in developing the method were ob-
tained for shore and drif ting ice with a continuity of 9-10 and 10 scale units.
; There is basis for assuming that in thinner ice areas this pattern does not hold
true because selectivity of the path and the fracturing of the ice by the ice-
breaker should increase with a decrease in the continuity of the ice cover.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Buzuyev, A. Ya., Shesterikov, N. P., "Dependence of the Mean Thickness of
Sho re Ice on Hummocking," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI (Problems of the Arc-
tic and Antarctica), No 32, 1969.
2. Bushuyev, A. V., Volkov, N. A., Gudkovich, Z. M., Loshchilov, V, S,, "Results
of E~editionary Investigations of the Drift and Dynamics of the Ice Cover
_ of the Arctic Basin in the Spring of 1961," TRUDY AANII (Transactions of the
Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute), Vol 257, 1967,
3. Gavrilo, V. P., Grishchenko, V. D., Loshchilov, V. S., "On the Problem of
~ Field Investigations of the Morphology of Hu~nocks on Arctic Ice and Possibil-
ities of Mo deling of the Hummocking Process," TRUDY AANII, Vol 316, 1974a
4. Gordiyenko, P. A., Buzuyev, A. Ya., Sergeyev, G. N., "Study of the Ice Cover
of Seas as a Navigation Medium," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI I ANTARKTIKI, I1o 27, 1967.
5. Grishchenko, V. D., "Statistical Characteristics of Some Parameters of the
Upper and Lower Surfaces of Drifting Ice," 'TRUDY AANII, Vol 320, 1976.
6. Gudkovich, Z. M., Romanov, M. A., "Method for Computing the Distribution of
Ice Thiclcness in Arctic Seas in the Winter," TRUDY AANII, Vol 292, 1970,
7. Zubov, N. N., L'DY ARKTIKI (Arctic Ice), Moscow, Izd-vo Glavsevmorputi, 1945~.
- 8. Kiri llov, A. A., "Allowance for Hu~ocking in Determining Ice Volume," PROBLEMY
- ARKTIKI (Problems of the Arctic), No 2, Leningrad, Morskoy Transport, 1957.
9. Klimovich, V. M., "Characteristics of Hummocks on Shore Ice," METEOROLOGIYA I
GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No 5, 1972.
10. Somov, M. M., "On the Mean Thickness of Ice in Marginal Seas," PROBLEMY ARKTIKI,
~ No 6, 1939.
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UDC 551o57uo2
OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE QUANTITY OF CLOUDS
� Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 105-107
[Article by T. P. Kupyanskaya and I. A. Alekseyeva-Obukhova, USSR Hydrometeorolog-
ical Scientific Research Center, manuscript submitted 22 Feb 80]
[Text] Ahstract: A numerical scheme for the objec- -
tive analysis of total cloud cover, reduced
' to Che lower level by the bilinear interpola- �
tion method, is proposed for a territory well
covered by meteorological data. The data for
surface observations of clouds for individual
~ days in April-July 1979 are interpolated at
the points of intersection of a regular grid
of 15 x 16 points of intersection with an in-
terval of 150 lan. An evaluation of the results
of the analysis is presented. It shows that _
the proposed objective analysis scheme will
~ make it possible to obtain cloud cover data
with an accuracy admissible for practical pur-
poses.
One of the advantages of the synoptic weather forecasting method is the use, in
its application, of all types of synoptic and aerological information, which makes
possible the most complete analysis of the physical characteristics of current
atmospheric processes and forecasting directions of their further development.
In the meteorolo gical information contained in synoptic telegrams the data on vis-
ual observations of the forms of cloud cover and its extent are of great impor-
tance. These data are extensively used in the analysis of atmospheric fronts on
weather maps. They are also indispensable in the prediction of cloud cover. In the
studies of B. D. Uspenskiy [1, 2] it is validly noted that the introduction of ob-
servational data on the cloud cover as one of the initial meteorological fields in
a numerical synoptic-hydrodynamic forecasting scheme is one of the real possibilit-
ies for increasing the accuracy in predicting temperature, humidity, precipitation
and other meteorological elements.
The great volume of information on cloud cover, consisting of both the results of
visual observations and of photogra~hs of cloud systems obtained from meteorolog-
ical satellites, indicates the complexity of the problem of including observations
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of clouds among the initial meteorological fields. For this reason it is obvious
that there should be progressive solution of the mentioned problem. The results
of visual observations of total and low cloud cover are most accessible for use;
such information is available in synoptic telegrams. It is important that the in~
formation on cloud cover contained in the telegrams caii be processed on electronic
computers.
- The method for the representation of cloud observation data in a form employable
in subsequent computations can be different, but the experience of development of _
a numerical synoptic-hydrodynamic forecast of atmospheric precipitation based on
initial information more complete in coACparison with other forecasting schemes
shows that the most acceptable is a conversion from observ3tional data on total
and lower cloud cover at meteerological stations to the cloud quantity values at
the points of intersection of a zegular grid, that is, a changeover of this type
of observations as we11 to objective analysis on an electronic computer.
In this article we will examine: one of the possible schemes for the objective an-
alysis of cloud cover over the i:uropean USSR and will give an evaluation of its
accuracy.
Bilinear interpolation is the basis of the scheme for the objective analysis of
data on the total quantity of clouds, expressed in tenths of lower cloud cover.
Taking into account the complex structure of the cloud cover field, which is char-
acterized by the presence of jumplike changes from a cloud cover to a clear sky or
_ changes in the opposite direction, the radius of the region of inte~polation of
data on the quantity of cZouds was limited to 150 km. In addition, some assumptions
were made in the objective analysis scheme. Observations on the quantity of clouds _
at points not more than 30 km from the points of intersection of a regular grid
_ were assigned directly to these points of intersection. In these same cases when -
two observation points were situated on a straight line passing through a point
of intersection of a regular grid the quantity of clouds at this grid point of in-
tersection was determined by linear interpolation of data at the men~ioned two
points. In the remaining cases in determining the quantity of clouds at the points
of intersection of a regular grid we used bilinear interpolation of data at three
observation points situated in a territory with a radius of 150 km with the center
at the corresponding grid point of intersection.
As already noted, the objective analysis scheme provided for the collection of data
on total cloud cover, reduced to the lower level. The N value, on the basis of data
available in synoptic telegrams, was determined using the formulas
- N= Nlower + 0. 7 N~ddle Oo 2 Nu Per, (1)
_ N = Nlower + 0.5 ~Ntotal - Nlower~~
where N is the total quantity of clouds, expressed in tenths of lower cloud cover;
Nlower~ Nmiddle and Nupper are the quantities of clouds of the lower, middle and
upper levels in tenths; Ntotal is the total quantity of clouds in tenthso ~
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Table 1
Percentage of Coincidence of Analysis of Total Cloud Cover (N) and its Actual
Quantity ~Nact~ With Error b N
No. Compared parameters N in tenths
0-1 0-2 0-3 nl n2 ,
1 N and NaGt at observation points 53 63 73 4 67
not more than 30 km from grid
points of intersection
2 N and Nact read from isolines on 59 72 80 4 192
maps of total cloud cover
3 N according to data at two points 46 71 84 4 61
between which an observation point
was situated
\
4 N according to data at two points 64 77 89 4 61
between which a point with data -
on Nact for a region with R= 150
km was situated
5 PI and Nact, found for points of 63 78 88 24 1152 -
_ grid intersection by averaging of
quantity of clouds for regions
with R = 150 km ~
6 N according to objective analysis 57 86 97 2 82
data at 5 points and Nact for re-
gions with R= 150 km
In ob.jective analysis the data on N were interpolated at the points of intersec-
_ tion of a regular grid. This grid for the European USSR with an interval 150 km
had 15 x 16 points of interse~Cion. For individual days in April, May, June and _
July 1979 there were 24 objective analyses of reduced cloud cover N on the basis
of observations at 0300 hours Moscow time. We wi11 examine the data in the table
giving some idea concerning the quality of this analysis.
The data in the table on comparison of the results of ob3ective analysis of the
total quantity of clouds and the actual cloud cover indicate the following rela-
tionships between the compared parameters:
1. With errors from 2/10 to 3/10 the total quantity of clouds obtained using ob~ec-
tive analysis in 63-73% of the cases coincides with cloud cover directly at the
observation point.
Note. In the table nl is the number of ob~ective analyses, n2 is the number of
points taken for comparison of N and Nact�
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The relatively low percentage of coincidence between the comparable parameters
ie partially attributable to the fact that the interpolation method used leads
to some averaging of data on the quantity of cloudso The percentage of coincidence
_ between the compara~le parameters, according to the data in th.e second line, is
increased to 73-80% if the data on the actual cloud cover at the points of inter-
section of the regular grid are read from the isolines on the map of lower-level
cloud cover, when drawing which there is inevitably a smoothing of individual
- peculiarities in the distribution of cloud cover.
2. According to the data in lines 4 and 5 in the table, the possibility of a coin-
cidence of the results of objective analysis of cloud cover N and the actual quan-
tities of clouds at the points of intersection of a regular ~rid is increased to
77-88% if the latter are found by means of averaging of the results of observa-
tions given on weather maps. The Na t values, indicated in lines 4-5 in the tahle,
represent the mean N values compute~d using data from meteorological stations (from
2 to 5) in a territory with a radius of 150 km and its center at the corresponding
point of intersection of a regular grid.
3. According to the data in line 6 in the table, the possibility of a coincidence
between Nact and the results of ob~ective analysis increases to 86-97% if as the
latter we take the mean values on the basis of data at five points of intersection
of a regular grid at a centra]_ and at the four nearest-lying points of intersec-
tion situated 150 km from the central point of intersection.
It follows from what has been set forth above that the considered numerical scheme
for objective analysis makes it possible, with an gccuracy admissible for prac-
tical purposes, to obtain data on the quantity of clouds averaged for the terri-
tory with a radius of 150 km. Accordingly, it is desirable that further investiga-
tions be made for the purpose of expansion of the region of objective analysis of
cloud cover with the inclusion of regions with a thin network of ineteorological
; observations, including the seas surrounding Europe.
The authors express appreciation to D. Ye. Bakatina, who participated in the pro-
cessing of the materials cited in the article.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Uspenskiy, B. D., "Quantitative Prediction of Continuous and Shower Precipita-
tion," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No 1, 1970.
2. Uspenskiy, B. D., "Status and Prospects of Synoptic Short-Range Weather Fore-
casting," METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA, No 10, 19720
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;
UDC 5560535.5 '
DETERMINATION OF ICE VISCOSITY UNDER NATURAL CONDITI~NS
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 107-109 ~
[Article by I. Ye. Kozitskiy, State Hydrological Institute, manuscript submitted ~
13 Aug 79]
[Text] Abstract: Using the Maxwell model the auth-
or has derived a simple computation expres-
sion making it possible to computP the coef- ~
ficient of ice viscosity on the basis of the -
results of ineasuremeats of a beam embedded .
in the ice cover and loaded on the free end.
In practical ice engineering problems are encountered which cannot be solved sat-
isfactorily due to the absence of validated values of a series of physicomecha.n-
ical characteristics of the ice cover responsible for its behavior under a load,
One of these characteristics is the ice viscosity coefficient. As is well known,
this coefficient is not a physical constant of ice, has a conditioaal character
and is dependent on the state of the ice and the forces acting upon ito If these
are taken into account, the uncertainty is not thereby removed because the value
of the viscosity coefficient is dependent to a considerable degree on the method ,
used in its determination.
For example, if the data available in the literature on the value of the ice vis-
_ cosity coefficient are grouped in accordance with the type of inethod by means of
which they were obtained it can be noted that the values closest to one another
are observed within groups and the mean values for the groups manifest a tendency
to a 3ecrease, similar to that which we observe in a number of inean va.lues of the
ice plasticity limit obtained using the same set of inethods (compression-flexure-
- dilatation-shearing) in a comparable temperature range.
The fact that the viscosity coefficient, obtained, for example, in the torsion of
cylinders [2], is an order of magnitude less than the coefficient obtained in the
flExure of beams [1], is easily attributable to the anisotropy of the properties
of the internal friction of crystals.
During the torsion of ice cylinders elementary displacements in the crystals trans-
~ pire along the basal plane perpendicular to the main crystallographic axis (sixth- ~ ,
, order symmetry axis). This is caused by the horizontal direction of action of the
external forces, on the one hand, and the horizontal oxientation of the basaZ
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plane during the natural growth of ice, on the other hand, In the flexure of
beams the elementary deformations are caused by the action of norma.l compressive
and dilatational stresses, In this case the glide and shear planes are oriented
at an angle of about 45� to the horizontal.
' As is well known, the flowability of ice crystals is essentially dependent on the
direction of tl~e shears and the glide plane. In particular, gliding occurs most
easily along the basal plane of a particular type of crystals. It follows from
this brief examination that in the solution of a specific ice engineering prob- _
lem, requiring knowledge of the ice viscosity coefficient, the latter must be de-
termined by a method ensuring comparability of the direction of action of the exte~
nal forces and the direction of the basal planes of the crystals both in the sample
to be tested and in an ice element in nature. Since the closest approach to the
actual properties is attained in tests carried out under na.tural conditions and
with large samples, such as so-called "keys," it is desirable to examine the pos-
sibility of usinR the beam flexure method for determining the viscosity coefficient.
~ The coeffzcient obtained by the beam flexure method can be used in solving a broad
class of Z~roblems in which the ice cover experiences flexure. In this case the com-
puted dep~ndences must be derived from definite physical concepts concerning ice
as a material.
- The ice iriscosity coefficient is usually computed on the basis of ineasurements of
the rate of deformation, making the assumption of presence of a linear dependence
between the magnitude of the stresses and the rate of deformation. However, linear-
ly a viscous medium is an extremely approximate model for ice. In such a medium
deformations arise only with time, whereas at the time of load application the ice
immediately experiences some "instantaneous" deformations. The simplest model of a
hypothetical medium which can be used is the Maxwell model.
A corresponding rheological equation is derived taking into account that the total
deformation � is the sum of the elastic and residual deformations of a
viscous character:
-
.
(1)
If with simple dilatation ~/E and E"= a'/3 where E is the elasticity
modulus and � is the viscosity coefficient, from (1) we obtain ~
~ Q =E~. ~2)
T
Here T= 3 �/E is a constant, the so-called relaxation time, E is all ("instant-
aneous" elastic + viscous) the relative deformation in the case of a linear
stressed state, p- and g are the time derivatives of stress and straino
We will demonstrate how the Maxwell model can be used for the above-mentioned pur-
pose.
We will assume that the deformations of beam f lexure conform to the law of plane
sections (see Fig. 1).
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s = y = z Y.
a
(3)
where x is the curvature of the neutral layer, y is the distance from the neutral
layer to the considered longitudinal fiber.
1
z
P
x I ,
~,noR Ufx) '
l ~
. y~
Fig. l. Diagram used in deriving computed dependence.
From (2) and (3) we have ~
. ,
~ ~ - r: , ~4~
7
where x= dx/dt. Multiplying the left- and right-hand sides by 1�y�dy and integrat- '
ing in the limits from y=-H/2 to y= H/2, we obtain
n/ ~ . ,
~ ~~ey _ ~r,,~- ~I. (5)
~ � ~ �
_ 1, � ~
where MZ is the bending moment not dependent on time, IZ = laH3/12 is the moment I
of inertia of the section relative to Lhe neutral axis z.
.
Integrating the left- and right-hand sides for t, we obtain I
h1Z,- `~~'r --r:~,y, ~6)
or, bearing in mind that x= d2v/dx2, '
F.lt = M: (1 . ~ (7)
d x' ~ ;
Here v is the bending of the beam in the direction of the y-axis. Assuming MZ = Px,
we find, after integration for x and determination of the constants, the bending
in any section
Pr~ z/X.l(~- ~ l ,
t'Gr, r) J 3 El l~ f` ~ 1
~8)
(for the end of the beam O[= 1). :
If the bending is now measured at one and the same point for two different moments
in time tl and t2 and the ratio
~ 126
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j
v~x , k
, _
"~�r~~~ (we assume k< 1) (9)
is computed r~ith the constant force P, from (8) we obtain
T _ kr~ - .
~ - k (10)
Assuming E to be known, we determine the viscosity coefficient
~ - 3 ET. , (11)
We note the following in conclusion. It is known that in natural tests it will be
difficult to adhere to various methodological requirements, such as the station- ~
arity of temperature conditions. In the considered test method, in a case when
the air temperature changes during the time t2 - t1, the temperature bending dvt _
must be subtracted from v~ p~ t2). It is convenient to determine this bending
~ with P= 0 using a"contro~ key block sawed from the ice together with the main
sample.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Kozitskiy, I. Ye., "Flexure of an Ice Beam and Ice Viscosity," TRUDY GGI
(Transactians of the State Hydrological Institute), No 192, 1972.
, 2. Kozitskiy, I. Ye., Ponomarenko, 0. F,, "Experimental Investigations of the
Viscosity of Natural Ice," TRUDY GGI, No 159, 1968.
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~
- UDC 5510501
STORING DATA FROM REGULARLY SCHEDULED RADIOSONDE OBSERVATIONS AND THEIR
COMPUTERIZED PROCESSING ~
Moscow METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 110-114 ~
. [Article by Candidate of Physicagtitut aofeH drometeorological Information eva,
All-Union Scientific Research In y
World Data Center, manuscript submitted 15 Apr 80]
[Text] Abstract: The article gives ~oncise informa- _
~ tion on the archives of data from regularly
scheduled radiosonde observations on differ-
ent technical carriers. The author examines
the basic principles for the creation of ;
files of radiosonde observation data on mag-
uetic tapes in the format of the YeS electron- ~
ic computer and also problems relating to the
climatological processing of aerological in- _
formation.
The continuously increasing volumes of information on the atmosphere can be ef-
fectively processed only by making use of the possibilities of modern technical
carriers and high-speed electron.ic con.~uters.
The principal probiems involved in creating and processing archival meteorological
data on an electronic computer were examined in j3]; methods were Proposed for
describing the masses of ineteorological data on technical carriers; possi.ble
future lines of development were discussed.
.
This article deals with the problems involved in the collectiou and climatolog- _
ical processing of data from scheduled radiosonde observations in the free atmo-
sphere. '
Concise summary of information on the archives of aerological information on tech- ;
nical carriers. Prior to July 1978 all the historical informa.tion on the atmo-
sphere intended for the purposes of climatological processing was put on punch
cards. At the present time the punched cards with aerological data for the sta-
tions of tfie USSR contain the results of standard radiosonde observations for
_ the years 1936-1938. It is true that the number of stations with such a series
of observations is relatively small and half of these obs~rvational series were
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interrupted during the period of the Great Fatherland War. For the majority of
stations the continuous series, of observations begins with the post-war years.
The total volume of the punched card files for the stations of the USSR for the
period of observations up to 1975 is approximately 7.0�10~ punched cards. [In
~ Ju1y 1978 an automated system for the collection, checking, processing and reg-
; istry of aerological data on a technical carrier after receipt from communica-
~ tion channels, developed at the Central Asiatic Regional Computation Center of
tfie Central Asiatic Scientific Research Institute, was put into aperation. In
this system provision is made for the storage on magnetic tape of aerological
~ information arrivin throu h the com~unication channels. This
8 g precludes the
necessity for first plotting the sounding data on punch cards.]
The punched card file contains observational data for foreign stations for the
northern hemisphere since I950 and for the southern hemisphere since 1960, a
total of about 570 stations, primarily with two sounding t~mes per day. The
total volume of the file of punched cards for foreign stations up to 1975 is ap-
proximately 3.0�10~ punched cards.
In creating the file of punched cards for Soviet stations use was made of the
tables of standard radiosonde observations at the aerological stations of the
USSR: TAE-16M (up to 1971 and for a number of statians up to 1972) and TAE-16A
(from 1971-1972 to July 1978); the card file for foreign stations was.created
using using decoded data in telegrams on vertical sounding of the atmosphere re-
ceived in the operational communication channels at the USSR Hydrometeorological
Center. Naturally, the file of punched cards for foreign stations is consider-
ably inferior with respect to completeness and the quality of data in comparison
with the file of punched cards for Soviet stations, especially during the earlier
' years.
In the early 1970's efforts were undertaken to transfer historical xaz*..eorolog-
ical information from punched cards to a binary microf ilm (BMF). In pa?-ticular,
a binary microfilm was used in storing the punched card data on standard radio-
sonde obser~ations for the aerological stations of the USSR with data at isobar-
ic surfaces [6], at the ground surface, in the boundary layer for the 10-year
period 1961-1970. The use of a binary microfilm as a technical carrier when work-
ing with an electronic computer made it possible for the handbooks to include
new characteristics which had not been published earlier in Soviet reference
publications on climate of the atmosphere. However, the storing of aerological
data on a binary microfilm did not come into wider use due to the lack of ef-
fective technical and mathematical support.
In connection with the introduction of the YeS (Unified System) as the basic com-
puter for the processing of archival hydrometeorological information specialists
at the A11-Union Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information-
World Data Center have been carrying out work on the transfer of historical in-
- formation onto ma.gnetic tapes for the YeS computer.
This work is carried out within the framework of the general program for creat-
ing a system for the information servicing of users on the basis of an automated
:iydrometeorological data hank (HI~IDB). The uniformity of the information base
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' necessary for the HIKDB is achieved by the introduction of standard methods for ~
the o rganization and description of the structure o~ masses ofc data using a
data description language (DDL) specially developed at the All-Union Scientific
Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Informa.tion [1] and also the use of ;
standard technical carriers magnetic tapes (MT) for the YeS electronic computero ~
i
Table 1
- Mo dels of Punched Card F~les for Regularly Scheduled Radiosonde Observations,
Archives of Aerological Data on Technical Carriers (Station Data) ,
Model No. Content of model Number of stations*
BI~ MT MT Name of a~
Minsk-32 YeS chives on MT
of YeS comput-
er
Soviet stations
I Surface data from ,
radiosonde observ- ,
ations 140 90 AEROZEM
II Data in boundary
layer 150 _
III Data at special
points 90 . AEROSOVOS ;
IV Data at isobaric
surfaces 150 140 140 AERIZA
V Data in tropopause 90 AEROSTA
Foreign stations
I Surface data and data
in tropopause 60 AEROZINT
III Data at special poin~s
IV Data at isobaric sur-
faces 150 AEROZARI
*
The number of stations is approximate.
As the first step in creating masses of aerological data the data from regularly -
scheduled radiosonde observations for the 10-year period from 1961 through 1970
selected as the most uniform f rom the point of view of sounding methoc~s, measure-
ment and processing accuracy, are being plotted in the DDL formats on magnetic
tapes for the YeS.
At the present time masses of data have been created on magnetic tapes for the
YeS computer for the isobaric surfaces, tropopause and levels of special points,
as we11 aa a mass of surface data for radiosonde observations for a selected _
_ network of Soviet and foreign stations during the period 1961-1970 (see Table 1)
with a total volume of about 1.6�10~ punched cards (12.0�108 bytes).
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~
i
' The masses of aerological data registered on the magnetic tapes for the YeS com-
puter have already been used effectively in caxrying out a series of studies
to meet the needs of scientific research institutes and agencies servicing the
~ national economy.
jdork on the creation of masses of aerological data on ma.gnetic tapes for the YeS
computer ix~ the DDL formats ("Aerologiya" data bank) will be continued in the
future. jArchival data can be obtained by special request to the Hydrometeorolog- -
, ical Center (HIrIDC) of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeor-
ological Information (VNIIGMI-MTsD)o Information on data available on different
i technical carriers is given in the catalogues of the HIrIDCo]
Features of organization of masses of aerological data on magnetic tapes for the
YeS computer. It has developed historically that the accumulation of punched
' card files with aerological information for both Soviet and foreign stations has
been with several models, each of which describes one such object as the boundary
layer, isobaric surfaces, special points, tropopause, level of the maximum wind
(see Table 1). Within the models the acctmmulation of a punched card file was
' carried out station-by-station and tn chronological order. At first glance the
separation of data from radiosonde obserwations into individual models may seem
artificial, but it was valid for the clima.tological processing of data, since
, the method for carrying out this processing differs substantially for different
; models (for example, for isobaric surfaces, special points, tropopause, etc.).
In accordance with the developing peculiarities of collection and storage on
punched cards, during the past years masses of archival aerological data on
' YeS magnetic tapes are being combined for individual models, within the model
for individual stations, and within the station are arranged in a chronological
. � sequence.
~ The masses of data, having an organization natural with respect to the collection
and storage system, are called "base" data, and such an organization, according
to [5], is optimum from the point of view of reliability of storage and mainten-
ance of the stored mass of data.
The base mass of aerological information is a family of files, each of which con-
tains information of the same type (that is, the information in one model of an
aerological file of punched cards) for one station for a selected period of
~ years. These have an identical internal structure but differ from one another with
respect to spatial characteristics (station index). This family of files is in-
corporated on a large number of magnetic tapes and on one magnetic tape there can
' be data for several (their number is dependent on the type of archives) stationso
In accordance with the requirements on the organization of hydrometeorological
data on magnetic tapes for the YeS electronic computer developed at the All-Union
Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeorological Information-World Data Cen-
ter, each file of data on magnetic tapes is accompanied in such cases by a de-
scription file which in data description language conta~tns documented information
on the name of the specific file and the name of the entire mass af data: on the
~ name of the country and institute where the data mass was created; the code in
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- the information is stored on the magnetic tapes; the structure of the data file,
its constant indices, such as the name of the station, observation period, stan- ~
dard sounding times, etc.
A radiosonde ascent, constituting a logical unit of radiosonde observations, has ,
been adopted as the structural unit of the data file (record). Each record is
identified by a series of indices which give information on the temporal and spa-
tial cha.racteristics of a specific ascent: year, month, time of ascent (GMT) or
the number of the ascent on the day, as we11 as the station indexa The indices
in the masses of aerologicai data constitute groups containing information on
the totality of ineteorological elements at different levels of radiosonde ascent,
to iait: geopotential (pressure), air temperature, wind direction and velocity and
on one of the characteristics of humidity (either on the dew point spread or on
relative humidity). The values of each meteorological element within the group
are supplied with a quality characteristic. The group is identified by a key ele-
ment determining either pressure or altitude of the corresponding levelo For ex-
ample, for archives with data on the isobaric surfaces the key elements are the
pressure values at the standard isobaric surfaces 1000, 850, 700, 500, 400, 300,
250, 150, 100, 70, 50, 30, 20, 10 mb; for archives with data on the tropopause
the altitudes of the upper and lower boundaries of the tropopause, etco
Thus, if the mass of aerological data is considered as some multdimensional mass
of data, the indices identifying the physical parameters of the set of data can~
be arranged in accordance with the indices of the elements in the multidimensional
mass of data.
Assume that X is any physical parameter from the archives of aerolo~ical datao Ac-
cordingly, the following indices should be supplied: number of the archives N(de-
termines the object, model); observation station S, year G; month M; day D; time
when observations are made T; altitude I a.t which the measurement is made, and
finally, the name of the measured physical parameter V. In this case the totality
of aerological data is an eight-dimensional mass
XNSGI~IDTIV� ~1)
In (1) the sequence of indices corresponcts to the already described base mass of
aerological data.
Within the framework of a definite model and one station the set of data From the
base mass can be regarded as si~r-dimensional
XGNIDTIV � ~ 2 )
When it is necessary to have data with a structure differen~t from the base mass
the base masses can be transformed. The transformation procedure is carried out
considerably more effectively on magnetic tapes than on punched cardso Accordin~-
ly, there is a change in the sequence of the indiceso For example, the mass of
data adequate in its structure to the ascent of a radiosonde, that is, the mass
containing combined data for a11 models, arranged by altitude, wi11 have the fol-
lowing sequence of the indices:
XSGMDTNIV� ~3)
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~ The ordering of data in a chronological sequence, which is observed in (1)-(3),
is convenient for station-by-station statistical analyses and climatological
generalizations. For other types of problems it may be necessary to have other
variants of arrangement of masses of data. For example, for an investigation in
the field of physical-statistical forecasting methods it is necessary ro arrange the _
information in the sequence GrIDTSIV, characterizing archives of the synoptic type.
In this case the base masses of data must be rearranged. The desirability of stor-
age of the rearranged mass of data is determined on the basis of the cost for ob-
taining it, the cost of storage and the probability of reconsulting this duplicat-
~ ing mass of data.
~ As an example of a base mass of data the figure shcws the structure of the registry
of a file of archival data on isobaric surfaces for USSR stations on magnetic tape
for a YeS electronic computer.
Station Isobari indexed
Year Month Day Time
~ index ~ surface character=
~
istics
~ l_ Observa
AWOZZ VYSIZO G TEMVOZY~ DEFTRO Q~TNAP VETSKO tion
~ ~ group
~ ; 1000 mb
~ Observa-
~ t ion
- i group
10 mb
AWOZZ IVYSIZOZ Q EMVOZZ ~ DEFTRO Q VETNAPR TSKO
~ I
Fig. 1. Structure of registry of archives of data for isobaric surfaces for USSR
stations on magnetic tape for YeS computer (name of archives AERIZA)o
The name of the archives is AERIZA. The file of data contains a chronologically
a rranged series of records with the name NA~LSROK of a variable length. Each such
NABLSROK record consists of five index characteristics representing the key ele-
ments of the record with the names STANTSIYA, GOD, MESYATS, DEN~, VREMYA (Station,
~ Year, Month, Day, Time), as well as the auxiliary element SCHETPOV (Isobaric Sur-
faces), containing information on the number of isobaric surfaces in a specific
ascent, and the corresponding number of groups with the name NABLPOV (Observed Sur-
faces). (NABLSROK = Observation Time)
The NABLPOV group represents the totality of data at one standard isobaric surface
and contains a key element with the name DA'WOZZ, and also the five principal ele-
~ ments with the names VYSIZOZ (geopotential height), TEMVOZZ (air temperature),
DEFTROZ (dew point spread), VETNAPRZ (wind direction), VETSKORZ (wind velocity) and
the quality index (Q) accompanying each principal element. The NA.BLPOV groups and
indices are arranged in the sequence of a decrease in the values of the key
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element DAWOZ. More detailed information can be found in the description of the
specific archives stored at Che HIrIDC at the VNIIGMI MTsD.
Fundamental Frinciples for control of the base archives of aerological informati3on.
A mandatory proeedure in creating masses of data for prolonged storage and the
carrying out of climatological processing is the checking of the information reg-
istered on the magnetic tape. In the event of discovery of an inconsistency when
checking the indexed characteristics the observation is not included in the ar-
chives ~at all. As a result of checking the significant information a quality char-
acteristic is assigned which has one of the following values: 0-- correct val-
ue, 1-- restored value, 2-- doubtful value, 3-- re3ected value.
The primary checking of the quality of the information is carried out in the stage
of creation of the base masses of data. The primary checking must be carried out
with sufficiently tested methods free of subjective prejudices of the researcher
and must also be adequately economical with respect to the time required to carry
out this procedure. As a result of the checking in the creation stage there must -
be confidence in the data which are registered on the long-term carrier.
The correction of the rejected values in the base archives is considered possible
if the original data from the radiosonde observations are available (for example,
the TAE-3 tables sent from the station, etc.). In the absence of this type of
data the correction of the rejected values in the base mass of historical data and
the restoration of the missing data must be considered inadmissibleo
Such an approach to checking work in the stage of creation of base masses of data
is dictated by the imperfection of eacisting checking methods, different require-
ments on the accuracy of checking on the part of users, etco
In the stage of data processing, for example, when carrying out statistical comput-
ations, more rigorous checking must be exercised. Depending on the requirements of _
the user on the quality of information and the availability of computer time the
researcher can select a c~ecking method acceptable to him, carry out the correc-
tion of rejected data and resto re the missing data, taking into account that the
checking and subsequent processing of the data are carried out from magnetic tapes
representing copies of base masses of data. During the checking in the processing
stage, in addition to the errors inherent in the data, there will also be excl~ision
of the errors arising in the storage of the data, associated, for example, with the
ageing of the carrier, etc.
With the creation of masses of histori~al information from punched cards on mag-
netic tapes for the YeS computer it is possible to employ quite simple checking ~
methods, such as checking for the limiting values of change of ineteorological ele-
ments,since it is known that the file of punched cards of aerological data was cre-
ated using data which have undergone critical checking at the stations or in data
preparation groups and the errors present in the files of punched cards are usual-
ly associated with the preparation and use of the files of punched cards and fall
in the category of knowingly rej ected data. _
In the future, in the processing of data already accumulated on magnetic tapes, it
is desirable to use more rigorous methods of checking data, for example, multisided
checking [2], etc.
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Summary. The increasing volumes of data on magnetic tapes and the use of third-
generation electronic computers are substantially broadening the possibilities
of climatological processing of aerological information. Although this kind of
, processing can be carried out using existing packets af programs and well-de�velop-
ed data control.units incorporated in the operational system of the YeS computer,
the great ~liversity of structure of files of ineteorological data on the magnetic
tapes and the considerable volumes of this information make it desirable to cre-
ate special processing systems. In this work it is necessary to take into account
the peculiarities of ineteorological information, such as the possible nonuni-
formity of the series of abservations, the presence of gaps in data in the ab-
servation series, the diurnal and annual variatiun of ineteorologi~al elements
[2, 4)�
In the method for the climatological processing of aerological data, from which
most of the aeroclimatology handbooks in the USSR are prepared, not all the
peculiarities of this information are taken into account, for example, no a11ow-
ance is made for the gaps in data in series of observations, the possible pres-
- ence of a diurnal variation at the upper leve].s, etc. Accordingly, at the present
time there is a need for improving the method for the climatological processing
_ of aerological information, all the more so because the braad application of the
method to the investigation of modern climate an3 the study of the dynamics of
processes exerting an influence on its formation at a global scale rec~uires a
more correct evaluation o� aeroclimatic statistics. -
BIBLIOGRAPH'I
lo Veselov, Va Mo, "Langua.ge for Describing Hydrometeorological Data," TRUDY
VNIIGMI-MTsD (Transactions of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Hydrometeorological Information-World Data Center), No 43, 1978,
2. Gandin, L. S., Kagan, R. L., STATISTICHESKIYE METODY INTERPRETATSII METEORO-
LOGICHESKIKH DANNYKH (Statistical Methods for the Interpretation of Meteoro- ~
logical Data), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1976.
, -
3. Gruza, G. V., Kachurina, L. R., Reytenb akh, R. G., "Possibilities of the Pro-
_ cessing of Archival Meteorological Data on an Electronic Computer," METEOR-
OLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA (Meteorology and Hydrology), No 6, 1978a
~ 4. Kobysheva, N. V., Narovlyanskiy, G. Ya., KLIMATOLOGICHESKAYA OBRABOTKA METEOR-
OLOGICHESKOY INFORMATSII (Climatological Proressing of Meteorological Informa-
tion), Leningrad, Gidrometeoiz~at, 1978.
- S. Reytenbakh, R. G., "Prob.lems in Organizing the St~rage of Archival Hydrometeor-
ological Data on Succes~ive Access Carriers,'' TRUDY VNIIGMI-MTsD, No 43, 1978.
6. Khvostova, R. N., Kaznacheyeva, V. D., "Organization of an Informative Ma.ss of -
= Aerologi.cal Data for Isobaric Surfaces on a Photocarrier (Aerological Micro-
film)," TRUDY VNIIGMI-MTsD, No 1, 19740
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~
~
i
, ~
UDC 5510460073-52(215-13)
DEPLOYME'NT OF FGGE DRIFTING BUOYS IN SOUTI~IiN HEMISPHERE
Moscow METEO~tOLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA in Russian No 10, Oct 80 pp 114-119 '
[Article by Candidate of Geographical Sciencea E. I. Sarukhanyan and Yuo B. Veden- ~
skiy, Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute, manuscript submitted ~
13 Feb 80]
[Text] Abstract: The article examines the course
- of implementation of the FGGE special ob-
servation program for the deployment of
drifting buoys in the zone from 20 to 65�S ,
during the period from December 1978 through
June 1979 and the participation of USSR
ships in this program. The article de- ~
- scribea the design of Norwegian buoys then
deployed from aboard the scientific re- ~
search ship "Professoc Vize." Data are giv-
en on the calibration of the sensors of
drifting buoys on the basis of shipboard ob- '
servations and the number of buoys operating
from January through November 1979 in the
- sc~uthern hemisphere. The prospects for sci-
entific research use of the data collected
from the drifting buoys are discussed. ~
In accordance ~ith the program for the implementation of the First Global Experi-
ment (FGGE) of GARP for collecting data on pressure and temperature of the ssa
surface in oceanic, regions of the southern hemisphere poorly covered by observa-
- tions provision was made for creating a special observation system, including a
network of drifting buoys with water pressure and temperature sensors and arti-
ficial ear~th satellites, by ~neans of which it would be possible to ascertain the
lccation of buoys, collect data and transmit this inform~.tion upon inCerrogationo
In this connection plans called for the deployment of about 300 drifting buoys
in oceanic regions of the southern hemisphere in the zone from 20 to 65�S,
Such an observation system was de~eloped by the beginning of the FGGE and in ac- .
cordance with the operational plan for the global weather experiment [3] the
buoys were to be deployed by the following countries: Australia (50), Canada. (8~),
= France (35), Norway (55), United States (50), Great Br~.tain (9), New Zealand (10)0
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It was proposed that the buoys be deployed for the most part during the first
special observation period of the FGGE (SOP-I) from December 1978 through Ma.rch
1979 using vessels of Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Great Britain, Norway, New
Zealand, USSR, United States, France, West Germany, Chile and Japan.
The task of constant monitoring of the course of buoy deployment was delegated
- to the center for logisfiics and deployment of buoys located at Vancouver, Canadao
The collection of data from the drifting buoys was delegated to a center for data
checking and processing at Touiouse, France.
The USSR, in accordance with its obligations for implementation of the FGGE, took
an active part in the deployment of drif ting buoys in the southern hemisphereo
For this purpose scientific-research ships of the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific
Research Institute of the State Committee on Hydrometeorology were assigned: "Pro-
fessor Vize," "Professor Zubov" and "Mikhail Somov:'They worked from November 1978
through April 1979 in the Antarctic Ocean under the program "POLEKS-Yug-79," which
was a regional subprogram of the FGGE.
The drifting buoys, produced in Norway, Canada and New Zealan.d, were taken aboard
the mentioned ships during visits to the ports of Haugesund (Norway), Las Palmas
(Spain) in November 1978 and Wellington (New Zealand) in January 1979a According
to the preliminary plan the USSR ships should deploy 17 buoys, but due to unti.me-
ly delivery of buoys to Montevideo the ships received only 12 buoys for depZoy-
- ment.
Now we will discuss in somewhat greater detail the deployment of drifting buoys
from aboard the scientific research ship "Professor Vizeo"
The ship took aboard four sets of drifting radiotelemetric meteorological buoys
of the KhV-105 type, fabricated in Norway specially for support af the FGGE pro-
- gram. The buoys were intended for measurement of sea surface t~mperature and aix '
pressure, and also for determination of drift currents and transmission of these
~ data via the radiotelemetric satellite system "Service Argos" to the meteorolog-
ical centers entering into this system.
~ The buoy was a completely hermetic, pear-shape container fabri~:ated o~ glass plas-
~ tic. The buoy had a hydraulic sail, a panel of synthetic fabric measuring 0,5 x 3
m, supplieci with weights on the ends and suspended on a guide-rope with a length
of 7 m to the bottom of the buoy for stabilization of the vertical position of the
buoy in ttie water and effective movement in the currento The tota~ length of the
body of the buoy was 2.5 m, the maximum dia~neter was 0.8 m, the mass of the buoy
was 63 kg and the mass of the sail was 35 kg.
Figure 1 i.s a diagram of the rigged buoy. The diagram shows the positioning of
the sensors and the magnetic switch. At the end of the upper cylinder of the
body of the buoy there is an air intake for the atmospheric pressure sensors and
the transmitter antenna; in the lower part of the lower cylinder is the sensing
element of the water temperature sensor. Attached by two screws on the upper hor-
izontal part of the buoy is a magnetic plug; with its removal a magnetically con-
trolled contact is triggered which cuts in the electric supply current and the
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buoy begins to function. When the plug ia put into poeition a magnetically con-
trolled contact breaks the electric supply circuit and the buoy ceases to oper-
ate.
The buoy operates in the following wayo With removal of the magnetic plug the el-
ectric current is fed to all buoy instruments. A transmitter operating at a fre-
quency of 401 MHz is cut in each 60 sec for 1.0-1.5 sec. ~
~ ~ II ~ �
2 : , ,
J a'~ ~y.~
_ = y - -
_ _ -
~ - - - -
I
- - -
~ ~ �
I _ _ IT _ _ .
5
~ - - ~ - .
; e , I ,I
; _ _ _ ,
t t ' Wy
~ ^ ~ ~ , 1
I - -6 - s t
>
~
I � :ar:
' - - - ; ~ .
- - "x
Fig. 1. Diagram of rigged buoy of KhV- Fig. 2. Rigged buoy prior to lowering
105 type. 1) air intake of atmospheric into urater.
pressure sensor; 2) positioning of sen-
sor; 3) eye for rigging; 4) ~cagnetic
plug-switch; 5) sensing element of air
temperature sensor; 6) hydraulic sail.
During transmitter operation a cycle of data containing the following parameters
is transmitted: at the beginning of the cycle, th.e buoy identification code is
transmitted in the "Service Argos" system; then the following parameters are suc- ~
cessively transmitted:
1) air pressure (920-1050 mb)tl mb (the sensor is calibrated in the temperature ~
range from -5 to +35�C) 10 bits;
2) voltage of supply battery (0-21 V) f0.6 V-- 6 b:.ts; ~
3) water surface temperature (-5 -+35�C) t1�C 8 bits;
4) temperature within buoy (-5 -+35�C) +1�C 8 bitso
- A1Z the parameters are measured continuously and their values are transmitted each
- 60 sec. The air pressure is tntegrated over a period of 15 minutes in a special
accumulation device and is stored. A new air pres sure value is entered in the ac-
cumulation device memory each 15 minutes and is read out for transmission in the
course of the subsequent 15 minutes.
138 !
FOIt OFFICIAL USE ONLY ~
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APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000300080046-0
~ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
~
The technical servicing of the huoy and its placement was accomplished in accord-
ance with the accompanying docimmentation and arrangements with a representative
of the Norwegian manufacturero
Three days prior to placement the buoy in its packa.ging (wooden crate) was plaCed
3.n a vertical position on the ship's deck in such a way that the metal construc-
tion parts of the vessel as little as possible screen~d the antenna of the buoy
; receiver situated in the upper cylinder under the air intake and it was switched
~ on by removing the magnetic plug with the inscription "activate." The activation
; was reported to the Norwegian Meteorological Institute (Oslo). The operation of
the buoy transmitter was checked with an electronic tester which accompanied the
, delivered consignment of buoys.
The tester was a simple direct amplification receiver enclosed in a hermetically
sealed plastic housing together with a self-contained 6 V power source (4 ele-
ments of the "MARS" type connected in series). The flat spiral antenna with a _
diameter of 70 mm was matched with a HF aperiodic transistorized amplifier aad '
tuned to the middle of the range 401 MHz. The receiver detector was loaded with
; a photodiode which served as an indicator of HF radiation. Another photodiode
serves as an indicator for the electric current tester. In order to check the
operation of the buoy transmitter it is sufficient to raise the tester up to its
antenna in such a way that the plane of the spiral antenna of the tester is per-
pendicular to the vertical axis of the upper cylinder of the buoy, With the nor-
mal operation of the transmitter a red photodiode Lindicator) will light up for
1.0-1.5 sec each minute. The transmitter operation was checked twice a day and im-
- mediately after being lowered into the water. Prior to being lowered in~o the
water the buoy was checked in horizontal and vertical positions, . -
; Measurements of air temperature and pressure in the neighborhood of placement of
the buoy sensor were made for three days prior to lowering into the water each
three hours and for a day before its lowering - each hour in order to check the
measuring cha~els of the buoy. These data were sent to the Norwegian Meteorolog-
ical Institute which through the "Service Argos" system also received data on air
pressure and temperature measured by the sensors of a buoy situated on the ship's
; deck. The Norwegian Meteorological Znstitute sent these data to our address for
comparison of the buoy readings with shipboard observations,
The results of the calibration carried out for the Norwegian buoys show (Table 1)
that the maximum deviation of buoy data with respect to pressure does not exceed
0.7 mb and with respect to temperature 0.7�C. Thus, the measurements of the
meteorological parameters by the buoy sensors fall within the limits of the re-
quired accuracy.
The buoy was lowered into the water from the ship's stern. After outfitting of the
buoy with a hydraulic sail and checking the transmitter operation the buoy was
lioisted over the side and held by the crane boom at a distance of 2-4 m from the
water surface by means of an opening hook fitting into the rigging eye on the buoy.
Figure 2 is a photograph of the buoy prior to ii~s lowering into the watero Then the
rolled-up sail was deployed. Thereafter, when jt began to float freely in the water
the hook holding the buoy was released. The placement of the buoy was 3.mmediately
139
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY '
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APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007102/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000300080046-0
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