JPRS ID: 9326 TRANSLATION WORLD OCEAN EXPLORATION AND ENGINEERING PROBLEMS ED. BY A.L. VOZNESENSKIY

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i _ D I
2 OCTOBER,i980
ED. BT
A. L. it 0ZNE1ENSKi T
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JPRS L/9326
2 October 1980
Translation
WORLD OCEAN i-EXPLORATION
AND ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
ed. by
A.I. Voznesenskiy
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NOTE
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JPRS L/9326
2 October 1980
WORLD OCEAN EXPLORATION AND ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
1
Leningrad PROBLEMY ISSLEDOVANIYA I OSVOYENIYA MIRaVOGO OKEANA in
Russian 1979 signed to press 30 Oct 79 pp 7-403
[Book edited by A.I. Voznesenskiy, Sudostroyeniye, 4,500 copies,
408 pages]
CONTENTS
Annotation 1
' From the Publishing House 2
" PART I. GENERAL PROBLEMS OF OCEAN EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION.,,.,, 3
Modern Strategy in Ocean Exploration and Exploitation
(L. M.
Brekhovskikh)
3
International
Cooperation in the Study of the World Ocean
(A. S.
Monin, Ye. A. Tsvetkova)
28
International
Regulation of the Exploitation of the World Ocean
(L. L.
Lyubimov)
41
Economic-Ecologic Problems of the Exploitation of the World Ocean
(M. T.
Meleshkin)
55
Monitoring of
Chemical Pollution of Seawater
(A. I.
Simonov)
82
PART II. METH
ODS OF OCEAN EXPLORATION
99

Space Oceanogr
aphy: Problems and Prospects
(B. A.
Nelepo :
99
Aerial Methods
of Studying the Ocean and Its Floor
(V. V.
Sharkov)
124
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Ucesnic Eddies
(V. G. Kort) 154
1 Oceanographic Buoys and Buoy Laboratories
(B. V. Shekhvatov) 170
- Scientific Research Ships
(G. K. Krupnov) 190
Problems of lit-ilizing Radio Electronic Equipment for
Exploitation and Exploration of tHe Ocean
(V. I. Vinokurov) 205
PART III. L'Y,TRACTION OF MINERAL AND BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF THE
OCEAN 219
Economic Exploitation of the Ocean Resources
(S. S. Sal`nikov, S. B. Slevich) 219
Problems of Creating Equipment and Technology for Mining
Underwater Deposits of Solid Metals
(G. M. Lezgintsev) 234
- Construction and Design of Equipmezit for Marine Extraction
of Oil and Gas
(V. N. Samarskiy, K. G. Suvorov) 250
Biological Reserves of the World Ocean and Prospects for Their
Utilization
' (P. A. Moyseyev) 270
Technical Aspects of the Development of Aquaculture
(V. P. Zaytsev, A. N. Dmitriyev) 279
Some Problems of Deep-Sea Fishing
(A. D. Druzhinin, B. P. �shanichnyy) 296
PART IV. EXPLOITATION OF THE OCEAN DEPTHS 302
Unmanned Submersibles: State of the Art and Prospects for
Development
(V. S. Yastrebov) 302
Control Systems for Robot Engineering Complexes
(Ye. P. Popov) 320
Manned Submersibles: State of the Art and Prospects for
Development
(A. N. Dmitriyev) 336
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Problems of Training Underwater Specialists
(P. A. Borovikov, et al.) 352
Inhabitation of the Depthsof the Sea by Man. Life-Support Systems
(P. A. Borovikov) 365
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[Annotation]
[Text] A study is made of the modern strategy of ocean research, the
problems of international cooperation in its exploitation and protection
against pollution. The state of the art with respect to above-water,
underwater and aerospace methods of oceanological research and also the
means of exploiting biological and mineral resources of the ocean is
analyzed.
The book is intended for a broad class of readers, primarily the special-
ists engaged in this field of science.
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FROM THE PUBI,ISHING HOUSE
The exploitation of the World Ocean, just as the exploitation of outer
space, is one of the most important and extremely complex problems of
modern times. This problem can be solved only by developing a clear-cut
strategy and determining the forms of international cooperation in the
matter of exploitation of the ocean and preservation of it as an integral
ecological system.
This collection is devoted to these problems and also the analysis of the
state of the art and prospects for the development.of above-water, under-
water and aerospace methods of oceanographic research,, the investigation
of ineans of exploiting the mineral and biological resources of the World
Ocean, the prospects of human inhabitation of the depths of the sea. The
most zmportant Soviet scientists have contributed to the collection:
Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences L. M. Brekhovskikh, Academician
of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences B. A. Nelepo, Corresponding Members
of the USSR Academy of Sciences A. S. Monin, Ye. P. Popov, and so on.
The collection is designed for a broad mass of readers, primarily the
specialists connected with the investigation and exploitation of the World
Ocean, tile intensity of which is building every day. Accordingly, the
publishing house also plans further discussion of the main areas of these
processes and also publication of the most interesting results, giving
special attention to the engineering problems of ocean exploitation.
It is requested that all comments and suggestions be sent to the following
address: 191065, Leningrad, ul. Gogolya, 8.
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PART I. GENERAL PROBLEMS OF OCEAN EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION
MODERN STRATEGY IN OCEAN EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION
[Article by L. M. Brekhovskikh]
Leonid :iaksimovich Brekhovskikh: academician, member of the
Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Secretary Academician
of the Department of Oceanology, Atmospheric Physics and -
Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, editor-in-chief
_ of the journal OKEANOLOGIYA [Oceanology] is a specialist in
the field of ocean acoustics and one of the participants in
discovering the underwater sound channels (1946). He has
been leadpr of numerous ocean expeditions, including the
Poly.gon-70 experiment. He is a Lenin and State Prize Laureate,
and a winner of the Gold Medal of the Royal Acoustics Society
of Great Britain.
The resources of the ocean are far from as unlimited as was thought until
recently, but they are, nevertheless, quite large. They are acquiring
more and more signif icance as the earth's population increases, and the
_ biological, mineral and other resources of the continents are consumed at �
a more and more intense rate. Now on the average there are about 15 kg of
extractable biomass from the ocean and the seas adjacent to.it for each
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resident Uf our planet. This figure can be increased significantly in
the future with the proper approach to .the use of the biological resources
of the ocean. About 1/5 of the world extraction of oil and gas is at the
present time from the continental shelves. The mineral wealth of the
open sea floor is great and still almost entirely untouched. More than
70 different elements of the Periodic Table, including uranium and gold,
are dissolved in the seawater itself. It is at the present time still
economically inefficient to extract, let us say, gold from seawater, but
other elements, for example, magnesium, potassi.>>m and bromine are already
being extracted in large quantities in the oceans and seas.
The energy resources of the ocean are also enormous, and they are still
little used.
About half of the oxygen which the population of our planet breathes is
produced in the process of photosynthesis in the upper layer of the ocean.
The ocean is an important transport artery. The cargo of the many tens of
thousands of transport ships sailing the oceans is reckoned in many
billions of rubles annually.
It is possible to say without exaggeration that the ocean determines the
weather on our planet. Over the greater part of our country, for example,
the weather is determined by processes occurring in the Atlantic and
Arctic Oceans.
Hundreds of scientific research ships belonging to various countries are
continuously at sea. From these ships and also from research submarines
which submerge to the depths of the ocean, from sa*_ellites and manned
space laboratories, tens of thousands of scientific coworkers are contin-
uously following what is going on in the ocean and learning its secrets.
For the solution of the most complex problems it has become a tradition
to combine the efforts of many countries in the performance of joint
experiments. Sometimes several dozen research vessels are engaged in
them simultaneously.
The Soviet oceanologists have joint research programs with the scientists
of Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Bulgaria, England, France and
the United States. In spite of all of this, we must recognize that the
ocean still remains for the most part unknown. It has still been
investigated entirely inadequately. Gradually ever-newer aspects of its
life are unfolding before us. However9 the presently available concepts
of the ocean movement of its waters, the bottom structure, the
peculiarities of the biological system, and so on can still be con-
sidered knowledge "in the first approximation."
The ocean is being studied by physicists, geologists, biologists,
chemists and scientists of many other specialties. The goal of the
- physicists is investigation of the dynamic processes in the ocean, that
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is, movements of the water masses of all scales, from the ocean currents
on a p lanetary scale to the f ine ripple on the surface of the water; the
study of the interaction of the atmosphere and ocean and also various
physical fields in the ocean gravitation.al, magnetic, sonic, and so on.
Geologists are studying the structure of the ocean floor both in the
coastal zones and in the open sea. This is necessary to establish the
distribution laws of the minerals in the bottom of the ocean and also to
understand the history of our planet, the structure of the continents
and the oceans in the geological past.
Biologists study the laws of development of life in the ocean on all
levels. They determine the interaction of various elements of the biolog-
ical structure of the ocean in order to determine the most efficient
methods of exploitation of the biological resources.
Chemists together with biologists study the chemical composition of the
ocean water, especially to prevent pollution of it.
Now let us discuss the basic areas of investigation of the World Ocean,
_ the modern strategy and modprn methods of studying it.
1. Synoptic Variability of the Ocean. Ocean Eddies
The study of the dynamics of the ocean, that is, the movements of its
water masses, is bringing ever-newer discoveries. About 15 years ago
Soviet scientists discovered the equatorial subsurface countercurrent
in the Atlantic Ocean. It turned out that a powerful river several
hundreds of kilometers wide flows along the equator from west to east at
a dep th of 300 to 500 meters. On the surface the current is in the oppo-
site direction. A year later an analogous countercurrent called the
Tareyev Current was discovered in the Indian Ocean also by Soviet scien-
tists. It was established that the equatorial countercurrent also exists
in the Pacific Ocean. It was discovered for the first time by American
scientists and is called the Cromwell Current.
- An outstanding discovery was made by Soviet scientists during the
"Polygon-70'experiment in the Atlantic Ocean in 1970. The purpose of the
experiment was to discover the stability of the sea currents in the zone
where, as proposed, they are the most stab le. For this purpose the
northern trade current zone and an area with a comparatively smooth
bottom was selected. The test area method of investigation (for more
detail about this method see Section 9) was used for the first time on a
large scale. The scientists broke down the large research area into
bodies of water 200x200 km2 in size, and they set up an enormous cross
ocean "antenna" in it made up of 17 buoy stations. Current and tempera-
ture gauges were located at different levels at each buoy station. The
experiment lasted for.d months. During the first few weeks it was dis-
covered that the nature of th e current does not have anything in common
with what was imagined earlier and what was depicted on all of the ocean
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charts. It was established that gigantic Eddies several hundreds of
kilometers in size passed through the test area. These eddies are to a
known degree analogous to cyclones and anticyclones in the atmosphere.
The speed of the water masses participating in the rotation of the eddy is
15 to 20 cm/sec. The rate of advancement of the eddy to the west with a
small southerly component was about 4 cm/sec. The eddy movement encom-
passed in practice the entire body of the ocean.l
Several years ago, in 1973 the American scientists performed an analogous
experiment in the Sargasso Sea. The currents were investigated in depths
from 500 meters to the bottom. The experiment was called MODE-I (Mid
Ocean Dynamical Experiment). The same methods were used in this experi-
ment as the "Polygon-70" experiment, but sound buoys with neutral buoyancy
were also used. These buoys (for more details see Section 9) move at given
depths together with the water masses and communicate their locations by
sound signals.
The results of this and other experiments demonstrated that the eddy
movement of one force or ariother exists in the ocean in practice every-
where, even under the ice of the Arctic Ocean. It is true that their
dimensions are somewhat less here (about 50 km). They are also found in
the Antarctic waters. It turned out that in a number of areas the kinetic
_ energy of the eddy movement is tens and scmetimes even hundreds of times
greater tnan the kinetic energy of the known currents.
The most effective program for studying eddies in the ocean was imple-
- mented during the process of the international POLYMODE experiment. The
name of this experiment came from combining the first half of tlle word -
"Polygon" and the name of the American experiment MODE, and it reflects
the assence of th e matter quite precisely. Basically this was a Soviet-
American experiment, the purpose of which was to discover how ocean eddies
arise and how they interact with each other and also with the mean ocean
- currents, and what their final fate is. It has already been discovered
that there are a minimum of two types of eddies. The eddies of the first
type, the so-called rings, occur in the Atlantic Ocean as a result of
"gemmation" of the Gulf Stream meanders. These rings travel farther in
the ocean independentl,y, they live about 2 or 3 years, and then they are
again encompassed by the Gulf Stream. Abru_ f ive rings occur annually,
and, consequently, at each point in time there are about 15 rings "roam-
ing" the Atlantic Ocean. The second type eddies open-sea eddies
occur as a result of instability of movement of the water masses or, as ~
oceanologists say, baroclinic instability. These eddies are of somewhat
different structure than the rings. The temperature contrasts and
eddy velocities are less expressedin them.
1 L. M. Brekhovskikh, M. N. Koshlyakov, K. N. Fedorov, L. M. Fomin,
- A. D. Yampol'skiy. "Hydrophysics Test Area Experiment in the Atlantic
Tropical Zone," DOKL. AN SSSR [Reports of the USSR Academy of Sciences],
Vol 198, No 6, 1971, pp 1434-1437.
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2. Wave Movements in the Ocean
Researchers are giving a great deal of attention to the study of various
wave processes in the ocean. Let us consider the processes of a mechani-
cal nature, t:~at is, let us discuss, let us say,electromagnetic waves
propagated in the sea. Sound waves have the widest frequency range and
the highest propagation rate among the waves of a mechanical nature. They
are propagated at a rate of about 5400 km/hr. The sounds of lower fre-
quencies have very little damping and can cross even the Pacific Ocean
_ itself. It is true that more than 2 hours are required for this. The
lowest frequency sound waves with a period of about 1 second (such sounds
are no longer distinguishable by man and are called infrasounds) are
generated by underwater volcano eruptions and underwater earthquakes.
It is possible to determine the approach of tsunamis by them. (The
problem of sound waves is investigated in more detail below.)
A tsunami occurs in the case of underwater earthquake or underwater
volcanic eruption. Harmless in the open sea, it becomes steeper and ,
steeper as it approaches the shore and reaches the shoals. Hitting the .
shore in the form of a wall many meters high, it carries enormous destruc-
tive force. Scientists have worked hard on studying both the tsunami
i.tself and methods of warning the coastal populations of the approach of
a tsunami. There are two services to predict tsunamis in dangerous areas:
continuous recording of seismic waves which occur simultaneously with
the tsunami during the earthquake, and tracking the level of the water -
surface in the sea. However, during an underwater earthquake or volcanic
eruption, as has already been stated, a low-frequency sound wave occurs
which moves many times faster than rhe tsunami. As it approaches the
shore, special instruments hydrophones can warn the population of
the approaching wave. _
~ The tsunami propagation laws in the open sea are of interest. Academician
rf. A. Lavrent'yev has established that underwater ridges can serve as
waveguides for it, al.ong which it is propagated to great distances with-
out attenuating noticeably.
When talking about waves in the ocean, we primarily mean its undulating
surface. The study of surface waves began long ago, for it is very
important to know the laws controlling them for navigation and ship-
building.
However, until recently far from all of the secrets of surface waves
have been unraveled. In particular, there is still no theory which
sufficiently exactly describes the occurrence and the buildup of waves:
under the effect of:wind. Difficulties arise as a result of the fact
that the wave itself changes the wind field characteristics. There have
still been tew experimental studies of the space-time spectra of surface
waves.
The surface waves of the most diverse periods are of practical interest, from
fractions of a second (capillary waves) to tens of seconds. The complex-
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, ity of studying surface waves in the open sea is connected also with the
fact that it is difficult to find a stationary base for measuring their
paramerers. Frequently the instruments are located on the ship which
itself Eluctuates in the wave, and as a result of the'measurements, the
total effect of the movemenr of the wave itself and the ship on the wave
is recorded. The remote instruments wave meters located at a dis-
tance from the 5hip still provide little information about the spatial
characteristics of the waves.
In recent times methods have begun tc, be developed for studying the wave
action from artificial earth satellites. These methods can turn out to be
highly prospective. `
1he ocean surface can be entirely smooth and quiet, but this does not mean
that there is no movement over its entire depth. In the ocean body,
internal waves can "rage," the amplitude of which reaches hundreds of ~
meters. It is true that the word "rage" is not entirely appropriate in
the given case inasmuch as the internal waves are very slow, with periods
measured in tens of minutes and even many hours, but this does not keep
- them from manifesting a raging form. It is proposed that the American
submarine "Thresher" sank after getting into such a wave.
- Internal waves are analogous to surf ace waves to a known degree. Actually,
_ the water surface is the water-air interface, that is, the interface of
two media with different density. Inside the ocean there are also layers
of different density, although the gradient of the latter is small
between them. Now let us represent the boundary between two such layers.
At rest, it, just as the surf ace of the water, is horizontal. Let us
- assume that for some reason the heavy layer is forced upward, and it bends
into a hump. Under the effect of gravity it then drops downward. The
disturbance formed will be propagated in all directions. These will be
internal waves. With respect to their nature, they are richer than
surface waves. The internal waves can move not only in the horizantal
plane as surface waves, but in the vertical plane and also at any other
angle of inclination to the surf ace. It turned out that in the ocean
these waves exist in practice everywhere and at all times. However, what
- are the primary sources of internal waves, how do these waves interact
- with each other, with the surface waves and turbulence, where, in the
- final analysis, is their energy damped all of these questions still
remain unexplained.
Another form of ocean wave the Rossby waves has the longest period.
- It is 1.5 to 2 months. These waves, the lengths of which vary from
tens to hundreds of kilometers, move slowly, w3.th a speed of several
centimeters per second, from east to west and encompass .the entire
thickness of the ocean. It is interesting that in this case the energy
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transport takes place in the opposite direction, from west to east. The
waves of this type were first discovered in the atmosphere and are fre-
quently called Rossby-Blinova waves.l
There is a proposition that the system of ocean eddies detected during
the "Polygon-70" experiment is a system of Rossby waves. The movements
of the water particles in the Rossby waves are almost strictly horizont-
ally directed. In the so-called barotropic Rossbp waves, the entire
mass of water, from the surface to the bottom, mcves at the same speed.
However, there is a great variety of "baroclinic" Rossby waves, the
characteristics of which vary with depth.
3. Small-Scale Structure of the Ocean Water
The ocean continuously absorbs the energy of the sun and the wind, con-
verting it to the energy of the currents, the eddies, the internal and
surface waves. However, the question arises of what the energy of these
movements is expended on? Where, as the scientists say, is its source?
It turned cut that the energy influx from the sun and the wind takes
plLtce basically on large scales, and its discharge, that is, the conver-
sio;z of this energy, in the final analysis, to heat, in nonuniformities
of t=he water, on vF.ry small scales. T:iese are primarily sections of
small-scale turbulence (the characteristic scales are fractions of a
millimeter). In addition, the sma11-scale structure of the ocean water
influences many other pracesses, in particular, the propagation of sound
and optical waves. Therefore a great deal of attention is given to the
study of it.
The study of ttie structure of the small-scale or fine structure of the
ocean water has become possible only in recent times when scientists and
engineers have created the so-called sondes very sensitive prob es
with resolution to fractions of a millimeter. Such probes permit us to
study in detail, for example, the temperature and salinity of the water
as a function of depth. It was considered earlier that this relation is
smooth, and the deviations obtained in the experiments have simply been
ascribed to imperf ection of the instruments. However, the instruments
have become improved and it has turned out that on variation of depth,
the temperature and the salinity vary in a highly characteristic manner;
they remain constant in certain thin layers (the thicknesses of these
layers vary from tens of centimeters to tens of ineters), and they change
quickly, almost discontinuously on going from one layer to another.
Thus, the ocean is a type of large layered pie.
1Corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences Ye. N. Blinova
first developed the most complete theory of such waves.
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Later, researchers learned how to make instruments which with the same
hi_gh resolution led to the vertical structure of the horizontal currents
in the ocean. It turned out that the same thing occurs with the currents.
By using such instruments it was discovered that the currents inside
ce r tazn layers are almosi: constant and vary quickly on transition of the
bo undary between the layers. This is the so-called fine structure of the
ocean current.
The horizontal exten.t of such thin layers can be tens of kilometers.
' At the given point the fine structure can be kppt almost invariant for
several days. This means that the researcher can sound the ocean a
multiple number of times for several days, and the curve,let us say, for
the temperature as a function of depth, in all details, will repeat from
time to time.
How does this extraordinarily characteristic fine structure of the ocean
water arise? No one knows exactly up to now. One thing is clear: it
plays a highly significant role in the overall power engineering of the
ocean. In addition, the fine structure generates a riumber of extra-
ordinarily interesting phenomena. For example, at the boundaries of these
almost uniform layers, relatively high-frequency internal waves are prop-
_ agated with periods equal to tens of seconds and even minutes. No one
has proposed before this that the internal waves of such high frequencies
can be propagated in the ocean.
Th e fine structure unconditionally influences the development of the lower
st ages of lif e in the ocean. Various types of plankton and bacteria can
be held at the boundaries of the layers where a density discontinuity
exists, and not one, as previously proposed (the so-called liquid bottom)
bu t hundreds.
4. Interaction of the Ocean and Atmosphere. Weather and Climate of
the Planet
The greater part of the solar energy heating our planet basically comes
~ to the tropical regions of the ocean. There it is absorbed by the upper
lay er of the water 10 to 20 meters thick, and then in the form of heat
it is frequently carried away with the currents, and partially goes from
the ocean into the atmosphere. The mechanism of this transition is as
fo llows: the water evaporates from the surf ace of the ocean, it rises
upward in the form of vapor, and it condenses there in the colder layers
of the atmosphere. Here the latent heat of condensation is released
which also warms the atmosphere. As a result of different heating of it
at different geographic latitudes, winds arise which, in turn, accelerate
rhe surface waters of the ocean, and so on. Thus, there is a continuous
energy relation between the atmosphere and the ocean. In addition, the
atmosphere and the ocean exchange matter and momentum.
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It is generally known that the state of the ocean cardinally determines
the weather on the dry land. However, no one still exactly knows how to
predict the weather for a month or several months in advance, considering
the effect of the ocean. In order to solve this important problem for
all mankind,the scientists of different countries have combined their
efforts and created a l-rge international scientific research program
_ called GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program).
It is appropriate that the first large experiment by this program was per-
furmed in tropical regions of the Atlantic. About 40 ships of different
countries (13 from the Soviet Union) and also aircraft and artificial
earth satellites participated in this experiment in 1974.
A large quantity of iiYformation has been ob tained about the state of the
- ocean depths and the entire body of the atmosphere in these regions which
- has still not been completely processed. However, the preliminary results
are extraordinarily interesting; they iiZdicate the relation of the
atmosphere and the ocean and also the role of the ocean in weather forma-
tion.l The quasitwoyear cyclicity of phenomena in the upper layers of
tYie atmosphere and the effect of this cyclicity on the weather have been
discovered and investigated in detail. It has been established that the
subsurface Lomonosov current is not stationary. -Waves travel along its
core, with a length of about 1500 kilometers similarly to how waves travel
along a string that we have held. However, it is impossible to limit our-
selves to the investigation of only tropical regions. Intensive trans-
mission of energy from the ocean to the atmosphere takes place in the
polar regions. This process also has a great deal of effect on the
weather formation. Therefore Soviet scientists have realized two sub-
projects POLEKS-Sever [PJLEX-North] and POLEKS-Yug [POLEX-South] within
the framework of the GARP program.2
Within the framework of these plans, it was necessary to discover in what
way heat gets from the equatorial regions to the polar regions? It was
previously considered that this energy is transferred by the atmosphere.
Now it has been discovered that a significant part of it, perhaps about
half, is transported by the ocean currents.
lIt is interesting that when putting together the GARP program the meteor-
ologists did not initially call for the participation of oceanologists iu
it, but after several years it was discovered that without detailed
tracing of the behavior of the ocean the stated problems could not be
solved.
2Treshnikov, A. F. "Basic Results of Studies in Ocean Parts of the Polar
Latitudes (POLEX Program)," DOKL. NA I S"YEZDE OKEANOLOGOV SSSR [Reports -
of the I'irst Congress of USSR Oceanologists], 1977, June.
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In the experiment performed in 1976 primarily by the institutions of the
, State Committee of Hydrometeorology and monitoring of the natural environ-
ment of the USSR, there were 10 scientific research vessels, two labora-
� tory aircraft and 90 ground aerological stations. The experiment encom-
passed the northern European basin and the northern part of the Pacific
_ Ocean. After it was determined that a significant part of the energy
goes to the northern regions with the ocean currents, it was necessary to
determine whether or not the heat content of these currents changes from
year to year. Previously it was considered that the situation is more or
less stable, and *_he heat content of these currents almost does not change.
' The experiments demonstrated that these currents are invariable to a sig-
nificant degree, and this complicates the long-term weather forecasting.
In the southern polar region, the investigation of the most powerf ul cir-
cumpolar Antarctic current in the World Ocean belting Antarctica has the
greatest significance. It has a width of about 2,000 km and transports
ten times more water than the Gulf Stream. In the joint experiments in
1975/1976, the Soviet and American scientists more precisely defined the
power of this current: it transports about 3 million km3 of water per
year.l
_ In spite of rhe broad experiments performed in the polar an:i the tropical
regions, the processes determining the weather on our planet, and the role
in this of the ocean still remain f ar from discovered. Great hopes in
this respect are placed on the first global international experiment
which will begin in February 1979. The studies encompass all of the
oceans and also the conrinents. It is necessary to mentiun that the
- latter have somewhat greater reflectivity with respect to the sunlight
and the ocean. Therefore they absorb I2ss solar heat and are heated less
in the summer than the ocean. In the winter, on the contrary, the conti-
nents cool more sharply than the oceans. The temperature contrast between
the oceans and the continents creates winds in the latitudinal direction.
This problem must also be studied in detail in the first global experi-
- ment.~
Along with the performance of.the large-scale experiments, the scientists
are constructing mathematical models of the circulation of the atmosphere
and ocean. One such model was developed in the Leningrad Depar.tment of
1
The total annual runoff of all rivers of the northern hemisphere is
about 40,000 km3.
2The concept of the interaction of the atmosphere, the ocean and the
continents was develuped in the report by Academician V. V_. Shuleykin
"Large-Scale Interaction Between the Ocean, the Atmosphere and the
Continents," at the First Congress of Oceanologists of the USSR, 1977,
June.
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the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Tt takes
into account the state (temperature, wind, current) of the atmosphere
and the ocean on many levels at a large number of points (squares) of the
oceans and continents. The model has provided much of interest. Thus,
if we imagine the ocean to be uniform and initially quiet, and then we
include the atmospheric winds and heat, mass and momentum exchange between
the atmosphere and the ocean, then, as it turns out, about 200 years are
required for the latter to reach a state of movement and stratification
which is now observed. This indicates how much inertia the ocean system
has.
Another mathematical model of the circulation of the atmosphere and the
ocean has been developed at the Computer Center of the Siberian Department
of the USSR Academy of Sciences under the direction of Academician
G. I. Marchtik. Results were obtained on the basis of it which are impor-
tant for long-range weather forecasting.
During the course ut' the implementation of the GARP program, it is also
necessary to discover the mechanisms which determine the climate of the
earth and the trend of its variation at the present time.l It is known
_ that in the northern hemisphere the years of 1945-1946 were comparatively
. warm. Since that time continuous cooling of the climate of the northern
hemisphere was observed until 1970. Then obviously again there was some
systematic warming. Possibly it is caused by the anthropogenic effect,
that is, the effect of man on nature, in particular, the increase in �carbon dioxide discharged into the atmosphere and the so-called green-
house effect. If this is so, then the warming will continue for many
more years and the consequences of it can turn out to be unfavorable for
our planet as an environment for man to inhabit. However, it is er.tirely
possible that this warming is r_aused by natural climatic fluctuations
which have been noted in the past of our planet, and that after some time
it will shift to cooling.
It is impossible without detailed knowledge of the properties and state
of the ocean to solve these genuinely important problems for all mankind.
At this time approximately a thousand times less data reaches the world
_ centers for gathering hydrometeoroiogical information about the ocean
than about the atmosphere. This indicates how much the ocean studies
must be expanded in order to achieve the required level.
5. Ocean Acoustics
Sound waves are a natural form of waves which can be propagated in sea-
water without grzat attenuation to significant distances (several
thousands of kilometers for low sound frequencies). Electrumagnetic waves
1Climate is weather averaged ovex 10 to 30 years.
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and even a powerful laser beam can penetrate seawater no more than a
kilometer. In marine experiments the sound from small explosions has been
picked up at a distance of 22,000 km, and monochromatic sound, at a "
distance to 28,000 km. Sound waves in the ocean have already been men-
tioned above, but they are worth discussion in more detail.
Not one science of the ocean can get along without the use of sound. As
a result of a very simple, but important sonic instrument the sonic
depth finder we now know the bottom relief of the World Ocean and the
seas adjacent to it well. It was used to discover powerf ul systems of
mid-ocean ridges. This discovery has been the basis for a new theory of
the earth's crust (which will be discussed below). By using special
sonic devices called side-scanning sonar, it is possible to examine the
relief of the sea floor in much more detail and much faster than :vith the
sonic depth f inder and ro detect even comparatively small objects lying
on the floor. In other words, it is possible to compile a type of photo-
graph of the sea floor.
The sound waves are also used to"transilluminate"the sea floor and, con-
sequently, to detect minerals in it. The lawer the frequency of the sound,
the deeper into the sea floor it can penetrate. Considering the scatter-
ing of the sound in the water, it is possible to discover the so-called
sound-dispersing layers of a biological nature. Here it is possible to
determine the si2e of small fish and the concentration of their accumula-
tions characteristic for this layer. The method is so sensitive that it
permits detection of the presence of a small fish, let us say, several
centimeters long in 100 m3 of water.
Sound is widely used for controlling autonomous instruments operating
under water and delivering information about the numerous properties of
the ocean (for more detail see Section 9).
A prominent event in the development of underwater acoustics was the dis- `
covery in the 1940's of the underwater sound crannel by American and
Soviet scientists independently of each other. It turned out that in
the depths of the ocean there were layers of water in which the speed of
sound is less than in the surrounding layers, and therefore ttley serve
as waveguides for the propagation of sound. On being propagated in such
a waveguide, the sound does not touch the surface of the water or the
bottom where it could be scattered and absorbed. In the water itself the
low-frequency sound is absorbed insignificantly (for example, sound
50 hertz in frequency can travel a distance of up to 10,000 km, and its _
energy will decrease a total of only 10 times in so doing). This property ~
is used, in particular, for information Cransmission under water.
The scientists dealing with the acoustics of the ocean must study the
multifaceted interaction of sound waves, the wave action on the surface
of the water and the bottom consideri.ng its complex relief and the
complex inside structure, the sound-dissipating waves of a biological
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nature in the ocean, the turbulence of the ocean water, internal waves,
the fine vertical structure of the water, and so on. The so-called
, synoptic eddies wtiich we discussed also have a significant effect on the
propagation of sound. The eddies with a c o 1 d nucleus focus the
sound waves under defined conditions, and the eddies with a warm nucleus,
defocus them. The paths of the sound waves are significantly distorted
by the ocPan fronts which are encountered in the currents such as the
Gulf Stream, the Kuroshio, and so on. An important goal of uzderwater
acoustics at the present time is the study of the stability o� the sound
fields against a background of very great variability of the ocean.
When solving it, the acoustics experts must work side b y side with
oceanologists. The latter must study the oceanological situation in the
finest detail against a background of w;:l.ch tha sound is propagated. ~
The most interesting phenomenon in underwater acoustics is the natural
noise of the ocean. The ocean makes noise. Its voice can continuously
be heard in the air. However, the ocean is far from noiseless also at
depths. The nature of underwater noise can be quite varied. In the low- -
frequency range (from 1 to 20 hertz) the basic cause uf it ls the seismic
~ activity of the earth. On our planet hundreds and thousands of small
earthquakes take place daily which create a continuous background of
vibrations of the earth's crus*_ the so-called microseisms. They also
generate underwater noise. The noise of somewhat higher frequencies is
produced by the undulating surface of the water. It turned out that the ~
two surface waves interacting with each other can generate sound waves
which emit into the atmosphere and into the depths of the ocean.
The sound waves in the ocean can occur also from storms which play in the
atmosphere over the ocean, and so on. Noise with frequencies of 100 to
300 hertz are caused by the noise generated during the navigation of
ships. At every given point in time, let us say, there are many hundreds
and sometimes thousands of ships in the Atlantic Ocean, the engines and
propellers of which continuously emit noise.
The noise of still higher frequencies originates from the popping of
air bubbles occurring during the breaking of waves. This is cavitation
noise analogous to the whistle of a tea kettle before it boils. The
noise of the same nature is created by the propellers of high-speed
ships when they turn at high speed.
Biological noise, although as a rule it is not very strong, is of great
interest. Mari.ne animals and fish, it turns out, are highly talkativeo
Actually, their communication with each other under water is by sound
waves, and many, for example, dolphins, can detect their prey only with
the help of underwater sound location.
Thus, when researchers submerge sound-receiving instrumPnts hydrophones
under water, they receive rich information about the state of the
ocean, the activity of remote volcanoes, approaching tsunamis, biological
life in the ocean, processes occurring on the surface of the ocean, and
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so on. Therefore, an important problem in underwater acoustics is the
further study of underwater noise in the ocean. It is also necessary to
remember that the underwater noise is natural interference for the opera-
tion of various underwater sonic instruments.
6. Exploration of the,Sea Floor
All the most significant information about the structure of the sea floor
has been obtained in the last 20 to 30 years. The age of great discoveries
in this region began with the detection of the mid-ocean ridges. It
turned out tha*_ on the bottom of the World Ocean there is a united system
of such ridges with a total extent of more thar_ 60,000 km. '1anh ric?ge is
a swell from 200 to 3,000 km wide with a rift valley ir. the middle
developed by transverse and longitudinal joints. In the vicinity of the
ridges, iticreased seismic activity, thermal f.lux and also characteristic
gravitational and magnetic anomalies are observed.
No less important discoveries have been connected with deep drilling of
the earth's crust under the ocean in accordance with the international
program on the American drilling ship "Glomar Challenger" which for ocean
depths to 6 km permits drilling more than 1-1/2 kilometers of ocean sedi-
ment (the record drilling depth at the present time is about 2 km). It
turned out that the age of all the sediments drilled to the consolidated
rock reaches no more than 160 to 170 million years anywhere. However, it
is known that the ocean has existed about 3 billion years. The question
is what happened to the older sediments? The so?.ution of this problem
has led to the generation of the Wegener hypothesis of the movement of
the c.;ntinent. When all of the data about the structure of the sediments
on the ocean floor and its relief and the magnetic anomalies on the
bottom were put together, scientists arrived at the conclusion that molten r
material is continuously reaching the vicinity of the mid-ocean ridges
from the internal layers of the earth. This leads to continuous parting
of the sea floor, and this means that, for example, Europe and America
are moving away from each other at a speed of approximately 3 cm/year.
Thus, a comparatively structured concept of the tectonics of lithospheric
plates was created. In accordance with this concept, tYLe entire earth's
crust (continental and oceanic) consists of enormous plates which float
, on a softer layer (the asthenosphere) at a depth of about 100 km. Theories
explaining this movement have been developed.l
In our country there have been especially acute discussions among the so-
called "fixists" and "mobilists," that is, the scientists who have
refuted large horizontal displacements of the earth's crust and the
scientists who, on the basis of all tectonics of our planet, have
lA. S. Monin, ISTORIYA ZIIKLI [History of the Earth], Leningrad, Nauka,
1977.
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considered this movement. At the present time it is finally recognized
that mobilism is the only valid concept explaining the tectonic processes
of the planet. Of course, there is still much unexplained in this problem,
but that is al�aays the case in science the more we discover, tt:e more
questions arise.
It is of interest that without acoustic engineering the deep drilling of
the ocean floor would be impossible. In order to drill, the ship must
stay over the well with an accuracy to 10-15 meters at depths to 6 km. L
It is clear that this problem cannot be solved by putting the ship on
anchor. This oroblem, just as the problem of repeated entry of the
drilling tool into the drilling hole, is solved using sound waves.l
Soviet scientists have done a great deal of work with respect to the inter-
national "Correlation" program, the goal of which was to explain the
geological structure of our planet considering the achievements of the
geology of the continents and the World Ocean.2
The geology of the shelf zones of the ocPans and seas has been developed
intensely, which is explained by their prospectiveness for oil and gas.
According to the iorecast data, in 1980 as much oil and gas will be
extracted from the shelf zone as was extracted from the dry land a few
years ago.
The shelf regions are no less rich in tin, gold, titanium magnetites,
phosphates and their minerals.3
The mineral wealth of the open ocean, in particular, the iron-manganese
nodules which are particularly widespread at great depths in the ocean
(from 4 to 6 km) is large and comparatively little studied. These nodules
contain about 35 different elements. Sometimes the weight of the iron-
manganese n.odules per m2 of bottom area gives 50 to 70 kg.4
1"Deep drilling will be discussed in more detail in the article by
V. N. Samarskiy and K. G. Suvorov in the present collaction.
2A. V. Peyve, Yu. M. Pushcharovskiy, "State of the Art and Problems of
the Geology of. Oceans," DOKL. NA I S"YEZDE OKEANOLOGOV SSSR [Reports of
the lst Congress of USSR Oceanologists], 1977, June.
3V. V. Fedynskiy, et al., "Geophysical Studies of the Sea and Ocean Floor
in Connection with the Problem of Using Mineral Raw Materials of the
Continental Shelf of the USSR and the World Ocean," DOKL. NA I S"YEZDE
GEOLOGOV SSSR [Reports of the lst Congress of Geologists of the USSR].
_ 4P. L. Bezrukov, "Geological Prospects for the Exploitation of Solid
Mir.erals of the Ocean Floor," DOKL. NA I S"YEZDE OKEANOLOGOV SSSR,
. 1977, June.
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The iron-manganese nodules contain in a number of cases up to 20-25% iron,
20-30% manganese and also copper, cobalt, nickel, and other elements
although the latter e xist in comparatively small amounts (a maximum of
up to 1%). However, they are of interest for industry. In the Pacific
Ocean in northern tropical latitudes, a belt about 4000 km long and
several hundreds of kilometers wide runs approximately along the parallel,
in which in practice the nodules are widespread everywhere.
The metal-bearing sediments on the bottom of the ocean with increased
metal content have practical significance. They were first detected in
1958 during the third trip of the diesel-electric ship "Ob'." The
scientists of the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences
have recently studied the metal-bearing precipitates on the bottom in
detail in the vicinity of eastern Pacif ic Ocean uplifts. The increased
metals content is also noted in the regions of the mid-ocean ridges. The
reserves of valuable minerals are contained in hot brines and metal-bear-
ing sediments in the Red Sea, in a region which is a continuation of the
Indian Ocean Ridge. According to some foreign data, in one of the basins
of the Red Sea alone in a layer of sediments up to 10 meters thick there
are nonferrous and noble metals amounting to several billions of dollars.
7. Biological Resources of the Oceanl
At the present time basically fish are extracted from the ocean. In
recent years the catching of fish has stabilized at the level of approx-
imately 70 million tons a year. The estima.tes of the fish reserves made
by scientists of the various countries indicate that the annual maximum
take of fish in the World Ocean must not exceed 100 to 150 million tons.
Thus, the fish take is close to the limit. In spite of this fact, the
biological resources of the ocean remain in reality untouched. Actually,
the area of the ocean exceeds by many tens of times the area of the
cultivated dry land and, in addition, in the ocean it is possible to use
the entire upper layer on the order of 10-15 meters which is penetrated
by sun rays and where, consequently photo synthesis can occur, for the pro-
duction of food products. However, the ocean still provides only approx-
imately 1% of the food products (this is about 18% proteins). The
potential possibilities of the ocean are enormous. In particular, in the
ocean 500 billion tons of phytoplankton are produced annually, from which
the entire biological chain of the ocean begins. It is true that at each
lIn this section materials are used from the report by M. Ye. Vinogradov
and N. M. Voronina "Development of the Communities of Oceanic Pelagic
Zone" at the First Congress of Oceanologists of the USSR, 1977, June.
For more details on the biological research of the ocean see the
article by P. A. Moiseyev in this collection.
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given point in time the ocean contains a total of about 2 billion tons of
phytoplankton which arises from the life cycle of more highly developed
organisms. It is quickly eaten ug by them, but it also grows quickly,
supported by the water. It is surrounded on all sides by nutrients; it
does not need to create a root and stem system as plants on Che dry land
do.
The mass of plankton is enormous, but nevertheless it is a total of only
1/20 of the entire biomass of the ocean. The total amount is estimated
at ahout 35 million tons,
~ What are the possible paths of utilization of these ocean resources?
There are three such paths. The first path: man can extract not
only fish but also zooplankton which is available in large quantities in
Antarctic waters. Zooplankton is in the form of small crustaceans or the
so-called krill; previously it was eaten by whales, but now as a result
of human slaughter their number lias decreased significantly, and the krill
is multiplying in large quantities. The pzotein obtained from krill is
highly nutritious, it contains many valuable amino acids and is to a know-n
degree therapeutic. The mass of krill caught can exceed by several times
the mass of fish caught at the present time. In the given case basically
technical problems arise. It is necessary to create special fishing gear
and develop a process for removing the hard chitinous shell from the small
delicate crustaceans.
The second path is the use of the biological resources of the open ocean.
It is well known that the biological productivity of the ocean is
especially great in the vicinity of the upwelling of deep water rich in
nutrients the so-called upwellings. For example, the upwelling off the
coast of Peru makes up a total of only 0.02% of the area of the World
Ocean, but it yields 15% of the world catch of fish. The existence of
upwellings, although, probably not with the same characteristics, is
possible in the open ocean. In particular, in the synoptic eddies with
a cold nucleus which we have discussed above, upwelling of the water and car-
rying away of nutrients occur. These regions are distinguished by
increased biological productivity. It is Piitirely possible that in some
parts of the ocean it is possible to consti-uct artificial upweilings.
In other regions it is necessary to fertilize the sea water to increase
the bioproductivity of various forms of life, from algae to fish.
The third path is breeding of animate organisms in the ocean. With
respect to the ocean we are essentially in the position of primitive man
and we are engaged only in hunting. The time has come to begin to breed
fish, grow mussels, algae, and so on. In this respect the shoals, bays
and gulfs are prospective. The cultivation of new fish for the given
regions, the offspring of which are imported from other seas, even oceans,
frequently is highly effective.
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However, whatever path we select, it is first of all necessary to know -
the biological structure of the ocean, that is, how the biomass is
distributed in the ocean, how the various organisms interact with each
other, how energy is transported through the food chain from the simpler
_ to the more complex organisms, what conditions are needed for faster
breeding of certain elements of the biological chain, and so on.
The role of the physical conditions is illustrated most clearly by the
upwellir.g phenomenon, but in practice in all other cases they play a highly
_ significant role. Let us consider, for example, the breeding of phyto-
= plankton in the vicinity of Antarctica. Its greatest productivity is
noted approximately 2 months after the maximum sunlight. The question is
why? It would appear that the presence of nutrients and sunlight is
entirely sufficient for rapid breeding of it, but the situation is not
that simple. The phytoplankton mul.tiply the fastest when appropriate
stratification takes place in the upper layers of the ocean, when a dis-
continuity layer exists, the water in the upper layers of the ocean
ceases to mix witri the deeper water. These conditions come 3pproximately
2 months after maximum sunlight, that is, af tPr the upper layers of the
ocean are well heated.
This example convincingly indicates that it is necessary to create a
theory of the biological community of the ocean as a whole or at least in
individual regions considering the physical, chemical and other conditic+ns.
It must be developed as the theories of large systems are developed
using modern mathematical methods and electronic computers. Only after
caref ully studying the interrelations of various chains of the biological
system of the ocean can we most effectively utilize its resources without
disrupting its principles. Scientists throughout the world are now work-
ing on this problem, including the scientists of the USSR Academy of
Sciences and many other departments.
8. Pollution of the World Ocean
One of the many functions of the World Ocean having decisive significance
for the existence of mankind is the processing and neutralization of
numerous waste products coming into it from the rivers or directly, for
example, emergency oil spills during marine extraction, disasters with
tankers, and so on. Much harmful industrial waste comes into the ocean,
including the heavy metals lead, mercury, and so on. For example,
thellorth Atlantic is strongly contaminated by such waste. Finally,
numerous poisons, pesticides, part of which in the final analysis we
consume together with fish, come into the rivers and then to the seas
and oceans from the fields.
Until recently the ocean dealt with its own purifier function. However,
the danger has now arisen that the load on it in the form of pollution is
becoming extraordinary, and this can have irreversible consequences.
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For example, let us consider the question of pollution with oil and
petroleum products. A very thin (about 1 mm) surface layer of the water
in the ocean to a 5ignificant degree regulates the heat and moisture
exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean. On the appearance of an
oil slick the characteristics of this layer also change, as a result of
which the processes of the interaction of the atmosghere and the ocean
take place differently. This can have a significant effect on weather
and climate, on the underwater life in the ocean, on the influx of solar
energy to its waters, and so on.
Another example is still clearer. The role of nuclear power engineering
is growing continuously and will grow in the future. Here the question
arises of how to deal with the harmful radioactive was::e from nuclear _
power plants? Among them are elements with a halflife of millions of
years. Thus, burial must be exceptionally reliable. Even the smallest
fraction of this waste must not get into the natural circulation for
millions of years.
Approximately 10 years ago plans were developed abroad for dumping con-
tainers with radioactive waste in the deepest parts of the World Ocean.
Soviet scientists raised sharp objections to these plans (in this respect
a great deal of credit goes to Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy
of Sciences V. G. Bogorov). They demons trated that even in the deepest
ocean basins there are currents, and water from these depressions will
gradually mix with the water of the ent ire ocean. As a result, these
plans were not implemented. In subsequent years additional facts were
discovered indicating that deep-water b asins are regions of the greatest
seismicity. In these regions located on the edges of the oceans, the
oceanic earth's crust creeps under the continental crust. Therefore
cataclysms of one sort or another are frequent there: eruption of
volcar.oes, earthquakes and so on, and danger of the moat extraordinary
mechanical rupture of the containers is great.
In recent years new plans have arisen in which it is proposed that the
containers with radioactive waste be placed in the center of the tectonic
plates. It is considered that at these points the seismic situation is
the quietest. A discussion of this plan has been the subject of an
entire issue of the OCEANUS journal of Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
in the United States.l
Thus, there are many dangers threatening the ocean. The role of the
scientists is to discover them in time, find the solutions to the prob-
lems facing mankind on the path of exploitation of the ocean.
lOCEANUS, Vol 20, No 1, 1977.
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9. New Methods and Means of Studying the Ocean
lJlth time, both the methods and means of studying the ocean have been
improved. In ttie last S to 8 years the so-called test area method oE
investigatinn whicti was tirst widely used in the "Polygon-70" experiment
in the Atlantic tropical zone, has become widespreacl_. The essence of the
nethod consists in the fact that in the comparatively large body ot
water of the ocean there are ships or autonomous buoys from wliich pro-
longed synchronous observations are made of the state of the ocean (on
the surface and at various depths) and also of the atmosphere. Tiiese
exPeriments make it possible to obtain sufficiently reliable answers to
the questions of the nature of the processes occurring in the depths of
the ocean and also the interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere. The
previously practicedcnethod of investigation in sections or at defined
po:tnts of the ocean from one ship or the performance of multiple-day
- slations turns out to be less effective. Actually, it is possible to
obtain data at various points of the ocean at diPferent times. Here fre-
yuently it is impossible to determine what causes the change in state of
the ocean on going from one point to another is it the result of a
ciiange in the geographic coordinates or simply the resu.lt of the fact that
some Cime has passed. Of course, a great deat oi: data is now obtained
from individual ships, but the trend is toward planning large test area
experiments,
Another presently developing, highly prospective method of investigating
tfie ocean is connected with the use of the space media orbital stations
or artificial earth satellites. It is possible that only this will nerniit
us to obtain a sufficient quantity of information about the condition of -
the ocean equal to the amount of data on the state of the atmosphere.
- Now let us discuss the means of investigating the ocean. Ttie basic
.Instrument used until recently by the Soviet researchers to. measure ocean
currents was the Alekseyev alphabetic printing current meter. It has
performed a great service and has been used, in particular, in "Polygon-70."
However, this instrument has a number of significant deficiencies. One
of them consists in the fact that the measurement results are recorded on
papei, tapes; then they must be manually copied onto the punch tape for
subsequent processing by computer. Now the autonomous instruments are
beginning to be widespread which record data on magnetic tape or photo-
graphic film with mechanized transmission of the data to a computer for
processing. The instruments which give not an instantaneous value of the
current velocity vector, but one averaged over a defined time interval
have an important advantage here. The analogous instruments are also
available for measuring the temperature and salinity of the water. This
type ot instrument, just as the current meters are suspended at the buoy
installations at various levels on a cable running from an anchor to the
surface or submerged buoy,
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fiowever, the continuous dependence of the current feed on the depth can
be obtained only using continuous-sounding instruments, one of which is
ttie instrument with cross ultrasonic beams (Gross beam). Here the
current velocity is determined by the DopplPr effect for ultrasonic waves.
_ The instrument is lowered into the water on a cable until it reaches a
sufficiently great depth from the drifting ship. The data obtained are
continuously recorded on board the ships. By using such an instrument,
the Soviet scientists first detected the thin interlayering of the
currents in the ocean.
Free-falling current sondes exist. As a rule, they are based on the
phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. The water particles f lowing
between two electrodes in the earth's magnetic field create a difference
in electric voltages on these electrodes.
A great deal of interesting data on the ocean current has been obtained
by using drifting buoys with underwater sail or buoys with neutral buoyancy.
In the former case the surface buoy is connected by a cable to a sail
located at the depth where the current is measured. The current, acting
on the sail, moves the surface buoy along. Either a ship or an artificial
earth satellite tracks the movement of the buoy.
In contrast to these buoys, the neutral-buoyancy buoys are autonomous.
After being dropped in the water they sink to a previously defined depth,
they reach equilibrium, and then they move together with the water masses.
The location of the buoys is periodically determined using sound signals
transmitted by them and received by a number (no less than three) of
- the sound receiving stations. Thus, the American researchers obtained a
great deal of interesting data on the currents in the eddies of synoptic
scale in the Sargasso Sea.
The temperature and salinity of different depths were almost always
measured until recently by tipping thermometers and bathometers. All
the basic data are received using continuously submerged sondes, which
simultaneously measure the temperature, the electrical conductivity
(and by them the salinity is calculated) at depth. This is a significantly
more operative metliod than the construction of hydrologic stations using
tipping thermometers.
Operative measurements of the temperature in the upper layers of the
ocean (to approximately 700 meters) is possible from a ship or air-
craft using expendable bathythermographs. In this case the instrument
dropped from the ship or from the aircraft, makes sounds and transmits
information about the vertical temperature profile through a th in wire
to the ship or by radio to the aircraft. After each experiment the
instrument is lost, but it is inexpensive and, in any case, cheaper than
the information obtained.
In addition, there are sondes which also record many components of the
chemical composition of the water: oxygen, phosphorus, carbon dioxide,
pH, and so on.
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There are highly complex multifunctional buoys which are installed on
anchor at defined points in the ocean. They transmit information on the
condition of ocean depths (current, temperature, salinity), and also rhe
layer of the atmosphere next to the water on the artificial earth
' satell.ites. These are reliable, but quite expensive systems. Tllere is
an international project IGOSS (Integr.ated Global Ocean Station System) wliirli
provides for the installation of several hundreds of such buoys throughout
the entire World Ocean. However, unfortunately, this project will be very
expensive.
It must be noted that at a small number of points in the ocean there
have been "weather ships" from a number of countries, including the Soviet
Unior:, standing continuous watch for a long time. The information about
the characteristics of the ocean and atmosphere measured from these ships
are transmitted to the International Data Centers. These measurements
over many years have great scientiFic value.
The station platforms on the bottom and on the shoals are also used for
research purposes. From them it is possible continuously to measure the
characteristics of the wave and any other parameters of the water and air
masses in the given region. One such platform is located in the Caspian
Sea, 30 km from Baku. The scientists of the Azerbaydzhan SSR Academy of
Sciences and also the Institute of Oceanology and the Institute of
Atmospheric Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciances have obtained many
interesting data pertaining to the dynamics of the wave action, the
cYiaracteristics of internal waves and also the thin interlaqering of the
water masses.
However, it is impossible to install such platforms in a deep place. In
these cases stabilized anchored buoys are used. One such buoy is the
"Flip" of the Scripps Oceanographic Institute in the United States. This
structure can be towed any distance like a ship. At the given point it
is tipped, assuming a vertical position and is put on anchor. As a
result of its elongated shape it stays almost stationary even in high
waves. The scientists are located in a special laboratory with their
equipment in the upper part of the buoy above water, and they can perf orm
observations of the wave action, currents, and the underwater ocean noise,
and so on.
Ttie current fluctuations caused by comparatively fine-scale turbulence
(scales from several centimeters to tens of ineters) are measured from
stabilized buoys, platforms or ships using the instruments turbulimeters.
These are low-inertia instruments which continuous record three components
of the current velocity as functions of time.
The problem of investigating the internal waves in the ocean is very
complex. In the American MODE experiment, a complex three-legged struc-
rure was used from the bottom to the surface (the spacing between the
supports was about 5 km). In the "legs" of the structure there were a
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large number oE current and temperature gauges. Ideally this permits
determination of all of the necessary space and time characteristics of
the internal waves, but it is very complicated and expensive. More fre-
quently the studies of the internal waves are performed by the method of
small polygons on which chains of temperature gauges are towed behind ttie
ship. The ship makes a so-called asterisk a system of tacks in
different directions. This procedure is not acceptable if the waves are
highly unstationary and their characteristics vary dur:ng the process of
the experiment itself, usually lasting about 15 to 20 hours.
liy the initiative of the Soviet scientists, the studies of the internal
waves have begun to be performed, applying the so-called distributed temp-
erature gauges. In order to measure the temperature at one point, the
average temperature is measured with their help in a defined depth range.
With such temperature averaging with respect to depth (usually within the
limits of 10 to 20 meters) interfering multifrequency noise is picked up
from ttie recordings which permits more exact isolation of the internal
waves themselves. However, the experimental study of the internal waves
still presents great complexities.
For investigation of the parts of the bottom relief of the ocean, a side
scanning sonar is widely used, which we discussed previously, and for
investigation of the internal structure of the bottom, a seismoprofilograph.
In this instrument there is a low-frequency sound emitter "air gun,"
which periodically ejects a defined volume of air into water under in-
_ creased pressure. The latter, expanding, generates a side wave which
passes through the entire body of the ocean, then it penetrates the bottom
and is propagated downward into it, subsequently being reflected from the
various nonuniformities. The reflected waves are picked up by sound
receivers located in the hydroacoustic gear towed behind the ship. This
method permits continuous determination of the bottom structured depths
of several kilometers as the ship moves.
Uf course, when studying the structures of several upper kilometers of
sedimentary series of the bottom the most productive, although most
expensive metliod is the method of direct drilling of the bottom.
Important results about the surface structure and the body of the ocean
Eloor can be obtained from research submarines. Recently such studies
were performed on the "Paysis" [Pisces] submarines by Soviet scientists
in Lake Baykal. American, French and English scientists used the "Alvin"
research submarine capable of descending to depths of up to 6 km to
investigate the structure of the mid-Atlantic ridge. Lava eruptions indi-
cating continuous inflow of molten material from the depths of the earth
in the given region were recorded.
It is necessary also to recognize the autonomous unmanned means of explor-
ing the ocean floor and the body of it as prospective. They can be
controlled by a cable or operate independently by a given program,
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The sea floor has been investigated more than once by manned underwater
craft in which aquanauts have spent prolonged periods of time. They went
into the ocean, conducted continuous observations of the state of the
environment, took samples, and so on. These craft are prospective for
servicing underwater industrial installations.
Ocean exploration spacecraft are developed. By scattering electromagnetic
waves on the ocean surface from space it is possible to deCermine the
spatial and frequency spectra of the ocean waves. Knowing the latter, it
is possible to calculate the speed of the surface wind and also the flow
velocity of the surface layers of the water. By infrared emission of the
surface, the surface temperature of the water is determined, by the
reflection coefficient of the electromagnetic wave from the air-water
interf ace it is possible to determine the electrical conductivity, which
also means the salinity of the water. By its color, it is possible to
establish the degree of pollution and also a degree of development of
biological life in the given region.
From space it is possible to detect schools of fish and also to study the
peculiarities of the bottom relief in shallow regions and even observe tlie
internal waves. By using the hydrodynamic and thermedynamic models of
- the ocean, by the data on the surface and upper layers of the ocean it is
possibJ.e to draw some conclusions about the state of its internal layers.
10. Organization of Research in the Ocean
A number of organizations are engaged in the coordination of scientific
research on an international scale, the largest of which is the inter-
national oceanographic cocmnission under UNESCO. Under the aegis of this
commission a number of large scale studies have already been realized,
in particular, studies of the Indian Ocean, zones of the Caribbean Sea,
the Kuroshio Current, and so on. The most important scientific problems
of an international nature pertaining to the study af the ocean have been
worked out within the framework of the International Council for Ocean
Studies (the national member of this council in the USSR is the Commission
on World Ocean Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences).
The cooperation of these scientists in the USSR, Po]_and, the German
Democratic Republic, Bulgaria, Romania and Cuba in studying the ocean is
bei.ng coordinated within the framework of the CEMA by a special coordinat-
ing center existing under the Oceanology Institute of the USSR Academy of
Sciences. Under the Committee on Science and Engineering of the USSR
Council of Ministers there is a scientific council for the study of the
[Jorld Ocean and the use of its resources.
The 25th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union has stated
the problem of investigating the World Ocean and using its resources for
a number of the main goals of Soviet science. The organization and
coordination of these studies in which thousands of scientific coworkers
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are participating on hundreds of research vessels and many scientific
research organizations is becoming extremely important. The plan for
complex use of the ocean approved by the USSR State Committee on Science
and Engineering for the Tenth Five-Year Plan was compiled by the
Commission on World Ocean Problems ofthe USSR academy of Sciences jointly
wi th other departments in accordance with a new principle. It consists
basically of the scientific programs providing for studies in clearly
defined areas. The participation in the plans of the different departments
under the direction of the main department has been provided for. This
will permit not only concentration of the efforts of the scientists of
different institutes on the most important problems but also it will per-
mit the studies to be made more effective. It is sufficient to remember
that not long ago the expeditions of various departments went into the
same ocean, in the same year, and each ship worked by its own plan.
Let us discuss the most significant plans for ocean studies. Some of them,
such as, for example, the international programs GARP and POLYMODE, and
also the international deep drilling project in the ocean have been dis-
cussed above.
tdork will be continued in the framework of the international "Geodynamics"
project, the goal of which is to study the spatial nonuniformities of the
earth's crust and the mantle in the ocean, the transition zones of the
crust of the ocean type to the crust of the continental type, improvement
of the hypothesis of the origin and the development of the ocean floor.
National projects also have great significance in which the efforts of
Soviet scientists are concentrated. One of them is the "Biotalassa"
pr oject. Its goal is to study the principles of the formation of bio-
productivity of regions of the ogen ocean which are prospective in fish-
ing respects.
The work with respect to the interdepartmental project "Geos" is arousing
interest. Its goal is to study the geological structure of the sedi-
mentary layer in the oceans and seas, comparison of the geological sec-
tions in various parts of the World Ocean, discovery of the laws of
sediment accumulation and also the features of the geological structure
based on the continuous seismic profiling data.
Th e"Volna" [Wave] project is also important. Its goal is to study
surface and internal waves in the ocean.
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INTIItNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE STUDY OF THE WORLD OCEAN
[Article by A. S. Monin, Ye. A. Tsvetkova]
.
� ~
e
~
~
, y .
i
Andrey Sergeyevich Monin,
corresponding member of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, director of the
Oceanology Institute of the USSR
Academy of Sciences imeni
P. P. Shirshov is involved with the
problems of geophysical hydro-
dynamics. He is actively working
on the implementation of the pro-
grams of.international scientific
cooperation in the area of investi-
gation of the World Ocean, in
particular, Soviet-American studies
of ocean currents and ocean dynamics
(the POLYMODE progr.am).
28
Elena Alekseyevna Tsvetkova,
scientific coworker, scientific
secretary of the Commission on
International Scientific Relations
of the Oceanology Institute of the
USSR Academy of Sciences imeni
P. P. Shirshov, is working on the
problems of international scien-
tif ic cooperation in the f ield of
World Ocean exploration.
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The effort to obtain the greatest cost benefit from marine studies in the
shortest time, to exclude duplication to the maximum degree, and to
achieve more efficient use of the scientific forces and material resources
expended on the projects, has led to t}le fact that a number of countries
have already developed, are develop�inig or are planning in the near future
to develop long-range national programs for oceanological research. This
effort has given rise to the creation in a number of countries of
coordinating aoencies with respect to oceanological research in the form
of national committees and councils or other institutions endowed with
great powers.
~ However, the comprehensive independent study of the World Ocean is a
problem which is beyond the means of any one country. Thus, no one coun-
try can allocate the required number of special research ships and
scientific personnel fAr studying ocean processes which sometimes vary in
a few hours over a significant body of water. It is only as a result of
the close cooperation of scientists and specialists oT different countries
- working on the same oceanological problems that in the final analysis it
is possible to obtain exact scientific representation of the ocean as a
whole and the processes originating in it and the most effective paths of
the use of its resources can be found. Such cooperation is possible only
on efficient organization and coordination of it on an international scale.
1. Goals and Forms of International Cooperation in the Study of the
World Ocean
- In what way does international cooperation promote the solution of the
problems facing the oceanologists of different countries, in what areas
of oceanological.research is it most necessary, and what are its most
efficient forms?
- The experience of recent years indicates that not only is the exchange o�
scientific information and mutual standardization of the instruments and
measurement techniques needed, but also joint expeditionary studies of
the ocean, cooperation in the field of monitoring the state and protection
of: the marine environment, and use of navigational means.
The exchange of scientific information permitting specialists of different
ar.eas of oceanology to ohtain the required data on the oceans on the
scale uf the entire planet quickly and without great material expenditures
is possible only on the basis of international cooperation.
The publication of scientific results obtained by the oceanologists of `
various countries, in the special scientific journals, many of which are
widely circulated and the total number of which increases from year to
year, the participation in the international meetings on the most urgent
problems of oceanology, exchange of scientists among the institutions
of the country interested in the development of marine science, the
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strengthening of contacts between them and, finally, obtaininb tlie requirecl
information through the world data centers all of these are tested
means of exchange of scientific information on an international basis.
The existing system of world data centers includes the data centers A and
B(oceanography) in the United States (Washington) and the USSR (Moscow),
respectively, and also permanent centers (disciplinary, regional and
national). The system, which was completed during ths period of the
International Geophysical Year (1957-1958) has completely justified itself.
The results of the studies performed by the published national prugrams
obtained during the course of joint international measures; voluntary
contributions of the governments and indivi4ual scientists come into the
data centers. Then after recording and maximum possible standardization
this information is processed and disseminated among the interested
sides. Thus, it becomes possible to study ocean phenomena on a world
scale and study the interdisciplinary interrelations among the various
phenomena.
Mutual calibration and standardization of instruments and measurement
techniques is a required condition for comparing the observation results
in the ocean by the various countries. Here the reliability of the
measurements increases without which correct description and recognition
of the investigated processes is impossible. Now it is obvious that the
differences in the results obtained in the past by various countries were
primarily connected with differences in the instruments and measurement
techniques. The experiments with respect to mutual calibration and
international standardization organized and performed under the aegis of
international organizations will permit achievement of a united degree
of accuracy and complete comparableness of ineasurements.
As is known, at the present time the oceanologists of the various coun-
tries are making wide use in their research of certain basic standards,
for example, standard seawater and carbon-14 solution, standard plankton
networks, certain constants and functions, including the coefficients
entering into the equation of state of seawater, and so on. For inter-�
national studies of the ocean performed on broad scales, the standardiza-
tion of the methods of recording the obtained data is acquiring special
significance. The volume of scientific and accompanying materials which
must be exchanged is exceptionally high, and their effective processing
b_y modern automated systems within the framework of one country can be
achieved primarily by standardization of the form of representation of
all of the primary data for putting them in the computers on an inter-
national basis.
Joint expeditionary studies of the World Ocean, as has been pointed out,
are necessary on the basis of the nature and the scales of the processes
occurring in it. These ocean studies on an international basis will
permit us to study large-scale interaction of the ocean and atmosphere
and to develop the scientific principles of ocean forecasting; to create
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a global network of ocean stations which receive broad timely and
synchrono us information about the state of the World Ocean as a whole
and the p r ocesses occurring in it, to investigate the number and the distribution of the fish populations and their interrelation for purposes
of increas ing and maintaining the world catch of fish; to study the
ocean floor using the methods of modern geophysics and deep-sea drilling
to discover the geological history of the oceans.
The monitoring of the state of the marine environment and preservation of
it can be realized only on the basis of international cooperation.
At the pr esent time the joint efforts of the oceanologists of different
countries have been aimed at creating scientific principles of the predic-
tion and the prevention of destructive natural phenomena originating in the
ocean. It is possible to include hurricanes and typhoons, storm waves
and tsunami, catastrophic death of commerical species of fish caused by
meteorolo g ical factors, eruption of underwater volcanoes, and so on among
them.
The international cooperation in the study of these phenomena will promote
the fastes t recognition of the nature of their occurrence and the develop-
ment of protective measures or measures to decrease their destructive
consequenc es.
International cooperation in the matter of controlling the pollution of
the ocean is no less important, the absence of which can lead to conse-
quences that are fatal to mankind. The joint study of undesirable conse-
quences of human activity in the ocean pollution of its water, in
particular, the coastal water with domestic and industrial waste water,
petroleum products, radioactive waste, and so on will permit the creation
of an effective system for monitoring the state of the marine environment,
the develo pment of effective complexes of organizational-technical
measures f or the control of pollution and maintenance of purity of the
oceans and seas in which everyone living on our planet is interested.
Use of Navigational Means. It is well known that the results of any
uperations in the ocean carried out from on board scientific research
sliips depend to a high degree on the precision of navigation. Recently
the methods of precision navigation even at great distances from the dry
land based on using low-frequency radio equipment or artificial earth
satellites have become widely developed. Ttie realization of these
methods is possible only on the basis of international cooperation in
various f orms. They include the granting of plots in the various countries
Eor ground installations, the dissemination on a world scale of the
required e quipment or specifications for radio receivers that use
satellite s ignals, and so on. ~
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2, International Oceanolagical Organizations
- The history of the creation of international organizations in the field c,f
oceanology goes back to 1902 when the International Counc il ror the
Exploration of the Sea (ICES) was created. Its goals were limited to the
problems of fishing oceanography in the North Sea and the northeastern
parts of the Atlantic Ocean. In subsequent years the growth of inter-
national activity in the field of ocean studies led to the creation of
an entire series of special international organizations.
Today the world has more than 30 such organizations. They are divided
_ into basic groups: nongovernmental and intergovernmental. The members
of the former usually are academies of sciences, national scientific
councils, and so on. The intergovernmental organizations are divided
into those connected with the UNO system and those not connected with it.
, The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) is an important
- nongovernmental organization. It is the largest association of national
scientific institutions and international unions, committees and commis-
sions created in 1931 to establish scientific relations between the coun-
tries and for coordination of the activity of the interna tional scientific
unions in all areas of natural sciences, including tne area of oceanology.
At the present time the members of the ICES are scientif ic institutions
_ of 64 countries of the world; the council includes 16 sc ientific unions
of which the International Geodetic and Geophysics Unions (with the
International Association of Physical Sciences of the Ocean and the
International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics), the
International Union of Geological Sciences (with the International
Association of Sedimentologists and the Commission on riar ine Geolagy), and
the International Union of Biological Sciences (with the International
Association of Biological Oceanography) study the problems of oceanology
to one degree or another.
For concentration of the efforts of the scientists in the most urgent
problems of oceanology the ICES has created a number of special committees
under its direct subordination and having representatives of several
unions in it. Among such committees the problems of oceanology are
directly dealt with by the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCUR).
The Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research created in 1957 is in
essence the main international scientific organization in the field of
oceanology. The SCOR is the basic scientific-consultative agency of the
International Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO which gives its assistance
in the solution of many purely scientific problems which arise in the
organization of oceanographic cooperation among an intergovernmental
level. The primary goal of SCOR is to promote the development of the
international scientific activity in all fields of oceanological research
by organizing discussions with respect to the most important problems
and cooperation with the other interested international organizations.
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At the present time the SCOR members are 34 representatives of national
acauCmies of sciences or the organizations corresponding to them and
6 representatives of the various ICES unions.
The greater part of the work of SCOR is performed through its groups
created for the solution of individual scientif ic problems of oceanology.
At the present time there are 20 working groups coordinating the studies
of the internal dynamics of the ocean, the influence of the ocean on
climate, the possibiliti^s of mathematical simulation of oceanic processes
and also biological oceanography, the biological effects of the variability
of the ocean, the processes of equatorial upwellings of the water,
paleooceanography, and so on. Through its working groups the SCOR is
the initiator of the holding and the organizer of the international
scientific symposia and conferences with subsequent publication of the
scientific works. With the active participation of the SCOR, the
oceanologists of the various countries perform joint projects at sea,
including for the calibration of instruments and procedures.
The International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Ocean
(IAPSO), one of seven associations of the International Geodetics and
Geophysics Union (IGGU) of the ICSU created in 1922 and receiving its
present-day name in 1967, has a direct beari.ng on oceanology. However,
in contrast to the SCOR, the class of problems of which encompasses all
areas of oceanology, the IAPSO, as the name itself indicates, deals with
the problems of physical oceanography, that is, the study of the
physical processes in the ocean and at its boundaries calling on the
achievements of mathematics, physics and chemistry. This association
plays the role of the international coordinating agency in the indicated
region. There is naturally a close relation between the SCOR and the
IAPSO. The greater part of the work is performed by these organizations
through the working groups of the SCOR and the IAPSO (working groups,
commissions and committees). With respect to many of the most i.mportant
problems of oceanology joint working groups have been created among
which, for example, are WG No 10 "Oceanographic Tables and Standards";
WG No 34 "Internal Dynamics of the Ocean"; WG No 42 "Pollution of tlie
I3ultic Sea"; WG No 46 "Contribution of RivC,.s to the Oceanic System";
WG No 47 "Oceanographic Programs During the Period of the First GARP
Global Experiment"; WG No 48 "Effect of the Ocean on Climate"; WG No 49
"~fathematical Simulation of Oceanic Processes"; WG No 55 "Predictions of
the E1 Nino Phenomenon"; WG No 56 "Processes of the Equatorial Upwelling
of Water."
The activity of the majority of these joint groups, the work of which is
participated in by representatives of other international agencies also
turns out to be highly fruitful,, for example, in determining the most
urgent scientific problems of studying the ocean, the development of
joint research programs and rendering aid to the corresponding inter-
national and national organizations and their implementation.
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The SCOR and the IAPSO are large organizations of oceanologists playing
the role of international scientific consultative agencies. The practi-
cal organization of the studies in the ocean by coordination of the
studies of various countries are performed by Lhe interna tional organiza-
tions connect.ed with the UNO.
~
The basic one among them is the Intergovernmental Oceanographic ~
Commission (IOC) created in 1960 within th e framework of the United
Nations for the probleMS of education, science and culture (UNESCO) in
order "to promote the development of scientific studies of the oceans to
understand the nature and exploit the resources by joint activities of
its members." The members of the IOC of UNESCO include 64 governments at
the present time.
The IOC investigates the international programs of oceanological research
and also undertakes the necessary steps for implementation of them, it
analyzes the results of the scientific research and def ines the basic
problems requiring international cooperation, and it also offers reconunend-
ations regarding the nature, the forms and methods of exchange of
oceanological data through tte international and specialized data gather-
ing centers.
For implementation of special plans connected with ocean studies, the
IOC of UNESCO creates working groups, groups of experts an.d committees
from the interested members. Under the Presidium of the IOC of
UNESCO (the chairman and two vice chairmen) is the Consultative Council
oF Representatives of the Member Countries of the Commission which
helps in decision making with respect to all important problems between
IOC sessions.
The international progrdms of oceanographic research recommended by the
IOC of UNESCO to its members for specific execution are carried out by
the means of the participating governments by agreement with them and
also partially by the means of other international organizations of the
United Nations system (such as, for example, the Produce and Agricultural
Organizations of the United Nations FAO) which are not members of the
Commission, but agree to finance such programs.
The IOC of UNESCO also deals with such problems as the marking of the
oceanographic buoy stations, finding radio frequencies for use by
their oceanologists, the standardization of the methods of oceanological
research, the creation of tsunami warning systems, the development of
means of preventing ocean pollution, and so on. The commission has _
stimulated the preparation of the "long range and expanded program f or
research and exploitation of the World Ocean" (1970), the dev elopment
of which has been actively participated in by SCOR. Und er the guidance
of the IOC of UNESCO, a series of atlases of the Indian Ocean has been
prepared and published; the geological-geophysical atlases of the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are also being prepared for publication. -
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In dealing with the problems of international coordination of oceanolog-
ical research, the IOC maintains contacts with other oceanological
organizations. The clusest relation exists between the IOC of UNESCO
and the SCOR of the ICSU.
The IOC of UNESCO also cooperates with the nonoceanological organizations,
it comes to their aid when solving the most important problems connected
with studies of the World Ocean, for example, with the WMO (World
Pieteorological Organization) entering into the United Nations system,
although such is not recognized as participating in the investigation
in the majority of oceanological problems. Thus, in close cooperation
with the WMO and with the support of other interested organizations the
IOC of UNESCO is coordinating the wprk of the Integrated Global Ocean
Station System (IGOSS) and working in contact with the Wor1d Weather
Service under the conditions developed by the WMO and the IOC. The
purpose of IGOSS is to provide the broadest, timely and systematic
information about the state of the ocean required for observation of phe-
nomena on a global scale which in the final analysis will help to develop
reliable methods of predicting th e state of the o ceanic environment and
weather.
The IOC of UNESCO has a great deal of experience in the organization and
the performance of large-scale international studies in various parts of
the TJorld Ocean based on cooperation with certain regional oxganizations,
primarily with the already-mentioned ICES. The value of the joint
regional studies consists in the fact that the results obtained supple-
ment the materials of the large scale international research programs
realized under the aegis of the IOC of UNESCO.
3. Examples of Studies of the World Ocean Based on International
Cooperation
For proper understanding of the set of physical, chemical and biological
processes occurring in one region or another of the World Ocean, their
- interrelations and mutual dependence, regular synoptic surveys are
required which are performed by several ships over the entire area of
this region.
In the last two decades the IOC of UNESCO in cooperation with other
organizations of the United Nations system and the ICSU, based on the
scientific consultation of SCOR, has organized and performed a number
of large-scale international expeditions in the Indian, Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans and also in Antarctic waters,the Mediterranean and the
Caribbean Seas.
The International Indian Ocean Exp::lition (IIOE) in 1959-1965 was partic-
ipated in by 23 countries (14 of which provided their own ships),
40 scientific research vessels, 180 scientific research trips of
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different duration and comple:city were made. The results cbtained were
published with the direct participation of the IOC of UNESCU. In partic-
ular, the collections of expedition materials (5 volumes) and also a
series of IIOE atlases on various divisions of the research were widely
dtsseminated.
The International Joint Studies of the Tropical Regions of the Atl.antic
_ Ocean were performed in 1965-1964 in three phases (CKVALANT I-III) with
the participation of 8 countries. Thirty ships completed 36 scientiFic _
research trips. On the basis of the results of these studies in
accordance with the UNESCO IOC line, an Tropical Atlantic Ocean Atlas was -
published ,
- The studies of the Kuroshio Current and a number of r.egions of the Pacific
_ Ocean (STK) were performed in 1965-1967 by representatives of 11 countries.
Thirty-six scientific research vessels completed 36 scientific expeditions
to study the variability of Kuroshio and also discover the geological
and geophysical peculiarities af the region and establish its biological
resources. The latter has special significance for Che population of the -
area which obtains its protein food basically from products of the sea.
From 1970 to 1975 a broad program of joint scientific studies was imple-
mented under the aegis of the UNESCO IOC in the Caribbean-Mexican Basin
wtiich was called SIKAR. The joint efforts of 20 participating countries
~ in the program were directed toward the accelerated and broadened under-
standing of the nature of the region, its physical-chemical regime,
hydrography, geology, exploration and subsequent development of mineral,
energy an3 biological resources and also rendering of aid to the develop-
ing countries of the region in the assimilation of modern methods of mari-
time research and the training of national oceanological personnel,
The Soviet Union participated in all of these IOC research programs.
A good example of the cooperation of intergovernmental and nongovernmental
international organizations for science is the Global Atmospheric Research
Program (GARP) . It was undertaken jointly by the ICSU and WMO. Its
purpose was to improve the undcrstanding of the general atmospheri.c cir-
culation and, consequently, to develop more exact methods of long-range
weather forecasting. The implementation of this, one of the most impor-
tant, program was participated in by scientists in the field of atmospheric
pliysics, oceanology and adjacent disciplines directing their efforts at
the study of atmospiteric processes on a global scale. The studies by
this program are coordinaCed by the United Organizational Committee (UOC)
created by the ICSU and the WMO in 1967. The UOC, which includes the
scientists of 12 countries, is a scientific agency which investigates
all of the proposals and generates recommendations.
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Under the experimental subprograms of GARP known as the Atlantic Tropical
Experiment (GATE, from GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment) was executed
; in the tropical part of the Atlantic Ocean in June-September 1974.
During the co urse of GATE-74 which was participated in by 25 ships and
- 12 aircraft, valuable scientific data were obtained for checking models
of different atmospheric processes to include them in the final descrip-
tion of the general atmospheric circulation and also in the forecasting
systems based on this description. On the basis of the data obtained, an
international GATE oceanographic atlas has been created.
At this time the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) for the study of
general atmospheric circulation is being carried out with the participation
of a large number of scientific research vessels and meteorological
satellites of many countries of the world. The experiment will be carried
out in 1979.
During the process of FGGE, a study will be made of the structure of the
current f ield and the fields in the equatorial parts. of the ocean and
the reaction of these fields to the effect of the atmosphere which is
variable in time. An important part of the program is the study of the
time-space structure of the equatorial subsurface countercurrents, in
particular, the phenomena of ineandering of the equatorial countercurrents
predicted by theory and established experimentally during the GATE.
The Soviet Union is parti^ipating in FGGE, the preparation for which, in-
cluding the numerical experiments with respect to the problems of general
atmospheric and ocean circulation, the study of the boundary layer of the
ocean and atmosphere, oceanic currents, and so on, and it has been success-
fully performed by Soviet scientists for a numb er of years. _
Experience shows that the effect of the collective efforts of several
countries is f elt not only purely mathematically, but also scientifically,
for it permits investigation of large-scale phenomena.
4. Participation of the USSR in the Work of the International Oceanologi-
cal Organizations
In the U5SR the oceanological studies on the national level are coordinated
by the Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences on Problems of the
World Ocean and the Oceanographic Committee of the Soviet Union under the
Sta;e Committee of the USSR on Science and Engineering, and with respect
to certain problems, also the USSR Ministry of Fishing and the State
Committee of Hydrometeorology and Monitoring of the Natural Environment
of the USSR. Soviet representation in the principal international
oceanological organizations is accomplished through these organizations.
Soviet scientists are participating especially actively in the SCOR
act!vities. The membership of the USSR in SCOR is maintained by the USSR
Academy of Sciences through its Comnission on World Ocean Problems, which
plays the role of the national committee of oceanologists.
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For many years Soviet researchers have participated in the activity of
the SCOR Working Group No 10 "Oceanographic Tables and Standards." For
compiling the international tables for calculating salinity by the
measured electrical conductivity the WG No 10 has analyzed several
hundreds of seawater samples gathered in all parts of the World Ocean
fram the ships of diff erent countries. A result of this work is the
publication of the "International Oceanological Tables" which at the
present time are widely used by the oceanologists of various countries,
including the Soviet Union. For the compilation of such tables by the
efforts of one government it wou13 be necessary to perform several large-
- scale oceanographic expeditions, and the work of a number of experts f or
at least 2 or 3 years would be needed.
It is necessary to consider the performance of the international compara- tive tests of current meters from on board the scientific research vessel
"Akademik Kurchatov" iii accordance with the SCOR line in 1970 with the
participation of representatives of 6 countries no less fruitful. The
USSR Academy of Sciences received the thanks of the SCOR leadership for `
the successful performance of these tests. During the course of the
aperations, current meters were calibrated, which permitted estimation
- of the degree of accuracy of the data obtained over the course of almost
20 years by the BPV type meter of the Alekseyev system. In addition, the
advantages and disadvantages of the various instruments being calibrated
were discovered, which will be taken into account when designing new
types of current meters.
The many years of participation of Soviet scientists in the SCOR work
offers convincing evidence that further activity within the framework of
this organization is uncQnditionally expedient.
As has been noted above, a number of scientific problems solved by the
Scientific Committee on Oceanological Research are similar to the problems
within the scope of the IAPSO as a result of which a quite significant
part of the work is performed by the SCOR and the IAPSO in close coopera-
tion. On the national level it would be natural to expect just as close
coordination of the work of the organizations representing the USSR
within these international agencies. However, it is necessary to
mention with regrets the poor coordination of the activity of the Inter-
departmental Geophysics Committee under the Presidium of the USSR
Academy of Lciences dealing with the entry of the USSR into the IAPSO
and the C)mmission of the USSR Academy of Sciences on Problems of the
World Ocean through which our country is represented in the SCOR. As a
result of this, in recent years tbere has been noticeable weakening of
the activity of Soviet scientists in the work of the IAPSO.
Probably for this reason the scientists of the USSR Academy of Sciences
are not participating in the activity of one of the important inter-
national oceanological organizations, the ICES, which includes only the
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USSR Fishing Ministry. This situation obviously cannot be recognized
as satisfactory, for the ICES is an organization which deals not only
with fishing problems, but also scientific problems. Thus, the ICES
participated in the International Geophysical Year and also the "Overflow"
expedition (1960), during the course of which the Faero-Iceland Ridge
region was investigated.
Thus, the necessity for partictpation by Soviet oceanologists in the
ICES, and, above all, the scientists of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
along with the fishing specialists is obvious. It is expedient to
involve specialists from the USSR Fishing Ministry in the participation,
for example, in some of the SCOR working groups dealing with the problems
of marine biology (WG No 52 "Estimating the Quantities of Micronekton,"
WG No 54 "Live Resources of the Antarctic Ocean," WG No 55 "Prediction of
= the E1 Nino Phenomenon," WG No 56 "Processea of Equatorial Upwelling"
and so on). This would promote the making of more competent decisions
with respect to the specific problems of marine hydrobiological research.
At the present time the necessity has also arisen for a closer relation
between Soviet organizations which represent the USSR in the SCOR and the
WMO, that is, the Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences of Problems
of the World Ocean and the institutions of the State Committee of Hydro-
meteorology. The permanent working contacts between Soviet specialists
working in the SCOR and the WMO, mutual information about the studies per-
formed or planned by these organizations and mutual involvement of
specialists in the solution of individual important problems all o�
_ these are acquiring special significance today, during the active phase
of the first GARP Global Experiment.
As an active participant in all of the significant internatio:Zal programs
to study the World Ocean, the Soviet Union has always taken its proper
place in the UNESCO IOC, which solves important scientific problems on
an international level that are not within the power of one institution
or one country. The IOC renders a great deal of aid to the developing
countr.ies in the development of national oceanological programs, in the
creation of national oceanoiogical institutes. For almost two decades
of its existence the IOC has proved its usefulness as a powerful inter-
national coordinating organization in the field of oceanology which bases
its activity on the scientific consultations of respected international
organizations, and above all, the Scientific Comnittee on Oceanic Studies
ICSU the active organization in which scientific international
cooperation is effectively developed.
It is still more distressing that recently a trend has been noted toward
withdrawal of the UNESCO IOC from the solution of problems of a
scientific-organizational nature to the solution of problems on a
political and administrative level. In the commission activity a transi-
tion has been noted toward the analysis of the claims of individual
countries reflecting their political interests, the investigation of
which is the prerogar_ive of the United Nations. Accordingly, the number

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of requests for scientific recommendations on the part of the IOC to the
SCOR has diminished sharply. Moreover, the IOC has created its own
scientific-consultative office which essentially duplicates the SCOR func-
ti,ins and on the scientific level is neither sufficiently representative
nor sufficiently competent.
Ic is our firm conviction that the UNESCO IOC must rid itself ot bureau-
cratic tendencies noted in recent years and dedicate its work to a united
goal the development of scientific studies in the World Ocean.

_ The existence of a Iarge number of international organizations in the
field of oceanology can create the impression of "organizational overload."
However, if we consider the variety of problems involved in the explora-
tion and exploitation of the World Ocean, the number of oceanological
organizations existing at this time in the world does not yet appear too
large.
The most effective solution of these problems can be achieved as a result
of the joint efforts of the countries interested in the further development
of ocean studies with their coordination by the competent international
oceanological organizations.
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: INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF THE EXPLOITATION OF THE WORLD OCEAN
i
[Article by L. L. Lyubimov]
Lev L'vovich Lyubimov, candidate of economic sciences, head
of the Division of International Problems of the World Ocean
' of the Institute of World Economics and International Affairs
of the USSR Academy of Sciences, is a specialist in the
f ield of the economies of capitalist countries, economic
problems of the exploitation of the resources of the sea.
1. Pluralism and Its Negative Consequences
The international regulation of marine activity has been realiLed to one
degree or another since the standards and principles of the international
law of the sea arose and began to be developed. However, af ter World War II,
especially in recent years, this process has developed at an avalanche
pace. All forms of activity of governments in the World Ocean have been
subject to regulation in a short period of time.
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Until recently the, basic principle regulating the maritime activity was
freedom of the open sea. It meant that the oceans and their resources
are available for usa by any country. The scope of this principle
encompassed the entire World Ocean with the exception, as a rule, of a
three-mile zone of coastal waters. Today the situation is a different
one.
The sharp exacert,ation of the raw materials problem has increased universal
interest in the marine reserves of mineral raw materials. Scientific
and technical progress has provided for the possibility of effective
, industrial development of them. However, such possibilities have developed
only among a very limited group of highly developed countries. They
would have one-sided advantages in this area. Of course, some form of
international regulation of the given problem is possible, but many
_ maritime countries have taken another route, announcing their sovereignty
over the resources of the continental shelf.
This process started in 1945 by a declaration of President H. Truman
"U.S. Policy with Respect to Natural Resources of the Sea Floor and
Continental Shelf." Responsibility lies with the United States for the
first steps in the strangulation of the principle of freedom of the open
seas and unimpeded access of governments to the marine resources [4, 51.
Obviously the United States considered that the announcement of sover-
eignty over the resources is impossible on the greater part of the
continental shelves adjacent to the continents, the political maps of
which in 1945 were colored predominantly the color of the mother country.
At the same time it was proposed that the access of the developed
cap italist countries to the shelves would remain open. Subsequent events
upset these calculations.
At the end of the 1940's a number of Latin American countries announced
their rights not only to the resources, but also to the coastal areas
themselves. The concept of "territorialism" arose indicating mastery of
the coastal governments over the broad expanses of the sea adjacent to
their territory containing these resources. This led to further destruc-
tion of the principle of freedom of the open sea, to the situation where
governments capable of developing coastal maritime resources have lost
the possibility to do so. Hawever, the given process has not been
supported by the ma.jority of ma.ritime countries, and "territorialism" has
remained a relatively local phenomenon.
Nevertheless, the principle of sovereignty over the resources of the
coastal regions has been further developed, and today it is in fact
supported by all countries having an outlet to the sea. It has been
extended not only to mineral resources, but also to the biological
resources. This has led to the formation first of fishing and then
economic zones of various extent (as a rule, a 200-mile strip off shore).
By the end of 1977, more than 70 countries announced the introduction of
such zones. On completion of this process the resources of almost 40%
of the World Ocean will fall under the jurisdiction of maritime countries
[6].
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Ti�_ width of the territorial waters has also been subjected to more pre-
cise definition. In accordance with age-old tradition there was a
3-mile limit for such territories (the maximum range of a shore gun).
Today, with the exception of the followers of "territorialism," the major-
ity of maritime countries agree on the 12-mile limit. In order to insure
the security of these countries such a limit can be.considered optimal.
Nevertheless, within defined parts of the World Ocean it covers the
entire body of water. We are talking about so-called narrows (the
entrances to and the exits from the oceans, international straits, archi-
pelago waters, and so on). The overlapping of such expanses with terri-
torial waters has been for some countries adjacent to them the reason for
efforts to extend the regulating rules that are applicable in territorial
waters to these waters. If this trend received universal support and was
reinforced, there would be significant loss to the interests of inter-
national shipping [1].
Thus, recently a trend has appeared in the policies of the maritime coun-
tries for more intense regulation of marine activity in the seas adjacent
to them. This has been expressed in expansion of the territorial
sovereignty, in adopting a set of standards and rules regulating in prac-
tice all forms of maritime activity in the,~coastal regions. Customs,
_ sanitary, environmental protection, resources and other laws of the mari-
time countries, which differ significantly from each other, have begun
to be extended to.them. The unity of the World Ocean as a geographic
environment has been Juxtaposed with the pluralism of forms and types of
government regulation over a significant part of the ocean.
All of this has a negative effect on maritime activities.
Above all, the exploration and prospecting operations preceding the
extraction of mineral resources on the shelves have been greatly compli-
cated. The declaration by maritime countries of sovereign laws on these
shelves has been accampanied in many cases by the introduction ef the
mechanism of permission to perform scientific research connected with the
resources. However, since in practice it is impossible to delimit
"resource" investigations and "nonresource" investigations, in many of
the coastal areas all research in general has begun to be forbidden,
which has greatly complicated the procedure of making agreements between
foreign companies and the maritime country for permission to perform
research work. In addition, the prospecting and exploration without pre-
liminary agreement for subsequent stages (including extraction) are
accompanied with great risk and can turn out to be a net loss. There-
fore over a significant part of the continental shelves exploration work,
in particular, for oil and gas, is developing at a slow pace, whereas
the developed.countries have given enormous attention to it. As a result,
there is a serious disproportion in the operations with respect to
exploration and extraction of natural minerals on the shelves, although
nonunit`ormity in the geographic location of the marine oil and gas
resources is significantly less than on land.
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The set of forms and methods of regulation is felt still more negatively
in the f ishing industry. The access of foreign ships to the biological
resources of the fishing and ecouomic zones is conditioned by a significant
number of obligations which can be arbitrarily changed over the course of
the year. With respect to the investment process, ocean fishing does not
diffex.from any other form of productinn actj_vity. Of course, unjustified
fluctuations in the raw material base and assessment rates are holding up
the development of this branch, they are leading to a sharp reduction in
its cost effectiveness, and the outflow of capital from it. In the zones
of a number of countries which do not engage in intense fishing, foreign
fishing vessels are not permitted in general.
The establishment of fishing and economic zones has already led to the
reductian in the role, and in a number of cases, the actual eliminction
of regional international fishing organizations. Nevertheless, their
activity had great significance for the concentration of international
effort in the field of fishing reconnaissance, the discovery of potential
resources, constant improvement of their atudy and accumulation of the
necessary information.
The changes in the regulation of the conditions of marine activity have
to a significant extent touched on their commericial ahipping which depends
on the regime of the economic zones, the straits used for international
shippi,ng, archipelago and territorial waters, and so on [2].
In recent years a number of maritime countries have tried arbitrarily to
establish a regime for.the stopping of ships in ports and the use of it
to refuse permission to ships sailing under a defined flag. In addition
to direct losses which these measuras impose on young commercial fleets,
they naturally can cause a response reaction leading to a"port war."
Some countries are also raising the question of collecting fees "for the
right of passage of ships" through their waters. Such a measure has an
analog only in the early Middle Ages, and it is economically unjustified.
In the case of its application, serious material losses will be imposed
primarily on the fleets of the developing countries. For the first time
in the history of navigation, the problem has arisen of the possibility
of closure of one region or another to shipping. In particular, Canada
has already reserved commercial shipping in some areas adjacent to it as
its exclusive right.
Lack of united regulation of ineasures to protect the sea is promoting
expansion of discriminatory rights of the maritime countries. Individual
maritime countries have begun to introduce their own laws with respect to
protection of the marine environment, containing more rigid standards than
those adopted internationally.
In a number of cases the ma.ritime government, for example, is trying to
get the right to control the structural design, the equipment and composi-
tion of the crews on ships passing through its territorial waters or
economic zones. Although theoretically the purpose of this is to protect
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the cleanness of the marine environment, in practice such measures fre-
quently lead to discrimination against ships of certain countries. Simul-
taneously, the economic zone regime is being replaced without substantia-
tion by the territorial wate*_- regimes, the invisible process of "creeping
jurisdiction" is being realized which will lead to new territorial claims.
The principles of responsibility for pollution of the marine environment
contain an enormous amount of confusion and ambiguities, in particular,
with regard to such problems as establishment of the individual bearing
such responsibility, the pollution criteria, the determination of the
required volume of proofs, the trial procedure, and so on. The absence
of a united international mechanism with respect to the regulation of
disputes among governments is increasing the negative consequences of
the application of sanctions by the maritime countries for coffinercial
shipping. Up to now there is no united opinion even with respect to the
grounds on which the maritime countries can generate national laws to
protect the marlne environment in territorial waters adjacent to economic
zones, international straits, and so on. The regime of marine environment
protection against pollution from ships has turned out to be the most
differentiated. As a result, tha basic weight of the environmental pro-
tection measures has in practice been transferred to the maritime sphere,
although 80% of the blame for the pollution of the sea rests with land
activity, as a result of which the pollutants get into the ocean through
river runoff and atmospheric precipitation. The expenditures on preven-
tion of contamination from ships amount to a significant part of the over-
a11 expense of building, operating and maintaining them. It is natural
that they are oriented toward the observation of the international standards
with respect tu structural design and equipment of the ships; deviations
of the national requirements from such standards impose losses both in
the activity of commercial shipping and in many cases, to the marine
environment itself.
The disparity of national standards regulating navigation also touches on
the problems of navigational-hydrographic support; as a result there are
areas with significantly worse conditions for safe navigation.
Commercial shipping annually performs a volume of services estimated at
100 million dollars. If the process of random national "standards
creation" were to continue and acquire the nature of an exclusive regulat-
ing force, then this could lead to forced changes in the usual shipping
lanes, uniustified delays of ships and disruption of cargo delivery
schedules, the disturbance of the operation of the most important and
largest world transport link, providing for international economic rela-
tions.
, These are some, perhaps, the most significant consequences of disparity
in the national measures regulating maritime activity. They lead clearly
to the conclusion of the necessity for adapting regulating measures
having a universal nature and not permitting discrimination against any
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country. More and more e�fective technical-economic prerequisites for
efficient use of marine resources and expanses have been created in the
world and are continuing to be created. Nevertheless, the chaotic regu-
lation of the exploitation of the World Ocean is threatening to undermine
its economic base, to destroy the productive forces of maritime affairs.
2. Principles of Standardization of Regulating Standards
The Third International Conference,vf the United Nations on the Law of
the Sea which was participated in by almost 150 countries was to standard-
ize the regulating standards. It was held in 1973 and received a mandate
from the United Nations to prepare a united universal convention of the
sea providing for standardized and nondiscriminatory regulation of all
aspects of the maritime activity of countries considering their interests
[3].
The elements of such standardi$ation include optimal parameters of the
navigational regime, including unobstructed passage of such ships through
territorial waters and straits used for international shipping, freedom
of navigation.in the open sea, in particular, in economic zones. The
necessity has arisen for the creation of a united system of standards reg-
ulating the activity of commercial fleets on a mutually acceptable basis
in various parts of the World Ocean in order to insure equal economic
conditions for such activity, the cessation of unfounded economic claims
to commercial vessels.
In the exp:loitstion of the biological resources of the World Ocean the
_ problem of access of foreign fishing ships to them in the economic zones
has special significance. There are two primary aspects of this question:
political guarantees and economic conditions. The first aspect is today,
as was noted above, the prerogative of the maritime countries. The absence
of international legal guarantees is ir.flicting losses on world fishing
as a whole. It is necessary to consider that the development of a modern
fishing industry is inconceivable without a stable raw material base.
~ The more and more approved practice of short-term fishing agreements
already is having a destructive effect on the volume of construction of
the latest fishing vessels. At the same time their tonnage is increasing
as before as a result of the small ships to which the shore fishing base
is beginning to be oriented.
The question arises of how it is possible to fill the vacuum formed as a
result of the weakening or elimination of the international fishing
organizations. First of all, this pertains to the area of fishing
f research and reconnaissance. The determination of the level of the
admissible, maximum stable catcr.es will permit discovery of the excesses
unused by the maritime country and distribution of it among the interested
countries considering their historic and other rights and also the
necessity for the conclusion of the corresponding agreements with the
country that controls the biological resources.
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The concept of the maximum admissible levels of use of the animate
resources of the economic zones was the basis for the talks at the Third
Conference. In essence, it is shared today by the ma3ority of governments,
and in case of its adoption can serve as the basis for organizing inter-
national cooperation in the area of fishing with strict observation of the
principle of nondiscrimination. In the summary draft of the convention it
' is emphasized that after determining the level of the admissible catch,
the maritime country will grant other countries access to the excesses
through the corresponding agreements and on the basis of mutual recognition
- of established rules and conditions.
Such rules include the issuance of fishing licenses using defined ships
and equipment, the receipt of the required compensation by the maritime
country in different forms (financial payments, deliveries of equipment
for fishing and processing or any other forms agreed on by the interested
_ countries); the establishment of catch quotas for defined times, including
the given types of reserves; the issuance of permission to conduct the
necessary volume of research, and so on.l All of these questions together
make up the economic conditions of access to the biological resources.
The class of such questions is clearly defined in the sumroary draft of
the convention which is extraordinarily important, for it permits some
degree of orientation of the "applicants" and a significant decrease in the
possibility of the occurrence of situarions of conflict.
In other words, the document promotes standardization of the regimes for
the use of the biological resources of the ec0,nomic zones in the interests
of both the proprietor countries and the applicant countries. Simultan-
eously, it charges the taaritime countries with defined obligations with
respect to conservation of the animate resources and providing other coun-
tries with the required scientific information, statistical data on the
catches and fishing conditions through the subregional, regional and inter-
national organizations. At the same time the known possibility will be
created for preserving the role of the international fishing organizations,
although in altered form. The declaxation by the maritime countries of rights to the animate
resources of the economic zones has posed the problem of joint use of
migrating species of fish whose life cycle takes place in the waters and
economic zones of several countries. This "migrating proprietorship,"
if the problems of its exploitation are not regulated, will often become
the instrument of political pressure. In particular, it is not excluded
that some country can begin to kill off a certain species migrating
through its zone not forming a reserve in it in order to inflict losses
on an adjacent country. Therefore the development of international rules
regulating the exploitation of such forms of biological resources,
1Report of the United Nations Organization A/Conf. 62/WP.10 and Add.l,
1978, p 19.
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determination of the special rights of the countries, in the waters of
which the reserves of the "transient" species are formed, is extraordinar-
ily important. Complex problems also arise in connection with the
sovereign rights of the maritime countries over the mineral resources of
the continental shelves. The Third Gonference inherited the unsolved prob-
lem of the outer limit of the continental shelf from the first two
conferences. More precisely, it was in some way solved, but in a more
than indefiniteform. The convention signed in 1958 by the First Conference
of the United Nations on the Law of the Sea establishes the limit "to a
depth of 200 meters or beyond this limit to the point to which the depth
of the covering waters permits exploitation of the natural wealth." Such
a formula essentially states the definition of the outer.limit of the
shelf as a function of the technical progress in the marine extractive
industry. There can be hardly any doubt that in the future it w�ill be
possible to exploit mineral resources at any depth. The question of which
countries have already achieved the level or will be the first to achieve
the level giving unquestioned advantages is no secret.
Today the problem of establishing the outer limit of the continental shelf
remains quite acute, it continues to cause serious disagreements among the
participants in the Third Conference. The group of Arab states sets this
limit to 200 miles from the shore. The countries having a wide shelf are
- trying to advance it as far as possible. They promote, in particular, the
application of such criteria as depth of sedimentary rock which must
constitute 1% of the total distance of the outer limit to the shore. In
other words, if the depth of this rock is 1 km, then the outer limit must
be at 100 km, and if its depth is 10 km, then 1000 km from shore. Such
an approach is highly complicated, and this is obvious to many specialists.
- 'Lhe fact is that at present only 16% of the ocean floor has been investi-
gated, and that f ar from completely. In order to discover the depth of
the sedimentary rock it is necessary to perform drilling operations which
in practice no one is going to perform at great depths, for significant
expenditures beyond the capacity of even the richest countries are required.
Finally, the already established boundary can be advanced if deeper sedi-
ments are found. Thus, the indicated criterion leads both to propagation
of the sovereign laws of the maritime country to the resources of enormous
parts of the sea floor and to continued indeterminacy of the boljndaries.
The Soviet IInion and other socialist countries have stood for the princi-
ple, in accordance with which the outer limit of the shelf must be
determined by the 200-mile block, and in cases where the shelf extends
beyond it, to the 500-meter isobath.l This approach is based on the
generally accepted ideas in world science of the structure of the sea
floor and corresponds, with very rare exception, to the actual spatial
characteristics of the continental shelf. Several compr.omise versions
were proposed at the Third Conference. All of them permitted the
1The isobath is a line on a chart representing lines at the bottom of the
ocean, every point of which is at the same depth.
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poss ibility of determining the outer limit of the continental shelf in
accordance with the criterion of depth of the sedimentary rock. In this
case if the shelf extends beyond the 200-mile economic zone, then its
outer limit must not extend farther than a precisely established number
of miles from this distance. This would introduce a sort of clear distance �
criterion. However, such a solution mostly takes into account the inter-
ests of only the relatively few countries having a broad shelf. Even so,
they do not agree with the proposal, and the conference reached another -
imp asse.
The problem of the outer limit of the shelf at first glance is not
connected with the regulation of maritime activity. Indeed, the estab-
lishment of the spatial sphere of various forms of such regulation depends
on its solution. If the limit is within the 200-mile zone, then the total
territory of the sea floor, the resources of which fall under the
sovereignty of the maritime countries will turn out to be appr eciably
less than when using the criterion of depth of the sedimentary rock. This
has important significance, for example, for scientific research in the
World Ocean. Unfortunately, some countries not involved in maritime activ-
ity and not intending to become involved assume that absence of knowledge
of the ocean do es no harm to them. This can do damage to all countries
and to all mankind as a whole. Therefore the use of the criterion of depth
of the sedimentary rock, even combined with a clear-cut distance criterion
does not exclude the possibility of considering where the shelf is located:
within the limits of the 200-mile zone or beyond its limits.
The intracontinental and geographically unfavorably located countries are
worried about the fact that the resource "occupation" of the shelves by
the countries having an outlet to the sea relieves them of any hopes for
the use of the given resources. Therefore thay are raising the question
of the obligation of the maritime countries to reckon part of the revenues
from mining the mineral resources of the shelf for their use. There are
now proposals to deduct up to 10% or more of the value of the mineral
raw materials extracted on the shelf (beyond the 200-mile limit) for these
countries.l Simultaneously there are proposals to use a differential
scale of deductions depending on the level of economic development of
the maritime country owning the shelf resources. In addition, an effort
is being made to extend analogous requirements to the resources extracted
on the shelf w ithin the economic zones.
- Such an approach is only one of the many versions of taking into account
the interests of the intracontinental and geographically unfavorably
- located countries, hardly the most successful one. Obviously here we
begin with the proposition that the shelf resources are somehow under the
1Report of the United Nations Organization A/Conf. 62/65,8. V. 1978,
p 11.
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joint ownership of the maritime and nonmaritime countries. In any case
it is otherwise impossible to understand the idea of sharing income
(prof its ) under the condition that the nonmaritime country does not par-
ticipate in the expenditures on developing the resources. However, the
concept of j oint ownership will hardly be adopted by the maritime countries.
Therefore the interests of the other group of countries will begin to be
considered only, on the basis of political compromise in the text of the
overall problem of the use of the mineral resources of the continental
shelf, including the problem uf its outer limit.
At the Third Conference 53 governments formed a special group which
actually turned out to be completely dispossessed of the we:alth of the
World Ocean. The fact is that more than 95% of the present:ly utilized
biological resources of the sea, a significant part of the marine oil and
' gae and other reserves have become the property of the marj.time countries.
The discrimination against the entire group of countries making up more
than a third of Che total number of inembers of the United Nations is
absolutely unjustifiable. The Third Conference is developing methods of
considering their interests in the exploitation of the marine resources
and areas. The thrust of its efforts in this direction would be reflected
in the possible marine activity of nonmaritime countries.
The attention of many councries xn the last decade is being more and more
attractecl by the prospects for the development of the mineral resources
of the sea floor beyond the limits of the continental shelf (the inter-
national region of the sea floor). These include oil and gas, glauconitic
sand, deep-sea red clay, lime and siliceous muds, metal-bearing oozes,
ferromanganese, concretions. The use of the majority of them is a matter _
of the very remote future. However, the development of the technology
for their extraction and metallurgical conversion has advanced quite far.
During the course of discussions at the Third Conference, a mutually
acceptable solution was found to the basic principles of the deep-water
extraction xegime such as the use ot the international part of the sea
floor and its resources exclusively for peaceful purposes, the nonappro-
priation of the resources and territory of the region, the inadmissibility
of monopolizing the resources by any country or group of countries and
private companies, environmental protection, and so on.l
It was not possible to reach a compromise with respect to the centra7.
question of access to the resources of the sea floor. The group of
developed capitalist countries initially stood for automatic access of
their private countries to these resources. It is natural that the
realization of this requirement would lead to monopolizing their management
1Report of the United Nations Organization A/Conf. 62/WP.10 and
= Add. l, 1978, pp 33-37.
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with respact to the resourcea of the international zone of the sea floor, -
considering the monopolistic position of these countries in the world
capitaliat economy in the field of extraction and proceasing technology
for ferromanganese nodules. In turn, the developing countries ("Group 77")
were for.the development of the resources of the sea floor exclusively by ,
an international enterprise which should be created as an economic unit
of a future international agency. At the same time "Group 77" tried to
take away the rights of the sovereign governments to exploit the resources.
The Soviet Union and other socialist countries advanced a compromise pro-
posal that such development be carried out simultaneously both by the _
international enterprise and the governments, government enterprises and
private companies by contract with the international agency. This pro-
posal was called the "parallel system." On the basis of it, during the
course of the 7th session of the conference, an approach was developed
which is presently shared by the majority of countries. It provides for
the possibility of the participation of governments in tha development of
the resources of the sea floor by contact with the international agency
and, in addition, insures realistic viability of the future international
enterprise inasmuch as it charges the governments of the obligation to
give it technological and financial assistance in the first, most diffi-
cult phase of its activity.
Of course, IlOt all of the problems pertaining to the international regime
of the sea floor have been aolved, but a good basis has been developed
for completi.on of the talks. The outlines of a system for exploration
and exploitation of the resources of the sea floor, many problems of the
political structure of the functions of the international agency, the
:nethods of mobilizing means to finance its administrative budget and the
regulations for the future international enterprise have been defined.
Certain problems, in particular, those pertaining to economic aspects of
the regime of the activity of the governments by contracts still remain
unregulated.
3. Dangers of Unilateral Actions
The unilateral actions with respect to mineral resources of the sea floor
which some countries are planning to undertake who are not satisfied
with the course of the talks and who are taking a hard line in them
constitute the greatest threat to the future of the development of a
mutually acceptable regime for the regulation of the deep-sea extractian ~
of minerals. They consider it possible to draft the right to the private
companies of several imperialist countries to begin the extraction of
such resources independently in spite of the united universal c.onvention
on the law of the sea developed by the Third Conference. In essence,
this would be.a unilateral seizure of the resources declared by the
United Nations to be the "common inheritance of mankind."
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Such actions can not only do serious harm to the work of the Third
Conference as a whole, but also destroy the entire process of the develop-
ment of united universal norms for regulating maritime acCivity.
Naturally this is holding up the process of exploitation of the World Ocean
still more.
The governments striving on the basis of unilateral acts with respect to
the resources of the international part of the sea floor to obtain
advantages for themselves outside the framework of the mutually acceptable
regulation mechanism are interested in breaking up the Third Conference
which is devoted to adopting united regulating standards for maritime
activity. Obviously, they are joined by the countries which, having
solved for themselves the problem of sovereign rights to the resources
and territories of their coastal regions, do not plan to develop their
own branches of maritime business.
What are the consequences of holding up the regulation of economic activ-
ity with respect to exploitation of the World Ocean? First of all it
leads to a reduction in its cost effec.tiveness. This process especially
strongly involves countries where the maritime branches have begun to
' develop quite recently. The growth of expenditures on maritime activity
in these countries and in particular, the increase in specific expendi-
tures not on].y are increasing the capital consumption in the correspond-
branches, but in a number of cases makes them noncompetitive.
Another serious consequence can be the worsening of the conditions of
international economic cooperation in the maritime sphere. The develop-
ment of commercial shipping, for example, is inconceivable without rela-
tively simultaneous propagation of the scientific and technical achieve
ments in the majority of maritime countries, especially in the area of
equipment of the port complexes, navigational and other means providing
for the safety and rhythmic delivery of cargo, and so. It is impossible
to achieve noticeable progress in studying the World Ocean without constant
growth of the joint efforts. In addition, as many oceanological special-
ists note, up to now the World Ocean has been studied to a lesser degree
than space.
The exploitation of the ocean requires the application of the latest
technology, large financial means and qualified personnel. The entire
szt of ineasures with respect to regulating the economic use of maritime
resources and territories forms the basis for the international conditions
of such activity. In recent years, however, such active international
migration of fixed productive capital of maritime business has not been
observed as before, which indicates that an alarming trend is arising
toward maritime autarchy the antipode of international cooperation.
The unregulated nature of the activity in the World Ocean leads to the
occurrence of newer and newer situations of conflict in the seas. For
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example, with respect to the problems of fishing alone in 1949 to 1972
more than 1,100 conflicts have been recorded.l The absence of uniformity
in the norms multiplied by infinite divergences of national interest would
unavoidably increase such encounters and disputes.
Among the various international legal mechanisms in the area of maritime
activity the Third Conference is also developing a mechanism for regula-
tion of disputes. The special features of it have already been agreed
upon. The alternative to this mutually acceptable mechanism can only be
the application of force, the insurance of selfish interests in the dispute
arising through "patronage" of the more powexful country, the participa-
tion in blocs, the use of various pressures on the opponent, including
military pressures not last of all. It is entirely obvious that all of
this can do significant harm to the safety of maritime activity, peace on
the seas, and in the final analysis the peace and the safety throughout
the entire world. "We are beginning with the fact," the Chairman of the
Council of Ministers of the USSR A. N. Kosygin emphasi2ed, "that the future
legal situation must promote the strengthening of peace and improvement
of the standard of living of the people, and the practical problems of
utilizing the World Ocean must take into account ihe reasonable interests
of all governments. The efforts to solve these problems unilaterally,
- wittiout necessary consideration of the demands and legal rights of other
countries can convert the seas and oceans to another source of tension
and conflict. We wish to avoid this.112
The absence of standardized norms for regulating the production activity
in the World Ocean woulrl have, in the final analysis, a negative effect
on the solution of the problems of conservation of the marine environment.
Ita pollution has already reached the dangerous level for global natural
and climatiz processes on the earth. The area of the biologically dead
bodies of water is continuously expanding. The necessity for the per-
formance of effective measures with respect to protectian of the seas by
the joint efforts of all governments has matured long ago.
Thus, the problems of regulating the maritime activity have under modern
conditions acquired the most important significance. The pluralism of
international conditions of mariti.me activity is holding up the process
of mankind's exploitation of the productive forces of the World Ocean,
it is slowing the development of maritime affairs. Expressing concern for
this reason, the head of the Soviet delegation at the conference, Deputy
t4inister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR S. P. Kozyrev noted that the
situation in the World Ocean and around its problems is becoming more and
more complicated on the basis of the known development of events in recent
years. It is necessary to normalize the situation as quic_:ly as possible,
lE. Mann Borgese, DRAMA OF THE OCEANS, New York, 1075, p 208.
ZPRAVDA, 1977, 22 September
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to create conditions for effective, well-ordered use of the World Ocean
and its resources in the name of the strengthening of peace, the
strengthening of international detente and insurance of progress and
improved standard of living of the people. The alternative of broad,
equal international cooperation for the good of man has been advanced
to the division of the enormous expanses and wealth of the World Ocean.
Its realization is to become one of the most important factors in the
strengthening of peace and security on the seas, further promotion and
detente, peaceful coexistence and cooperation of people, It is entirely
attainable if, with respect to the World Ocean regime, just as all other
"vitally important problems facing mankind as a whole at the present
time," a"reasonable collective solution of these problems in the form of
planned international cooperation" is found.l
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Barabolya, P. D.; Ivanashchenko, L. A.; Kolesnik, D. N. MEZHDUNARODNO-
PRAVOVOY REZHIM VAZHNEYSHIKH PROLIVOV I KANALOV [International
Legal Regime of the Most Important Straits and ChannelsJ, Moscow,
1965.
2. Levikov, G. A. MEZHDUNARODNOYE MORSKOYE TORGOVOYE SUDOKHODSTVO
[International Commercial Maritime Shipping], Moscow, 1978,
.pp 243-284.
3. Lyubimov, L.; Yakovin, I. "World Ocean: Economy, Politics, Law,"
MIKOVAYA EKONOMIKA I MEZHDUNARODNYYE OTNOSHENIYA rLWorld Economy and
International Relations], No 9, 1976, p 31.
4. Molodtsov, S. V. MEZBIDUNARODNO-PRAVOVOY REZHIM OTKRYTOGO MORYA I
KONTINENTAL'NOGO SHEL'FA [International Legal Regime of the Open
Sea and the Continental Shelf], Moscow, 1960.
5. Pisarev, V. D. SSHA I MIROVOY OKEAN [United 6tates and the World
Ocean], Moscow, 1977, pp 44-45.
6. Spivakova, T. I. P.RAVO I PRIRODNYYE RESURSY PRIBREZHNYKH ZON.
[Law and Natural Resources of the Coastal Zones], Moscow, 1978,
pp 12-23.
1L. I. Brezhnev, AKTUAL'NYYE VOPROSY IDEOLOGICHESKOY RABOTY KPSS
[Urgant Prot,lems of the Ideological Work of the CPSU], Vol 2, Moscow,
Politizdat, 1978, p 407.
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ECONOMIC-ECOLOGIC PROBLEMS OF THE EXPLOITATION OF THE WORLD OCEAN
[Article by M. T. Meleshkin]
Mikhail Timofeyevich Meleshkin, Corresponding Member of the
Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences, doctor of economic sciences,
professor, director of the Odessa Department of the Economics
Institute of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences, is
director of the scientific program for the development of
mariculture in the Black Sea and Azov Basin. His basic
scientific interests are the economics of the sea.
In the search for mineral and food resources required for the satisfaction
of vital demands, mankind has reached the era of active exploitation of
the ocean. There is one peculiarity in this process. The exploitation
of the continental resources has occurred for thousands of years as the
productive forces of society have grown and improved. The accumulation of
the negative consequences of this activity has taken place slowly, although
with progressing acceleration, and empirical experience with respect to
eliminating the negative consequences has been accumulated. Now mar.kind
has at his disposal the required sum of knowledge permitting theoretically
correct planning of his activity to neutralize its negative consequences.
This is being done in insufficient volume and far from always, but the
presence of the knowledge of how to behave in the continental space so as
not to cause irreversible ecologic changes is itself a positive thing.
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There is still little such knowledge about the World Ocean, and it is
difficult to hope that the process of accumulating this knowledge will
correspond to the rates of economic exploitation of the ocean to which
mankind has approached armed wlth unprecedented technical means. As a
result of this intrusion into the ocean in a very short time the processes
occurring in it can change radic311y.
The general planetary danger which such uncontrolled activity free of the
necessary scientific bases in the ocean can bring with it is difficult
to overestimate. Thus, the destruction of the processes of oceanic
photosynthesis and evaporation as a result of film pollution with oil and
increased turbidity of the ocean water can lead to significant changes
in the heat, water and oxygen budgets of the earth with all of the dis-
astrous consequences deriving from this, including a change in weather
and climate of the planet. As a result of inefficient exploitation of
the biological resources of the World Ocean, which are an important source
and reserve of food protein, its biological productivity can be reduced
signif icantly.
From what has been stated it is clear that when formulating the plans for
economic development of the maritime regions and exploitation of the
World Ocean it is necessary to consider all aspects of the possible short
and long-term consequences of this activity. The diff iculties in such
planning are intensified by a number of objective facts, among which the
most important are the following:
Significant lag in the rates at which the oceanosphere is being investi-
gated behind the rates of its anthropogenic transformations. As a result
of insufficiency and scattered nature of the operations with respect to
studying the basic physical-mechanical and biological processes in the
ocean, world research practice can at the present time propose only a
limited set of environmental conservation recommendations for economic
use of its resources;
_ The absence of international norms for regulating the exploitation of the
ocean. Today about 100 countries have-approached the expl.oitation of
these resources, the conceptual principles of the ecologic policies of
which are essentially different. Some of them, above all, the capitalist
countries, are striving not to weight down their national budgets with
expenditures on environmental protection measures.
The development of the united international strategy for exploitation of
the ocean resources is complicated by the fact that the water is still
not so much a region of cooperation as a region of economic competition
of two systems. Conditions are being created for the preservation of
moder-n trends toward elemental and conventionally unstandardized transport,
fishing, industrial and military use of its resources [18]. There are,
however, grounds for assuming that international detente, just as aggrava-
tion of the problems of ocean conservation, can promote intensification
of the international cooperation in this area.
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1. Peculiarities of the Modern Phase of Exploitation of the World Ocean
According to the United Nations data, the contribution of the maritime
economy to the world economy in the last two decades has increased by
9 times and amounted to more than 110 billion dollars [26].
One of the most serious incentives to intensify the industrial use of the
mineral resources of the ocean, primarily oil and gas, was a stiarp
increase in the proportion of the latter in the fuel and energy balance
of the majority of the countries of the world. It is sufficient to point
out that for the countries of Western Europe it increased from 8% in the
prewar period to 70% at the beginning of the 1970's [30].
The exploration and exploitation of the marine deposits of liquid and gas
hydrocarbons are at the present time becoming one of the leading areas of
oceari exploitation. The exceptional activity of the investigated process
is ueing maintained by high effectiveness of the capital investments in
marine oil and gas extraction. According to the data of A. V. Kurov [15],
the invested means with respect to net profit are returned in 2.5 to 6 -
months, which is connected both with the high world prices for petroleum
and the comparatively low cost of its extraction within the shelf zones
of the ocean.
The exploitation of other mineral resources takes place at slower rates,
but already today the development, for example, of underwater places is
providing the basic part of the rural extraction of zirconium and rutile,
ilmenite, and so on [6, 16, 281. It is possibZe to expect that with com-
pletion of the plans for the extraction of the ferromanganese nodules
f'rom the deep parts of the ocean, the process of their extraction will be
intensified significantly. According to the estimates of the United
Nations, the beginning of industrial mining of the nodules is expected
at the end of the 1970's; by the middle of the 1980's it can satisfy up
- to 18% of the world demand for nickel, up to 50% for cobalt, and so on.
On the whole the total cost of the extracted marine mineral resources,
including oil and gas and also the products of marine chemistry in 1976
will be 60 to 70 billion dollars [18].
One of the most urgent problems of exploitation of the World Ocean is
the active use of its bioproduction potentials.
Obviously on the modern level it is necessary to set down the scientific
and practical principles of a new strategy for using the bioproduction
capabilities of the marine environment. In our opinion they must consist
in increasing the relative extraction of organisms located in the lower
leveis of the trophic chain than fish and producing appreciably greater
biomass and also with respect to the comprehensive development of aqua-
culture (mariculture) [1]. The last-mentioned area of use of the marine
environment for obtaining protein food appears to be especially pros-
pective.
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It is very important that the solution of the basic problems connected
- with an increase in the role of the biological resources of the World
Ocean in the overall food budget of mankind will be concentrated within
the boundaries of the shelf zones, in the inland and shelf seas. At the
same time th,:!se most productive regions of the World Ocean are experienc-
ing maximum negative effect from the continental econo:ny, manifested pri-
marily in chemical pollution of the marine environment and alteration of
it5 material substrate properties as a result of reduction of the fresh
water runoff.
The scale and the trends in.the pollution of the seawater are causing
substantiated concern not only with respect to degradation of their
biological productivity and reduction of the nutritive qualities of the
fishing products, but also with respect to the possible global destruction
of the natural equilibrium of the processes and the "ocean-atmosphere"
system.
At the present time there are more than 600,000 different chemicals in the
waste ejected into the environment, a sigizificant part of which are
accumulated in the World Ocean [5, 27].
The ever-iiicreasing inflow of polluting and eutrophizing materials (about
1/3 of the fertilizers and other agrotechnical materials used on the
continents get into the ocean [5]) is significantly transforming the
natural processes and relations in the ecologic systems of the ocean, and
it is one of the primary causes of their conversion *o the lower level of
productivity which does not correspond to the economic efforts of the
society, About half of the animate resources have been killed in the
Mediterranean Sea as a result of pollution [12]; in the Baltic Sea there
are more and more frequent cases of a bottom oxygen shortage, to complete
disappearance of it, the death of bottom fauna and the formation of the
so-called bentho s desert. More than 3.6 million tons of oxygen are
consumed annually here for the oxidation of damestic waste wato-r alone
[24]. The mass deaths of fish in the estuaries of;.,.the rivers and on
the shelf of the industrially highly developed countries have become a
usual phenomenon, the scales of whic'h are constantly growing. Thus, the
losses as a result of mass death of the fish off the coast of Japan at
r'.e beginning of the 1960's was estimated at 5 million yen.
According to the estimates of S. A. Patin and N. P. Morozov [25], the
possibility of decreasing the nekton production on the scale of the World
Ocean under the effect of its pollution with global toxicants already
now will be no less than 20 million tons per year.
The accumulation of toxic materials, above all, heavy metals, chlorinated
hydrocarbons and radionucleides within the biological objects of the
ocean is of serious danger. In addition to the direct toxic effect lead-
ing to a reduction in the productivity of the organisms of all trophic
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levels, the incorporation of these pollutants also makes use of the
ocean fishing objects for food purposes impossible. Thus, the concentra-
tion of carcinogenic multiring hydrocarbons in the mussels off the coast
of France reaches 3.4 mg/kg of dry material; the average residual DDT con-
tent in marine fish is 1 mg/kg, in oysters it is 5.4 mg/kg, and so on.
The content of certain carcinogenic metals in the biological objects of
the estuaries of the North Sea is such (for example, up to 5800 mg/kg
with respect to zinc) that in the opinion of the foreign specialists [331,
these bodies of water are ideal places for experimental studies of the
problems of cancer etiology.
The ever-increasing economic removal of river runoff also is having a neg-
ative effect on the properties of the marine environment. About 4000 km3
of river water [17] are used annnally for irrigation, industry and power -
engineering by all the countries of the world, and of course, the scales _
of possible consequences of the conversion of river runoff appear to be
quite significant. For the closed and semiclosed intracontinental seas
they frequently have the nature of an "ecologic collapse." For example,
as a result of the irreversible removal of more than 30% of the fresh
water in the basin of the Azov Sea, the hydrologic conditions determining
primarily the unique biological productivity of this body of water turned
out to be defonned to a significant degree, and the total catches of valu-
able species of fish, in spite of intensive measures with respect to their
industrial reproduction, have been reduced by more than 10 times [2].
The active water management construction and the basin of the Caspian Sea
- accompanied by the annual removal of up to 12% of the river runoff (35
km3/year) has promoted a reduction in the biological productivity of the
Northern Caspian from 30 to 10 centners/km2. A number of populations,
including the Caspian herring, have lost their fishing significance. By
the end of the century the irreversible water consumption here will
increasz to 100-115 km3 [6]. Under these conditions in the absence of
discharging fresh water from the basins of the northern rivers, the
level of the Caspian Sea will drop by 1.5 to 2.0 meters by the year 2000
- by comparison with the present level. This alone is capable of leading to
significant degradation of the biologic.al productivity of the given body
of water, which at the present Cime is the largest internal fishing region
of the country. The predicted reduction in the runoff of the Danube, the
Dnepr and the Dnestr is more than 140 km3/year, which will have an unfavor-
able effect on the biologic:il productivity of the northwestern shelf of
the Black Sea,within the limits of which about 60% of all of its biomass
is formed.
The presented fragmentary facts clearly indicate the exceptional urgency
o� the fastest scientific-practical solution of the complex and multiple
problems aimed at bringing order into the interactions in the system made
up of the economy and the marine environment. One of the knotty elements
of this work is the creation of inethods of objective economic-ecologic
evaluation of the losses imposed by the anthropogenic alterations of the
marine environment. Unfortunately, up to now detailed studies have only
*ouched on the continental regions; the seawater was completely excluded
trom the sphere of analysis.
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During the process of organizing anaZogous operations with respect to the
marine environment undoubtEdly it will be useful to assimilate a number _
of ideas which have justified themselves when developing the "continental"
procedure. At the same time the specific nature of the marine environ-
ment and the peculiarities of its interaction with the productive and
nonproductive activity of man unconditionally requires the formation of
theoretically new approaches, part of which can be rormulated already
today.
First of all it is necessary to note the insufficiency of the modern
studies aimed at estimating only the most obvious version of the losses
which occur as a result of anthropogenic reduction of the biological
and recreation resources of the sea. In accordance with the studies per-
formed in the Odessa Department of th e Economics Institute of the
Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences [3], the esCi.mates must take into
account the losses imposed as a result of the following:
Impossibility of the use of one body of water or another for maricultural
purposes or reduction of its potentially possible productivity; Worsening of the technical qualities of the machines, mechanisms and
structures in contact with the qualitatively altered marine environment;
Changes in the bottom relief and the intensity of the coastal abrasive
processes under the eff ect of anthropogenic changes in the hydrodynamic
regime of the coastal zone of the sea;
The use of masses of water for balneoological and recreational purposes
and also in the chemical and other branches of industry;
Weather and climatic changes geodetically connected with the disturbance
of the dynamic equilibrium in the "ocean-atmosphere" system; -
Weakening of the processes of self-regulation of the marine ecologic
systems and the necessity for compensation f or the unfavorable conse-
quences arising here as a result of specialized technogenic measures.
In the sphere of economic-ecologic analysis the last two items are
new, and therefore they are in need of some comment.
It has already been stated that the solution of the ocean is capable of
significantly disturbing its basic general-planetary functions and caus-
ing accompanying unfavorable changes in the oxygen and carbon dioxide
budgets, the global hydrologic cycle, the thermal regime and atmospheric
circulation,,, In the opinion of V. HIz. Buynitskiy [5], the symptoms of
such changes are already observed today.' They are manifested, in partic-
ular, in an increase in the recurrence rate of severe droughts or floods,
destructive hurricanes or freezes where sometimes they have not been
observed previously, which inflicts enormous material losses and has a
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destrur_tive effect on the health and life of man. It does not appear
possible even in the first approximation to estimate the dimenslons of this
loss and establish its direct dependence on the pollution of the ocean,
but the objective difficulties of this type can hardly serve as a
suff iciently weighty argument against the necessity for purposeful reso lu-
tion of this problem in the future.
In its natural state, the marine and ocean environment corresponds to th e
greatest degree to a system of the homeostatic type retaining constant
operating conditions in the face of random external fluctuations [29].
The return of this system to a state of equilibrium is possible as a
result of self-regulation the "servomechanism" effect which fixes
changes in the external environment and transmits the corresponding
information to the system and the "regulator," insuring preservation of
its constant regime under conditions of variable external effects [29].
These two mechanisms the servomechanism and regulator are similar in
many respects, and they are identified in a united self-regulation
mechanism which operates by the principle of negative feedback.
Until recently the mechanism of self-regulatlon of the marine ecologic
systems was beyond the limits of any natural or cost estimates. At the
same time the integral estimate of the losses inflicted on the marine
environment by the economic activity of man musC necessarily also includ e
estimates connected with the attenuation of the self-regulating capacities
of the ecologic systems. Here it is necessary primarily to accent the
attention on the necessity of estimating the capacity of the marine
environment for self-c7eaning to remove pollution and estimation of the
economic and extra-economic losses which are connected with degradation
of it [3]. According to the formulationof A. I. Simonov, "by self-clean-
ing we must understand the set of phyaical, chemical,biological and hydro-
biological processes causing decomposition, . utilization of pollutants
and leading to the restoration of the natural characteristics of the sea-
water" [27, pp 55-561.
The World Ocean and its individual bodies of water have a self-cleaning
potential of enormous power, significantly exceeding the total power of
the existing purification structures. For example, according to the low
estimates of A. M. Bronfman [2], the self-cleaning potential of the Azov
Sea with respect to petroleum products and detergents alone turns out to
be equivalent to the operation of the purification structures costing
more th3n 500 million rubles.
The self-cleaning system, just as any other finely balanced system for
self-regulation of marine biogeocenoses, has a defined but far from
unlimited stability with respect to external effects. Among the specif i c
causes lowering the effectiveness of the self-cleaning it is necessary
to mention the extraordinary pollution and salinization of the bodies of
water, a reduction in the concentration of biogenic elements and oxygen,
a decrease in the biological, including primary productivity, the hydro-
- dynamic activity of the water, and so on. The signs of deterioration of
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the self-cleaning system of the sea are already today detected by a number
of researchers [27, 32], and it is possible to predict that in the future
this phenomenon will be manifested to an even greater degree.
It is logically understandable that the reduction in intensity of self-
cleaning catalyzes the processes of pollution of the marine bodies of
water with all of the negative consequences of an ecologic and economic
level derived from it. The elimination of these consequences is possible
only on investing significant social means insuring either restoration
of the self-cleaning potential or reduction of the amount of toxic waste
in accordance with the new, diminished capacity of the ecologic system of
the sea with respect to their detoxification.
Both in the first and in the second case the dimensions of the required
capital investments turn out to be highly significant. Thus, in the
Azov Sea, as a result of the anthropogenic increase in salinity alone,
the calculated annual self-cleaning potential with raspect to petroleum
products and detergents has been reduced on the average by 20,000 and
46,000 tons, respectively [2]. As the calculations show, the optimiza-
tion of the salinity of the sea which would promote restoration of the
- self-cleaning potential is possible only as a result of the complex reali-
- zation of large water management programs with an approximate cost of
about 1 billion rub 1 es. Another path providing f or the elimination of
the indicated quanti ty of the investigated pollutants requires additional
concentration in the basin of purification structures costing no less
than 150 million rub les. When performing analogous calculations and for
other pollutants, the last figure undoubtedly will increase by several
times.
Obviously the presented example is sufficient for illustrd.tion of the
stated position of the necessity f or objective economic estimation of the
losses occurring as a result of anthropogenic disturbances of the natural
mechanisms of self-regulation of the marine environment.
It is also necessary to point out another important fact requiring atten-
tion when forming the scientific principles of the exploitation of the
marine environment. Until recently in practice any change in its quality
- was considered the consequence of anthropogenic eff ects. This procedural
method has signif icantly satisfied the calculations of the losses, but
it can hardly be r ecognized as sufficiently correct.
In reality, any anthropogenic transformations of the parameters of the
marine environment take place against a complex background of their natural
changes. Under these conditions the separation of the dynamics of the
corresponding parameters of the marine environment into two components
natural and anthropogenic becomes extremely important. The economic
calculations of the losses must be based on the last of them.
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2. Methodology and Problems of the Development of the Economic-Ecologic
Studies of the Ocean
The approach existing until recently to the exploitation of the marine
environment has not taken into account the interrelation between the
defined branches of economic activity of man and the effect on t , he state
of the marine environment as a whole. This approach has been based to a
significant degree on the opinion of inexhaustibility of natural resources.
The ecnnomic practice corresponding to it leads to intense pollution of
the sea, has a negative effect on the ecologic characteristics of the
marine environment, and leads to disturbance of its natural cycles and
relations.
In this connection the lag is especially acutely felt, and more precisely
speaking, the complete absence of comple:c studies relating the problems
of the development of production and the dynamics of the atate of the
marine environment. It is for this reason that the demand arises for a
new complex approach to the resolution of the problems of exploitation of
the ocean taking into account the interaction of all spheres of economic
activity and their influence on the environment. Only in this case will
the development of integrated systems for the creation and placement of
p roduction complexes with optimal interrelation of them to the environment
b e possible.
The modern period of development of human society is distinguished by
especially active expansion of the "economic space," transformed in one
way or another as a result of human activity. The sphere of economic
exploitation of the seas and oceans includes not only shelf regions, but
also the spaces of the continental slope, the epipelagic zone and bottom.
The modern annual cost benefit from the exploitation of the World Ocean
reaching 110 to 120 billion dollars is felt from the products and services
obtained when using the refraction, power engineering and chernical
resources of the marine environment.
It is undoubtedly the case that the development of the basic and scientific-
practical research in the mentioned directions requires joint investiga-
tion of the ecologic, technological and social-economic aspects of the
p roblem of exploitation of the ocean. Iiowever, it is unfortunately
necessary to note the significanc interdisciplinary disconnection of this
r esearch.
fiere we are completely in agreement with the opinion of Academician
I. P. Gerasimov who considers that the objective diff iculties of the struc-
tural development in the field of the purposeful conversion of the n.ational
environment are connected not only with insufficiently contemporary
knowledge of the natural processes and the laws of their anthropogenic
modifications, but they are also caused by the relative peculiarityof the
p resently existing economic, technical and ecologic approaches to the
solution of the corresponding problems. "It is for this reason,"
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I. P. Gerasimov writes, "that the complex development of scientific prin-
- ciples of the conversion of nature is especially closely felt at the
present time to the problems of the synthesis of scientific knowledge...
with the occurreiice and development of new 'boundary' sciences or scien-
tific areas that reflect the trend toward the integration of scientific
_ knowledge" [7, pp 32-33]
The clear recognition of the sufficiency and imperfection of the tradi--
tionally isolated approaches to the study and solution of the contemporary
problems of the World Ocean and also the effort to generalize as completely
as possible the variety of data obtained during the course of its exploita-
tion were the basic motivating causes of the developmei:t of ths marine
economic-ecologic research [22, 26] establishir.g the priority direction
of the activity cf the Odessa Department of the Economics InsCitute of
the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences.
This nPw direction oF the economic science has arisen at the juncture of
two sciences economics and ecoiogy. . In this respect it is similar to
other boundary sciences, for example, biophysics or biochemistry. Although
in all the enuaierated cases there is synthesis of the various sciences,
the nature of the synthesis of economics and ecology differs significantly
from the synthesis of physics and biology or biology and chemistry.
Recently we have primarily talked about the synthesis of the method of one
science physics or chemistry with a subject of another biology.
Biophysics is the study of life by physical methods, biochemistry, the
study of the living by the methods of chemistry. However, it is iutpossi-
ble to study either economics by the methods of ecology or ecology by the
methods of economics. We are not talking about a simple combination of
subjects and methods of economics and ecology; such an association would
have an ecleciic nature and would not be successful. Therefore, we are
- talking about the synthesis of scientific fields. It consists in the
' fact that one science ecology defines a set of restrictions, Che
maximum admissible loads on the World Ocean, and the other, economics,
imposes defined restrictions on its state. Here, ecology, which investi-
gates tne plasticity of the natural ecologic systems., analyzes the possi-
_ bilities of the variation within defined limits by admissible loads.
- Aeginning with the trends and the dirpctions of the development of the
national economy, economics nermits discovery of the possible paths and
means required for changing the anthropogenic loads to the marine environ-
ment. What has been stated above makes it possible to talk about the
existence of a united "economy and World Ocean" system which is the sub-
ject of study of the so-called ,:.conology of the World Ocean.
Thus, the study of economic-ecologic problems of the World Ocean can be
deftned as the science of the laws of functioning, stability and develop-
ment of the "e,2onomics and World Ocean" system including the subsystems
~ of different levels, scales and complexity. The primary goal of this
_ science is the control of the processes of the development of the system
on the local (individual enterprises and biocenoaes), regional (regions
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near tlie sea and individual bodies of water, the World Ocean itself) and
global levels [21] .
The theoreticaland procedural bases for ir- are only beginning to be
revealed at the pr esent time. The latter circumstance is explained by the
fact that the control of the "economic-World Ocean" system, just as any
control, includes the following three mandatory elements: the object of
control, the mea.;;s of control and the purpose of control [3] . The theoret-
ical principles and their synthesis cybernetics and systems analysis
have been finally formulated only comparatively recently. As a result
of the integration of these sciences, regional economics and the natural
- sciences of the ocean, at the present time the theoretical principles of
the ecology of the World Ocean are being formulated.
By the object of control we mean the planetary cycle of matter and energy
as a whole and its elements on the local and regional levels in the
economic space af the earth, the leading role in which belongs to the
World Ocean. Part of the elements of this cycle are first of all subor-
dinate to the laws af development of productive forces, and another part,
the laws of development of nonequilibrium dynamic systems.
The la5t elemerits of the cycle belonging to the environment, it is possible
to state, have properties of inertia, delay, damping, adaptation, and so
on which insure a defined level of stability of them with respect to the
external disturbances and also:
The possibility of the existence of an entire spectrum of stable non-
equilibrium states of the environment,part of which corresponds to the
demands of society in all phases of its development;
The presence of "permissible" transitions from one equilibrium state to
another, the achievement of which is connected with special economic and
technological activity.
With correspondence of the level of development of productive forces to
the production relations in society the means of controlling the "economy
and World Ocean" system are such economic levers as:
The economic evaluation of resources from the national economic points of
view;
The expenditures on elimination of the consequences (payment) of pollution
and, in general, worsening of the state of the environment andindividual
resources, the exceeding of the consumption norms, and so on;
The cost and theprofits from using the resources and the environment
as a whole.
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When investigating the economic levers as the basic ones in the control
of the entire system, special significance is acquired by the compatibil-
- ity of expenditures at the present time with the future effects from
using the ocean resources. The goal of this comparison is not only
efficient use of the means allocated for the storage and reproduction of
the resources, but also the search for paths of rearrangement of produc-
tion for which the cost benefit from the introduction of new technologies
~ will pay for the expenditures on conservation of the natural resources
[10]. It is Por this reason that the integrated economic evaluation of
ttie dynamic and self-recovering properties of the environment acquires
special significance. This evaluation permits proper consideration of
the problems of the distribution of the resources of the ocean among the
branches and individual production facilities, and in the stage of pros-
pective planning for the placement and development of production facili-
ties significantly increases the national economic effectiveness of its
assimilation. The cost estimate of the resources of the World Ocean will
promote an increase in the matecial responsibility, the operative-economic
independence of the enterprises of the marine economy as a whole, the
fastest return on the expenditures, and the compensation for all expendi-
tures by the revenues, the planned profitability of production becomes
the most important means of implementing the regime of the economy insur-
ing fulfillment of the plans with minimum expenditures of social labor.
At the same time the economic estimate of the resources of the World Ocean
must be considered as the derivative of the economic estimates of the
production obtained on the basis of them. Therefore it is necessary to
have joint interrel.ated investigation of the entire system of economic
= estimates of the resources, the losses and the prices of the finished
products. Here, the expenditures on production (considering the expanded
reproduction) must be reflected in the price of each type of product and
also a decrease in the losses attributed to other branches and the govern-
ment and payment of the corresponding compensations for them.
Here the economic-ecologic science of the World Ocean begins with the
fact that the maximum effectiveness of the economic means of controlling
the system can be achieved only in the case of successive application of
the program-purpose approach when implementing the economic-ecologic
measures of any scale. This conviction is based on the fact that only
the methods developed on the basis of systems analaysis and the program-
purpose approach as its inseparable part will permit efficient combina-
tion of centralized and decentralized control of the interbranch national
economic complexes which are formed from the achievement of the general
national goals of economic development [14], and they are related by
- their structural-functional cycles [11, 13]. The goal of the control
- of the "economy and Wor?d Ocean" system is to increase the national
econamic effectiveneas of the socialist method of production. The circu-
lation materials and energy between production and the World Ocean
which is realized on tl-Le scale required for satisfaction of all demands
of the society under the following conditions is considered optimal:
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Minimization of the expenditures of social labor;
Efficient distribution and use of extracted resources;
Maintenance of quality of the environment on a level insuring normal
conditions of vital activity and stability of the natural ecologic systems
of the society at the present time and in the foreseeable future.
The methods of dialectics, systems analysis, optimization and simulation
methods of cybernetic, economic and ecologic simulation are used for the
solution of the stated problems, and methods are being developed for
economic-ecologic simulation permitting determination of the most effi-
cient methods of control input on the basis of the prospective analysis
of the state of the system.
The systems approach based on the principles of Mar.xist-Leninist dialectics
laas made it possible to formulate a system of concepts, principles and
categories making up the basis for the theoretical foundation of the
econology of the World Ocean. Let us consider some of these concepts,
principles and categories.
Concept of Unity of Economics and Ecology. Beginning with the existence
of a united circulation of matter and energy and the "economy and World
Ocean " system, let us isolate the direct (the disturbing effect of the
economy on the environment, removal of resources, discharge of waste,
and so on) and the inverse (variation of the production efficiency with
variation in state of the environment) relations in it.
The indicated types of relations are averaged by the reaction of the
environment to the external disturbance transforming the direct relations
in accordance with the chain of natural interrelated processes. It is
expedient to differentiate the processes with respect to energy levels.
The processes of heat and moisture circulation have the highest energy;
the energy of the dynamic processes, namely, the currents and waves, is
of a lower order, and, finally, the energy of the biochemical conversions
of the ocean is several orders lower. It is natural that the interaction
in the "economy and World Ocean" system realized by the "disturbance-
transformation of the disturbance-variation in efficiency of use of
resources," chain proceeds only in the direction from the processes with
higher energy and not vice versa. Therefore as a result, for example,
of a change in the river runoff, the hydrologic and the hydrochemical
regimes of the inland seas and the coastal waters of the ocean, their
biological productiv4 ty, and so on change. At the same time an effect
that is applied only to the biological processes, let us say, the removal
of some species from the food chain of the ecologic system, disturbs
this integralness, but has no influence on the hydrologic regime of the
body of water.
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rvn urr itIlrw uan uLvLi
In this concept it is postulated that along with control of the direct
relations it is neceasary also to control the inverse relations by active
intervention in the intensity and direction of the processes of transforma-
tion of the disturbances and the environment.
Quality of the MarinE Environment. The quality of the marine environment
is a category permitting determination of the complex dynamic (considering
the transformation of the disturbance in the environment) estimate of the
difference of its real state from the desired or normative state, which
charscterizes the potential possibilities and the comparative effective-
ness of the sa.tisfaction of the demands of society.
The state of the environment can be determined by the set of parameters:
physical-chemical (salinity, temperature, concentration of various com-
pounds); dynamic (current, wave action); geomorphological (bottom relief
and shore lines); biological (biomasses of the organisms of different
trophic levels, their multiplication rate), and so on which vary in space
and time. Let us call them the parameters of state of the marine environ-
ment ~1,C2,...,Cn and let us define the ranges of their variation; at the
same time let us define the region G of the n-dimensional euclidian space
called the region of state. In this region each point corresponds to the
seti of numbers defining the state of the environment. This set can be
interpreted as the vector ~(C1,~2,��.)Cn) having n components and it is
possible to identify it with the state of the environment [19).
Let as a result uf the production activity certain components of the
state vary that is, its paramet_~rs. Here the vector 't varies by some
amount A~=I-tinit� The vector OS reflects the variations (shifts) which
have occurred in the state of the environment. Let us note that inasmuch
as certain ~i and ~k are related to each other by the functional rela-
tions, the shift ~ always takes place over the surface of cer.tain hyper-
surfaces ~Z(~1,���,~k,'�',~r)=0 describing the transformation of the
disturbance in the marine environment.
Let us break down the region of states G into the subregions Gi defining
the subset of the parameters {rl}i connected with the requirements on the
state of the environment of the i-th user. When an enterprise of this
region uses the environment, it can be assigned an economic estimate
defined as the effectiveness of the activity of the latter for the state
of the environment
Analogously, it is possible to def ine economic estimates of the shift of
the state of the environment A~. Tor this purpose it is necessary to
know the production function of the activity of the branch or the
individual enterprise in which the subset of parameters of state of the
environment {~jk appears as a series of arguments. In the case of com-
plete interchangeability of these arguments (additiveness of the produc-
tion function [4] with respect to }i), it is expedient to introduce
the vector the components o� whic~'are the coefficients of the limit-
ing effectiveness of the parameters of state. Inasmuch as the magnitude
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of the limiting effectiveness indicates an increase in the production
efficiency on variation of the corresponding parameters of state af the
environment by a small amount 19], the scalar product of the vector 5
with the vector A~ also will give a cost estimate (comparative effective-
ness) of th e use of the environment in various states.
Principle of Dual Unity of the Natural and Anthropogenic Effects on the
Marine Environment, Any anthropogenic transformations of the marine
environment are realized against a complex background of its natural
rhythmic and arhythmic fluctuations and can be adequately understood only
considering the latter. During the process of the interaction of natural
and anthropogenic factors, both attenuation of the consequences of the
economic activity of man and intensification of them can occur. These
effects have a quasiperiodic nature caused by the natural rhythm of the
natural processes. In particular, for the marine and oceanic bodies of
water the most expressed are the intracentury rhyttunic fluctuations of
the parameters of state of the environment with periods of 2, 5, 7, 8,
11, 18 years or more [24]. Along with the problem of separation of the
natural and anthropogenic components of the recorded state of the marine
environment, problems arise in the objective selection of time, determina-
tion of the values of the components of the vector of state I and the
reduction of the results obtained to the def ined phase of the natural
rhythmic development of the investigated body of water.
Principle of Staging of the Economic Exploitation of Renewable Resources
of the Ocean. Among the various forms of trajectories of motion of the
vector ~ over the hypersurface �Q(~1...,Cr)=0 there are a number of
closed ones corresponding to the stable states of the environment, and
a number of open trajectories corresponding either to transition of the
environment f rom one stable state to another or transition of it from
stable to unstable state.
- Inesmuch as the stability margin of the natural systems is finite, the
_ following cases are possible.
If the eff ect of production on any parameter of state is much less than
its natural variations, then the force of the effect on the passage of
some time weakens or is localized.
For commensurableness of the anthropogenic effect and natural variations
of the physical-chemical, biological and other parameters, stable cycles
occur which contradict the effect of production.
Finally, if the disturbing effects are much more than the individual items
of the natural balance, then restoration of it by natural means turns
out to be impossible. Therefore the efficient use of the marine environ-
ment can be realized in several stages depending on the nature of the
reaction of the environment to the effect of production [20].
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In the first stage all of the production effects are extinguished as a
result of the property of the environment for self-restoration and the
exploitation of the resources takes place as if they were infinite. In
the essence of the matter, until the present time the interaction with the
sea of the basic branches of the national economy has been realized in
this way.
The second stage comes when some quality level of the environment is
maintained both as a result of self-restoration and purposeful activity
; of man. In this case, de'Lined expenditures are required for the res tora-
tiun of 14-mited resources.
In the third stage the natural object in practice ia not self-restor ed,
the required level of quality of the environment is completely suppo rted
by technical means.
The use of the above-discussed principles and concepts is possible only as
applied to the region. The basic problem occurring here is the problem
of economic regionalization of the World Ocean. It fias still been little
studied and is simultaneously much more complex than the problem of
economic regionalization of the continental sections as a result of
continuity of the water environment and interrelation of the processes
occurring in it and also the inertia of the ocean. Accordingly, changes
in state of the ocean as a result of the irrational activity of man are
manifested after a long period of time. When solving this problem it is
impossible to use either administrative, natural or physical-geographic
division or division by the branch attribute into fishing, transport and
geological areas. A territorial economic regionalization appears to be
expedient.
It is appropriate to isolate such regions on the basis of a new typo logy
the typology of systems of the type of "demand for natural resour ces
sources of the resources economic-ecologic possib ilities of their
exploitation."
The basic idea consists in the fact that the region of prospective
exploitation must be determined using a numb er of indexes of the quality
state of the resources and the environment (stable and periodically vary-
ing) and also those which characteriae the demand of the economy and
technical possibilities of satisfaction of them. This system of economic
regionalization of the ocean has sufficient flexibility and can be
successfully used when solving the problems of prospective planning and
development and also the placement of the productive forces in the ocean.
In addition, this system permits determination of the sections in wh ich
the spatial interests of the various branches (extraction of petroleum
and gas, fishing, the health resort industry, marine transportation) are
encountered, and it also offers the possibility of determining the
indexes which provide the basis for conflicts among these branches and
finding compromise solutions by analysis of. these indexes.
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In order to solve the investigated problems of complex and branch economic
regionalization, as it appears to us it is necessary:
1) To state the problem for a sufficiently prolonged time interval, for
only stable long-term strategy of the development of economic activity
will promote an increase in effectiveness of cap ital investments and a
reduction in the production expenditures and, on the contrary, any reorienta-
tion in this sphere is connected with enormous capital expenditures and
temporary reduction of the productivity of labor;
2) Functionally to determine the configuration of the region isolated for
the solution of the goals stated for the investigated period, using the
series of indexes (characteristics) which are discovered when analyzing
the statedproblems;
3) To determine the basic indexes of the development of economic regions
[the level of concentration (power) and specialization (volumes of output
of individual types of production), rates of development, production tech-
nology, the system of relations with respect to delivery of raw materials,
materials and finished production] jointly and simultaneously, for all of
the enumerated parameters are formulated by the natural, economic and
social conditions which are different in diffe=ent regions and, conse-
quently, cannot be established until the limits of these regions are known.
The dimensians of the exploited bodies of water, in turn, depend on the
production capacity and a number of other characteristics of the productive
forces and, consequently, cannot be found until the latter are known;
4) To realize regionalization of the exploited territory in such a way
that the existing and the projected regions will form a united system,
within the limits of which the solution of the stated problem is possible. -
For realization of the formulated principles in the dynamic models of the
branch and integral economic regionalization the exrenditures on produc-
tion and transportation of raw materials and finished products, in contrast
to the existing models of optimal planning and the developmenL and place-
ment of the branches of industry, are considered as the given functions
of the water in the regions, the concentration and specialization of the
economy in them and also time.
This permits use of the investigated concepts and principles ot economic-
ecalogic science of World Ocean for the solution of the primary problem ~
[he program-target planning of its economic exploitation.
3. Program-Purpose Planning of the Economic Exploitation of the Ocean
At the present time defined progress has been made in the solution of the
special economic-ecologic problems. Thus, the hydroengineering structures
have been created which favorably change the regime and the lithodynamics
of the coastal zone uf the sea, fishing is regul.ated for purposes of
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a - va ~ avaaiu vWU v1VL1
reproduction of ichtnyofauna, the maximum admissible discharge of
pollutants is standardized, individual bodies of water are enriched,
their hydrologic cycle is de�ined, and so on. The indicated measures
are forms of control of the inverse relations in the "economy and Wor1d
Ocean" system, that is, the control of the reaction of the environment
to the external disturbances.
The rea lization of larger and more complex measures is theoretically possi-
ble. In recent years the idea of the control of marine ecologic systems,
includ ing the entire World Ocean, is being more and more frequently ad-
_ vanced. In our opinion, this statement is premature, and under modern
condit ions the center of gravity of the solution of the problems of the
contro 1 of the marine environment must be shifted to the region of
regional transformations.
The mos t acceptable here is the target program approach which provides for
primary solution of the problems of:social development by planned use of
resourc es and promotes deep manysided substantiation of the planning
decisions made for the distant future. ~
The program must provide for a set of ineasures of scientific research,
social- economic, production, organizational-management and other nature
which a re coordinated with respect to resources, executors and time of
complet ion, the implementation of which will promote the realization of
the sta ted goal or the set of interrelated goals [23].
The eff ective development of the set of ineasures included in the program
(from s cientific research operations to distribution, handling and consump-
tion of the program production) can be achieved only with exact formulation
of its final purpose.
The fo rmulation of the purpose is the first most important step in compil-
ing the program inasmuch as the formulation of the purpose determines the
choice of restrictions on the means of achieving it, the criteria for
selecting alternatives, and so on.
It is considered that the main purpose of the program expressing a defined
social demand generalizes all of the nonmain program goals and appears
at the same time in the form of the assigning element. Consequently, this
main goa 1 can decay into the subgoals subordinate to it and interrelated,
the achievement of which provides for the realization of the primary
initial goal. The set of such mutually ordered and subordinate subgoals
forming the hierarchical structure usually is called the vertical goal
tree.
It is c onsidered that the lower level of the vertical goal tree is the
level of appearance of alternatives. The subgoals themselves are always
without alternatives, and the methods of achieving them, as a rule, are
multivar iant .
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Therefore the majority of authors presuppose the construction not only
of vertical goal trees with nodes of the "and " type, but also the trees
of the versions of their attainment with the nodes of the type "or,"
and then they are matched with each other. Here the methods of matching
are considered to the present time undeveloped, for it is done on differ-
ent levels, with different degree of detail and is determined to a great
extent by subjective factors. .
The evaluations of the goals by levels and by significance are poorly
developed.
It appears more procedurally valid to construct an integrated goal tree,
the levels of which strictly correspond to the types and scales of activ-
ity aimed at implementation of the program. Usually the following eight
levels are distinguished: scientific resources, technological resources,
elementary technology, functional technological flow charts, applicabil-
ity, social systems, environment, society at large [31].
It is obvious that the four upper levels of the versions correspond to
the levels of development of the given problEms, and the lower levels of
goals, to the levels of the effect of the funct ioning system.
Inasmuch as depending on the scales the goals are located at different
levels, for effectiveness of the analysis of such trees it is necessary
to answer the following questions: Are the following possible:
Forcing of the resea,.ch and development with respect to some programs
requiring special concentration of different efforts;
The discovery of the technological difficulties, technical goals, and so
on;
Estimation of the possible paths of achieving the primary goals.
In order to obtain answers to these questions, c lear fixing of the purpose
systems designed directly for the performance of the goal and located on
the divide fifth level is required. For each isolated purpose system
functional technological flow charts are found which provide for attain-
ment of the goal (fourth level) and describe the specific technical-
economic characteristics (third level).
tf at the time of investigating the draft of th e program there are tech-
nological flow charts available, the characteris tics of which provide for
the execution of the stated goal wj,th external restrictions caused by the
already existing purpose systems (~or example, the predicted level of
irreversible water consumption), tlten the constr uction of the goal tree
ends with this. If the technical-eccnomic characteristics of the existing ~
structures do not provide for attainment of the goal, then the construc-
tion of the second level of the goal ti-ee begins the search for the
required experimental design operations (OKR).
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Finally, in the absence of a sufficiently reliable version of the OKR,
expansion of the goal tree takes place to the first level a search is
made for the required scientific research operations (NIR) insuring the
required version of the OKR.
The above-described five levels are entirely adequate if the ext:ernal
restrictions on the execution of the program are given which do not permit
further examination of it. If during the course of execution of the pro-
gram correction of the external restrictions is permitted, then advance-
ment upward from the fifth level to the goals touching on the interests
of the society as a whoie takes place simultaneously.
When ccmpiling the large-scale regional programs, inclusion of the goals
of the sixth and seventh levels in the tree appears to be essentially
necessary inasmuch as these levels correspond to the systems for maintain-
ing the quality of the environment, insuring harmonic development of it.
As a result of the use of the proposed method in the process of developing
the integrated goal tree, unique coordination of the primary goal and the
subgoals of the program on the levels corresponding to the scales of their
activity with the multiversion system of ineasures insuring a.chievement
of the stated goal and encompassing the entire liie cycle of the program
production takes place.
As a result of strict fixing of the goal and subgoal levels, the measures
aimed at achievement of the primary goal are uniquely isolated. The
selection of the versions of their realization must be made within the
framework of the developed program. Accordingly, the development of the
measures required for achievement of the primary goal must be realized
within the framework of the programs of the higher rank.
The purpose program for use of the reserves of the biological resources
of the marine environment of the Black Sea and Azov Basin developed at
the Odessa Department of the Economics Institute of the Ukrainian SSR
Academy of Sciences is a specific realization of the discussed basic
principles of program-goal planning of the economic control of the World
Ocean. It is demonstrated in it that the biological and fishing produc-
tivity of the Black Sea and the Azov Sea, their limans and estuaries can
be radically increased, but the implementation of ineasures Gubordinate
to the following basic goals is required to do this:
1. The preservation and maintenance of high quality of the marine
_ environmer.t.
2. The shift of the center of gravity from fishing, the gossibilities
of the f urther expansion of which are limited, to aquaculture (mariculture)
providing for the obtaining of high guaranteed volumes of fish and marine
produczs with high prof itabili_ty of production.
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3. The orientation of a significant part of f3shing and aquaculture
toward the objects located on the lower trophic levels of the biological
chain (algae and mollusks), the biomass of which is appreciably greater
than the biomass of the plant-eating and eapecially predatory fish.
The selection of these goals predetermines the investigation of the
following purpose systems:
Insurance of the required quality of the water environment, including the
marine environment, the Black Sea and Azov Basin;
The insurance of the conditions for reproduction of the biological
resources of the basin;
The extraction of biological resources;
Organization of agriculture;
The processing of biological resources into food and feed products and
also into raw material for the technical branches of industry;
_ The sale and marketing of the finished product.
For each of the above-enumerated systems, the functional technological
structures were defined providing for the obtainment of the stated goals.
The analysis of the modern state of the art and the desired state in the
future to the year 2000 has made it possible to plan the set of ecologic,
social-economic, production, experimental design, scientific research
and organizational measures, the set of which is aimed at attainment of
the stated goals and determines the volumes of the required resources.
As is known, the final step ir} the development of each program is the step
of inclusion of it in the national economic plan (in its program and non-
program divisions). As a result of the peculiarities of the development
of the economic-ecologic programs for exploitation of the World Ocean,
it is necessary to create a system of economic-ecologic planning and
control. The schematic diagram of this system consists of four subsystems:
observation (monitoring) l, ecologic 2 and economic 3 forecasting and the
economic-ecologic planning itself 4(Fig 1).
The object of control considered as the united system is represented in
the diagram in the form of two blocks; 5-- "economy" and 6-- "environ-
- ment." Considering the nature of the relations among them, monitoring
appears to be expedient which includes three types of observations
required for control purposes:
A56 the nature of the anthropogenic disturbances;
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[Key to Fig 1, p 761
1. Monitoring
1,1. Variability of the parameters of the environment
1.2. Anthropogenic disturbances
1.3. Quality o.f the environment
2. Ecologic forecasting
2.1. Development of versions of the behavior models of the environment
2.1a Checking for accuracy
2.2. Simulation and forecasting of the behavior of the environment
3. Economic forecasting
3.1. Forecasting the development of the demands of society
3.2. Versions of economic activity
3.3. Forecasting the demands on the state of the environment
3.4. Forecasting the anthropogenic disturbances
4. Economic-ecologic planning
4.1. Regionalization of the bodies of water in the World Ocean
4.2. System of criteria and restrictions of economii-ecologic control
4.2a Satisfaction of the quality of environment criteria
4.3. Forecasting model of the quality of the environment
5. Economy A55
6. Environment A66
7. Implementation of the adopted version
A65 the va.Lues of the parameters of state of the environment entering
into the production functions of the users;
A66 variability of the parameters of state of the envirnninent entering
into the transformatian function of the anthropogenic disturbances.
The monitoring of the marine environment permits determination of the
values of the ecologic parameters required for the construction of the
production functions. However, for the construction of the'same functions
special information is required about the values and the dynamics of the
economic factors which implies the supplementing of the monitoring also
by the observation system A55�
As is obvious from the presented system, the economic-ecologic monitoring,
in addition to the above-enumerated four basic types of obs.:rvations,
include the following functional blocks:
1.1 and 1.2.-- processing of information A56 and A66 in order to discover
the functianal relations between the parameters of state and the environ-
ment subject to anthropogenic disturbances;
1.3 processing of the information A55 and A65
the quality of the environment, that is, evaluate
by each user in accordance with his demands.
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Various models of behavior of the environment (block 2), the checking of
which for adequacy is done by the retrospective and mo3ern data using
the information of blocks 1.1 and 1.2 are formed in the ecologic fore-
castino system 2 on the basis of the information generated by block 1.1.
The final result of the functloning of the subsystem 2 is the generation
of models of the environment 2.2 permitting forecasting u~_ the dynamics
_ uf the ba :lc parameters of its state.
Ln the economic foreca.sting subsystem 3 on the basis of forecasting the
development of the demands 3.2, versions of the econnmic activity are
being generated.
The interaction of the blocks 5 and 6 takes place on the level of the
individual enterprises in specific regions. Consequently, the work is
done on two levels: microeconomic, represented by the production func-
tiona of the measures, and macroeconomic taking into account the inter-
effect of these enternrises through the environment.
On the basis of the production functions for each of the versions of
economic activity, the demands on the parameters of state of the environ-
ment are formulated, the list of which must be included in the monitoring
program pertaining to the system of observations A65'
The information about the size and the nature of the anthropogenic
disturbances placed in block 3.4 is determined by the technology and the
volume cf production output corresponding to the versions of the economic
activi.ty. This information is used in the model of the environment
(bl.ock 2.2). In turn, the information of block 3.3 jointly with fere-
" casting the state of the environment (the output of black 2.2) is the
Uasis for simulation of its quality (block 4.3).
I,:: the subsystem 4, the versions of economic activity are matched with
the predicted state of the environment, that is, the economic-ecologic
planning itself , For this purpose, block 4.2 is provided which generates
the criteria and the restrictions for the bodies of water with different
nature of use. The regional, ization required for these purposes is carried
out in block 4.1 on the basis of the information about the current state,
quality of the marine environment (hlock 1.3) and prediction of the
demands of society (block 3.1) with respect to the nature of the proposed
use of the bodies or water.
In conclusion, it is n4w justifiable to draw the general conclusion that
the further development oL the economic-ecologic studies of the World
OcEan will promote the creation of complex national and international
programs for the exploitation of its resources under the condition of
comprehensive conservation of the natural environment and the general
pla~ietary functions.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bardach, D.; Riter, D,; Maklerni, U. AKVAKUL,'TURA [Aquaculture],
Moscow, Pishchepromizdat, 1978, p 293.
2. Bronfman, A. M. "Alternative Solutions of the Economic-Ecologic
Problems of the Azov Sea Basin," PROBLEMY EKONOMIKI MORYA [Problems
of the Economy or the Sea], Odessa, No 5, 19769 pp 33-45.
3. Bronfman, A. M.; Kharichkov, S. K.; Ryasintseva, N. I. "Problems of
the Methodology of Economic Evaluation of the Losses from Pollution
of the Marine Environment," PROBLEMY EKONONlIKI MORYA [Problems of
- Economics of the Sea], Kiev, No 7, 1978, pp 66-79.
4. Budyanskiy, G. G. "Form of Regressive Control uf an Ancient Pro4uc-
tion Function," EHM [Mathematical Methods and Economics], Vol 7, No 1,
1972, pp 76-85.
5. Buynitskiy, V. Kh. "Some Social-Economic Problems of Environmental
Pollution in Connection with Scientific and Technical Progress,"
VEST. LGU (Vestnik of Leningrad State University), No 12, 1976,
PP 7-12,
- 6. Voskresenskiy, K. P.; Sokolov, A� A.; Shiklomanov, I. A. "Resources
of the Surface Water of th~i USSR. and Their Variation Under the Effect
of Economic Activity," VODNy v-r-, IZESURSY [Water Resources], No 2, 1973,
pp 33-58,
7. Gerasimov, I. P.; Fradkin, N. G. "Problem of Man, Society and
Environment," CHELOVEK, OBSHCHESTVO I OKRUZHAYUSHCHAYA SREDA
[Nan, Society and Environment], edited by I. P. Gerasimov, et al.,
- Moscow, Mys].', 1973, pp 18-33.
8. Girusov, E. V.; Lappo, S. S. "Limits of the Possibility of the
Biospherey" PRIRODA [Nature], No 12, 1974, pp 2-7.
9. Granberg, A. G. MATEMATICHESKIYE MODELI SOTSIALISTICHESKOY
EKONOMIKI [Mathematical Models of the Socialist Economy], Mosraw,
Ekonomika, 1978.
10. Zakhariyev, I. "Basi.c Areas of the Solution of the Problem of
Environmental Protection," RATSIONAL'NOYE ISPOL'ZOVANIYE PRIRODNYKH
RESURSOV I OKHRANA OKRUZHAYUSHCHEX SREDY jEfficient Use of Natural
Resources and Environ,-nental Protection], Moscow, Progress, 1977.
11. Kovalenko, Xu. N. NAUCHNXXE OSNOVY TERRITORIAL'NOY ORGANIZATSII
PROMYSHLENNXKH KOMPLEKSOV [Scien.tific Principles of the Territorial
Organization of Industrial Complexes], Kiev, Budivel'nik, 1977,
175 gp. `
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12. Kolodnik, A.; Lazarev, M.; Imerenov, B. "Mal'temirnoye Sea,"
NOVOYE VREMYA [New Times], No 34, 1971, 12, p 12, pp 123-129.
13. Komar, I. V. RATSIONAL'NOYE ISPOL'ZOVANIYE PRIRODNYKH RESUROV I
RESURSNYYE TSIKLY [Eff icient Use of Natural Resources and Resource
Cycles], Moscow, Nauka, 1975, 212 pp.
14. KOMPLEKSNOYE NARODNOKHOZYAYSTVENNOYE PLANIROVANIYE [Complex National
Economic Planning], edited by Academician N. P. Fedorenko,
Moscow, Ekonomika, 1974, 234 pp.
15. Kurov, A. B. "Capital Investments in Marine Exploration and Prospect-
ing and Exploitation Operations with Respect to the Extraction of Oil
and Gas and Their Effectiveness Abroad," TEZ. DOKL. VSESOYUZ KGNFER.
EKONOMICHESKIYE PROBLEMY MIRO'VUGO OKEANA [Topics of Reports at the
All-Union Conference. Economic Problems of the World Ocean],
Odessa, 1977, pp 75-77.
16. Levchenko, V. A. "Mineral Resources of the World Ocean and Problems
of Their Expl)itation and Use," EKONOMICHESKIYE PROBLEIiY MIROVOGO
OKEANA [Economic Prob?ems of the World Ocean], Odessa, 1977,
pp 128-129.
17. L'vovich, M. N. MIROVYYE VODNYYE RESURSY I IKH BUAUSHCHEYF
[World Water Resources and Their Future], Moscow, Mysl', 1974, 448 pp.
18. Lyubimov, L.; Yakovin, I. "World Ocean: Economics, Politics, Law,"
MIROVAYA EKONOMIKA I MEZFIDUNARODNYYE OTNOSHENIYA [World Economics
and International Affairs], No 9, 1976, pp 24-34.
19. Meleshkin, M. T.; Suvorovskiy, A. L. "Procedural Principles of the
Economics of the World Ocean," VESTN. AN SSSR [Vestnik of the USSR
Academy of Sciences], No 12, 1974, pp 58-66.
20. Meleshkin, M. T. "Problems of the Methodology of the All-Around
- Utilization of the Mar.ine Environment," VISNIK AN USSR [Vestnik of
the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences], No 3, 1975, pp 37-46.
21. Meleshkin, M. T. "Problems of the Theory and Methodology of the
Development of the Economics of the World Ocean," PROBLEMY
EKONOMIKI MORYA [Problems of the Economics of the Sea], In-t
ekonomiki AN USSR, Odessa, No 6, 1977, pp 5-28.
22. Meleshkin, M. T. "Econology of the World Ocean as a New Area of
Science," PROBLEMX EKONOMIKI MORYA jProblems of Economics of the Sea],
Kiev, No 7, 1978, pp 29-43.
23. METODICHESKIYE REKOMENDATSII PO RAZRABOTKE KOMPLEKSNYKH
NARODNOKHOZYAYSTVENNYKH PROGRAMNI [Procedural Recommendations with
Respect to the Development of Complex National Economic Programs],
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AN SSSR, Otdeleniye ekonomiki Tsentral'nyy ekonomiko-matem. in-t.,
Part 1, Moscow, 1977, 175 pp.
24. Monin, A. S.; Kamenkovich, V. M.; Kort, V. G. IZMENCHIVOST'
MIROVOGO OKEANA [Variability of the idorld Ocean], Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1974, 262 pp.
25. Patin, S. A.; Morozov, N. P. "Some Aspects of the Problem of the
Pollution of the Marine Environment with Heavy Metals," TRL'DY
VNIRO.T.S. EKONOMICHESKIYE ASPEKTY KHIMICHESKOGO I RADIOAKTIVNOGO
ZAGRYAZNENIYA VODNOY SREDY [Works of the VNIRO.T.S. Economic Aspects
of Chemical and Radioactive Pollution of the Water Environment],
1974, pp 7-12.
~ 26. Rumyantsev, A. M. "Economic Science in the Solution of Ecologic
and Social Problems of the Exploitation of the World Ocean,"
PROBLEMY EKONOMIKI MORYA [Problems of the Economics of the Sea], Kiev,
No 7, 1978, pp 5-18.
27. Simonov, A. I. "Oceanographic Aspects of the Problem of Polluting
the Seas and Oceans," PROBLEMY EKONOMIKI MORYA, Odess3, No 6, 1977,
pp 56-69.
28. Springis, K. Ya. MORSKAYA GEOLOGIYA I PROBLMIY MINERAL'NOGO SYR'YA
[Marine Geology and the Problems of Mineral Raw Materials], Moscow,
Znaniye, 1971, 47 pp.
29. Kharvey, D. NAUCHNOYE OB"YASNENIYE V GEOGRAFII [Scientific Explana-
tion ir. Geography], Moscow, Progress, 1974, 502 pp.
30, Shlykov, S. G. "Eff ect of the Development of Oil and Gas Reserves
of the North Sea on the Economic Situation of the Countries of
Western Europe," TEZ. DOKL. VSESOYUZ. KONFER. EKONOMICHESKIYE
PROBLIIMY MIROVOGO OKEANA [Topics of Reports of the All-Union Confer-
ence on the Economic Problems of the World Ocean], Odessa, 1977,
~ pp 39-41.
31. Yanch. E. PROGNOZIROVANIYE NAUCHNO-TEHI3NICHESKOGO PROGRESSA
Forecasting Scientific and Technical Progress], Moscow, Progress,
1974, 586 pp.
32. Bronfman, A. M. "The Azov Sea Water Economy and Ecological Problems:
Investigation and Possible Solutions," ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF
COMPLEX RIVER DEVELOPMENT, Colorado, Westview Press, Boulder, 1977,
pp 39-59.
33. Halme, E. "Zinc and the Etiology of Cancer," YCES, FISH. IlMPROVEMENT
COMM. CM, 1971/E5, pp 13-17.
34. Yon Oertzen, J. A. "Die Meeresverschmutzung ein Problem des
Meeresbiologie," BIOL. RU-SCH, 1972, pp 17-29.
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.
MONITORING OF CHEMICAL POLLUTION OF SEAWATER
[Article by A. I. Simonov]
Anatoliy Il'ich Simonov, doctor of geographic sciences,
professor, is department head of the State Oceanological
Institute. He is a specialist in the field of chemical
oceanology, author of forecasts of the pollution of the seas
of the Soviet Union until 1990, director of a number of inter-
national scientific projects on the problem of thE pollution
oF seawater and their effect on ecologic systems. He is a
member of the board of editors of the journal OKEANOLOGIYA
[Oceanology].
1. Characteristics of Seawater Pollution
The f irst reconnaissance step in the stu.iies of the chemical pollution of
water performed in our countrv in the Atlantic Ocean was completed by
1915. As a result of these studies a number of general conclusions were
drawn regarding the nature of the pollution of the marine environment
which has to a great extent promoted the determination of the monitoring of
the water pollution.
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It has been established that pollution, especially with petroleum hydro-
carbons, is acquiring a global nature. At the present time the pollution
fields, as a rule, formed off shore, are propagated far beyond the
boundaries of the coastal regions, they encompass many seas and regions
of the oceans completely. These fields are stable in time and space [6].
The given conclusion is confirmed by numerous observations which were
performed in the last 3 years by different countries within the framework
of the Experimental Project of the International Oceanographic
= Counnission (IOC) of UNESCO and the World Meteorological Organization (WMU)
of the United Nations for monitoring the petroleum pollution of the World
Ocean not unly in the Atlantic, but also in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
The scientific research ships of the Soviet Union are participating
actively in the implementation of this plan.
Observations in the North Atlantic have demonstrated that the shelf waters
of the continental and island regions are the most polluted where the
petroleum hydrocarbon content fluctuates within the limits of 0.05 to
' 0.68 mg/liter. On going away from the shelf, the concentration decreases.
On the whole, the picture of the hydrocarbon distribution caused by the
complex structure of the water and the peculiarities of the process of the
solution of it in seawater appears to be quite complicated. Petroleum
hydrocarbons are contained in the sea;aater basically in the form of lumps
and films.
The lumps of petroleum hydrocarbons are formaCions of various shape and
consistency from black to yellow-brown in color and from 1.0 to 30-45 mm
in size.
During the taking of one sample, as a rule, by a sampler, lumps of
different types and sizes are collected, which indicates the nonuniformity
of the pollution field and the constant transformation of the latter under
the effect of external factors.
It has been established th�t the lumps of petroleum in the surface layer
of water of the North Atlantic are present in 89% of the cases of taking
samples in the amounts from 0.1 to 456.50 mg per m2.
The concentrations of the petroleum lumps per m2 of sea surface are dis-
tributed as follows:
Lumps
weighing
5.0 (very strong pollution)
7,4%
In 80.7% of the samples taken the lump concentration reaches 1.0 mg/m2
and more.
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Many lumps are carriers of nektonic periphyton, the basis for which is
the goose barnacles, isopod-crustaceans and other mobile forms. Thus, a
lump weighing 6,85 grams with a very developed surface was populated with
a colony of 21 barnacles with head sizes of 3-4 mm.
An analysis of the number of lumps by the method of gas chromatography
demonstrated the presence in them of organochlorine pesticides which were
absorbed on their surf ace during migration in the marine environment.
Thus, for example, an aggregate caught at a point with coordinates 36�O1'
north latitude and 15�02' west longinde weigtvng 72 mg contained 2.79 ng
of Y-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCCH), 20.42 ng of DDT and 1.23 ng of DDE.
Enormous bodies of water are encompassed by the oil slicks. Thus, the
visual observations performed within the framework of the IOC and the WMO
projects [9] indicate that such a film completely covers the South China
and Yellow Seas, zones 300,000 km2 in area at the Panama Canal (the films
were detected in 40 to 50% of the cases of all observations), the entire
Kuroshio system (to 30%), the zone west of the Hawaiian Islands 600,000 km2
in area (to 30%), the southeastern part of the Bering Sea, and almost con-
tinuous zone along the coast of North America to 500-600 km wide (to 20%).
These visual observations are completely confirmed by instrument observa-
tions of the propagation of the oil lumps in the surface 10-meter layer of
the water which are the final product of the evolution of heavy fractions
of the petroleum hydrocarbons in different stages of their mineralization.
The oil Iumps are detected in all of the above-enumerated regions and also
in the largest body of water from the Hawaiian Islands north to Alaska and
east to the shores of North America. The greatest content (to 100 mg per
m2) was noted in the regions south of Japan and between the Hawaiian
Islands and San Francisco, that is, in the regions of most intense naviga-
tion in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean.
The data on petroleum pollution of the Pacific Ocean waters again confirmed
the conclusion that it is acquiring a global nature.
The performed studies have made it possible to draw another important con-
clusion regarding the significant effect of chemical pollution on the
- primary production of ocean water [3]. Estimating the effect of chemical
pollution on the primary productivity of the surface water, it is necessary
fir.st of all to note that in the regions where the concentrations of
pollutants were low, maximum chlorophyll concentrations (0.1-1.0 micro-
grams/liter) were observed, and there was no product of its decomposition
pheophytin which during the vegetative period probably can serve as an
index of the degree of effect of the pallutants on the primary production
of the phytoplankton.
- Wherever the seawater turned out to be the most polluted with mercury and
petroleum products, the chlorophyli content was appreciably lower (basically
Co 0.1 micrograms/liter), and the pheophytin content increased (to 2-3
micrograms/liter). The high concentrations of chemical pollutants do not
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have so much an inhibiting, suppressing effect on the process of photo-
synthesis of algae as they deeply affect the vital organic matter formed
during th2 course of this process.
Thus, it is possible to consider the fact of the sigr.ificant effect of
pollution on the primary production of seawater established.
In addition, an important conclusion has been drawn regarding the role of
the basic circulation systems and with respect to the stagnant zones of
- the oceans and seas in the transport and accumulation of pollutants,
respectively.
The greatest concentrations of these materials are noted in the coastal
zones where they come from the shore, and in the broad relatively iow-
mobile regions of the ocean where they are brought in by systems of
currents. Thus, the currents of the Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic
Current which are saturated with pollutants off the coast of North America
and Europe are unnoted in the vicinity of the Sargasso Sea, the Nozwegian
Sea and the Barents Sea. Thus, the unloading zones,.including the Arctic
region are becoming accumulators of powerful materials. In the north-
western part of the Pacific Ocean the basic Kuroshio Current breaks down
the f ield of the polluted water into two parts: one is adjacent to the
shores of Japan, and the other withdraws into the open sea. The transport
of the pollutant takes place predominantly in the peripheral zones of the
circulating systems, where they are concentrated on the effect of the
transverse component of the current velocity.
Another conclusion has been drawn in recent years. Significant concentra-
tion of petroleum hydrocarbons, synthetic surface-active materials and
chlorinated hydrocarbons in the surface microlayer of the water (to 3000
microns) coming into the World Ocean via various channels. It has been
established that the concentration of the indicated materials in the
surface microlayer is 1 to 2 orders higher than in the surface layer of
the water and the water layer of the atmosphere. On going away from the
continents arL:i the shelf zones, their concentration as a whole diminishes,
but it still remains comparatively high. The chlorinated hydrocarbons,
the concentrations of which are reduced to "trace" values constitute an
exception.
Simultaneously with removal from the continents, the quality composition
of the pollutants changes: the suspended part increases absolutely and
relatively, and the dissolved part of the petroleum hydrocarbons decreases,
the absolute and relative proportions of trz DDE and the DDD (metabolites
of DDT) also rises, and the proportion of the DDT decreases.
Thus, it is possible to consider the nature of the phenomenon of per-
sistently high concentrations of chemical pollutants in the surface micro-
layer of the World Ocean global, just as the nature of the destruct3on
_ of the naturally developed physical-chemical parameters of this layer
under the effect of pollution.
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Part of the monitoring is the system for observations of water pollution,
bottom deposits and the surface of the World Ocean which will permit
changes to be isolated in the state of the oceanic and, to some degree,
the land animate environment taking place under the effect of anthropo-
genic ac tivity. In this respect the monitoring of the pollution of the
World Oc ean water has subordinate significance in the system for monit^r-
ing the natural environment.
Solving the problem of the pollution of the World O.cean water means to
develop substantiated proposals with respect to reducing the discharge
of waste into the oceanic environment in such a degree that the processes
of natural utilization of the pollutants will constantly prevail over the
processes of pollution and lead to the elimination of the disturbances
or the possibilities of disturbances in the ecologic systems of the World
Ocean and the earth as a whole.
This goa 1 cdn be reached by solving the following problems:
Observat ion of the dynamic levelof pollution of the World Ocean water,
generalization and determination of the developed trends in the variation
in the p o llution level;
Predicting the dynamics of the pollution levels of the ocean water and
tendencies in their variation;
The development of proposals with respect to preventing discharge of
pollutants into the ocean environment considering the results of the
indicated foreeast.
At the p resent time the balance method of forecasting the pollution levels
and calculating the ..ates of reduction of the discharge of the pollutants
has been developed and tested for individual seas [1].
The calculation of the dynamics of the pollution levels takes into
account the inflow of pollutants into the sea, their decomposition, their
loss to the bottom deposits, the atmosphere and in the case of the hydro-
logic cycle, to another sea simultaneously. Each of these processes is
_ characterized by its own rate coefficient. The essence of it reduces to
ttie f ol lowing.
It is known that the flow rate of the pollutants per unit time is propor-
tional to the mass and the velocity coefficients of the outflow. Each is
assumed c onstant for the investigated time interval. Under these assump-
tions, the pollutant budget for the ti.me dt is described by the equation
9r ( 9r M e E tcr~
Ml EK-lEK o
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where Mp and Mt are the presence of pollutants in the sea respectively
at the beginning of the calculation and during the period dt, thousands
of tons; qt is the rate of inflow of pollutants in the sea; EK is the
sum of the rate constants of the outflow of th e pollutants along various
channels.
From the equation it is obvious that for the constants qt and EK the
mass of the pollutants in the sea Mt for t-*- asmptotically approaches
the value qt/EK with some delay which is characterized by the term
(qt/EK-MO)e-EKt and determines the dynamic properties of the processes
occurring in the sea.
The presented formula is somewhat complicated for the calculations; there-
fore using the expansion of the value of e'EKt in a series, we bring it
to the operating form:
M M2q-ZMoE K Ot.
r_- o-- 2-f- y,K A t
The empirical coefficients used in the formulas for calculating the rate
constants of the outflow of pollutants and also the rate constant of
the biochemical destruction K1 as a function of temperature were obtained
on the basis of the experimental data and natural observations [1].
However, the use of this method requires the presence of reliable data
not only on the arrival of pollutants in the sea, but also level of pollu-
tion in the body of water, the surface and bottom layer of the water, the
bottom deposits and the magnitudes of the hydrologic cycle both between
the individual layers of water and with the adj acent sea.
2. Channels for the Inflow of Pollutants into the World Ocean
The scientific principles of the organization of monitoring of the pollu-
tion of the World Ocean waters taking into account the channels and the
rates of inflow of the basic pollutants (petroleum hydrocarbons, chlor-
inated hydrocarbons, heavy metals, synthetic surface-active materials),
the time they are in the marine environment, the rate of exchange and the
phase interface (water and bottom deposits, water and the layer of the
atmosphere next to the water, water and animate organisms), theiz evolu-
tion in the seawater, the capacity to be concen trated in the boundary
zones (surface, bottom deposits, density discontinuity in the air) are
discussed to a known degree in the "progrLn for monitoring the background
levels of indivi~~.tl pollutants in the open seas," the compilaLion of
which was particip3ted in by the auChor of this article by resolution of
the UNEP, W140 and the IOC.
During the development it is necessary to consid er many facts, primarily
arising in *ature which give rise to many of the most important
features in the evolution of pollutants:
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The high dynamicity of the ocean waters, which leads to quite fast spread
of the pollutants over great exnanses;
The different time nature of the exchange, the ventilation of the water,
the age of the water masses over the shelf and in the open part of the
oceati, in the upper and nearby layers;
Limited potential of the sea water for natural utilization of chemical
pollutants, self-cleaning, especially at low water temperatures.
In addition, it is necessary to consider the nature of the sources in the
channels of inflow of the pollutants, and their physical-chemical proper-
ties.
Obviously it is necessary to consider the problem of the pollution of the
marine environment with each specific pollutant separately. How correct
this is, can be judged by briefly analyzing the process of the pollution
with petroleum hydrocarbons (NU) and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
At the present time about 6 million tons of petroleum hydrocarbons get
into the seawater annually from various sources and along various channels.
This makes up about 0.23% of the annual wozld petroleum extraction. In
order to realistically represent this figure, it is sufficient to say
that during all of World War II a total of about 4 million tons of oil
got into the ocean as a result of the sinking and damaging of tankers [8].
The general idea of the sources and channels of inflow of petroleum hydro-
carbons into the seawater can be obtained on the basis of th e data pre-
sented below [ 1'1 ] :
Sources and channels of inflow of petroleum _ Volume, % of the total
hydrocarbons inflow of pollutants
Discharge from ships at sea, including dis-
charge of washing and ballast water 23
Discharge from ships in ports, in the bodi_es
of water next to the ports, including the
losses when transferring petroleum from the
tankers and to them, when loading the fuel 17
Discharges from shore, including industrial waste water 11
Inflow with the rain runoff from the cities 5
- Inflow in the case of disasters between ships at sea 5
Inflow when drilling on the shelf 1
Inflow with river water 28
Inf lom from the atmosphere 10
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These data are noteworthy in two respects. First, they permit determina-
tion of the basic channels of inflow of the petroleum hydroc arbons into
the World Ocean and estimation of the magnitude of each of them. Thus,
the inflows directly into the s.>a amount to 29%; with river runoff 28;
the discharge from the shore an3 from ships in ports and the bodies of
water next to the ports, 33%.
Secondly, they indicate that 43% of the inflow of the petro leum hydro-
- carbons under the present conditions cannot in practice be r egulated,
for the river runoff, atmosphere and municipal rain runoff amount to
their powerful collectors. This fact significantly complicates and
_ postpones the time of solution of the problem as a whole.
The constant presence and increase in the content o:` netroleum hydrocarbons
in seawater indicates the predominance of the rate ot their inflow over
' the rate of natural reclaiming.
The studies performed in different countries indicate the influence of
the petroleum hydrocarbons on the reduction in reproduction and the
reduction in species composition of animate organisms and also the
occurrence of cancerous diseases [2]. The threshold concent rations
causing death of single--cell algae or retardation of their d ivision lie
within the range of 0.05 to 1.00 mg/liter. Accordingly, oil and gas are
on the "black list" of dangerous pollutants, the discharge of which is
totally forbidden by the London Convention on Prevention of the Ptlllution
of Seawater of 1972.
� In the Soviet Union the maximum admissible concentration of petroleum
hydrocarbons in the marine bodies of water having fishing significance
_ has been regulated it is 0.01 mg/liter. It must be noted that over
the broad expanses of the seas, in the continental shelf zones, the
actual concentrations of the petroleum hydrocarbons can be appreciably
above the maximum admissible.
The pollution of seawater influences not only the animage or ganisms. The
presence of petroleum hydrocarbons on the surface of the wat er in the
form of films and high concentrations of them in the surface microlayer
can significantly disturb the energy, gas and hydrologic cy cle between
the ocean and the atmosphere, for the surface tension of the oil film
is several times less than the surface tension of pure water, the
coefficient of thermal conductivity is two orders higher, the heat capac-
ity is several times less than in water, the gas conductivity of the
normal film of monomolecular layer is 50% of the gas conduct ivity of
pure water. On the whole, the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons on the
_ surface af the water can influence not only the hydrobiological condi-
tions of the ocean but also the climate and the or.ygen content of the
earth's atmosphere inasmuch 3s the ocean is an important fac tor in the
formation of their regime.
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What has been stated above permits isolation of several of the most
important aspects of ttie monitoring of the World Ocean pollution with
petroleum and petroleum products.
The first aspect consists in tracing the dynamics of the levels of
petroleum pollution of the open waters of the World Ucean in the regions
sufficiently removed from the basic channeis of their inflow.
The secoild aspect consists in estimating the accumulation of the petroleum _
hydrocarbons in the zones of the World Ocean in which the degree of
natural reclaiming of these materials is low as a result of low waCer
temperatures. These zones include the Baltic, Bering and Norwegian Seas,
the Arctic Ocean and Antarctica.
Primarily the petroleum hydrocarbons get into the Arctic Ocean with the
currents from other cceans and, above all, the water of the North Atlantic
current [6]. The greater accumulation of petroleum hydrocarbons in the
Arctic Ocean by comparison with other oceans can be promoted by certain
of its physical-geographic peculiarities: namely, low water and air
temperatures w'nich inhibit the presence of chemical and biochemical oxida-
tion of the petroleum hydrocarbons even in the summer.
The third aspect consists in estimating the accumulation of the petroleum
hydrocarbons in the surface microlayer of the oceans and seas, their
influence on the atmospheric pollution, variation of the heat, moisttire
and gas exchange of the ocean with the atmosphere. At the present time,
as observations show, the average petroleum hydracarbon concentration
exceeds 1 mg/liter over the entire North Atlantic in the surface micro-
layer of the water. The approximation calculation shows that the total
petroleum hydrocarbon content in the surface microlayer of the entire
World Ocean can be 1.5 to 2 million tons, which is a third of the annual
inflows of the petroleum hydrocarbons into the ocean water. It is obvious
that the volume of concentration of the petroleum hydrocarbons in the
surface microlayer is enormous. This fact indicates the role of the
interfaces in the petroleum hydrocarbon concentration and indicates the
necessity for studying the content of the petroleum hydrocarbons at two
other of the largest interfaces of the ocean: namely, in the bottom
deposits of the oceans and in the densit,y discontinuity layers. The
results obtained in turn will permit more precise definition of the mon-
itoring of oil!,pollution of the marine environment.
iCnowing the mass o� petroleunt hydrocarbon contained in the surface micro-
layer and the rate of inf low (5.5 million tons a year), it is possible to
calculate the approximate time the petroleum hydrocarbons stay in this
layer. It can supposedly be �rom 1 to 5 months, which not only coincides
with respect to order, but also is ciose to the halflife of the oil
dissolved and dispersed in water which has been found experimentally [7].
The lialflife of oil in seawater at a temperature of 10�C is approximately
equal to 1,5 months; with a rise in temperature to 18-20�C it decreases
' to 20 days, and at 25-30�C, to 7 days.
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Beginning with what has been discussed, it is possible to state that at
low water temperatures only about half of the petroleum hydrocarbons
located in the surface microlayer get into suspended and dissolved form
in the water, concentrating again in the layers of the density discon-
_ tinuity or in the bottom deposits, and their volatile components, in the
- atmosphere. Another nalf of the petroleum hydrocarbons disintegrate in
this layer. At high water templ~tratures a significant portion of the
petroletmm hydrocarbons, with the exception of the uolatile components,
can disintegrate directly in the surface microlayer. This (together with
turbulent diffusion) entirely explains the decrease in the petroleum hydro-
_ carbon concentrations in the surface microlayer on going away from the
shelf, and also their increase in the temperate and h igh latitudes of the
oceans and, on the contrary, a decrease in the equator ial, tropical and
subtropical zones.
_ A comparison of the time the petroleum hydrocarbons spend in the surface
microlayer and their halflife in the water also permits the conclusion that
ttle surface microlayer not only is a powerful concentrator but also a fil-
ter of the petroleum hydrocarbons, which offers signif ican"t protection to
the ocean water from intensive pollution.
This conclusion is extraordina:ily important for proper calculation of
the basic components of the pollution balance of the marin.e environment ~
of the petroleum hydrocarbons. Up to now the concentration of a sigxiifi-
cant part of the petroleum hydrocarbons in the compar atively small micro-
layer with respect to volume (less than 1% of all af the water in the World
Ocean) and their disintegration in this layer were not takeninto account
in the consumption part of the budget.
It must be noted that with an increase in the petroleum extraction the
absence of serious water conservation measures, the performance of whi.:h
is difficult f.or a number of reasons, the pollution of the World Ocean
will increase. According to the United Nations data, the world volume of
petroleum extraction in 1980 will exceed 4000 million tons, including 1/3
of this amount on the shelf. It is possible to calculate, using the
above-indicated loss factor, that more than 9 million tons of petroleum
hydrocarbons will get inta the marine environment annually. Moreover,
there are grounds for assuming that the pollution rates of the World Ocean
will also rise in connection with an increase in the p etroleum extraction
on the continental shelf.
Now let us consider ttie problem of the pollution of the World Ocean with
chlorinated hydrocarbons, primarily DDT and RSV.
DilT (aid its metabclites DDE and DDll) and RSV have been detected in many
parts of the World Ocean. The relative chemical stab ility and also the
nature of migration of these materials have promoted their entry into the
seawater in large quantities.
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i - D -
2 O4TOBER 1980
A. L.
ED. BY
VOZNESENSKI'r.
~ ~ F 4
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The constant accumulation of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the seas and -
oceans presents a serious threat for animate organisms populat ing the
sea and f or man. It has been established thaL there is a d ef ined relation
between the pollution level of the water with pesticides and the accumula-
Cion in the f atty tissue of fish and marine mammals.
Accordingly, obviously it is necessary to solve another prob lem: reliably
to estimate the mass of pesticides in the atmosphere and oceans accumu-
lating in the last three decades and also the period of their effect on
- animate organisms and the zones of their greatest accumulation in the
- bottom deposits.
By 1968 the DDT production reached approximately 100,000 tons in a year
(of this two-thirds in the United States), and on the whole for the period
from 1944 to 1970 it was about 2 million tons [8].
The DDT used as pesticides and its decomposition products get into the
environment primarily with evaporation.
Thus, the basic channel of inflow of DDT and its metabolites into the
marine environment in the vapor phase is the atmosphere. It is this that
explains the fact of its broad propagation in the marine env ironment:
the presence of DDT and its metabolites has been recorded in the open and
oceanic waters, especially in the surface microlayer. Accord ing to the
observations made by the GOIN [State Oceanological Institute] in 1976 the
total DDT, DDE and DDD content in this microlayer of water in the north- -
eastern part of the North Atlantic reached 90 ng/liter, and in the sub-
surface, 5 ng/liter. .
The production of polychlorobiphenyls (PCt3) in the Uni;:ed States and Japan ~
alone by 19,70 reached 49,700 tons (in 1961 it was only 21,200 tons [Sj).
It is true that in 1971 the PC3 production was curtailed sharply in .
connection with restriction of its use in hydraulic mixtures, systems
with high temperatures, in which a very high, and in a numb er of cases, _
complete dispersion in the environment occurs. In addition, when using
the RSB as plasticizers, lubricating oils, materials for sealir.g and
resin filler in glue, they are not extracted later.
'Phe primary channel through which PCB gets into the ocean, just as DDT,
is the atmosphere.
According to the data of American specialists, the PCB content in the sur-
face waters of the eastern part o� the Atlantic in 1971-197 2 reached on
the avarage 30 ng/liter [8]. In 1973 measures were taken in the North
Atlantic (at the point 32�25' norta latitude and 70�20' west longitude):
at a depth of 100 meters the PCB concentration is 0.8 ng/lit er, at a
depth of 600 meters it is 0.5 ng/liter, 900 meters, 1.9 ng/liter, and at
a depth of 5100 me,*.ers, 0.,4 ng/liter. The Anerican specialis ts also
determi.ned that the PCB content on the average is 20 to 30 times higher
than the DDT content.
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There is a proposal that the PCB has greater stability than the DDT.
The PCB residue, just as the DDT, is detected in the lipid fraction of the
marine organism. Just as in the water, the ratio af the PCH and the DDT
masses in the plankton can be expressed approximately as 1:30, but then
on moving along the food chains, it decreases to 1:3 in fish.
A brief investigation of the nature of the problems of water pollution in
the World Ocean permits the following conclusions to be drawn: the
spread of the petroleum hydrocarbons and chlorinated hvdrocarbflns has a
global nature caused for the petroleum hydrocarbons by the colossal volume
of their inflow and the transport by the circulation systems, and for
the chlorinated hydrocarbons, by their insignificant evolution in the

marine environment with comparatively loweY inflow; the petroleum hydro-
carbon concentration in large quanLities in the surface microlayer caused
for the petroleum hydrocarbons by their lower derisity by comparison with
the density of seawater and for the chlorinated hydrocarbons, by their
inflow predominantly from the atmosphere and capacity to dissolve in the
petroleum hydrocarbons.
These general conclusions will undoubtedly promote the construction of
a unified system for monitoring the ocean water pollution.
_ It must be noted that recpntly quantitative data have been obtained which
indicate the ocean surface as a source of atmospheric pollution. Thus,
analysis of the observations performed in 1976-1977 by the GOIN in
the North Atlantic that there are fully defined direct relations between
the concentration of the dissolved fraction of the petroleum hydrocarbons
in the surface microlayer and the petroleum hydrocarbon concentration in
~ the layer of the atmospherenext to the water. It is true that these rela-
tions are not unique for differen*_ parts of the ocean. It is character-
istic that.thsir stability decreases on going away from the shelf to thQ
acean. The reason for this lies in the fact that in the coastal regions
usually the freshly discharged peCroleum hydrocarbons predominate, in the
composition of which the volatile fractions predominate, in turn.
~ Of course the ambiguity of the discovered relation is also determined by
other factors: the anemobaric conditions, the air humidity, the developed
partial pressure of the petroleum hydrocarbon in the air, the difference
in the surface microlayer and air, turbulence in the boundary layer, and
so on.
However, all of these facts appreciably lower petroleum hydrocarbon
content in the air than in the surface microlayer, lower soluble fraction
of petroleuta hydrocarbons in it on going away from the shore and presence
of a relation between the petroleum hydrocarbon content in the air and
the concentration of the dissolved fractioti of the petroleum hydrocarbons
in the surface microlayer indicate the existence of the process of
transition of part of the petroleum hydrocarbons from the ocean to the
layer of the atmosphere next to the water.
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Accordingly, it ts necessary to include observations of the chemical
composition and the basic meteorological characteristics in the layer of
the atmosphere next to the water and also the exchange rate of the
pollueants through the ocean sur.face in the ocean water pollution monitor-
ing system.
3. Prinriples of the Organization of Monitoring of Seawater Pollution
The above-discussed arguments obviously lead to the folluwing basic prin- _
ciples of the organization of the monitoring of seawater pollution:
Complexity of the chemical (in the water) suspensions, soils, the layer
of the atmosphere next to�the water) and accompanying hydrologic and
meteorological observations which to a great extent determine the evolu-
~
_ tion of the pollutants '.n the marine environment and their exchange
through the basic interfaces the ocean surface, the density discontin-
uity layer, suspended matter and ocean floor;
Tracing the dynamics of the pollution level of the ocean water when per -
forming long-period systematic observations of the back.ground concentra-
tions of pollutants in the open sea regions most removed from the pollu-
tion sources which would characterize the conditions of the environment
of significant adjacent bodies of water. It is possible to limit this
tracing to a limited number of basic oceanographic stations in each ocean
(to 6 to 10 stations);
Tracing pollutant transport. For this purpose it is necessary to organize
the observations in the oceanographic sections in the basic circulation
systems of the World Ocean. It is possible to take such sections near
the base stations and when the scientific research vessel approaches or
departs from them, -
~ Coupling of the monitoring of the chemical pollution of the seawater as a
subsystem of the morLitoring of the natural environment with monitoring of
the effect of the pollutants on marine animate organisms. The observa-
tions will be logically full-valued and complete only when observing this
principle.
The realizatiori of the discussed principles will make it possible simul-
taneously to approach the study of long-period time-space variability of
the environmental conditions, including pollutants. It is these princi-
ples, with the exception of thE latter, that the author of the article
was guided by when compiling the Program �or Monitoring Background Levels
of Individual Pollutants in the Open.Sea. .
In the opinion of the authors of this program, eight. base stations for
discovering the long-period variability of the background levels of the
basic pollutants are sufficient in the Atlantic Ocean. The location of
these stations is selected considering the hydrodynamic and morphological
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conditions of the regions of the Atlantic Ocean, each of which reflects
defined, and taken together, basic, circulating and thermohaline peculiar-
- ities of the water masses of the ocean (see Fig 1). In the progras it
is recommended that observations at the base stations be taken no less
than four times a year for 10 years.
It is proposed that such pollutants as petroleum and petroleum products,
chlorinated hydrocarbon.s (DDT, PCB), heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, ~
and possibly others) and detergents be monitored. In addition, it is
recommended that the following definition be introduced into the composi-
tion of the accompanying observations:
Physical parameters (temperature and salinity of the water for the removal
of water masses and determination of the vertical structure, suspended
matter fc.r determining the insoluble pollutants, the temperature and
humidity of the air, the speed and direction of wind); ~
Chemical parameters (dissolved oxygen, alkalinity and pH in the case where
the necessity arises for calculating the forms of carbonic acid, including
carbon dioxide for studying its exchange with the atmosphere).
Cor_oidering the above-discussed principles, at the present time work is
being done on the scientific research weather ships of the Soviet Union
and the Atlantic Ocean in the vicinity of the "CharLie" weather station
located in the North Atlantic current system, beginning in Florida and
ending in the Arctic Ocean.
Insignificant variations in the eAperimental parameters establishing during
the course of the observations in the vicinity of the "Charlie' station
will undoubtedly characterize the variations in the environment over a
significant part of the North Atlantic.
Therefore, this station along with the other seven stations is defined in
the mentioned Program for Monitoring the Background Levels of Individual
Pollutants in the Open Seas as a station for long-period systematic
observations in the background pollution levels of the Atlantic Ocean.
The organization of such observations in the vicinity of "Charley" station
can play an exceptionally important role in studying the background levels
of the parameters of the environment in the Arctic Seas which individually
or taken together can be considered as biospheric sanctuaries.
Thus, it is possible in the future to consider the organization of the
special complex observations in the vicinity of "Charlie" station as the
contribution of the Soviet Union to the system of itlternational global
monitoring of chemical pollutants of the seas and as a component part of
the national observation system by the biospheric sanctuary program.
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~ C.W.70'
ki)
fp
EHlIAH N ~
�1
6
(1~
� 5 CEBEPMAiI 3 �y ~ ~8)
EBP
4 �v~anr+" e ~
3 .4 (7) '3
20 ~ PNK (9)
o.
10
0� �6
~ o wmruA
AMCPNK Q)
. QQ�
30 _ �7 ~
�8
, .
(2)
. 5
0
0 ,
(35'41006
0
2 (
a
4)
~
Figure 1. Location of
stations
for observing the level of
basic pollutants in the
Atlantic
Ocean. 1-8 base stations
Key :
1.
North latitude
6.
North America
2.
south latitude
7.
Charl ie
3.
west longitude
8.
Europe
4.
east longitude
9.
Africa
5.
Greenland
10.
South America
The goals of the observations at the weather stations inclu3e the follow-
ing : �
Study of the background levels of the basic physical, chemical character-
istics and pollutants in seawater;
Investigation of background levels, propagation and pollution and trends
in the pollutant levels ef the Gulf Stream with petroleum hy3rocarbons,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, certain heavy metals and detergents and also the
transport of them by the North Atlantic current system;
The study of background levels of the basic pollutants in the layer of the
atmasphere next to the water (petroleum hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide,
heavy metals, clorinated hydrocarbons, sul�ates);
Determination of the flow of pollutants through the ocean surface;
Study of the levels of concentration of the pollutants in the basic
components of the biological syatem (phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthos
organisms);
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The study of the primary productivity and the influence of pollutants on
it;
Determination of the number of microorganisms (total and by groups) and
investigation of the generic composition of the petroleum-oxidizing micro-
organisms for estimating their role in the destruction of the petroleum
hydrocarbons in seawater;
The development of general estimates of the reaction of the biota to the
effect of individual pollutants in order to define the concepts of the
"norm" and "pathology" for the entire Gulf Stream system;
The study of the possibility of using marine organisms to indicate
pollutants.
Observations in the vicinity of "Charlie" station will be accompanieo' by
observations in the section pasaing through this station and interseeting
the Gulf Stream.
It appears that observations can be organized in a similar manner at the
other base oceanographic stations of the Atlantic Ocean and other oceans.
The observations in the open seas must be reinforced by systematic obser-
vations in the shelf zones. Onl.y then will it be possible to compile a
concept of the time-space variability of the ocean water pollutants and
solve the problems discussed above.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Simonov, A. I.; Afanas'yeva, N. A.; Bakum, T. A.; Yezzhalkina, N. S.;
Rodionov, N. A. "Method of Calculating the Budget and Dynamics of
the Seawater Pollution Levels," TRUAY GOIN [Works of the State
Oceanographic Institute], No 149, 1978.
2. Nelson-Smith, A. ZAGRYAZNENIYE MORYA NEFT'YU [Oil Pollution of the
Sea], Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1973, p 122.
3. Oradovskiy, S. G.; Simonov, A. I.; Yushchak, A. A. "Investigation
of the Nature of Distribution of Chemical Pollutants in the Gulf
Stream and Their Effect on the Primary Productivity of Ocean Water,"
METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIXA [Meteoro.togy and Hydrology], No 2, 1975,
pp 48-58.
4. Simonov, A. I. "Uceanographic Aspects of the Problem of Pollution
of the Seas and Oceans," MONITORING SOSTOXANIXA OKRUZHAYUSHCHEY
PRIRODNOY SREDX [Monitoring of the State of the Natural Environment],
Leningral, Gidrometeoizdat:, 1977, pp 174-192.
5. Simonov, A. I.; Mikhaylov, V. I. "Chemical Pollution of the Thin
Surface Layer of the World Ocean," TRUDY/GOIN, No 149, 1978, pp 6-14.
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6. Simonov, A. I.; Oradovskiy, S. G.; Yushchak, A. A. "Modern State of
Chemical Pollution of the Waters of the North Atlantic,"
METEOROLOGIYA I GIDROLOGIYA [Meteorology and Hydrology], No 3, 1974,
pp 61-69.
7. Simonov, A. I., et al. "Processes of Self-Purification of Seawater
to Remove Chemical Pollutants," TRUDY/GOIN, No 128, 1978, pp 61-63.
8. Goldberg, E. D. THE HEALTH OF THE OCEANS, Paris, The UNESCO Press,
1976.
9. Rohnke, D. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF DATA VISUAL OBSERVATZONS AND
TALBALL COLLECTIONS, IOC, WMO/MAP MOPP-11/6, Paris, 1978, January.
10. PETROLEUM IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, 1975.
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PART II. METHODS OF OCEAN EXPLORATION
SPACE OCEAIIOGRAPHY: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
, CArticle by B. A. Nelepo]
!
~
{ 1
,
i
- . I
f
~
Boris Aleksey Nelepo, active member of the Ukrainian SSR
Academy of Sciences, director of the Marine-Physics
Institute of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences. His
basic scientific interests are experimental hydrophysics.
In recent years he has been engaged in the development of
satellite oceanography.
The World Ocean is being studied with ever-increasing intensity. The
measuring devices by means of which factual data are obtained are
being continuously improved. However, the procedure for txsing them
essentially has not changed Observations are performed either from
automatic buoy stations put out in various parts of the ocean or on sta-
tionary platforms and shore oceanographic stations. The creation of the
network of constantly operating oceanographic stations is connected with
serious technical difficulties, including operating difficulties. There-
fore the development and application of sgecialized oceanological
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satellite systems must be considered an urgent and prospective area of
modern oceanology.
" Space oceanography is based on the recently developed remote methods of
- measuring the oceanological parameters. The possibility has been estab-
lished for remote measurement of such ocean parameters as global topography
of its surface, the state of the water surface, marine currents, the
spectrum and direction of propagation of the waves and the wind in the
- layer next to the water, the radiation balance on the surface of the ocean,
and the ocean surf ace temperature. Both ships and airplanes can be used
as carriers of the remote measurement equipment, but the most prospective
is the use of artif icial earth satellites having a series of advantages:
great duration of operation, fast scanning of a significant area of the
earth, and so on.
The first results of using artificial earth satellites obtained both in
the Soviet Union and in the United States indicate the possibility of sat-
isfactory accuracy of ineasuring the oceanological parameters.
However, today the role of the remote methods of investigating the oceans
using artificial earth satellites is not so great as one might like. In -
turn, this is connected with insufficient development of the methods of
- remote measurement limited by the possibilities of the measuring equipment,
the absence of profoundly develcped theories and methods of processing and
- interpreting the information obtained. It is necessary also to note that
the remote methods permit measurements only of the surface hydrophysical
fields which are only a reflection of the processes occurring in the depths
of the ocean and in the foreseeable future these methods will hardly per- "
mit direct "looking" into the depths of the ocean, let us say, below the
seasonal thermocline layer. Therefore the traditional methods of investi-
gation using scientif ic research ships and buoy stations for different
purposes will be developed and improved as before.
At the same time, the appearance of inethods of space oceanography will
have (and is already having) a significant effect on the entire nature of
investigation of the ocean, which is forcing oceanolagists essentially to
reexamine the established methods of investigation and proceed with the
execution of the large-scale controlled oceanographic programs.
The methods of space oceanography basically are methods of large-scale
studies permitting operative surveying of broad bodies of water giving a
gener4l concept of the dynamics of the processes occurring in the surface
layer of the ocean and also making it possible to obtain quantitative
estimates of the hydrophysical parameters in the high-gradient zones.
The photogranh presented here (see Fig 1; the photograph was made in
September 1513 from the "Soyuz-12" spacecraft by astronauts V. G. Lazarev
an4 0. N. Makarov) gives an idea of the nature of the information received
- from the satellite orbit. The given picture, in particular, can be used
to study the water masses and shoals.
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Figure 1. Region of the Caspian Sea (picture taken from
on board the "Soyuz-12" spacecraft)
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It is difficult on the basis of the primary experiments to give a reliable
prediction of the further development of this area of oceanography. How-
ever, it is possible to state with certainty that further scientific
studies connected with tl~� development of the theory, the methods and
means of remote sounding of the ocean from on-board spacecraft will put a
powerful tool in the hands of oceanologists.
On the basis of such data it is possible to plan expeditions and scientific
research vessels for detailed studies using ship and buoy means in the
characteristic areas, the variability of ttie process of occurring in which
determines the dynamics over significant bodies of water.
- Oceanologists still have to.create a reference network of ineasuring sta-
tions in the acean to which the results of the remote measurements will
be "coordinated" analogously to how the data in meteorology obtained from
the meteorological satellites are "referenced" to the ground network of
meteorological stations. The sy'stems of automated buoy stations arranged
in a defined way will permit us to obtzin the vertical structure (beginning
with the surface) not only of..tlie active, but also the abyssal layers of
the ocean. On the one hand, this permits regular calibration of the
remote sounding sensors, and on the other hand, the solution of the prob-
iem of transformation of the surface fields to the depths, at least within
the limits of the active layer.
Supplementing the given measuring complex with a system of drifting buoys
(surface and neutral buoyance), oceanologists can trace the surface and
the abyssal currents, eddies and rings and also estimate their speeds.
tin important element determining the nature of the operation of the
entire system of buoy stations can become the geostationary satellite,
in the fielci of view of which the investigated body of water in the ocean
is located, and the set of ineasuring means, including the search vessels,
- the system of anchored and drifting buoys, and the measuring oceanographic
satellite,. These satellites, in addition to other missions, can collect
- information from the buoy system (especially from the "hovering" neutral-
bunyance buoys) and relay it to the receiving stations.
1. Problems of Space Oceanography
The intensive development of the methods of remote sounding in the last
decade has epened up a new path to the study of the phenomena occurring
in the ocean, in particular, the investigation of its mesoscale or
synoptic variability. The deve�lopment of the new equipment, the develop-
ment of new procedures for remote sounding and methods of decoding informa--
tion, the use of theoretical models which describe the processes
occurring in the ocean these are the problems which must be solved
before going on to the solution of a number of fundamental problems of
oceanology and, consequently, the creation of a closed hydrodynamic model
of the ocean and also subsequent prediction of its parameters.
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One such problem is determination of the large-scale variability
of the ocean, The synoptic, or the mesoscale variability of the large-
scale ocean currents, and above, all, thQ variability of the most intenae
uf them is manifested in variations in position of the current axis,
the fluctuations of their intensity and meandering. The indicator fac-
tors, in turn, lead to variations of such important characteristics as
the carrying of heat northward by the Gulf Stream type currents, the
amount of which determines the climate over a signif icant territory of
Europe and the Arctic regions.
The meandering of the intense currents and the processes of so-called
barotropic instability connected with this lead to the occurrence of
isolated eddy formations of the cold and warm ring type. Having signifi-
cant reserves of kinetic energy, large-oceanic currents and their variabil-
ity play an important role in the overall dynamic balance of the ocean,
in the processes of the interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere, and
- to a great extent they determine the dynamics of the atmoapheric processes
themselves.
A significant contribution to the processes of redistribution of the
momentum, the angular momentum, the heat transfer in the ocean is bEing -
made by the synoptic eddies. By the calculations of the specialists, the _
considexatioii of the heat transport by the synoptic eddies can change
the overall balance of the meridional heat flux to the north by 30 to 40%.
In order to estima;e the contribution of the synoptic eddies to the over-
all balance of hPat transfer, momentum and angular momentum in the ocean
it is necessaiy to know the areas of generatioaof the eddies, the periodicity
of their formation, the direction of predominant propagation. The exist-
- ing experience indicates that the remote methods-of detecting the eddy
formations and traciiig them from orbital scientific stations are opening
up the path to operative prediction of the "weather" in the ocean.
Some of the most important factors determining the large-scale variability
of the hydrophysical fields of the ocean are the thermal anomalies and
frontal zones. According to the modern concepts, quite powerful and long-
lasting temperature anomalies and frontal zones to a great extent determine
the nature of the processes of heat exchange between the atmosphere and
ocean, they influence the stability of the global atmospheric processes
which, in the final analysis, is reflected in the formation of w,:..ather
and climate over significant territories of the earth's surface. It is
_ quite clear that the problem of short-term and then longer-term forecast-
ing cannot be solved without considering the indicated factors, the obtain-
ing of operative data about which it is possible only by remote methods.
The connecting link in the chain of processes determining the interaction
of the ocean and the atmosphere is the active layer of the ocean. It is
the upper surface layer in which the physical parameters experience sig-
nificant seasonal fluctuations. The quasiisothermal layer characterized
by a small vertical temperature gradient, tite discontinuity layer in which
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the parameters of the environment undergo discontinuous changes and the
seasonal thermocline characterized by significant vertical temperature
gradients are distinguished in it.
The variability of the active layer leads to the formation of temperature
anomalies which, as a result of the great thermal inertia of the ocean
have a significant inf luence on the nature or the atmospheric processes.
_ In addition, the active layer of the ocean, which is the intermediate link
in the redistribution of the heat fluxes to a great extent also determines
the nature of circulation of the abyssal water.
The quantitative estimates and the large-scale interaction of the ocean
and the atmosphere, including the exchange of energy, momentum, heat and
moisture, can also be obtained using remote measurements of the radiation
budget of the ocean surf ace, sediment and evaporation, the statistical
characteristics of the surface waues and the wind conditions in the water
layer of the atmosphere.
The development of the enumerated fundamental problems of the physics of
the ocean, the theory and methods of calculating the physical fields and
also the transition to the experimental studies of the ooean from space
permit arrival at the solution of a number of applied and practical prob-
_ lems of the national economy. The primary ones of them are the follow-
ing: ~
Operative short-range and long-range weather forecasting;
Insurance of safety of navigation, the selection of optimal routes for
- the ships;
Establishment of the control of the ecology of the sea, in particular,
when determining the degree of pollution of the sea surface with petroleum
_ products;
Determination of the dynamics of formation of the ice cover;
Determination of the regions of increased biological productivity and fore-
- casting of congregations of fish, and so on.
The discussed problems can be solved step by step. The first step is
mapping of the diagnostic fields of the physical parameters (temperature,
wave action, and so on) obtained by remote methods. The further develop-
ment of the theory and methods of interpretation of the observation data
will permit identification of the physical formations and proceeding to
the compilation of the maps of these formations: namely,
Clouds reflecting the intensity, the position of the axis, the mear.dering
and the process of hydrodynamic instability connected with this leading
to the formation of rings and eddies and also the interaction of eddy
formations with currents;
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Frontal zones with indication of their position, intensity, the locations
of the largest gradients;
The upwelling zones with indication of the thickness of the debris cone
of biogenic elements;
Thermal anomlies of the active layer of th e ocean with indication of their
position, dimensions and thickness;
Pollution of the sea surface with petroleum products with indication of
the position, dimensions and quantity of the petroleum products;
Water color with indication of the biologically productive regions;
- Ice f ields with indication of the positions and boundaries of the fields
and the openings and areas of open water in the ice.
In this stage it is necessary to develop criteria and methods permitting
isolation and classification of the physical phenomena in the ocean.
The second, more. complex step is the development of forecasting models
of the physical formations in the ocean based on tixe material obtained
over a sufficiently long observation period.
Initially this forecasting will be realized on the scale of synoptic -
variab ility, and then on the scale of seasonal variability. In the future it is possible to expect the solution of long-range forecasting, let us
say, for a year. In this stage it is necessary to realize a set of organi-
zational-technical measures. -
- On the one handy it is necessary to create a powerful computer base which
is based on the third-generation computer; a data storage bank; the soft-
ware f or data processing.
On the other hand, it is necessary to organize purposeful trips by _
scientific research ships to study the physical phenomena occurring in the
ocean, to create monitoring and calibration test areas permitting develop-
ment of the procedure for remote sounding and identification of the physi-
cal formations in the ocean; installation of the set of "long-lived"
buoys and neutral buoyancy buoys (drifters) for investigation of at least
the upper 200--meter layer of the ocean; the deployment of a permanently
operating network of autonomous buoy stations (ABS) in the form of
"clusters" consisting of one or two base buoys operating in the data
gathering and measurement mode and several minibuoys operating in the
measurement and data relaying mode_to the base buoys.
All of this will permit solution of the problems of the hydrodynamics of
the ocean first within the limits of the active layer and then in the
deeper layers of tb.e ocean.
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2. Informative Hydrophysical Parameters and Requirements on the
Determination of Them -
The presently accumulated experience in decoding images received from
space in various electromagnetic wave ranges indicates the prospectiveness
- of using satellite data to study the World Ocean [4,15].. Synthesizing
this information with the measurement data obtained by traditional (con-
tact) methods from on board the scientific research vessels, or ABC, it
is possible to proceed with the study of the entire variety of thermo-
_ dynamic and other processes occurring in the ocean.
The level of development of technical means and methods of:observation
from space reached at the preaent time will in the maj ority of cases make
it possible to obtain high-quality characteristies of the parametera of
the state of ocean of interest to us, but in the near future the accuracy
of the measurements .will be increased significantly, which will permit us
also to obtain their quantitative estimates with the necessary level of
informativeness [21].
Let us strive to formulate the minimum requirements which are impol:ed on
the accuracy of ineasuring the hydrophysical parameters by the remote
methods. The accuracy of determining these parameters depends on the
specific nature of the solution of the specific oceanographic problems.
Thus, first it ie necessary to formulate the problem and then on the basis
of it to generate ttie requirements on the equipment and accuracy of the
measurement.
The requirements must be imposed on the accurscy of the measurements, the
_ spatial resolution and the width of the swath of the investigated part
_ of the ocean, time averaging and the frequency of the readings.
- One of the most informative parameters of the marine environment is the
surface Cemperature of the ocean which at *he present time can be
determined by the natural.:radiation of the ocean in the infrared and
microwave bands.
y This parameter is defining when solving siich problems of oceanography as
tlie study of inesoscale variability of the ocean, the isolation of frontal
zones and intense current zones, predicting the structure of the active
layer of the ocean, interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere.
= Beginning wlth these problems, let us also determine the requirements
on measuring the temperature and other informative parameters.
Mesoscale Variability of the Ocean. The ocean surface temperature field
is to a significant degree subordinate to the nature of the eddy movement
in the main oceanic thermocline. Here the basic peculiarities of the
distribution of this parameter have been caused prima.rily by the eddy
advective currents disturbing the zonal distribution of the temperature
L13].
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In contrast to the circulating nature of the eddy movement in the main
oceanic thermocline, the model of the temperature distribution of the
, ocean surf3ce is characterized by the intrusion nature of the displace-
ment of the isotherms.
_ The characteristic f ields of the formations in the upper layer of the
ocean are 40 to 400 km. The average rate of spatial displacement is
_ 5-8 km/day. The temperature gradients at the mentioned distances are
0�2-2.0�C in the zones of effect of the abyssal mesoscale eddies and
to 2-30C in the zones where the intensive formations of the Gulf Stream
ring type are located. -
The isolation (identification) of the synoptic eddy formations by their
manifestations in the temperature field of th e ocean surface will permit
estimation both of the kinematic characteristica of the eddy formatione
and the nature of the interaction of the upper boundary layer of the
ocean with the layer of the basic oceanic thermocline. Recently the
interest in the investigations of the variability of the ocean within
the scales of 15-50 1m has increased sharply. This is connected with
high energy"movement in these sections. The temperature gradients are
usually 0.2 to 1.00. Therefore the accuracy of ineasurements of these
gradients is 0.1 to 0.20C with resolution of the equipment of 3-5 km
on the terrain.
The temperature anomalies are traced against the average climatic back-
ground as formations with characteristic spatial scales from hundreds to
thousands of kilometers, a characteristic lifetime from several to tens
of months and thickness (with respect to depth) of tens of ineters [20].
The extremal deviaticns from the climatic form of such formations are not
more than 2-30C, but as a result of the high thermal inertia of the ocean
by comparison with the atmosphere they ha ve a significant influence on
the weather of the planet on global scales. Therefore the remote sound--
ing equipment must have sufficient width of coverage of the regions of
the ocean and measurement frequency. It is most expedient to obtain maps
of the surface temperature once or twice a week. The spatial resolution
in this case must be 30 to 50 km, and the accuracy of determining the
temperature, no less than 0.50C.
Frontal Zones and Zones of Intense Currents. At the present time the posi-
tion of the basic frontal zones in the World OcEan and the zones of
intense currents is defined quite well. Therefore the main goal is to
study the variability of the axis of the currents and the fronts, meander-
ing, and so on j191. As the basic attribute for recognition of the
"patterns" of the oceanic fronts and the boundaries of the intense currents
we have the temperature gradient at their interfaces which can reach
2-10�C. This permits detection of it by the infrared equipment. With
such high temperature gradients the acceptable accuracy of determining
the temperature will be 0.5 to 1.0�C. The spatial resolution must be
1-2 km. -
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Let us add that the information about the position of the frontal zone
boundaries carries data on the color of the water, the nature of the
clouds above the ocean, the speed and direction of the currents, and so
on.
The determination of the current speed is theoretically possible using
high-precision altimeters (radio altimeters) which permit us to obtain
estimates of the large-scale slopes of the ocean surface level. However,
the use of the dynamic method for determining the speed of the current
remains problematic as a result of the exceptional complexities on a pro-
cedural and technical level. For example, with a current speed of 10 cm/sec,
the level gradient across the current axis -on a scale of 10 km will be
10 cm. Here the accuracy of determining the difference in altitudes with
an error of 20% is required to be +2 cm.
, The use of drifting buoys (drifters), the position of which can be '
determined by uaing satellite navigational systems several times a day
with an accuracy on the order of 1 km are highly prospective in this -
direction. This, in turn, will permit estimation of the velocity with.
an accuracy of about 10% even for the most intense currents which com-
pletely satisfy the requirements of oceanography.
The prediction of the structure of the active layer of the ocean is the
most important problem of oceanography, for it is the main intermediate
link in the processes of the inCeraction of the ocean and Lhe atmosphere.
This f orecast includes determination of the temperature of the ocean
surf ace, the position of the lower boundary of the uniform layer (layers),
the position (depth of occurrence) of the discontinuity limit. The
temperature and depth of the uniform layer determine the thickness of
the temperaCure anomalies (the heat content) and the lifetime; the posi-
tion of the discontinuity layer determines the lower boundary of the zone
of active photosynthesis of the upper layer of the ocean.
At the present time there are a quite large number of theoretical models -
permitting calculation of the mentioned parameters of the vertical struc-
- ture of the active layer of the ocean. The input parameters of such _
models are the air temperature, the.radiant energy flux, the wind speed,
humidity, pressure, cloudiness which can be measured by remote methods
from the artificial earth satellite. The calculations by these models
permit the ocean surface temperature to be used which is measured with
an accuracy of 0.1�C, the depth of the mixed layer and position of di.s-
continuity layer with accuracy to 1-2 meters. Such accuracy still has
not been achieved during measurements by remote methods. `
When the required accuracy of ineasuring the surface temperature of the
ocean and other informative hydrophysical parameters is achieved, their
use in the theoretical models will permit conversion to the calculations
of the heat fluxes at the boundary of the discontinuity layer and
determination of the inflow of heat to the main oceanic thermocline in
this way.
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On the basis of what has been stated above, the following accuracies of
measuring the ocean surface temperature, the resolution on the terrain
and periodicity of updating the information permitting sufficiently
correct subsequent interpretation of the data received appear to be
reasonable.
The water temperature, along with the temperature of the ocean surface,
is the most important informative parameter permitting determination of
the rate of inflow of heat to the ocean as a result of contact.heat
exchange with the atmosphere. The calculated value in the theoretical
models is not the absolute temperature, but its anomaly with respect to
some value. Therefore with an "air-water" temperature difference on the
order of 10�C, 10% accuracy of calculating the contact heat exchange
companetit can be achieved with accuracy of determining the�air temperature
or -1�C.
With a temperature difference on the order of 2-3�C the required accuracy
will be O.Z�C. However, for such values of the "air-water" temperature
difference the contribution of the contact heat exchange to the overall
heat balance (budget) on the ocean surface will become less than 10%.
Consequently, the accuracy of ineasuring the air temperature of -1�C is
entirely acceptable from the point of view of the assimilation af this
_ parameter in the models of the active layer of the ocean.
For calculations of the local structure of the active layer of the ocean
the informative hydrophysical parameter is the modulus of the wave
velocity which enters into the formulas describing the heat balance
(budget) and the ocean surface, the rate of inflow (generation) of inechan-
ical energy of mixing in th e uniform layer and dissipation of inechanical
energy in this layer. With 10% accuracy of calculating these parameters,
a value of -1 m/sec is an entirely acceptable accuracy of ineasuring the
modulus of the wind velocity in the ve.locity range from 1 to 15 m/sec
(let us note that the average minimum w:Lnd velocity over the ocean is
4-5 m/sec). For wind velocities exceedii;g 1 m/sec, the required accuracy
can be reduced to 3-4 m/sec inasmuch as inneterminacy in the selection of
the empirical coefficients becomes significant.
The recently developed methocis of scatterometry based on determining the
backscattering diagram of the radio microwaves will permit determination
of this parameter from saCellite orbits with acceptable accuracy.
In the formulas for calculating the components of the heat balance (budget)
on the ocean surface the pressure in Lhe layer next to the ground (next
to the water) does not play a significant role. For example, in the
ranges of pressure variation of 820 to 1080 millibars, the error in
determining the pressure of +1 millibar introduces approximately a Z%
error in determining the corresponding heat budget. At the same time the
10% accuracy of determining the relative humidity is entirely accepLable
for calculating the heat budget components over the ocean surface.
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Using the wind velocity it is possible to estimate the atmospheric
pressure in the layer next to the water.
The calculated value is also the cloudiness of the upper and lower levels
expressed in the number of octants of the sky covered with clouds. At
the present time cloudiness is estimated visually. The accuracy of
determining a value of 1/sec is +0.1 for a range of variation of the value
of {1 to 10}. The information obtained by the remote sounding equipment -
in the visible, infrared and microwave bands permits data to be obtained
both on the cloudiness and the humidity of the air.
The humidity of the air in the layer next to the surface of the ocean
enters into the formulas for calculating the expenditures of heat on
evaporation and the magnitude of the nutgoing long-wave radiation. Con-
sidering that in the temperature range of 0-30�C the saturated vapor
pressure varies within the limits of 2-50 millibars and adhering to
50% accuracy of calculating the relative humidity, we find that for the
average value of the relative humidity of 50% the required accuracy of
determining it will be +1 millibar. In the heat balance (budget) calcula-
tions at the ocean surface two types of radiant energy fluxes participate:
the incident short-wave radiation flux (the direct plus the diffusive
components) and the reflected long-wave radiation flux.
Not dwelling on the accuracy connected with the specific choice of
empirical coefficients entering into the pr.esented formulas, let us
- diecuss the accuracy of the parameters required to calculate these radia-
tion fluxes. When determining the incident short-wave radiation absorbed
by the upper layer, broad use is made of the procedure permitting tabula-
tion of the values of the radiant energy fluxes. In this procedure the
basic parameter is the radiant energy flux in the upper boundary of the
earth's atmosphere Qo. The values of Qo tabulated for each of the seasons,
Che longitudes and latitudes of the location of the observations are
available in the corresponding climatic atlases.
The direct measurement of the radiaat energy flux Qp frum artificial earth
satellites will permit us to proceed with the use of it as one of the
informative parameters of the developed and available theoretical models.
Considering the range of variation of Qp
{100 to 10001 cal/(cm2-day)
and considering the 10% accuracy of the flux measurements, it is possihle
to assume that the error in determining Qp equal.to +50 cal/(cm2-day)
in the lower latitudes is entirely acceptable.
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3, The Effect of the "Skin Layer" on the Development of the Methods of
Remote Sounding of the Ocean
The central e~ement in the system of interaction of the atmosphere and the
ocean is the suzface uniform layer of the ocean. The temperature field
in this layer is formed under the effect of various dynamic and thermal
= factors, the wind over the ocean, the short-wave and long-wave radiation,
precipitation, evaporation, wave action and so on. In addition, as the
studies of the synoptic variability of the ocean has demonstrated, the
temperature field of the uniform layer is to a significant degree subject
to effect 4f the abyssal synoptic eddies forming mesoscale structures with
horizontal scales from tens to hundreds of kilometers.
At the present time the problesn of determining the surface temperature of
the ocean can be most efficiently solved using the infrared radiometric
measurements performed by artificial earth satellite. However, the temg-
erature measured in this way generally speaking cannot be identified with
the temperature of the uniform layer. This is explained by the fact that
at the ocean surface almost always there is a so-called cold "skin la..yer"
several millimeters thick i.nsf.de- which the thermodynamic properties of the
medium change sharply.
The laboratory and the natural experiments with respect to investigating
_ the thermal structure of this layer have demonstrated that the temperature
gradient uf 0.4 to 2.0�C can be concentrated within the limits of 1 mm,
and the cold f ilm is maintained for a wind to 10 m/sec, that is, even
under the conditions of developed wave action. During breaking of the
waves, a small-scale turbulence is generated, and the cold "skin-layer"
disappears. In addition, the turbulent eddies can penetrate into �it
" from the uniform layer and equalized temperature profile, which also leads
to destruction of the "skin layer."
In spite of the many causes of destruction of the "skin layer," restora-
tion of it takes place quite quickly. According to the data of the
_ authors of reference [7], the restoration time is approximately equal to
12 seconds.
Thus, it can be proposed that the existence of a cold film is a phe-
nomenon that is everywhere, and on the average it is stable in time.
The infrared radiometers measure the radiation temperature of the tliimlest
water film, and the temperature of the undArlying uniform layer is of
practical interest for the researcher; there.fore the problem of uniformity
of identity of the temperatures of the quasiuniform layer and the surface
film or the methods of correcting the measured brightness temperature u
has great si,gnifica;:ce. Up to now we have not established the true temp-
erature distribution in the "skin layer," and the laws of horizontal
~ distribution of its characteristics, the inaccuracy in determining the
uniforni layer will significantly reduce the informativeness of the data
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obtained. This reduction in informativeness consists in the following.
First, inasmuch as the characteristic time for performance of the infra-
red surveys from the satellite turns out to be comparable to the character-
istic time of the systems of the skin layer, the indetermiriacy in determin-
ing the temperature of the uniform layer can reach the magnitude of the
temperature gradient in the skin layer. Secondly, the temperature of the
skin layer significantly influences the energy characteristics of the
processes of interaction of the ocean and the atmosphere. Here, as u
result o.f the small tbickness its correct role in the energy budget of the
upper layer of the ocean turns out to be insignificant. For example, ttie
"skin layer" is to a known degree optically transparent for incident solar
radiation. Other components of the heat budget such as the expenditures
of heat on evaporation, the contact heat exchange, the outgoing long-wave
radiation, can be changed by 10-15% by the skin layer. Therefore it is
necessary to investigate the simultaneous effect of the processes occurring
in the atmosphere and in the uniform layer on the dynamics of the surface
cold film.
The purpose of these studies is to establish the mechanisms of local forma-
tion and destruction of the "skin layer," determination of the characteris-
tic horizontal scales and "life" times of this layer and also thP limits
of the meteorological parameters, within which it exists; the estimate of
the nature and degree of wave action of the individual meteorological
parameters and the characteristics of the uniform layer on the structure
of the "skin layer."
The solution of the enumerated problems will permit relation of the surface -
temperature of the ocean to the temperature of the uniform layer and makes
it possible to proceed with the construction of the hydrodynamic model of
the upper uniform layer of the ocean with inclusion of the cold "skin layer"
in it with the help of this model. As a result of the satellite infrared
pictures it will be possible comprehensively to study the processes taking
place in the uniform layer which, in turn, permits an idea about the pro-
cesses occurring in the deep layers of the ocean to be obtained.
4. Transfer Function of the Atmosphere and Consideration of Its Effect
The study of the characteristics of the ocean surface by passive methods
in ttie visible infrared and microwave ranges is connected with measuring
the reflected solar radiation and the natural radiation of the ocean. In-
asmuch as the solar radiation and the natural radiation are transformed
on passage through the atmosphere, in the solutions of the problems of
remote sounding of the ocean it is necessary to consider the transfer func-
tion of the atmosphere.
The transfer function of the atmosphere is defined as the ratio of the
intensity of the radiation I. with frequency v at the upper boundary of
the atmosphere to the intensity of the radiation of the same frequency IV
_ on the level of the underlying surface [7].
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This function which was introduced [6] for determining the temperature of
the underlying surface by the radiation measurements from satellites is
- determined by the vertical temperature and moisture prof iles which pri-
marily determine the intensity of the radiation in the given frequency
band and also the nature of the aerosol attenuation of the radiation in
the atmosphere.
In order to determine the temperature of the underlying surface the
measurements are performed in the infrared range in tl::. windaw of trans- _
parency of 10-12 microns and in rhe centimeter bank on wave iengths of -
3 and 8 cm.
In the infrared range when measuring the radiation of the ocean S~V--1 the
radiating capacity of the surface in the frequency range of Ov and the
transformation P(av) depends strongly on the temperature, moisture and
aerosol attenuation profiles.
In the radio range of PAv in practice does not depend on the temperature
and the moisture profiles of the atmosphere at the same time as the value
of SAV has a strong dependence on the degree of wave action of the sea
surface. One of the basic advantages of the microwave band consists in
the fact that the interference created by the atmosghere during remote
sounding of the ocean is comparatively small even in the presence of clouds.
This fact attracts a great deal of attention to the development and use of
all weather methods of microwave remote sounding.
The physical principles of the propagation of radiothermal radiation in
the: atmosphere have been studied well. A detailed discussion of them
and corresponding references can be found, for example, in [1, 10, 12,
16, 22, 231.
The basic absorbing components of the cloudless atmosphere are water vapor
and oxygen. The oxygen has a system of absorption lines near the wave
length of 0.5 cm and a.n isolated 0.25 cm line; the water vapor has
absorption lines at 1.348 and 0.164 cm. The variations in the radio bright- -
ness temperature of the atmosphere-ocean system connected with these fac�-
tors can be caused by variations in the humidity, temperature and atmospheric
pressure. In the wave length range of more than 3-4 cm they are negligibly
small. For passive microwave sounding of the ocean wave lengths shorter fhan
0.6-0.8 cm are unsuitable. The variations in radio brightness temperature _
caused by the cloudiness are the most significan.t on wave lengths of less
than 1 cm, but on longer waves they turn out to be noticeable and must be
considered when trying to obtain reliable information about the ocean sur-
face on wave lengths of 8-10 cm.
Consiciering what ha5 been stated above, the wave lengths of the microwave
radiometric equipment are selected so that the equipment will permit
(jointly with the infrared equipment)determination of the temperature and
humidity profile and also the parameters Af the underlying surface.
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rvn vrrl11tru1 uaL vivLr
The radiothermal emission of the ocean as a function of the basic
parameters of the surface the state and temperature appears in
practice in the entire micrdwave range. In the short-wave range the
effect of such effects as foam is comparable with respect to magnitude
to the effect of clouds. It is also necessary to consider the fact that
the temperature of the marine surface turns out to be the weakest of the
enumerated factors; nevertheless, high accuracy in determining it is
required. From this it is clear that the problem of interpreting the
results of passive microwave sounding must be solved complexly with the
simultaneous consideration of all defining parameters, including the _
parameters of the atmosphere. Howeve.r, with complete statement of the
probleia of remote sounding of the atmo5phere-ocean system, the numb er of
atmospheric paraaeters is too larg?. If the problem consists in obtaining
information only about the ssrface of the ocean, then it is only sufficient
to consider the effect of variability of the parameters without finding
exact values of the parameters themselves.
The variability of the three basic parameters in the cloud layer alti-
tude, thickness and water content leads to variations in the radio
brightness temperature which are indistinguishable with respect to spec-
' trum; therefore for consideration of the cloudiness in the case of remote
sounding of the ocean one common parameter is sufficient.
Analogously, for consideration of the variations in moisture of the
atmosphere also one parameter is sufficient the integral amount of
p::cipitated water (only if a special set of close wave lengths in the
vicinity of resonance of 1.35 cm is not used). If it is proposed that the
basic information about the ocean be obtained by the channels with
sufficiently large wave lengths (more than 2 or 3 cm), then for formal
consi;deration of the variations in the radio brightness temperature on
these wave lengths caused by any changes in the state of the atmosphere,
it is sufficient to use one generalized parameter and auxil'Lary measure-
ments on one wave length near 0.8-1.0 cm. From the results of the exper-
iments it also follows that *hese variations can be taken iYito account
by the active corrections which depend linearly on the indicated formal
parameter. In the case of more detailed accounting for the effect of
Che atmosphere analogous corrections can be used for separate expression
- of the radio brightness temperature as a function of clouds ar.d water
vapor.
- This approach is the linear approximation of functionals expressing the -
measured values as a function of the distributed parameters of the -
environment in terms of certain formal coefficients obtained by numet�ical
' calculations. Thus, for example, the radio brightness temperature as a
function of the parameters of the ocean varies somewhat in the short-wave -
part with variation of the atmospheric parameters, but these variations
' are small and can be corrected after preliminary estimation of the
state of the atmosphere. -
~
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For furttier increase in reliability of the complex use of the microwave
band it is necessary to perform studies of the emitting characteristics
of the actual sea surface as a function of the radiation wave length,
the observation angle, polarization, and so on. An important problem
which is still far from solution is the development of a procedure for
interpreting microwave measurements in order to determine parameters of
the ocean surface in zones considering the possible rain precipitation.
Thus, consideration of the effect of the atmosphere during remote sounding
of the ocean acquires special significanc: inasmuch as it is a weakly
reflecting surface and even un.der conditions of transparency of the
atmosphere the outgoing reflected radiation is basically determined by the
atmosphere.
5. Studies in the Visible Range of the Spectrum
One of the most inf.ormative remote sources of information about the World
Ocean is the measurements in the visible band of the spectrum. This is
explair.ed by the fact that in this band the transparency of the clear
atmosphere reaches the maxi.mum values, and Lhe absorption of light by the
oeeati water is minimal. The maximum solar radiation is found in the same
band.
The deficiencies of the measurements in the visible range can be considered
to include the significant dependence of the results of the measurements
on the time of day and atmospheric conditions. In the presence of contin-
uous clouds ohservation is impossible.
- The most informative characteristic in the visible range is the spectral
compositieii of the ascending light flux. In the opPn parts of the sea it
carries information about the hydrooptical characteristics of the ocean
- water. This makes it possible to isolate various masses of water,
determine their boundaries, detect eddies, upwelli.ngs and other dynamic
formations and also the biological productivity. In the coastal regions,
the water from the continental runoff, its distribution and interaction
with the open seawater are well diGtinguished by the color of the water.
Inasmuch as the analysis of the spectral structure of the ascending flow
permits discovery of the most important characteristics in the surfac2
- layer of the ocean, let us consider the prucess and formation of the
spectrum of the radiation ascending over tne ocean in more detail.
The sun rays passing through the atmosphere are attenuated as a result of
ebsorption and scattering by gas and vapor molecules and aerosol particles
constantly present in it.
The light that reaches the ocean surface consists of a directional
component the direct solar radiation and a diffuse component the
solar radiation scattered by the atmosphere. The light incident on the
surface of the water is partially reflected from the air-water interface,
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but the greater part of it penetrates into the body of the water. The
magnitudp of the reflected light flux depends on the conditions of illum-
ination, the direction of observation and the state of the sea surface.
The direct sun rays mirror-reflected from the water surface form spots,
the brightness of which is extremely high. Outside the vicinity of the
spot, the surface brightness is determined by reflection of the light of
the sky, that is, the light scattered by the atmosphere and the cloud -
and also the light scattered in the seawater. The reflection of the
light in practice is nonselective with respect to spectrum and depends
only on the brightness distribution over the sky, primarily the height
and direction of observation. For observations c].ose to the nadir, it is
approximately 2% of the brightness of the sky in the zenith.
On s sttering of the light on large particles of suspended matter, the
scatLering index can be assumed not to depend on the wave length. If we
also neglect the abso17ption of the light by particles which is in practice
satisfied if the particles are of mineral origin, then with an increase
in concentration of the terrigenic suspended matter we obtain an increase
in the overall level of intensity of the light ascending from the water
with practically invariant nature of the spectral distribution.
The presence in the water of absorbing:admixtures gives quite another
picture. The absorption spectrum of "yellow matter" increases exponen-
tially with a decrease in the wave length. As a result, undEr the effect
of "yellow matter" the energy of the spectrum of the light coming out of
the water decreases significantly in the short-wave part, whereas in the
long-wave part (for wave lengths of more than 530 nm) there are in prac-
tice no changes. The analogous picture is also observed in thQ presence
of absorbed particles in the water to which the cells of phytoplankton
containing chlorophyll pigments, and so on, the absorption of which
increases in the range of 420-460 and 660-680 nm, primarily belong.
In the open parts of the ocean the hydrooptical characteristics depend
primarily on the biological productivity: the higher the biogene content,
the greater the attenuation of the light in the short-wave part of the
spectruip, that is, the color of the sea is greener.
~
During satellite observations, distortions are introduced into the
spectrum by atmospheric haze. Its effect is especially great on the short-
wave part of the spectruL:, which requires the introduction of corrections.
The studies in recent years have demonstrated that the investigation of
the cloud cover and its spatial structure is useful when solving such
oceanological problems as the determination of the efficient regime of
the ocean, recognition of the position of the oceanological fronts, the
isolation of storm zones, and so on. For such studies it is necessary to
consider the various characteristics of the clouds: the type of clouds, '
their shape, the layering and texture. These characteristics can be
determined by the images of the clouds in different parts of the spectrum.
116
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For example, above relatively warm bodies of water with increased evapora-
tion of the moisture, low continuous stratocumulus clouds are formed,
and above colder water, the clouds are rarefied or are absent in general.
Above a line of such water masses the clouds have a sharp boundary which
can serve as an indicator of the oceanological front. The celluiar struc-
ture of the clouds is characteristic for the regions with ordered convec-
tion above the warm ocean surf ace. The spiral clouds ssually are formed
in the zones of generation of storms, the evolution of which can be traced
by the changes in time of the spatial structure of the cloud and its
texture.
The methods of studying the oceanologizal phenomenon by the cloud character-
istic have a number of limitations. Formation of the clouds takes place
with defined inertia, and the local winds existing in the observation
zone move the cloud formation in uncontrollable directions. The active
cyclonic activity also masks the differences in the water masses. However,
for stable states in the meteorological fields in the regions of occurrence
of oceanological processes, conditions are created for formation of
the cloud structures caused by these processes, which in practical
oceanological research permits the use of the cloud indicator methods.
_ The mapping and the study of sea ice is possible in the entire visible
range of the spectrum. The weak dependence ef the radiation reflected
by sea ic e on the wave length permits the use of technical means of
low spectral resolution to study them, although consid eration of the spec-
tral differences of these natural formations permits analysis of their
- structure.
In the case of satellite optical observations the rad iation picked up by
the instruments is to a signif icant degree distorted by the difficult-to-
monitor effect of the atmosphere. Thdrei:ore it is important, especially
in the initial stages of development of satellite oceanography, to
take synchronous contact and remote "subsatellite" measuremetts of the
various characteristics of the ocean water.
6. Use of Radar Systems for Oceanological Research
- The basis for the development of the methods of active space radiooceanog-
raphy are the achievements of radio physics in the f ield of studying the
la;is of dispersion of the radio waves of different ranges by the wavy
sea surf ace.
At the present time the physical nature of the scatter ing of the,radio
waves by the wavy sea surface has been established, its basic laws have
been studied, which has made it possible to develop the procedures for
determining the basic parameters of sea waves and wind. in the layer of the
atmosphere next to the ocean using radar in various wave bands both with
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Accordingly, for surveying the sea floor of coastal shoals, it is
recommended that isochromatic and isoorthochromatic film be used.
The use of multizonal (photographic, television) and multichannel
(spectrometric or scanner) surveys is practiced. Multichannel is carried
out by several synchronously operating or multiobjective cameras using ~
films of various types qr on one fi]sn with different light filters. The
images are obtained in relatively wide bands of the spectrum. The multi-
channel survey permits us to obtain images both in wide and narrow bands
of the spectrum.
Thus, the surveys of the water and sea floor can be realized in the
optimal spectral bands. In the presence of a set of multizonal and-multi-
channel photographs, during the course of deciphering them it is possible
more certainly to isolate the images of the sea floor cr the ob3ects in the water from objects on the surface of the sea inasmuch as the former -
are recorded better in the blue-green and green ban+i of the spectrum and -
the latter, in the red band of the spectrum. The photographs taken in
the various bands of thP electromagnetic spectrum in the presence of the
corresponding equipment can be matched with high accuracy on one screen.
By using different light filters it is possible to obtain color images
that reflect the natural color of the objects or provisional color from
black and white images.
These images are dis*_inguished by great informativeness, which significantly
simplifies, accelerates deciphering, and it increases its reliability.
The scale of the photographs I/m which depends on the ratia of the focal
length of the camera f and the height of the picture H has significant
value for deciphering the aerial photographic images: I/m=f/H.
The materials of the aerial surveys are separated provisionally by scales
into large scale (larger than 1:15000), medium scale (1:15000 to 1:70000),
small scale (1:70000 to 1;1,250,000) and supersmall scale (smaller than
1:250,000). The scale of the photographs is selected as a function of
the stated problem.
Recently a trend has been noted for the performance of aerial surveys on
smaller scales, in particular, from outer space.. This is explained by
several reasons.
First, the photographs taken from great altitudes, and especially outer
space, are better with respect to quality inasmuch as the scattered light
of the atmosphere does not fall in the focal plane o� the camera. It
can be considered in the given case as a natural light filter. During
the process of surveying the ocean floor from great heights over a sig-
nificant area the light beams pass through the body of the atmosphere
and the water at more vertical angles than when taking the survey from
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low altitudes. This predetermines less absorption and scattering
of the light by the water.
Secondly, these aerial photographs with high resolution can be magnified
a multiple number of times to the required scale without significant loss
of quality.
Thirdly, during small scale surveying it is possible to encompass the
greater area simultaneously, which reduces the.time spent on processing
the materials and deciphering them.
The special deciphering of the aerial photographlc, aerial television and
scanner pictures theoretically does not differ.
2.1. Deciphering Aerial Photographs of the Water Surface, Objects and
Phenomena
A numner of objects and phenomena, namely, the waves, currents, color
and transparency of the water, Langmuir circulation can be recognized
at the present time on aerial photographs of the water surface. The
color and transparency of the water are determined, and so on.
Sea waves are well depicted on the aerial photographs. For deciphering
of them it is possible to discover all of the wave systems and determine
their characteristics [10].
The stereoscopic measurements with respect to overlapping aerial photo-
graphs obtained from two aircraft by synchronously operating cameras
will permit maps to be compiled in the isohypses of the wavy surface of
the bodies of water. All the wave parameters can be picked up from such
maps. On single photographs (obtained by one camera) it is easy to measure the
wave length of the swell. The application of cylindrical lenses or
rotating solutions facilitates the study of various wave systems. This
is achieved by the diffraction method for which an aerial photograph with
- imagea of the waves is considered as an imperfect diffraction grating.
The wave systems are determined by the position of the peaks on the
diffraction picture obtained using a special camera.
On the small-scale aerial photographs with images of the wavy surface
of the sea with three dimensional waves, it is possible to note ordered
wave action not observed fx'om ships or on large-scale photographs.
According to the materials of the aerial photograph theory, it is possible
to study the refraction and diffraction of the waves in detail (see
Fig 1) and use these data to discover the peculiarities of the bottom
relief and sometimes (with respect to wave refraction) also for
_ determination of the depth of the sea by the indirect method [12].
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k'igure 1. Refraction (a) and diffraction (b)
of the sea waves
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The sea currents often are easily recognized on ordinary aerial photo-
graphs by the image tone. This is possible if the water displaced by the
currents, depending on their properties, differs from the surrounding
water and also from the water transported by other currents. For example,
east of the islands of Japan, . cold (Oyashio) and warm (Kuroshio)
trends are encountered. The former is enriched by nutrierits, and,
consequently, is saturated with plankton giving the water a yellow-brown
color. The thermal course of the Kuroshio current is different from the
transparency of the water of the color of dark aquamarine. Correspond-
ingly, on the aerial photographs these currents are reflected in tones.
A more improved procedure for studying surface currents from an aircraft
for the coastal parts of the water has been developed at the Laboratory
of Aerial Methods (LAIIR) of the Ministry of Geology of the USSR [8]. In
accordance with one of the versions of the procedure, the water surface c
is marked using floats dropped from an aircraft irapregnated with
f luoresceine salts forming bright spots. Then after defined time inter-
vals, the aerial photograph of the marked body of water was taken twice.
After orientation of the aerial photographs, the direction and
magnitude of displacement of the spots with respect to stationary ref erence
points (objects on the shore, underwater structures or photographic images
of the bottom contours) are measured. Thus, it is possible to study the
structure of the currents in detail.
In accordance with another version of the procedure for marking the
water surf ace from an aircraft, a bottom indicator is dropped, from which
two floats with dyes are separated and allowed to surface successively
using special devices after a strictly defined interval. After the second
float surf aces, an aerial photograph is taken so that an image of the dye
spots of both floats is obtained directly on the same photograph. Know-
ing the time interval between surfacing of the two fl.oats and the spacing
between them, it is possible also to calculate the speed of their dis-
placement, that is, the drift rate under the effect of the currents. It
is possible to record the position of the f loats during the course of
radio geological measurements.
The color of the water is recognized on black and white aerial photographs
by tone, and on synthesized color photographs, by the defined colors.
On the black and white aerial photographs turbid water has a yellow or
gray-brown hue, it is found to be relatively light, and transparent
water, dark. Using these signs, it appears possible to establish and map
the areas of propagation of the river runoff watPr by the relatively
light tone of the aerial photographic images; the turbid water formed
after storms within the boundaries of the coastal shoals or over sandy ~
banks; the water enriched with suspended matter during eruptions of
underwater lava and mud volcanos; the sections where the bottom water
' rises to the sur�ace (upwellings) usually having a brown color as a result
of their enrichment with phytoplankton, and so on. The discharge of
groundwater or juvenile water on the sea floor sometimes is manifested
on the sea surface in the form of spots of transparent water corresponding
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to the darker sections on the aerial photographs. By the variation in
tone or color of the image of the water in the limits of the coastal
shoals (in the presence of uniform ground) it is possible to determine
the depth of the sea by the photometric method inasmuch as the tone of
the image on the black and white anlthe color on the color aerial photo-
graphs depend on the depth under these conditions.
The Langmuir spiral circulation (eddies), as is known, predetermine the
clustering of floating objects on the water surf ace (surface-active
materials, foam, plants, and so on) in the form of long, relatively
narrow strips. These strips formed by the surface-active material (Fig 2a) `
and foam (Fig 2b) are depicted well against a background of wavy
sea surface. The analysis of photographs combined with analysis of the
hydxometecrological data at the time of taking the aerial photograph can
~ be of significant help when investigating the still insufficiently studied
phenomenon of Langmuir circulation. It permits establishment of the
interrelation of the strip distrihution of the wind directions and the
basic wave systems and the depths of the sea, the discovery of the dis-
tance of the strips and their structure as a function of the above-noted
factors and also internal waves.
Internal waves are formed in the water at the boundary ;,f the layers with
diff erent density. On the crests of these waves turbid surface water is
less thick than in the troughs; therefore the'latter are obtained on
photographs of lighter tones than the former [131.
In addition, it is possible to expect that at the interface of water
layers with different density dying folds of plankton and other small
particles are trapped, and with high transparency of the upper layer of
water this helps to isolate the internal waves on the photographs [14].
The analysis of the images of the internal waves permits estimation of
their parameters: period, phase velocity, direction of propagation.
The discontinuous currents break up the system of coastal wind-driven
waves and the surf zone, which appears on the aerial photographs. In
addition, the mass of water of the discontinuous currents usually is
distinguished by color as a result of the large quantity of suspended
material. This is easily seen on the photographs. The analysis permits
detailed study of this phenomenon.
The plankton colors the water in yellow-brown or green tones. These sec-
tions are clearly isolated on the photographs (their tone differs from
the tone of the remaining sea surface).
The high productivity of the plankton organisms frequently is, as has
already been stated, connected with the upwellings or the presence of
cold currents.
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Figure 2. Aerial photograph of strips of surface-active
material (a) and foam (b) occuzring under the effect of the
Langmuir eddies
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Turbid water, as has already been noted, is found to be lighter in tone
on the aerial photographs than clean sea wata-r. The mapping of the
propagation of the turbid water has great significance �or discovering
the conditions of modern sediment formation within the limits of the
shelf ,
~ Here the method of ineasuring the coefficients of spectral brightness of
the turbid water permitting estimation of the quantity of suspended
matter in its surface layer acquires special significance [10].
2.2. Indirect Indicator of Local Water Temperature Variation
The American astronauts [19] detected clouds of a special shape, the
_ Formation of which is connected with the presence of eddy type circula-
tions of the cold water, for example, in the warm Yucatan Current. Over
the cold eddies they observed clear air, at the same time as the edges
of the ecidies, that is, at the interface of the cold and warm water, there
was a powerful crescent-shaped cloud cover. Thus, by the shape of the
cloud cover it is possib le directly to zstab lish the local areas of
propagation of the cold water (for example, upwellings) among the rela-
tively warin surface waters of the ocean. The analysis of the peculiari-
ties of the structure of the cloud cover in a relatively calm synoptic
situation can be of assistance in studying the temperature anomalies of
the surface water of the ocean, the sea currents,and so on. The
mater=,als from the aerial and space photographs give the greatest eff ect
for studying the cloud cover over the ocean.
2.3. Deciphering Objects at the Bottom of the Sea
Modern technical means make it possible to obtain aerial photographs of
the sea floor at depths from several meters to several tens of ineters
depending on the transparency of the water. As a result, the width of
the strip of underwater coastal slope, within the boundaries of which it
is possible to photograph the sea floor f luctuates from several hundreds
of ineters to tens of kilometers. In addition, the sea floor is depicted
on the aerial photograpY:s within the boundaries of the isolated banks
both in the open sea and on .the shelf .
Many underwater objects, the office and f ield deciphering of which pro-
motes a detailed study and mapping of them can be recognized on such
aerial photographs [2, 31.
At the present time the materials from the aerial surveys of the sea floor
are already heing used for geological--geomorphological investigation and
i mapping, engineering-geological exploration, mineral prospecting, the
study and mapping of underwater vegetation, the compiling of land and
sea maps of the coastal shoals, and so on.
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Geologica-Geomorphological Study and Mapping. The rock and loose soil
are often well depicted on aerial photographs o� the sea bottom in the
coastal shoals, the photographs of which frequently differ sharply depend-
ing on their material compoaition, texture and structural peculiarities
[2, 3]. This is quite obvious in the presented aerial photograph of the
_ sea f loor (see Fig 3). The disjunctive (continuous) disturbances have been
clearly obtained on the same photograph in the form of straight or bent
lines outlining individual tectonic blocks.
The deciphering of such aerial photographs permits us to obtain broad
geological information: to establish the propagation of various rock
complexes on the sea floor, including those with which certain minerals
are associated; measurement of the hori2ontal thicknesses (thaC is, the
width of the outcrop at the bottom) of individual beds, benches, suites,
and so on; d2termination of the elements of occurrence of the beds (azimuth
and dip angle); discovery of the stratigraphic and angular unconformity; ~
recognition of various accumuZation and abrasion forms of relief, and
so on, aitd also the geological structures and their elements (see Fig 4),
the discovery of which fias great significance when exploring marine oil
and gas-bearing depoEits.
As a result of this and also the clear-cut representation of the boundaries
between objects, it is possible to put together geological, geomorphologi-
cal, soil and other special maps of the sea floor which are not inferior
to land maps with respect to reliability and detail.
Engineering-Geological Exploration. The aerial photographic survey
materials can be used to study the engineering-geological peculiarities
and compile engineering-geological maps of the underwater coastal slope
and the coastal parts of the dry land which are needed to design hydro-
engineering structures. These materials have great significance for the
discovery and the prediction of the dynamics of the coastal processes. In
particular, with respect to nature of the image of the coastal and bottom
accumulation and abrasion �orms of relief it is possible to establish the
direction of displacement of the drift flows along the shore and their
relative thickness, sections of abrasion or accumulation of loose deposits,
and so on. The consideration of the dynamics of'these processes is
important when predicting the possible erosion of the shore or, on ti�
contrary, the accumulation characteristics of the hydroengineering-struc-
tures during their operation and maintenance.
Mineral Prospecting. On the aerial photographs of bodies of water a num-
b er of objects, phenomena or processes are depicted which can be uscd as
criteria when prospecting for certain minerals. This permits localiza-
tion of the sections of the bodies of water prospective for the statement
of more detailed exploration and prospecting work. Thus, the sections of
the water, the depths of which possibly contain oil and gas, can be
detected aerial photographs of the oil-containing rock (see Fig 3),
anticlinal folds (see Fig 4, a), constantly renewing oil slicks.
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Figure 3. Aerial photograph of the rock of different material
composition making up suites of different age.
C0, HK1I, IIK rock of predominantly sandy composition;
TKI', i:C argi.llaceous composition. ?art of these suites
belongs to the oil-containing rock, which can indicate
potential oil-bearing natuxe of the given body of water.
The dotted line indicates dislocations with a break in con-
tinuity.
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floating on the sea surface (they are recognized in the aerial photographs
by the specific aerial photographic configuration of the light tone under
which the image of the sea floor can be seen (see Fig 5)), underwater
mud volcanoes recognizable by the characteristic shape (Fig 4, b), gas
eruptions (Fig 6), and so on.
The sections prospective for the occurrence of coal, iron ore of sedi-
mentary origin, and so on can be isolated by the characteristic images
of the underwater outcrops of the coal-bearing, iron ore and other suites
and series. In Fig 7(in the left side) we see a coal-bearing suite
represented by rock of argillaceous-aleurite composition with beds of
sandstone, coal and coaly shales. It is characterized by clearly expressed
layering and severe crumpling of the rbck depicted on the photograph.
These signs permit establishment of the presence and the propagation of
such suites on the sea floor. The coastal sea places of useful minerals
are detected by the variation in the photographic density (image tone)
reflecting the color of the beach sand enriched with minerals; with
respect to images of the elements of the above-water and underwater
accumulation forms of relief, it appears possible to localize sections
within the boundaries of which separation of the heavy-fraction minerals
takes place.
The structural materials within the boundaries:of the sea floor and
the coastal part of the dry land are primarily represented by loose sedi-
ments making up various accumulation forms of relief or filling the
U-shaped valleys. These forms, just as the loose deposits, are depicted
well in aerial photographs. Thus, the latter provide exhaustive informa-
tion about their propagation on the f loor and possible conditions of
~ exploitation of them without losses to the dynamics of the coastal pro-
cesses,l that is, without disturbance of the dynamic equilibrium of the
coast line.
UndeYwater vegetation is easily recognized on the aerial photographs.
Sometimes it is possible not only to recognize various algae, including
useful ones (sea grass, sea cabbage, and so on), but also to determine
the limits of their propagation and calculate the reserves (see Fig 8),
Compiling Sea Charts. For compiling sea charts in the presence of bottom
contours on the photographs, stereomeasurements of the relative heights
- of the relief at the bottom are performed. In the absence of contours,
the alreudy-investigated (2.1) photometric method is used which permits
1It is necessary to consider that the extraction of structural materials
on the coast lines frequently leads to disturbance of the dynamics of the
shores and destruction of them. The collection of loose materials can
be realized in the upper parts of the undersea canyons without harm to
the shore dynamics.
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Figure 5. Aerial photograph of an oil slick on the sea sarface
Figure 6. Aerial photograph of the eruption of gases from the
depths of the sea floor causing the water to foam on the sea
surfacP .
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Figure 7. Aerial photograph of �a coal-bearing suite exposed
on the sea floor
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Figure 8. Aerial photograph of sea grass (Zostera nana) on
the underwater coastal slope
- determination of the depths of the sea by tone or color of the image of
the water (with uniform soil). Sonetimes the stereoscopic measurements
are combined with data from sonar measurements, measurements of the
depths using lasers and the photometric method. The materials from the
aerial photographic survey greatly facilitate the performance of hydro-
graphic.operations on the compilation of sea charts, especially in the
shoal region inasmuch as they give relatively accurate and objective
representation of the underwater relief.
Compilation�of.-Landscape Maps. A detailed and objective representation
of underwater ob,jects on aerial photographs makes them irreplaceable for
landscape studies and mapping of the sea floor. When deciphering the
aerial photographs not only are the various components and elements of
landscape recognized, but often their mutual relations and interdependence
are establYshed.
Study of the Dynamic Processes Occurring on the Bottom of t::p Sea Shoals.
In the presence of repeated aerial surveys within the same bodw of water
it is possible to determine the variations in landscape of the sea floor
occurring in a strictly defined timz period. Thus, the variatians in the
f.orms of the bottom relief, the rate of formation of new or deGtruction of
already existing forms of relief of the coast line, the growing over of _
the bottom with underwater vegetation, and so on are.established. A
comparison of theoma.terials from'the repeated aerial survzys is one of
the most improved and reliable methods of studying the d�ynamics of the
processes occurring within the boundaries of the bottom of the coastal
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marine bodies of water permitting us to obtain not only a qualitative
but also quantitative characteristics of these processes.
2.4. Obtaining Information About Objects on the Sea Floor by Indirect
Signs
The mdterials from the aerial photograph surveys of the sea floor can be
used to solve many scientific and practical problems. However, their use
is limited to a significant degree to a relatively narrow strip of the
coastal part of the body of water and individual shoal banks. Only an
image of the water surface is obtained on the aerospace photographs of
broad areas of the open sea and oceans.
The proposals of certain researchers [5, 6, 181, according to which when
surveying from high altitudes and from outer space, it ia possible to
- observe and photograph the aea floor at depths of several hundreds or even
thousands of ineters, has low probability. The attenuation of the light
by the water is so significant that in practice, as experimental work
demonstrates, with modern technical means it is impossible to obtain
photographs of the sea floor at depths greater than 100 meters. This is
also conf irmed by numerous visual observations of scuba divers noting the
rapid attenuation of light with depth and measurements of the light flux
at various depths of the sea with varying transparency of the water. The
maximum depth of the sea for which photographs of the sea floor have been
obtained is 70 meters.
In connection with what has been discussed above, it is possible to draw
the conclusion that photographing the sea floor outside the boundaries
of the underwater coastal slope and individual shallow banks in the seas
and oceans is excluded.
Nevertheless, the materials for the aerial photographic surveys and space
- photographs of the sea and ocean surfaces can be used to obtain informa-
tion about certain structural peculiarities of the sea floor. This be-
comes possible as a result of the fact that defined ob3ects and phenomena
located at or occurring at tti~a surface of thawater and in its depths, are
interrelated with the structure of the sea floor and also with the%
processes occuring in its depths. These interrelations can be used as
indicators of certain structural peculiarities of it.
The first effort to study the sea floor using such indicators was under-
taken in Y.he LAEM [14].
Indicators of Underwater Volcanic Eruptions. Volcanic eruptions can appear
in the form of a change in optical properties of the water as a result of
discharges of ash material, the presence of local sections af churning
water or powerful and irregular wave action in a quiet sea surface; dis-
charges of ash, smoke and release,of steam over the water surface;
accumulation of floating fragments of pumice and sometimes the formation
of temporary or permanent volcanic islands.
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Indicators of Underwater Nonvolcanic Eruptions. These eruptions appear in
the form of small gushers, spouts, the release of gases (see Fig 6), foamy
water, turbid water as a result of discharge of pelitic material and some-
times in the form of burning flares of hydrocarbon gases. Temporary or
permanent islands are also often formed.
IndiCators of the Discharge of Underground Fresh, Thermal and Juvenile
Water, The discharge of this water at .the bottom with a quiet sea surface
is manifested in the form of sections of churning water, and in the
presence of wave action, in the form of sections of relatively smooth
water; sometimes the powerful underwater springs form sections of more,
transparent water at the sea surface.
Indicators of Possible Oil and Gas Deposits. The oil-bearing naturP of
the depths of the sea floor sometimes appears on the sea surface in the
form of spots of oil, constantly being renewed in certain sections, and
gas eruptions, usually causing the water to foam.
= In order to discover the shapes of the bottom relief, the following indi-
cators can be used:
Waves. They react sensitively to the positive forms of the bottom relief
at depths of less than one-half their length. Beginning with this depth,
the waves experience deformation, namely, the length decreases and the
height and speed increase. This deformation of the waves can be reflected
on the aerial photographs, and by the variation in nature of the photo-
graphic image of the wavy sea surface it is possible to establish posi-
tive forms of bottom relief, sometimes with significant depths of the sea.
For example, Yu. M. Shokal'skiy notes that "even at such great depths as
occur on the underwater Wyvile-Thomson Ridge or among the Faeroe Islands in =
Scotland, that is, at depths of 400 to 500 meters, shortening of the
waves was noted" [16, p 277].
In the coastal parts of the sea, it is possible to discover underwater
valleys by the variation in nature of the wavy surface, within the
boundaries of which during a storm, as a result of the significant depths
the waves experience less deformation than in the shallow sections
separating the underwater valleys.
Breaking of Waves. Breaking of Waves is observed in shoal water with a
decrease in depth ot the sea approximately (on the average) to 3/4 of the
wave height. When the waves break, surf occurs, and an aerated (foaming)
zone is formed which is depicted well in the aerial photographs. _
Especially energetic breaking of the waves occurs over obstacles. By
photographs of the sur�ace it is possible to establish the presence and
the number of underwater swells, ridges, rocks, sandbars, and so on.
For example, breakers are observed off.the coast of Syria over the under-
water rocks at depths to 84 meters [16].
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Sea Wave Refraction. This is well depicted on the aerial photographs.
By the sea wave refractions it is possible to discover the angles of
approach of the waves to the shore, to measure the wave length, and under
known conditions to establish the steepness of their slopes and even the
propagation rate. The latter is.determined as the ratio of the shift of
the characteristic points of the waves on adjacent photographs determined
with respect to the corresponding stationary reference points on the
shore or in the sea, to the time intervals between adjacent exposures.
Knowing the length and speed v of the waves at a def ined point it is also
possible to determine the depth of the sea [12]. For this purpose the
Stokes formula is used which establishes the relation between H. v and a,
namely:
us th
2n
where g is the gravitational acceleration; H is the depth of the sea at ths
given point.
In addition, by the bends in the refraction waves, elements of the relief
of the underwater coastal slope are discovered ravines, elevations, and
so on.
Upwellings, that is, rising of abyssal waters to the sea surface, in the
open parts of the seas and oceans often are manifested over banks, under-
water mountains and ridges.l As fias already been noted above, the water
rising from the bottom predetermines the luxurious development of plankton
and the change of the optical properties of the water. A careful analysis
of the aerial photographic and space pictures permits us to discover
local changes in tone of the ridges by which it is possible to determine
the bottom relief, and if the undeYwater ridges are genetically connected
with the faults, then also to determine their location.
Turbid Water. Turbid water appears after storm wave action on the shoals,
and it is well predicted on the aerial photographs. The systematic renewal
of the turbid water in the form of isolated areas sometimes observed far
from.shore can indicate the presence of underwater sandbanks. Thus, the
turbid water marks a shoal zone on sandy and silty shores and also sand-
silt banks significantly removed from the shore.
lUpwellings can also be caused by a drop in water from the shore caused
by wind and diverging currents; they can occur on the leeward side of
islands, and so on. However, in the open sea if there are no diverging
currents, as a rule, they are connected with forms of bottom.relief.
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Evacuation of Turbid Water by Rivers. These sometimes occur along under-
water valleys and at the same time fix the continuation of the latter in
the sea.
3. Infrared (IR) Aerial Surveying
IR aerial surveying is based on recording ref lected solar and na:tural
thermal emission of the objects of the earth's surface in the form of
electromagnetic waves in the range from 0.74 to 1000 microns. It has
been established experimentally that for infrar ed radiation there ar e
three basic atmospheric windows of transparency in the atmosphere
determining aerial surveys in three ranges: 0.74 to 1.35, 3.5 to 5.5,
7.5 to 14.0 microns.
In the first atmospheric window (0.74 to 1.35 microns) reflected solar
radiation is used; therefore ordinary methods of aerial photographic sur-
veying on photographic films sensitized (sensitive) to tei of aerialnsur-
(more precisely to 0.74-1.2 microns) are used. This typ
veying can be called infraphotographic.
The IR aerial surveys in the second and third atmospheric windows at
3.5-5.5 and 7.5-14.0 microns permit the natural thermal emission of the
earth and the thermal anomalies of objects occurring as a result of
heating by solar radiation (induced thermal anomalies) to be recorded.
It is performed by a scanning camera thermal viewers permitting two-
dimensional images to be obtained (thermal aerial photographs) - or
IR-r adiometers which record the variati.ons of the temperature of the
earth's surface along thP flight axis of the aircraft. Equipment has
also been developed which operates in the narrow spectral IR-zones. The
synthesis of the photographs obtained by this camera offers the possibil-
ity of reproducing color IR-images. This type of aerial surveying is
called thermal.
3.1. InfraphotograFhic Aerial Surveying
The near infrared zone of the spectrum is characterized by less scattezing -
of the beams on passage through the atmosphere and the visible zone,
which increases the range of the survey, and the differences in the coefficients of reflection and tra.nsmission promote an increasing con-
trast of individ1a1 objects and their parts. -
In order to obtain an image of the sea floor the IR aerial the
not used inasmuch as the first meters of the water c{ompletely ab
entire long-wave part of the spectrum. However, as a result of the
difference in the reflection coefficients of this part of the spectrum
and the visible part on the IR-photographs the bour..dary is clearly de-
picted between the water surface and the dry land. This is determined by
the property of the water to absorb infrared radiation, in connection
with which a sharp difference is observed in the reflection of the
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infrared beams from the dry land and water surface. Therefore IR-
aerial photographic surveying can be used for the study and mapping of the
shore line, maximum and minimum positions of the sea level during tides,
surges, and so on.
3.2. Thermal Surveying
Thermal surveying which is performed using an IR-radiometer permits the
temperature of the water surface to be recorded by the flight prof ile. In
oceanology it is used to determine one of the most significant characteris-
tics of the ocean which is variable in space and time the water tempera-
ture at its surface.
The thermal survey performed using heat viewers permiCs thermal contracts
(anomalies) to be recorded.
It is used to discover the hydrodynamic processes, underwater volcanic
and mud volcanic eruptions, pollution of the sea surface, and so on.
The hydrodynamic processes cause nonuniform temperature distribution of the
- surf ace of the sea; therefore on the thermal aerial photographs the warm
and cold currents, their structural peculiarities, the zones of convergence
and divergence of the currents and also the cold water of the upwQllings,
powerful discharges of grour.dwater or juvenile water, the cold and warm
water fronts, convective cells, Langmuir circulations, and so on are clearly depicted.
The underwater eruptions of volcanoes can raise the water temperature over
them either as a result of direct heating with the volcanic pipes located
near the sea surface or as a result of rising of the hot bottom water and
solid products of the volcanic discharge during eruptions occurring at great
depths of the sea to the surface, These "trails" can be recorded on the
photographs.
The discharge of groundwater at the bottom of the bodies of water usually
causes local thermal anomalies on the sea ssrface. Oi1 discharge of fresh
groundwater, the latter rises to the surface and lowers the water tempera-
ture. On the contrary, on discharge of thermal water, the water tempera-
ture and the sea surface over thes e sections rises. Thus, the thermal
aerial survey can be used to find fresh and thermal water. Considering
~ that the outflows of the latter frequently are associated with fractures,
the mapping of the thermal water can be of ass:Lstance in tracing the large
disjunctive disturbances within the boundaries of the bodies of water.
The pollution of the surf ace of the s2a with petrole�.un products is recorded
well in the thermal pictures. Petroleum products decrease the evapora-
tion of the water, as a result.of which in such sections of the sea sur-
face there is no cold layer which to a significant degree arises as a
result of evaporation. This situation obviously can be extended also to
the sections of the sea polluted with other waste of anthropogenic origin.
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Within the boundaries of the coastal shoals by using therma l surveying it
is possible also to record the wave and the discontinuous currents,
river runoff, sand and rock drainage, vegetation, and s3 on. As a result
of the different heating of the water over the shallower and deeper sec-
tiona, underwater valleys, shoals, underwater swells and other objects of
the shallow sections of the underwater coastal slope are depicted.
4. Radar Aerial Survey
The radar survey is an active method of study [7]. The surface of the
terrain is irradiated from the aircraf t by radio waves, the reflected
signals of which are recorded by the receiving equipment. The survey can
be performed in practice in any weather both in the daytime and at night.
On the radar p ictures only the surface of the bodies of wat er is depicted.
If the surface of the water is amooth, then mirror reflection of the radio
beams takes place in the direction away from the antenna (the receiver),
as a result of which the water surface is depicted on the photograph as a
uniform dark surface with respect to color. Accordingly, the radar survey
must be made with a wavy surface when the radio beams reflected from the
slopes of the waves and also scattered from the foamy water hit the receiver.
Tn this case the radar photographs make it possible to obtain information
about the sea waves, various hydrologic cycles and other ph enomena on the
surface of the bodies of water.
The oil slicks are depicted clearly on the radar photograph s inasmuch as
the latter "extinguish" the capillary waves. The sections of smooth sea
surface formed here from which the radar beams undergo mirror reflection
in the directions away from the receiving equipment, are found to be dark
from the photographs.
With respect to the image of the breaking waves (the strips of foamy water)
in the coastal shallaws, certain forms of bottom relief are recognized on
the radar photographs (underwater banks, shoals, individual cliffs or
underwater rock). The radar pictures are successfully used also to ~
estimate the ice situation in the polar seas, inasmuch as they permit dis-
covery of open water and cracks among the pack ice, and sometimes it is
even possible to estimate the relative thickness of the floating ice.
5. Laser, Luminescent, Ultraviolet Sur veys
_ The laser, lumines cent and ultraviolet surveys are, as has already been
stated, in the testing or development stage.
5.1. Laser Surveying
Experimental s tudies indicate that in transparent water, us ing a laser on
a wave length of 0.55 microns with a zone width of 0.003 microns, it is
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possible to measure the depths of the sea nf several tens of
meters. By combining the deciphering of the aeria'L photographs of the sea
floor in measuring the depths of the sea using a laser it is nossible to
perform a hydrographic survey of the shoala [17].
5.2. Luminescent Surveyl
The luminescent survey is based on the f act that on irradiation, the
atoms of certain materials go into the excited state which is unstable.
The return of the electrons to the former level is accompanied by the
release of a quantum of energy in the form of beams of greater length than
the irradiating radiation. This is nonthermal luminescence.
- Strong luminescence is characteristic of oila and gases and chlorophyll.
" Obviously, this survey ca-n be used not only for recording oil slicks on the
- surfQce of the water, bu: also plankton.
With the active method it is proposed that the surf-ace of the ground be
irradiated by artif icial ultraviolet beams which in the presence of
luminescent materials causes nonth ermal glow. It is recorded on the
film in the visible range. It is possible to c3rry out such a survey only
at night and from low altitudes.
In a passive luminescent survey, special equipment is used which makes it
possible to record the deviations of the constant ratio between the
intensity of the solar radiation near the Fraunhofer line and directly
at its center caused by the luminescent objects. On the basis of this
method proposed in the Soviet Union by A. N. Kozyrev, in the United States
_ Khomp�ill created a special instrument of the radiameter type.
- 5.3. Ultraviolet Surveying
At the present time effective equipment is being developed for making
ultraviolet surveys. In such a survey special types of aerial film
must be used, the light--sensitive layer of which includes luminophors
which give off a f lash of light recorded by sensitive layer on passage of
ultraviolet rays through them. The survey can turn out to be useful
when studying the pollution of the surface with oil, detecting hydro-
carbons coming from the bottom to the sur�.ace. -
Measuring the spectrum of the reflected sunlight emerging from the sea
makes the study of phytoplankton and estimation of the chlorophyll concen-
tration possible. The latter absorbs violet blue (0.42-0.46 microns)
and red (0.66-0.70 mi.crons) in the visible part of the spectrum. However,
these operations performed from an aircraft are complicated by the fact
that the transmission function of the atmosphere, consideration of which
lltems 5.2, 5.3 and also Section 6 were compiled by the data of
A. V. Dolivo-Dobrovol'skiy.
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makes it possible to use aerospectrometric measurements to study the
chlorophyll which determines photosynthesis.
6. Aerogeochesnical Surveying
Aerogeochemical surveying will permit areas of the dispersion of gas or
finely suspended particles in the air to be recorded. In practice this
is done by sucking air from outside into the aircraft by a pump.
The outside air is passed through the system of absorbers which selec-
tively absorb the desired components, and it is analyzed using a counter
which measures the radioactivity of the air. The suspended particles can
be collected using screens ma.de up of artificial polymers, and so on.
Procedures have also been developed which are based on the spectrometric -
study of the composition of the atmosphere under the aircraft and over it
using the method of Fraunhofer lines.
The appearance of new lines in the section of the atmospheric column of
air next to the ground indicates the presence of aureoles of certain
materials.
In practice the aerogeochemical survey has not been used as yet to study
bodies of water. Obviously, it can be used to discover hydrocarbon gases
which reach the surface of the sea from the sea floor and indicate the
presence of.the oil and gas deposits.
The practical use of the aerogeochemical methods has been complicated as
a result of absence of a procedure for tying the ob^ervations to the
obj ects causing the presence of areas of dispersion of ^ertain gases
inasmuch as it is difficult to consider the movement of the air masses.
7. Aerogeophysical Surveying
Out of the aerogeophysical methods for studying the geological structure
of the bottom of the sea, aeromagnetic surveying is used; aerogravita-
tional surveying is in the stage of development.
7.1. Aeromagnetic Surveying
Aeromagnetic surveying is designed to study the peculiarities of the mag-
netic f ield of the seas and oceans which are predetermined by the rock
making up the depths of the bottom of the seas and oceans. The survey is
performed using aeromagnetometers installed on the aircraft. The magneto-
metric studies of the oceans h:ve made it possible to regenerate the
mobilistic theory of developmznt of the earth; they served as the basis
for creating the theory of new global tectonics; using the3e studies,
abyssal and transform fractures at the bottom of the ocean have been
established which are traced over an extent of many thousands of kilometers.
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As a result of the magnetic susceptibility of various rock it is possible -
to use aeromagnetic measurements;during geological mapping for tracing
individual geological suites (series, bodies and so on). With respect to
the discovered magnetic anomalies it is posaible to talk about the abyssal -
geological structu.re of the depths of the sea floor, in particular, the
preeence of intrusions of basic azd ultrabasic rock and even the geological
sCiuctures prospective for oil snd gas.
7.2. Aerogravitational Surveyiug
Aerogravitational surveying, along with gravitational studies performed
from maritime ships, promotes the discovery of a gravitational anomal.y.
This type of survey is still of an experimental nature. The analysis of
the gravimetric maps offers the possibility of establishing the abyssal
structure of the sea floor, the presence of intrusions and sometimes
anomalies indicating the presence of anticlinal structures. This makes
it possible to use the materials of the gravitational surveys to determine
the prospective oil and gas-bearing bodies of water.
The use of the materials from the aerial surveys when studying the ocean
in practice has only started, but in the given phase obviously it is
necessary for the solution of both scientific problems and certain practi-
cal problems of the exploitation o-1: the ocean.
Beginning with this fact, it is possible to expect that the interpretation of
, the materials of the aerial surveys of the bodies of water will permit us
to obtain broad information about the physical phenomena occurring in the
ocean, some of its biological peculiarities and the geological structure
of the bottom. The complex use of various types of aerial methods 3ointly
with other methods of oceanography can greatly refine our concepts of the
1?ws of the nature of the oceans and seas, which is necessary for efficient
use of its resources.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. AEROMETODY GEOLOGICHESKIKH ISSLEDOVANIY [Aerial Methods of Geological -
Research], edited by V. K. Yeremin, Moscow, Nedra, 1971, 703 pages.
- 2. Gur'yeva, Z. N.; Petrov, K. M. ; Ramm, N. S.; Sharkov, V. V.
GEOLOGO-GEOMORFOLOGICHESKOXE IZUCHENIYE MORSKIKH MELKOVODIY I
BEREGOV PO MA.TERIALAM AEROFOTOS"YENIICI; METODICHESKOYE RUKOVOLSTVO
[Geological--GeomorpholQgical Study of Shallow Seas and Coast Lines
_ by the Aerial Photographic Survey Data: Procedural Handbook],
Leningrad, Nauka, 1968, 365 pp.
3. Gur'yeva, Z. I.; Petrov, K. M.; Sharkov, V. V. AEROFOTOMETODX
GEOLOGO-GEOMORFOLOGICHESKr'0 ISSLEDOVANIYA VNUTRENNEGO SHEL'FA I
BEREGOV MOREY: ATLAS ANNdTI&OVANNYKH AEROFOTOSNDIKOV [Aerial
Photographic Methods of Geological-Geomorphological lnvestigation of
the Internal Shelf and Shores of.'Seas: Atlas of Annotated Aerial
Photographs], Leningrad, Nedra, 1976, 277 pp.
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4. Dolivo-Dobrovol'skiy, A. V. GEOMETRIYA RADIOLOKATSIONNYKH,
INFRAIQZASNYKH I DRUGIKH NOVYKH VIDOV AEROSNIMKOV [Geometry of
Radar, Infrared and Other New Types of Aerial Photographs], Moscow,
Nedra, 1976, 50 pp.
5. ISSLIDOVANIYE PRIRODNOY SREDY S PILOTIRUYEMYKH ORBITAL'NYKH STANTSIY
[Study of the Natural Environment from Manned Orbital Stations],
Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1972.
6. Kobets, N. V. "Geological and Geomorphological Deciphering of the
Sea Floor by Space Photographs and Television Pictures,"
PRIMENENIYE NOVYKH VIDOV AEROS"YEMOK PRI GEOLOGICHESKIKH ISSLEDOGANIYAKH
[Application of New Types of Aerial Surveys During Geological
Studies], Leningrad, Izd-vo VSEGEI, 1976, pp 21-35.
7. Komarov, V. B.; Starostin, V. A.; Nyavro, B. P. "Development of
Studies in the USSR for the Use of Radar Images for Geological
Purpoaes," ISPOL'ZOVANIYE PRI80DNOY SRIDY KOSMICHESKIMI SREDSTVAMI.
GEOLOGIYA I GEOMORFOLOGIYA [Use of the Natural Environment by Space
Media. Geology and Geomorphology], Vol 2, Moscow, VIIIITI, 1974,
pp 103-107.
8. METODY IZUCHENIYA MORSI:IKH TECHENIY S SAMOLETA [Methods of Studying
Sea Currents from an Aircraft], Leningrad, Nauka, 1964, 227 pp.
9. Mikhaylov, A. Ye.; Ramm, N. S. AEROMETODY PRI GEOLOGICHESKIKH
ISSLIDOVANIYAKH [Aerial Methods for Geological Research], Moscow,
Nedra, 1975, 196 pp,
10. PRIMENENIYE AEROMETODOV DLYA ISSLIDOVANIYA MORYA [Application of
Aerial Methods for Exploration of the Sea], edited by V. G. Zdanovich,
_ Moscow-Leningrad, Nauka, 1963, 546 pp.
11. Semenchenko, I. V.; Bakhareva, L. V.; Kal'ko, A. G. "Remote Method
of Determining the Turbidity of Reservoir Water Based on Measuring
the Spectral Brightness Coefficients," TRUDY GGI [Works of the
Main Geophysics Institute], No 237, 1976, pp 65-70.
12. Uglev, Yu. V. "Indirect Methods of Estimating the Aepths of Shallow
Seas by Aerial Photographs," PRIMENENIYE AEROMETODOV DLYA
ISSLEDOVANIYA MORXA [Application of Aerial Methods for Exploration of
the Sea], Moscow-Leningrad, Nauka, 1963, pp 407-430.
, 13. Fedorov, K. N. "Remote Methods of Studying th.e Ocean," ITOGI NAUKI
I TEKfID1IKI. SER. OKEANOLOGIYA [Results of Science and Engineering.
Oceanology Series]i Vol 4, Moscow, VINITI, 1977, pp 132-161.
14. Sharkov, V. V.; Gur'yeva, Z. I. "Problem of the Geological Decipher-
ing of Space Photograplis of Bodies of.Water," PRIMENENIYE NOVYKH
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VIDOV AEROS "YErIOK PRI GEOLOGICHESKIKH ISSLIDOVANIYAKH [Application
of New Types of Aerial Photographs for Geological Research],
Leningrad, Izd-vo VSEGEI, 1976, pp 11-21.
15. Shilin, B. V.; Karizhenskiy, Ye. Ya. "Infrared Aerial Photograph
New Method of Studying Water Resources," AEROFOTOS"YEMKA
riETOD IZUCSENIYA PRIRODNOY SREDY [Aerial Photographic Survey--
Methods of Studying the Natural Environment], Leningrad, Nauka, 1973,
pp 64-69.
16. Shokal'skiy, Yu. M. OKEANOGRAFIYA [Oceanography], Leningrad,
Gidrometeoizdat, 1959, 537 pp.
17. Bright, D. "Coastal Aerial Photo-laser Survey (CAPS)," PROCEEDINGS
OF THE AMERICAN CONGRESS ON SURVEYING AND MAPPING, 35th ANNUAL
MEETING, Washington, 1975, March 9-14, pp 249-259.
18. Haase, E.; Kaminski, H.; Pfannenotiel, M. "Versuch einer
meersmorphologischen Deutung von Satelliten-Luftbildern," DEUTSCHE
HYDROGRAPHISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT, 1969, No 5, pp 193-204.
, 19. Stevenson, Robert E. "Observation from Skylab Mesoscale Turbulence
in Ocean Currents," NATURE, No 5468, 1974, pp 638-640.
,
153.
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OCEANIC EDDIES
[Arti.cle by V. G. Kort]
Vladimir Grigor'yevich Kort, corresponding member of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, Honored Scientist of the RSFSR, is working
in the field of oceanographic research. Twenty-three expeditions
to various parts of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans
and the first Soviet marine Antaxctic expeditions on the diesel
electric ship "Ob were made under his direction in 1956-1958.
He is co-author of the discovery in 1970 of inesoscale oceanic
' eddies. Under the direction of V. G. Kort, the collective of
coworkers of.the Oceanology Institute of the USSR Academy of
Sciences imeni P. P. Shirshov has made up a ten-volume monograph
TIKHIY OKEAN [Pacific Ocean], which won the State Prize of the
USSR in 1977.
1. Results of Oceanological Expeditions
During the work of the American Gulf Stream-60 Expedition in 1960 and
the Soviet expedition in 1963, hydrologic surveys were made in the Gulf
Stream region [2]. They demonstrated an extraordinarily complex spatial
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structure of the current field and other hydrophysical characteristics
(temperature, salinity) in this region. From the data obtained it
followed that the position of the main flow of the Gulf Stream varies
significantly from survey to survey as a result of intensive meandering
of the core of the current. Then it was noted that the strong_ meanders
can be pinched off from the primary current, becoming powerful eddies,
which are called rings in the American oceanographic literature. The
large-scale rings (about 200-300 km long) involve enormous masses of
water (to 30�106 m3/sec) in the rotational motion, and they penetrate to
great ocean depths (3000-4000 meters).
In addition to the rings along the outer boundaries of the main flow of
the Gulf Stream numerous eddies of essentially sualler scale were observed -
(50 to 100 km long). These eddies are the consequence of shearing stress
in the boundary zones of the Gulf Stream (the Karman eddies). The
standard picture of the spatial dynamic structure in the Gulf Stream was
constructed (see Fig 1). In the region between 60 and 65� west longitude,
a well-expressed anticyclonal (clockwise movement) meander can b,= seen
with three eddies to the south and southwest of it.
The quasisynchronous area hydrologic surveys in the Kuroshio Current zone
demonstrated the same complex dynamic structure in the current field.
Thus, the first detailed hydrologic surveys of the regions of the powerful
streams such as the Gulf Stream:and the Kuroshio Current made it possible
to establish the existence in the ocean of large and small-scale eddies
connected with hydrodynamic instability of the streams and the influence
of the relief of the ocean floor on them. -
In 1967, by the initiative of the well-known Soviet oceanologist,
Prof V. B. Shtokman, instrument observations of the currents in the
test ar ea with autonomous buoy stations with current recorders [6]
were organized. The test area 300x240 miles in size was located :n the
southern part of the Arabian Gulf between 63�-66�30' east longitude and
10-15� north latitude. Two quasisynchronous hydrologic surveys were per-
formed in the test area with respect to a uniform grid of stations with
30 mile spacing. During the course of the observations, eddies 200-250 km
in size were detected in the open sea outside the zone of effect of the
powerful ocean currents. These eddies have now been called mesoscale.
The question of their genesis has arisen :immediately. In 1970 under the
direction of the Oceanology Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences
imeni P. P. Shirshov [3], an interdepartmental expedition was made to the
central part of the Atlantic Ocean, Polygon-70. For 6 months, continuous
observations of the variability of the basic hydrophysical characteris-
tics (current velocity, temperature, salinity, and so on) were made from
the expeditionary ships and 17 autonomous oceanographic buoy stations
arranged in a cross in a test area 120x120 miles. The results of these
unique studies of the ocean dynamics turned out to be very interesting.
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r'ux ur'r�tc;lai., U5E UNLY
Large eddy disturbances resembling atmospheric cyclones and eddy cyclones
were discovered in the open part of the ocean, in the quasistationary
~ current zone (the northern trade current). The characteristic scale of
these eddies is 100 to 200 km in extent and 40 to 70 days with respect to
time. The eddies were traced.to a depth of up to 1000-1500 meters from
the aurface. The eddies moved through the test area in a westerly direc-
tion with an average speed to 5 cm/sec with average orbital velocity at
depths of 200-300 meters at 20-25 cm/sec.
7
o� s
o�
p
NIN
40
~
1
0 6
0'
.
-
.
,
0~M
3
~
/
o
~ ~ \,t~00~y0\,L00
~
1260
~2600

~
1424
ef~~ O
~
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00
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~

Figure 1. Map of dynamic topography (0-4000 dbars) in the
vicinity of the Gulf Stream, June 1960
Dotted lines 300-meter isobath. Numbers on the solid isolines
dynamic altitude, dyn. mm.
A vector diagram was constructed for the variation of .the current velocity
field (the 300 meter level) in the "Polygon-70" during the period from
13 March to 12 August 1970 (see Fig 2).
From the figure it is quite clear haw the nature of the current field
changed sharply from 13 March to 22 April in the test area. At the
beginning of the observations there was a rear section of eddy disturbance
in the test area, and by the end of April a new anticyclonal eddy had
advanced to the test area. After a month (24 May) the center of this
anticyclone penetrated to the middle of the test area. This observation
period is especially successful, for it indicates the total area of the
eddy di.sturbance. The outline of the detected eddy is well approximated
by an ellipse with lengths of the axes of 90-100.km and 200 km. A compari- _
son of rhe parameters of this ellipse and the theoretical model of the
free planetary waves in the two-layer ocean on the beta-plane provided
a basis for M. N. Koshlyakov and Yu. M. Grachev to consider that the
dynamics of the eddy disturbance of the current velocity observed in the
test area are close to the dynamics of the baroclinic Rossby waves [5].
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13/111 13 / 200-500
12.
! ! �
9 8715~
16�
17?200-4U0
. /
16/V ~ 200-400
1 i
s/vi
100-40 '20D-400
~ 100 -son
, is/vii" 1, 200-500
r
r
'
` P.-$! . R J
ioa 4od1
.
~ O IdMN!
(1
22~IV~~
200-500
~
1%'~
2 3 4 5

G y/  `
\
l
~
~ ~?10 -140
~
~
3/VII .
~ ~100-40b1
,
0 4cM/c'--.,,
u (2),/
Figure 2. Evolution of the current field at the 300-meter
level ("Polygon-70")
The scales for the spacing between stations and for the moduli
of the velocity vectors (solid lines with arrows) are indicated
at the bottom of the figure. The dotted lines with the arrows
indicate the velocity vectors obtained by interpolation with
respect to depth indicated near the arrow.
Key :
1. miles
2. cm/sec
157
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run urrl11.1u. uac uivLi
Thus, the eddy disturbance detected in "Polygon-70" turned out to be a
new class of ocean eddies developed in the open sea under the effect of
meteorological disturbances and hydrodynamic instability. On the basis
of this, the detected anticyclonal eddy was called the synoptic meso-
scale eddy. A characteristic feature of this eddy is the well-expressed
dynamic structure in the abyssal layers of the ocean (200 to 1500 meters).
In the upper layer of the ocean, in contrast to the Karman eddies and
rings, the synoptic mesoscale eddy is less clearly manifested. This is
- connected with the fact that under the effect of storms the dynamic struc-
ture of the uppez layer of the ocean is greatly complicated by smaller
scale disturbances. The effort to isolate such smaller disturbances in
the "Polygon-70" [4] has been crowned with success: in the upper horizons
(25-200 meters) small-scale synoptic eddies have been detected with hori-
zontal dimensions of 50-80 km and a period of 3-9 days close to the
"natural synoptic.period." The phase velocity of such eddies reaches
10-15 cm/sec and they are traced to a depth of 200-300 meters.
It is possible to assume that the small-scale synoptic eddies develop
in any parts of the World Ocean as a reaction of the ocean to storms.
The results obtained from the Soviet scientists stimulated the development
of similar studies in other countries. Thus, in the United States,
beginning in 1973 to 1976, broad studies were made of the eddy disturbances
in the southwestern part of the North Atlantic by the Mid-Oceanic Dqnamic
Experiment (PiODE). The results obtained by the American researchers con-
firm the existence and very great variety of eddy movements in the ocean
with respect to scale and genesis.
The discovery of synoptic eddies in the ocean has great scientific sig-
nificance. It is introducing basic changes in our concepts of the internal
dynamics of the ocean, and already today theoretical and experimental
dynamic oceanology is faced with the problem of studying the processes of
synoptic eddy formation and the interaction of eddies with other large-
scale processes. When performing the studies with respect to many -
divisions of oceanology such as ocean acoustics, the hydrochemical struc-
ture of water, biological productivity, pollution and propagation of a
passive impurity and so on, it appears necessary to tie the results to the
hydrologic and kinematic structure of the ocean formed by the processes of
synoptic eddy formation.
2. POLYMODE Experiment
Considering the important role of the eddy disturbances in the dynamics
of ocean water and also the great complexity and labor consumption of
_ studying them, a program of broad studies of dynamics of ocean water
called the International Large-Scale Oceanic Dynamic Experiment POLYMODE
was adopted in 1974 when developing the plan for scientific Soviet-
American cooperation. It is a logical development of the studies by the
"Polygon-70" and .tODE programs, and it was planned for several years.
158
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The basic goal of the POLYMODE program consists in studying the oceanic
eddies for proper understanding of the dynamics of the low-frequency and
mesofrequency (synoptic) variability of the ocean currents and determina-
- tion of tts role in the general largP-scale dynamica of the ocean.
During the course of the expedition provision was made for careful mapping
of the three-dimensional structure and time variability of the basic
hydrophysical f ields (current velocity, temperature, density) within the
scales significantly greater than previously; measurement of the local
dynamic balance in the characteristic parts of the ocean; study of the
role of the eddy transfer of momentum, heat and mass and the variability
of this transport in space and time; the study of the mechanisms of the
occurrence, transmission and dissipation of the energy in the eddies and
- their interaction with each other and with the average current; study of
the distribution of the sizes, intensity and variability of the eddy
field over the ocean.
eo� 70� so�
(7)
JI o�
i o� 3.Q.(6 )
Figure 3. D iagra.m of the operations with respect to the
Soviet-American POLYMODE program
1-- area of operations by the MODE program using the system
of autonomous buoy stations l; 2-- area of operations by the
MODE-1 program using the autonomous buoy station system 2;
3-- POLYMODE test area; 4-- area of operations of the USSR
by the "Polygon-70" program; 5-- area of operations of the
United States using the system of autonomous buoy stations 3.
Key:
1. Gulf Stream 5. Northern Trade Current
2. North Atlantic Current 6. west longi�tude
3. Bermuda Islands 7. north latitude
4. Azores
159
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The successful achievement of these goals will make it possible to
create a scientific basis for short-range and long-range oceanographic
forecasts and wi11 permit construction of the integrated dynamic model of
the atmosphere-ocean system required for further improvement of weather
forecasting techniques.
In accordance with the POLYMODE program the Soviet side performed studies
for a year (from July ~977 to September 1978) in the hydrophysics test
area located in the southwest part of tre North Atlantic. The center of
this test area 300x300 miles in size was selected approximately at the
point with the coordinates 29� north latitude and 70� west longitude. The
wind conditions in this area are comparatively favorab le for long-term
operation of oceanographic buoys. The American si.de was to continue the
studies begun in 1976 using the system of oceanographic buoy stations to
the north, northeast and southeast of the Soviet test area and also to per-
form a local synoptic experiment near the main test area (see Fig 3).
310 MNAb(l) '
~ 320C.W. "~2~
_
(1)
19
(
~
,i
18

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
31�
17.
"
1
.
16
0
;
;
0 0
00
00 0 0 0
0
ig
0
-
0@
Qo
NoOO OO o
0 0
14
0 o
Qo 0
o KQ
Q o3 � o Qo
0 0
0
30
13
0 0
0�n
~
o
6~ o yo 0
O
0 0
o 0
~p
o o
~
~
0
11
o o
� o
0�
o 0
10
A � T o
29�
g
o 0
o O
�
QO o
0 0
e
o o
~(ii
00
a~o ~O
o 0
7
0 0
� oa
0
0 (io Q o c
o 0
280
g
o o
0.0
Q
� o@
n~
o 0
5
0 0
o p
~ o
~
5 Qp o
0 0
y
o
0 o
r.~ o Qo
� o 0 0
0
Z70
3
~p o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I ,
a b c e f g h i. j k L m n o p q*' s
2 6�
73� 72� 71� 70� 95� 68� 6703.,q. (4)
`I o2 oQ3 * 4
Figure 4. Diagram of the Soviet hydrophysics POLYMODE test ar ea
1-- buoy station; 2-- KhVT-sounding; 3-- STD-sounding;
4-- series of hydrologic stations
Key :
1. 310 miles
2. north latitude
3. miles
4. west longitude
5. miles
160
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The Soviet studies of the mesoscale eddies in the POLYMODE test area were
performed by the diagram presented in Fig 4. The depth of the test area
varies from 5100 to 5400 meters.
The work was participated in by the scientific research ships "Akademik
Kurchatov" and "Vityaz (Oceanology Institute of the USSR Academy of -
Sciences), "Aka.demik Vernadskiy" and "Mikhail Lomonosov" (Moscow Hydro-
logic Institute of the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences), "Akademik
Krylov" and "Moldaviya" (Hydrographic Service), "Petr Lebedev" and "Sergey
Vavilov" (Acoustics Institute of the USSR Aca3emy of Sciences) and
"Viktor Bugayev" (State Gomaittee on Hydrometeorology and Monitoring the
tiatural Environment of the USSR).
During the period from 11 July 1977 to September 1978, nine expedition ships performed 17 lai-ge-scale (over the entire test area) hydrologic
surveys, 14 medium-scale (over the body of water in test areas 1 and 2 in
Fig 3) and observations at aeveral microtest areas. All of the autonomous
oceanographic buoy stations have warked almost continuously for 12 to 13
months. About 3 million componenta of the current velocity vector were
recorded, and about 2 million values of the water temperature were obtained.
Observations were made at several thousands of hydrologic stations :ind
temperature sounding stations. The preliminary analysis of material ob-
tained in the f irst ph ase of the expedition demonstrated that the region
of POLYMODE test area is highly dynamic (Table 1, Fig 5).
3. Analysis of the Data Obtained
An analysis of the displacement rate-:of the eddies (Table 1) and the
nature of their trajectories (Figures 5 and 6) indicates highly intensive
dynamics of the eddies in the POLYMODE test area. Their phase velocity
varies from 3 to 17 cm/sec. The eddy movement takes place extremely
nonunif ormly, and the impression is created that it is comparatively random
The basic cauae of this nature of movement of the eddies probably is their
interaCtion. They collide with each other; some block the path of others.
Obviously, further analysis of the observations in the POLYMODE test area
' will permit understanding and explanation of thesa complex processes.
A comparison of the maps of the eddy fi�ds constructed by the hydrologic
survey data with current maps based on measurements of the oceanographic
stations demonstrated their satisfactory similarity. Still closer analogy
occurs between._the current field and the dynamic topography taking into
account the distribution not only of the water temperature, but also its
salinity.
The indicated fact makes it possible to c.onsider that the eddy formations
in the POLYMODE test area function with high probability in the quasi-
geostrophic mode, that is, the pressure gradient occurring in the
cyclonic (C1, C2) and anticyclonic (A1, A2) eddies are equalized by the
force of the acceleration connected with rotation of the earth (the
Coriolis force). Thus, in the defined stage of their development the
oceanic eddies can be comparatively stable formations.
161
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Lvlt vLl ivLCiL UJL' Vl1L1
~
Tab le 1
Displaceucent Rate oE the Eddy Formations in the Test Area
Displace-
Direc-
Eddy
Traveled
ment
tion of
forma-
Survey
Dates of the middle
distance,
rate,
displace-
- tion
no
of the surveys
miles
Days
miles/day
ment
Ci
la-2
16/VII-27/VII
10
11
1.0
i,(W
C1
2-2a
27/VII-05/VIII
20
9
2.2
NW
C1
2a-3
05/VIII-16/VIII
60
11
5.5
WSW
C1
3-3a
16/VIII-22/VIII
15
6
2.5
S
C1
4-5
O1/IX-28(IX
45
27
1.7
WNW
C2
1-la
13/VII-17/VII
20
3-4
5.0
NW
C2
la-3
17/VII-16/VIII
50
29
1.7
NW
C2
3-4
16/VIII-O1/IX
30
15
2.0
N
A1
la-2
16/VII-27/VII
15
11
1.4
W
A1
2-2a
27/VII-05/VIII
40
9
4.4
W
A1
2a-3
05/VIII-16/VIII
30
11
2.9
W
A1
3-4
16/VIII-O1/IX
40
15
2.7
iVW
A1
4-5
O1/IX-28/IX
40
27
1.5
W
- A2
la-2
16/VII-27/VII
10
11
1.0
NE
A2
2-2a
27/VII-05/VIII
25
9
2.8
E
A2
3-4
16/VIII-O1/IX
75
15
5.0
WSW
Note: C-- cyc lones; A-- anticyclones
The form of the abyssal structure of the eddy formations is approximated
by a truncated cone somewhat twisted clockwise (for the northern hemi-
sphere) with the apex turned upward for cyclonic eddies and downward for
anCicyclone. The shape of the bases of the cone formed by the closed iso-
pycns, as a rule, must be complicated,, but in the majority of cases can
be approximated by a circle or an ellipse. The spatial scale of the
synoptic eddies in the POLYMODE test area is characterized by 150-20v km,
and their period is 60 to 80 days. In the cyclic eddies in the northern
hemisphere ascent of the isopycns in the central part is noted, and
in the anticyclonic eddies, descent. Accordingly, the cyclonic eddies
have a:iegative temperature anomaly in the center as a result of a rise of
water and can be called "cold"; Che anticyclonic eddies have a positive
temperature anomaly connected with a_.descent of the surface water, and
they are called "warm." The lower boundary of the penetration of the
eddies is 3000 to 4000 meters, which in general corresponds to the
American determinations obtained.in the MODE test area which was somewhat
south of the POLYMODE test area,
'he exietence of warm and cold eddies in the ocean creates specific condi-
tions for heat and moisture exchange with the atmosphere, which has an
influence on the weather.
162
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163
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3 z�c.w.
(1)

10�
rg0
2eo
27�
26�
73� 72� 71� 70� 69� 68� 67�3.A. (2)
Figure 6. Location of the centers of the eddy formations
and the trajectories of their motion (schematic) at a
depth of the 17�C isotherm according to the data of
eight. hydrologic surveys.
The survp-ys were performed: No 1-- 11 July to 18 July;
No la 13 July to 21 July; No 2-- 24 July to 1 August;
No 2a 1 A.ugust to 10 August; No 3-- 10 August to
21 August; No 3a 18 August to 27 August; I1o 4--
23 August to 11 September; No 5-- 22 September to
4 December.
Key:
1. north latitude
2. west longitude
3. C1
4. C2
An interesting characteristic feature of the dynamic eddies is the presence
in their frontal regions of h igher orbital velocities by comparison with ~
the rear regions (with respect to.the general d?rection of motion of the `
eddy). As a result, at the boundary between tne eddies hydrologic fronts
are observed which are confirmed by the data from the hydrologic observa-
tions.
164
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
la
o
JS
2a
_
_
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5
(3) u~
Z�
2
la I
5
A
~
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4
A3
3a
4
05
4
L~3
5
3
42
\
5
a.
1�
~ 4
I
g,~
A I 2
p3
3
1
/
i
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The discovery of the oceanic eddies of synoptic scale permits dis cusaion
of the existence of a characteristic "weather" in the body of the ocean, -
the consideratian and forecasting of which have important practical sig-
nificance for navigation and marine industry.
The cold cyclonic eddies are distinguished not only by their thermal
structure. The rising of the abyssal waters to the surface in these
eddies is accompanied by the transfer of water masses rich in biog enic
elements. On getting into the photosynthesis zone, these element s promote ~
an increase in biological productivity in the surface layers of the cen-
tral part of the cyclonic eddy. In other words, the regions of co ld
oceanic cyclones are prospective for fishing in the open parts of the
ocean. A classical example of such productive areas is the regions of
quasistationary large-scale eddies in the waters of.Antarctica. Here in -
the zones of upwelling of abyssal water, in the center of the edd ies the
plankton biomass reaches a record magnitude 1000 mg/m3 [1].
American oceanographers have given a great deal of attention to the
study of large-scale eddies rings spawned from the meanders of the
Gulf Stream having significance for navigation..
aJ
c)
Macwrac
Q 60 100 ISOMMnh (2)
CNnoHaeeie eo�bi
~3) ~
.~y~pM
'
CKnaNOebia eapr (3)
ofiem~~M
~(4) i r
r
(4) /
I
~
~
4)
'
-
(5)
Ba,qbi Capraccoea MopA
Ba,qbi Capraccoea Mapa(5)
(3 CHnonoebie eOAbi
CKnoHOebie eo,qbi (3)
0n cpcr;(
onbPcrpNM
4,
~
n
1
~
e J,
1 e o ~
b~
)bi ~~ra`~ccoea ~ n
q Capa
+
a
(,5)
fan~CTpNMa (6)
9
C
`
,
~
p
o
,qb~
eprac
caea Mopa
Figure 7. Diagram of the formation of rings in the
Gulf Stream (according to Parker): a-d formation stages
Key:
1. Scale: 2. miles; 3. Continental slope water; 4. Gulf Stream;
5. Water of the Sargasso Sea; 6. Gu1f Stream water
165
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Using radiation thermometers to measure the temperature of the ocean
surface from aircraft and artificial earth satellites and also ship and
aircraft e,jectable temperature probes, acoustic buoys with zero buoyancy,
American researchers have already obtained quite complete information
about the structure and conditions of these rings (Fig 7). The statisti-
cal processing of the observation data demonstrated that on the southern
_ periphery of the Gulf Stream, in the region between 65 and 55�C west
longitude, from 5 to 8 cyclonic rings are produced annually [7]. Their
spatial scale found by the 15�C isotherm reaches 150-200 lun, and all of
them drift in the general direction tv the southwesC with an average speed
to 10 m/sec. Here the orbital velocity of the surface current in the
rings reaches 150 cm/sec, and it remains almost unchanged for the first
6 months of its "life." The total duration of the existence of the rings
reaches 2 to 3 years.
The central core of the cyclonic "cold" rings to a depCh of 2000 meters
contains slope water on the coast side of the Gulf Stream and at the same
time cools and freshens the surrounding water of the Sargasso Sea (see
Figures 7 and 8) [9].
. 40" C.W

(3)
0 0 0 0   ~
~  � o
a8M o o~ o 00
~ go 0 0 0
.
 ~a
o o � epMy,qcKHe
o� 0 o �O o-ea
4 00 0 0 300
~
� A
A
�
: O I
: i p}~~~ 1 0 2
~sy ~ q1 i � 3
' ~ ~ :  ~
4
100 .
eo� 70� 60� so 3.,q.(4)
Figure 8. Diagram of the spread of the Gulf Stream rings in
the period of 1970-1976 (according to Lai and Richardson).
1-- by.the temperature sounding data; 2-- by the satellite
observation data; 3, 4-- single observations from ex,perimental
ships
Key:
1. Bermuda Islands 3. north latitude
2. Gulf Stream 4. west longitude
166
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The analysis of all of the hydrologic observations (more than 50,000)
in the western part of the Sargasso Sea in 1970-1976 made it possible to
isolate 163 rings (see Fig 8).
Their identification by hydrologic structure offers the possibility of
tracing the displacement of a large series of warm and cold rings. Fig 9
shows an example of the movement of the identified ring in the 1971-1973
period, during which it traveled from the place of generation to the
vicinity of Florida where, in ttee opinion of the authors of reference [8],
it again joined the Gulf Stream. The displacement.of the rings in the
southwesterly direction is connected with the existence of a weak quasi-
stationary count:ercurrent in the southern boundary zane of the Gulf Stream
in which the rings also drift to the southwest at an average speed of
3 km/day (Fig 9).
!
n ~
( ~
~
\p.[~ N O
~IDrnr
O0^n~
f'7 f
2-12
5-71
~,o~~.,t� ()6-72
7-72
i 6-72
II-72
1-73
2-73
an�
ao � l2)
30`
0 ~
0 2
60� 50�aoM)
Figure 9. Diagram of the movement of the ring during the
period from May 1971 to February 1973 (according to Lai
- and Richardson).
1-- position of the ring determined by the water temperature
anomalies in the three abyssal horizons; 2-- by the water
temperature of the anomaly in one or two horizons.
Key:
1. Gulf Stream
2. north latitude
3. west longitude
According to the data of a number of authors [7, 8] in the Gulf Stream
zone betcseen 65 and 55� west longitude 6 to 8 cold and 5 to-7 warm rings
are spawned per year.
167
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~ v\� Va ~ aV+a~~ V1.IL~ va\V~
Both the large-scale rings and the mesoscale eddies have high kinetic
energy. It has already been noted above that the orbital current veloci-
ties in the rings can reach high values. As -a resulr of this the eddy
kinetic energy in the rings calculated per unit mass of the surface
currents can reach 1000 cm2/sec2, that is, exceed by 30 to 40 times the
wean kinetic energy in the regions with weak currents. According to the
measurements in the POLYMOIE test area, the main kinEtic energy of the
mesoscale (synoptic) eddies exceeds by 3 ta 5 times the kinetic energy of
the average current. T~.~.:s, the large-scale and mesoscale eddy disturbances
basically change the structure of the quasistationary oceanic current field
during their spread, and at tr_e same time complicate consideration of them
durir,g navigational calculations. The presented examples quite clearly
indicate not only the high scientific, but also applied sigt:ificance of
studying ocean eddies.
The oceanographic studies in recent times indicate almost ubiquitous
spread of the eddy disturbances of different scales in the oceans. How-
ever, the nature of them still has tar from been studied. In the modern
stage of the investigations the or.eanographers have only the most general
idea about the fact that the large-sca"le eddies (rings) are spawned in the
regions of ineandering powerful oceanic currents. The synoptic mesoscale
and small-scale eddies are the result_of the barotropic and baroclinic
hydrodynamic instability of the average currents and the frontal zones in
the ocean caused by the effect of powerful meteorological disturbances
(sborms) and the effect of the relief of the ocean floor on the movement
of the water masses.
With discovery of the eddy field in the World Ocean, many new coffiplex
problems arose, in particular, the origin of the mesoscale eddies, their
evolution, internal dynitmics, interactian with the surrounding water~ and
so on, the solution of which .is an urgent problem of modern oceanograiphic
research.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Vinogradov, M. Ye.; Naumov, A. G. "Quantitative Distribution of
Plankton in the Antarctic Waters of the Indian-anZ Pacific Oceans,"
OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA [Oceanological Studies], No 3, 1961,
pp 172-176.
2. Baranov, Ye. I.; Bubnov, V. A.; Bulatov, R. P.; Privalova, I. V.
"Study of the Circulation and Transport of Atlantic Ocean Waters,"
OKEANOLOGICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA, No 22, 1971, pp 94-153.
3. Kort, V. G.; Neyman, V. G. ATLANTICHESKIY GIDROFIZICHESKIY
POLIGON 1970 [Atlantic Hydrophysics Test Area of 1970], Moscow,
Naulca, 1974.
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- 4. Kort, V. G.; Byshev, V. I.; Tarasenko, V. M. "Synoptic Variability
of Currents in the Atlantic Test Area," ATLANTICHESKIY GIDROFIZICHESKIY
"POLIGON-70" [Atlantic Hydrophysical POLYGON-70], Moscow, Nauka,
1974, pp 181-188.
5. Koshlyakov, M. N.; Grachev, Yu. M. "Medium-Scale Currents in the
Hydrophysics Test Area in the Tropical Atlantic," ATLANTICHESKIY
GIDROFIZICHESKIY POLIGON-70, Moscow, Nauka, 1974, pp 163-180.
6. Koshlyakov, M. N.; Galerkin, L. I.; Chyong, llin'-Khiyen. "Meso-
structure of the Geostrophic Currents in the Open Sea," OKEANOLOGIYA
[Oceanology], Vol X, No 5, 1970, pp 805-814.
7. Fuglister; F. C. "Cyclonic Rings Formed by the Gulf Stream 1965-1966,"
A TRZBUTE TO GEORG WliSTUN ON HIS 80th BIRTHDAY, Cordon and Breach,
1971.
8. Lai, D. Y.; Richardson, P. J. "Distribution and Movement of Gulf
Stream Rings," J. OF PHYS. OCEAN, Vol 7, No 5, 1977, pp 670-683.
9. Parker, Ch. E. "Gulf Stream Rings in the Sargasso Sea," DEEP-SEA
RES., VoI 18, No 10, 1971, pp 981-995.
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1j
OCEANOGRAPHIC BUOXS AND BUOY LABORATORIES
[Article by B. V. Shekhvatov]
� !
I
.i

Boris Vasil'yevich Shekhvatov, candidate of technical sciences,
seiiiar scientific coworker of the Oceanology Institute of the
USSR Academy of Sciences imeni P. P. Shirshov, is engaged in
the development of sounding and autonomous instruments, hydro-
acoustic equipment, autonomous buoy stations and other oceanolog-
ical equipment.
The bas.ic research of the physical-chemical and biological processes
occiarring in the water masses anci at the water-atmosFhere interface and
also the performance of constant observations of the: hydrometeorological
situation in the ocean are realized by various methods. This is a broad
network of hydromE:teorological stations located aloiig the coast of the
continent and on the islands, and the weather ships equipped with hydro-
meteorological and aerological equipment. The number of weather ships
is comparatively small, and the cost of their operation is high. An -
- fmportant source of information about the state of the weather in the
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open sea is the meteorological summaries of the ships navigating there,
but their distribution with respect to area is nonuniform; the va st
regions of the World Ocean remote from the dry land are outside the obser-
vation zones.
The information caming from,the meteorological earth satellites permit8
determination of the large-scale process occurring in the atmosphere and
at the ocean surface. However, measurements of the hydrometeorological
parameters from artificial earth satellites cannot at the present time
insure the required accuracy and completeness of the data.
One of the most prospective methods of obtaining hydrometeorological data
and also performing long-term scientific research observations in the
ocean under any weather conditions is based on the application of
autonomous buoy stations (ABS). The first buoy stations were used pri-
marily for navigational purposes and were installed in the coastal zone
at shallow depths.
In the middle of the 1950's, the first experimental installations of the -
- ABS took place in the open sea:which immediately attracted the attention
of scientiats. In 1967 it was reported at a special International
Conference in Washington that about 85 different ABS systems had been
built and tested in the United States alone, among which the most improved
structural designs w e r e selected [1].
The use of artificial earth satellites to relay the data made it possible
significantly to increase the reliability of transmission of the informa-
tion and simultanaously to simplify the equipment, lower the energy con-
sumption of the radio transmitters of the ABS. Their application made it
possible to reduce tre number of expeditionary ships.
In the last two decades the ABS have solidly entered into the composition
of the technical means used for uarious observations in the seas and the
oceans. Thus, for example, when studying the large-scale synoptic eddies
in the Atlantic Ocean by the internatibnal POLYMODE program in 1977-1978
Soviet oceanologists alone insta3rled 19 ABS. H.undreds of drifting
stations are used to study the surface currents. In connection with
intensificaticn of the extraction of oil and gas and other natural minerals,
the number of ABS installed on the continental shelf and in the inland
seas has increased significantly. The plan calls for the creation of
regional and international networks of hydrometeorological stations
encompassing the most important parts of the World Ocean. Within the
framework of the European Community by 1980 it is proposed that a network
of hydrometeorological ABS be installed in the North Sea, the Baltic Sea
and the Bay of Biscay. The United States plans to create a network of
500 ABS in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. Plans for build-
ing an International Global ABS Network are being discussed.
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~ At the same time the problem of creating the ABS for long-term observations
at great depths in the ocean-cannot be considered aolved. Out of the
large numt-er of developed stations in 1978 there were a few more than 20
ABS operating in the open sea. The intense operations with respect to
ivprovement of the structural design of the ABS and finding new solutions
are being carried out in various countries of the world.
1. Types and Composition of ABS
Depending on the purpose and the method of installation it is possible to
isol?te four basic types of ABS (see Fig 1): _
With a surface buoy installed on an anchor;
With sunken buoy;
Combined with sunken and surface buoy;
Drif ting.
The areas of their application, the advantages and disadvantages have been
investigated below. The manned and unmanned laboratory buoys have been
separated into an indE:pendent group.
The AP~S include a set of installed equipment: a carrier buoy, anchor rope,
line release and bottom anchor; measuring complex: hydrologic, meteorolog-
ical and other measuriiig instruments; systems for conversion, processing
and recording the data obtained; a program device whicb controls the opera-
tion of the measuring and the suxiliary systems of the ABS; telemetry
systems transceivers, communication lines with primary converters, in-
cluding the hydroacoustic channel, auxiliary equipment storage batteries,
pawer plants for;charging them, ventilation and heaC regulating systems,
navigational equigment, and so on.
Carrier Buoys
The carrier buoy holds the anchor line with instruments suspended to it;
tl:e equipment complex, measuring sensors, radio transmitting devices,
power supplies and at:xiliary systems are placed in it. The form and
structural design of the buoy and the requirements on its hydrodynamic
' characteristics are determined to a significant deg-~ae by the installation
system of the ABS. The ABS with surface anchored buoy are under� the most
unfavorable conditions. These buoys are suh3ect to the effect of waves,
currents and wind. Therefore dynamic loads occurring on the anchor line
will depend on their hydrodynamic characteristics. Even insignificant
_ improvement of these characteristics will improve the reliability of
in8tallation of the ABS and will permit siml-lification of the anchor
system. It must be considered that the coefficient of frontal resistance-
of the buoys can change siguificantly under the effect of irregular wave
action. The magnitude and sign of these changes depend on the shape of the
buoy.
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11
Figure 1. Diagrams of the installations of buoy stati.ons:
a with EEP surface buoy; b-- with sunken buoy;
c combined ABS; d-- with drifting buoy; e-- manned
laboratory buoy.
1-- hydrologic.instrument;; 2-- line release
The sunken ABS are under the most favorable conditions; their carrier
buoys are basically subject to the effect of currents~. The buoys of
these ABS muat have a minimum coefficient of fronral resistance and
sufficient buoyancy to stay at a given depth with maximum current velocity
er.pected in the area where the station is installed.
The surface: anchored buoys frequently have the form of a disc, a toroid,
vertical-oriented cylinder, stakes or ships.
Buoys in the form of ballsand horizontally oriented cylinders are used in
the sunken AP,S.
The hulls of the large buoys are made of steel; buoys with a displacement
of several tons are made of aluminum 41ioys wliich, as a result of the low
specific weight and good anticorrosion properties have become! widespread.
Synthetic materials, including in combination with meial, are used when
manufacturing buoys having low buoyancy. A number of American companies
are producing series of standardized buoys with buoyancy frc-m tens of
kilograms tc several tons made of aluminum alloys. In order to increase
tt-e buoyancy, several such buoys are installed.
One of the important problems arising when developing marine buoys is
protectior, of their hulls from corrosion and fou2ing,. As a rule, the
hiill of the buoy is covered with special antifouling paints. The operating
time of the biioy is 1 to 2 years depending on the region of installation
(in tropiczl regions no mare than 6 to 8 months). However, the antifouling
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paints, in addition to the limited service life, have other deficiencies:
they contain up to 90-95% toxic materials and only 5-10% film material.
The toxic materials have ionic particles which promote electrolytic
corresicin as a result of which it is necessary to apply an additional layer
of anticorrosion coating between the antifouling paint and the metal.
'The American company V. F. Goodhard has proposed a method of protecting
the metal.hulls of the buoys from fouling and corrosion by using rubber
plates with a special composition which are glued to the metal structural
elements operating in the submerged state. By a special process, toxic
materials are introduced into the rubber which stay in it for a long time.
Such coatings have an entire series of advantages by comparison with
paints. Their service life increases to 5-7 years and can be regulated
by the thickness of the rubber plates and the amount of toxic materials
introduced into it. The coatings are inert with respect to the hull
material and simtiltaneously serve as additional protectian for the buoy.
Their cost is 1.5-2 times more than the cost of the ordinary paints.
An effective protective coating for buoys is used by the "Hagenuk Company
(Federal Republic of Germ i
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