JPRS ID: 9274 USSR REPORT EARTH SCIENCES

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JPRS L/9274
27 August 1980

USSR Report
EARTH SCIENCES
(FCI,UU 7/80)
.
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JPRS L/9274
27 August 1980
USSR REPORT
EARTH SCIENCES
_ (FOUO 7/80)
- CONTENTS.
OCEANOGRAPHY
Measurement of Frequency and Angle Spectra of Wind Waves
Using a Wave Recorder Arr,:y 1
Thermal State of the Cold Skin Layer 13
Manifestation of Nor,linearity of Surface Sea Waves in
Statistical and Spectral Characteristics 21
Characteristics of Remote Sounding-Instruments in the
Presence of Intrinsic Noise 32
Choice of Transmitting Antennas and Working Frequencies for
a Radio Channel for Sea Buoys 41
Complex Method for Measuring-the Field of Gamma Radiation of
Sea Water 47
I TERRESTRIAL GEOPHYSICS
Quaternary Tectonics and the Abyssal Structure of Pamir and
Tyan'-Shan................................................. 61
- a- [III - USSR - 21K S&T FOUO]
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OCEANOGRAPHY
UDC 551.466.326
MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY AND ANGLE SPECTRA OF WIND WAVES USING A
WAVE RECORDER ARRAY
Sevastopol' MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA in Russian No 3, 1979
pp 75-86
[Article by Yu. P. Solov'yev and V. V. Yefimov]
Abstract: The article discusses methods for
evaluating the spectrum of frequencies and
wave nsmbers using the results of synchron-
ous measurements of the sea surface rise at
several points. Tte authors compare the trad-
itional method and the maximum probability
method for evaluations of stipulated models
of the angle spectrum. Experimental evalua-
tions of the frequency-angle spectra of wind
waves in the coastal zone of the open sea are
given for the case of a stable wind field.
Their difference from known approximations of
the angular distribution functions for the en-
ergy of wind waves is considered.
[Text] Interest in study of the spatial character�Lstics of the random field
of wind waves is associated both with the practical purposes of a fare-
cast and with the necessity for a detailed investigation of the properties
of the wind waves themselves. The spectrum of frequencies and wave numbers
FOC', tJ ) completely describes the distribution of the energy~of wind waves
at temporal and spatial scales. In a linear approximation F(k,cJ) is re-
duced to a frequency-angle spectrum determining the distribution of the
energy of wave components by directions. At the present time there is no
theory which predicts the form or width of the angle spectrum. It is clear
from general considerations that the angle spectrum governs the structure
of the air flow over the wave-covered sea surface, for example, the stabil-
ity of wind direction and its velocity, the duration of its effect, fetch
and other factors. The precise form of this dependence is unknown.
The few results of ineasurements of the spatial characteristics of the field
of wind waves obtained using different methods [1, 7-9] have made it pos-
sible to draw some qualitative conclusions concerning the behavior of the
1
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angle spectra. However, the inadequate resolution of the method and the
great variability o: the angle spectra in dependence on hydrometeorolog-
ical conditions do not afford any possibility for an unambiguous determin-
ation of the functional form of the angle spectra.
Recently new methods havg been developed and put in use in oceanography
for the evaluation of E(lt,cJ) which are more effective in the study of wave
processes in comparison with the traditional methods. One of these is the
maximum probabilit~y mettiod (MPM) [2, 10, 11]. Evaluations of the maaimum
probability of F(k,&J ) on the basis of ineasurements with an array of sen-
sors have better resolution with respect to directions and wave numbers
in comparison with the Barber method [I2].
In this study we present the results of computation of the angle spectra of
wind waves obtained from synchronous measurements of the sea surface rise
at several points and give a comparison of MPM evaluations and the Barber
method.
Methods for Evaluating the Angle Spectra
We will represent the surface rise 7-'
(x, t) in the form of a Fourier-Stielt-
jes integral
q (T,tS QAf) iz(Al d ~v. _ w
where I is the horizontal position vector; t is time; k is the wave number
o'
vector; cJ is cyclic frequency.
Then the spectrum of frequencies and wave numbers on the assumption of uni-
formity and stationarity of the wave field can be determined as
' I jj0~~z)-exp~-~( (2)
("'7
where B(r, -C < YI (x t) � Yl (x + r, t+'C) is a spatial-temporal inter-
covariation function. From the definition of (2) it follows that
4l~ �
~g)
According to (3), the spectrum F(k,cJ) for 4J>0 unambiguously determines
the direction of propagation of the wave components. Integrating F(k, 41)
for k, it is possible to obtain the frequency spectrum
S(~) ~ __f dr
~ (4)
~
and find the correlation between F(k, cJ ) in rectangular (kX, k y ) and polar
(k, 6 ) coordinates
2
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itf (,tx r A'>r A) s;' lK� B� W/ y (5)
where 8 is the angle between the x axis and the direction of the k vector.
In a linear approximation (in the case of satisfaction of the dispersion
expression W~= gk for a deep sea) the spectrum F(k,W ) is different from
zer.a only in a circle with the radius k= cJ 2/g and the spatial spectrum
is reduced to a frequency-angle spectrum
,r(~, s) = J Mf,r, (6)
. �
~ J
9. am
o
A ~
For evaluating F(k,W) of the true spectrum F(k, cJ) we use data from syn-
chronous measurements of n(x t) at N points with the coordinates ii. Us-
ing the Barber method [12], the mathematical expectation F(k,W) is deter-
mined by the expression
fm. (19)
\ 9 ~
_ Here the S value is dependent not only on f, but also on the wind velocity
u or on the frequency of the spectral peak fm.
In a comparison of the approximations (17) and (18) it must be Caken into
account that they coincide with n= 0.46 S. Acco?-uing to the evaluations of
different authors, the n value varies from 8 to T in dependence on the
stage of wave development [1],'whi6h is considerably broader than
10
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our evaluations. For example, with a wind velocity of 11 m/sec and fm _
0.175 Hz the S value from expression (19) is equal to 10, that is, n='4-5.
The discrepancy in the evaluation'of the width of'the angle spectra is
associated both with the resolution*of the used methods and with the de-
' pendence of the angle distribution of energy on stability of the wind -
field. For a less uniform wind the angular distribution will naturally
be broader.
A knowledge of the angiitar distribution of wave energy is of great inter-
est for practical pu,_poses. The predominant part of the energy of wind
waves is concentrated in the region f< 2fm. According to our data, the
angular distribution function averaged in this frequency band for all
measurement series is approximated best of all by expression (17) with n
= 10 and the A value in (16) is equal to 1.294.
It is interesting to compare the results with the conclusions from the
theory of the resonance me=hsnism of wave generation [13]. According to
this model, in the case of a constant wind strength and direction the
spectral density must be maximum in two narrow regions in the directions
e m= tarc cos(c/u), where c is phase velocity; u is mean wind velocity.
For our conditions the values of the resonance a.ngles B m, determined
for the region of the spectral maximum, must be a value f20-35�. Figure
8 shows that the width of the angular distribution of energy is substan-
tially less than the values predicted by theory and no double peaks ap-
pear in the angle spectra.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Davidan, I. N., Lopatukhin, L. I., Rozhkov, V. A., VETROVOYE VOI.NENIYE
KAK VEROYATNYY GIDRODINAMICHESKIY PROTSESS (Wind Waves as a Probable
Hydrodynamic Process), Leningrad, i3idrometeoizdat, 1978, 288 pages.
2. Kozubskaya, G. I., Konyayev, K. V., "Adaptive Spectral A:alysis of
Random Processes and Fields," IZV. AN SSSR, FAO (News of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and Ocean), 13, No 1,
pp 61-71, 1977.
3. Yefimov, V. V., Kulikov, Ye. A., "Use of the Method of Adaptive Eval-
uation of Spatial-Temporal Spectra in Analysis of Trapped Waves," IZV.
AN SSSR, FAO, 14, No 7, pp 748-756, 1978.
4. Yefimov, V. V., Solov'yev, Yu. P., Khristoforov, G. N., "Experimental
Checking of Phase Velocity of Propagation of the Spectral Components
of Sea Wind Waves," IZV. AN SSSR, FAO, 8, No 4,.pp 435-446, 1972.
5. Keypon, Gudmen, "Distribution of Probability of Evaluations of a Spa-
tial-Temporal Spectrimm," TIIER [Expansion Unknown], 58, No 11, pp 81-
83, 1970.
11
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6. Yefimov, V. V., Sizov, A. A., Khristoforov, G. N., "Wave Recorders
With a Coaxial Capacitive Sensor," METODIKA I APPARATURA DLYA GIDRO-
FIZICHESKIKH ISSLEDOVANIY (Methods and Instrumentation for Hydrophys-
ical Research), Kiev, "Nauk. Tiumka," pp 97-101, 1969.
7. Longuet-Higgins, M. S., Cartwright, D. E., Smith, N. D., "Observa-
tions of the Directional Spectrum of Sea Waves Using the Motions
of the Floating Buoys," PROC. CONF. OCEAN WAVE SPECTRA, New York,
Prentice-Hall, pp 111-136, 1963.
8. Ewing, J. A., "Some Measurements of the Directional Wave Spectrum,"
J. MAR. RES., 27, No 2, pp 163-171, 1969.
_ 9. Mitsuyasu, H., et al., "Observations of the Directional Spectrum of
Ocean Waves Using a Clover-Leaf Buoy," J. PHYS. OCEAN, No 4, pp 750-
760, 1975.
10. Capon, J., "High-Resolution Frequency - Wave Number Spectrum Analy-
sis," PROC. IEEE, 57, pp 1408-1418, 1969.
11. Davis, R. E., Rogier, L. A., "Methods for Estimating Directional
Waves Spectra from Multielement Arrays," J. MAR. RES., 35, No 3, pp
453-477, 1977.
12. Barber, N. F., "The Directional Resolving Power of an Array of Wave
Recorders," PROC. CONF. OCEAN WAVE SPECTRA, N. Y., Prentice-Hall,
pp 137-150, 1963.
13. Phillips, 0. M,, "On the Generation of Waves by Turbulent Wind,"
J. FLUID MECH., 2, pp 417-445, 1957.
COPYRIGHT: Morskoy gidrofizicheskiy institut AN UkrSSR, 1979
[351-5303] .
5303
CSO: 1865
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UDC 551.463.6
THERMAL STATE OF THE COLD SKIN LAYER
Sevastopol' MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA in Russian No 3, 1979
pp 105-112
[Article by V. N. Kudryavtsev and G. L. Luchnik]
- Abstract: The article, within the framework of
a very simple analysis of a laminar sublayer
under the free surface of a cooling fluid, de-
' termines the relationship between the heat flow
through the free surface and the dynamic velo-
- city at which a change in the thermal state
of the sublayer occurs. It is shown that with
a definite value of the dynamic velocity in
the thin subsurface layer there is a transi-
tion from free to forced convection. This
leads to a different functional dependence of
the mean temperature drop on external para-
_ . meters. A comparison of the theoretical value
of critical velocity with the experimental
value obtained in [2] is given.
[Text] The use of remote research methods has given rise to interest in the
characteristics of the temperature field of the free ocean surface Ts. A
characteristic of TS is that it is dtfferent from the temperature of the
underlying well-mixed layer TO. The entire temperature drop from tenths of
a degree to a degree is concentrated in several millimeters under the free
surface, in the sublayer of molecular thermal conductivity. Sometimes this
thermal sublayer is called the temperature skin layer of the ocean [4].
Allowance for this layer is necessary both in an investigation of inter-
action between the ocean and the atmosphere and in an investigation of
physical processes by the methods of remote sensing of the ocean.
The phenomena transpiring in the cold skin layer are very complex with re-
spect to their internal mechanism and therefore for the time being it is
difficult to describe them within the framework of the general hydrody-
namics of the upper boundary layer of the ocean.
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rvA Ucri%.I A1. uor. virJ..I
The article gives a parameterization of the mean temperature drop QT =
TS - TO in dependence on the set of characteristics of the near-water
layer of the atmosphere and the upper mixed layer of the ocean. A series
of laboratory and field experiments has been devoted to this problem [1-7].
Ttao cases are considered in the parameterization of the mean temperature
drop in the skin layer: the skin layer under conditions of forced and un-
der conditions of free convection.
For the first case in [7], assuming that the processes at the free sur-
face are similar to �rocesses at a smooth hard wall, it is assumed that
Y*
(1)
where q is the heat flow through the surface; Y,.'L' are the kinematic co-
efficients of molecular viscosity and thermal conductivity respectively;
V* is dynamic velocity in the water; 2~ is an empirical constant. This
expression is a corollary of the assumption that the entire temperature
drop is concentratec: in the Iayer b rN V�V*-1, where the heat transfer
has a molecular character. Expression (1) has found convincing experimen-
tal confirmation under both real and under laboratory conditions [1, 6, 71.
In the case of free convection (in the absence of a wind over the surface
of a cooling fluid), when the Rayleigh number of sufficiently large, the
temperature drop is determined by the expression [1, 5, 8]
d ~
=-A''~'\yy~,)(2)
where g o(_ is the buoyancy parameter; A is a constant; q< 0.
Aowever, in a laboratory experiment [2] it was established that the para-
meterization of p T by the expression (2) is also correct in the range of
wind velocities 0-j~Ucr. In the neighborhood of Ucr there is ajumplike
change in the AT value and with U> Ucr the temperature drop in the sub-
layer of molecular thermal conductivity is determined by formula (1).
The principal purpose of this study is an attempt to determine the critica:
values of the parameters at the ocean-atmosphere boundary at which there
is a change in the thermal state of the cold Tkin layer.
- We will assume that the transfer processes at the free surface in the sea
have an intermittent character, that is, the viscous sublayer and the sub-
layer of molecular thermal conductivi.ty are subject to spatial and temporal
destruction and in3ection into the turbulent flow. Then locally [in a co-
ordinate system moving with surface velocity] in the time interval between
successive destructions the temperature distribution in the sublayer will
be described by the equation
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ar = ~r
ar x az~
(3)
with the initial and boundary conditions
7'' , ro
~r(t, O~ _ - q/~7 = 1rst . (3a)
The solution of equation (3) under the conditions (3a) has the form
7.( _ v _ ~Z drt J -fl _ ~
z,t) Prfc f (4)
where L
We will introduce the probability density function p(t) for the periods of
destruction of the laminar sublayer, that is, the probability that the de-
struction of the laminar sublayer occurs in the interval t- t+ dt, where
time is reckoned from the preceding destruction. It is obvious that p(t)
must satisfy the condition co
j p(t) dt = 1.
0
Then the mean temperature T(z) in the sublayer of molecular thermal con-
ductivity will be written in the foxm t
~ ~ z, t' df'df . (5)
T~Z~= JP(t) ~ f 7c 1
. o 0
With (4) taken into account the expression forET= T$ - To assumes the
form
e T = 00p(t) ~ J 7~f'dt'df (6)
where t* is the mean lifetiTne of the laminar sublayer; 'C = t/t* and t)
= t*p(t*, -V) is dimensionless time and the probability density function.
We note that the approach considered above is similar to the method pro-
posed in [11]. Equation (6) is the fundamental eapression in this study.
Now we will discuss the possible reasons for the nonstationary nature of
the laminar sublayer. In our opinion, there are two: local dynamic and
convective instability.
We will examine the first reason for the nonstationary character. We will
assume that there is an analogy of the processes in the viscous sublayers
at the free surface and at the smoo th rigid wa11. In this case quite small
_ wind velocities are considered so that it is possible to neglect the de-
struction of the viscous sublayer by the collapse of surface waves. The
possibility of such an analogy was po inted out in a review by Saunders [4].
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rua Url�l,~.lc%11 uoL:, vlrtl1
We note that the proposed analogy plays an important role in the aubse-
quent analysis and its imperfections can probably lead to somewhat differ-
ent results.
Visual investigations of the structure of the viscous sublayer of the flow
at the smooth rigid wall indicated its nonuniform spatial-temporal struc-
ture [9, 101. The local dynamic instability of longitudinal eddy forma-
tions leads to ejection of part of the fluid from the viscous sublayer.
The mean interval between two successive "ejections" is determined by the
expression [9] .
f9 V Yj
(7)
where C is some constant. The time 4 determines the characteristic per-
iod of the viscous phase, ending in the destruction of the sublayer due
to the instability of dynamic origin.
The second reason for the nonstationary character can be the convective in-
stability of local cold (and accordingly, heavy) elements of the laminar
sublayer. In actuality, whatever may be the nature of the destruction, in
the subsequent laminar phase the temperature distribution is described by
expression (4). If, adhering to the model [8], we introduce the local Ray-
leigh number
f i r ir
9�, ~x~ -rt ~ I (8)
xv x~ '
then during cooling from above the thickness of the thermal boundary layer
er=.r
and the temperature drop
eT~Qx
i7-rw ~ F-vt
will increase until at the time t* the Ra number reaches some critical val-
ue Racr, after which the fluid is suddenly detached as a discrete element.
The time ti is determined from expression (8)
t* s RQ 1~ J ep( ~~l ~9~
~
and characterizes some mean period of nonstationarity of the laminar sub-
layer associated with the mechanism of local convective instability. The
nonstationarity mechanisms considered above are responsible for the de-
struction and injection of the laminar sublayer into the underlying region.
Which of them will be decisive is dependent on the relationship of the
there is a"blocking" of convective instability
times tk and tv. If tq< tk
by a mechanism of a dynamic character, that is, in the limits of the vis-
cous phase 0- ti of the cyclic process the formation of an unstable thermal
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-11
Thus, for the characteristic period
p_ �P ~
� . (~/~1o~1
~ \ / ~
t=
Substituting (1) into (6), we obtain
xz ? jtvy ~ -yl*
- '
az W-T) ~
where
with V* < V*crp
with V* ? p*cr9
~O w
a~-
~

is impossible. On the other hand, when t* -0 -
I = t � 1 I'' 0,88. af"` 1~7~ ar'+ 14,7
in this case I-i 0.89, 1.7, '12->14.7 with y--.-l and I->1, ;k1--~, 1.9,
'k 2-t16.5 witha'-~p;
b) I= 1.33, /11 = 2.5, /k2= 22;
B;
c) z=e7F7.
in this case I-~1, al ~ 1.9, '12 16.5 with d--+ 0, and, for example, I= 2,
711 = 8.8, /k2= 33 with O"= 1, which corresponds to a rather broad (of the
order 10 t*) t scatter;
d) I= 1, 2~ 1- 1.9, ~2 = 16.5.
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The cited evaluationa show (except for the case "c," where what is known
to be a large dispersion was taken) a relatively small sensitivity of the
coefficients /~1 and A2 to the form of the density distribution p(t).
The eaperiments give /l = 2.8 [1] and ;12 = 14-28 with a mean value 20
~7]. We note that in [71 the author experimentally determined the value
1= a 2( v14 )'1/2, where the values A2= 5-10 are given with a mean
value 7.
Finally, we will evaluate the critical dynamic velocitp With the adopted
initial parameters it follows,from (10) that V*cr = 2q174,
For comparison with the results of the experiment reported in [2] we wil.l
express V* through the dynamic velocity in the air U*.
As a result, u cr = 200W/ Pa)1/2 ql/4. With ~W/f~a = 0.77�10'39 q= 10-2
degree�cm�sec-1. We obtain U~r = 17.5 cm�sec-1, which agrees with U*r.�~
20-25 cm�sec'1, found experimentally. The evaluation tJ*r was made using the -
mathematical expectation t* and is not dependent on the form of p(t).
Thus, within the framework of a very simple analysis it is possible to de-
termine the relationship between the dynamic velocity and the heat flow
with which there is a change in the thermal state of the cold skin layer.
With U* < U*cr the temperature drop is found from (12a); in the opposite
case from (12b). As can be seen from (6), the different behavior of QT
is determined by the dependence of the mean "lifetime" t* of the laminar
sublayer on the type of its destruction: either convective (9) or dynamic
(7).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ginzburg, A. I., Fedorov, K. N., "Cooling of Water During Free and
Forced Convection," IZV. AN SSSR, FAO (News of the USSR Academy of
Sciences, Physics of the Atmosphere and Ocean), 14, No 1, pp 79-87,
1978.
2. Ginzburg, A. I., Fedorov, K. N., "Thermal State of the Boundary Layer
of Cooling Wa.ter With Transition from Free to Forced Convection," IZV.
AN SSSR, FAO, 14, No 7, pp 778-785, 1978.
3. Ginzburg, A. I., Fedorov, K. N., "The Rayleigh Critical Boundary Num-
ber During the Cooling of Water Through a Free Surface," IZV. AN
SSSR, FAO, 14, No 4, pp 433-436, 1978.
4. Saunders, P. M., "The Skin Temperature of the Ocean. A Review," MET.
SOC. ROY. SCI., Liege, VI, pp 93-99, 1974.
5. Katsaros, K. B., Liu, T., Businger, J. A., Tillman, J. A., "Heat Trans-
port and Thermal Structure in the Interfacial Boundary Layer Measured
in an Open Tank of Water in Turbulent Free Convection," J. FLUID MECH.,
83, No 2, pp 311-335, 1976.
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rvn urriullm, uac, V1YL1
6. Hill, H., "Laboratory Measurement of Heat Transfer and Thermal Struc-
ture Near an Air-Water Interface," J. PHYS. OCEANOGR., 2, pp 190-198,
1972.
7. Saunders, P. M., "The Temperature at the Ocean-Air Interface," J.
ATMOS. SCI., 24, No 2, pp 269-273, 1967. _
8. Howard, L. N., "Convection at High Rayleigh Number," PROC. llth INT.
CONGR. APPL. MECH., Munich, pp 1374-1389, 1962.
9. Kline, S. J., Reynolds, W. S., Schraub, F. A., Runstadler, P. W.,
"The Structure of the Turbulent Boundary Layer," J. FI,UID MECH.,
30, 4, pp 741-768, 1967.
10. Corino, E. R., Brodkey, R. S., "A Visual Investigation of the Wall Re-
gion in Turbulent Flow," J. FLUID MECH., 37, 1, pp 1-30, 1969.
11. Liu, W. T., Businger, J. A., "Temperature Profile in the Mnlecular
Sublayer Near the Interface of a Fluid in Turbulent Motion," GEO-
PH. RES. LETTER, 2, No.9, pp 403-404, 1975.
COPYRIGHT: Morskoy gidrofizicheskiy institut AN UkrSSR, 1979
[351-5303]
5 303
CSO: 1865
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UDC 551.466.3
MANIFESTATION OF NONLINEARITY OF SURFACE SEA WAVES IN STATISTICAL AND
SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS
Sevastopol' MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE ISSLIDOVANIYA in Russian No 3, 1979
pp 113-124
[Article by G. N. Khristoforov, V. Ye. Smolov and A. S. Zapevalov]
Abstract: Data from experimental investigations
of surface sea waves in the presence of a weak
wind are examined. There was found to be a spec-
ial type of variability of structure, expressed
in the fact that the profiles of short-period
waves in some time interval become more "trochoid-
al," whereas in other intervals they are more
"sinusoidal." This is reflected in the staCis-
tical characteristics of the distributions (such
as asyvmmetry and excess); in the spectra it is
possible to trace changes in the specific con-
tent of the harmonics of these short-period
waves. Such a variability of structure can be
attributed to nonlinear interactions in waves,
in particular, the interaction between surface
and internal waves.
[Text] 1. Introduction. In the theory of wind waves it is common to as-
sume a Gaussian nature of the statistical structure of the wave-covered
sea surface [1, 2]. Such an approach is undoubtedly justified in those
cases when it is possible to neglect the high-frequency spectral region
of sea waves. Nevertheless, innestigations made in recent years have
indicated that wind waves are characterized by weak nonlinear interac-
tions and therefore cannot be regarded as purely Gaussian processes. In
describing wave statistics use is made of Gram-Charlier series, for
which a Gaussian distribution is obtained in the first approximation
with the discarding of higY:-order terms [3, 10, 11].
According to available experimental data, for the surface rise in wind
waves 1'Z(t) the deviations of the distribution from a normal distribu-
tion are not great [4, 10]. During measurements in the Go1fe du Lion [5]
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at the time of a storm with a wind velocity 10-12 m/sec there were more
_ significant deviations from a normal distribution (the asymmetry and ex-
- cess of the empirical distributions attained values A= 0.3-0.6 and E_
0.5-1.5 respectively) than in the presence of weak winds when the energy
of the wave field was determined for the most part by swell (in these
cases A and E had small values of about 0.1). These results agree with
the considerations presented above on the role of high-frequency (includ-
ing nonlinear) components of the wave spectrum, but up to the present time
- the literature has contained no experimental data indicating a direct re-
lationship between the manif estations of a nonlinear character of sea waves
and deviations of the parameters of the distribution from a normal dis-
tribution. This article is an attempt at demonstrating the appearance of
such effects observed under natural conditions.
2. Measurement method. It is well knouni that when there are weak and mod-
erate winds at sea it is po ssible to observe sectors of wave-covered sur-
face alternating with smoother sectors (for example, see [6, 12]). A dis-
tinguishing characteristic of the wave-covered sectors is the existence
on them of short ripple waves having a relatively great steepness (some-
times even with whitecaps on the crests) which are propagated along the
surface of longer swell waves, whereas in adjacent, calmer sectors the
ripples appear more gently sloping. This makes it possible to evaluate the
variability of the statistical characteristics of short waves, studying
the surface structure in wave-covered and calm sectors respectively.
that is, sectors with diff erent wave steepness.
Our measurements were made in July 1977 in the experimental polygon of the
Marine Hydrophysical Institute Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in the neigh-
borhood of Katsiveli village using an automatic string wave recorder which
makes it possible to register oscillations of the sea surface level with
frequencies from 0.05 to 20-30 Hz [7]. Since the spectrum of the rise
S yt(f) at the high frequenc ies decreases rather steeply, in order to ob-
tain information on short waves the full dynamic range of registry must be
about 60-70 db. This was ensured by use of electronic active filters sup-
pressing the low-frequency oscillations caused by the contribution of the
main energy-carrying wave systems, but-transmitting undistorted high-fre-
quency components which have a relatively low energy.
The wave recorder was mounted on a stationary mast situated at a distance
of 350 m from the shore at a depth of 15 m. The frequency-modulated signal
of the wave recorder was transmitted through a cable to the shore, where
it was subjected to demodulation, processed by means of filters and regis-
tered on an analog N338 recorder. The resulting records were used in form-
ing series with a length N= 700-1100 readings each. The discreteness
of L t readout was selected in dependence on the filter used during reg-
istry. The programs for processing the data on an electronic computer in-
cluded obtaining the statistical moments of the distribution (dispersion
(72, asymmetry A, excess E), the autocorrelation functions and the power
spectra. In constructing the spectrum in.the region of the principal
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energy-carrying frequencies we used wave records registered with filters
having a linear characteristic curve at frequencies greater than 0.05 Hz
(L~ t= 0.2 sec). For an analysis of the short-wave parts uf the spectrum
during registry of the wave record we used filters transmitting signals
with frequencies greater than 2(At= 0.04 sec) and 5 Hz (,6t= 0.008 sec).
In computing the spectra we used Tukey filtering windows. The number of
degrees of freedom was 40-60 in all cases.
i a
. b
~r , ; ~ I~ , I:~ . ~ , 1 ~ ~
C
Fig. 1. Fragments of wave record registered using different f ilters in fre-
quency bands: a) 0.05-30 Hz; b) 2-30 Hz; c) 5--30 Hz
/ I l ~ f
S r~ � ~
Hz . I I I
. .
h ~ i
I �111% ~
. ~ i
p ( a a I~X I (
j . aI I ~
I I
( ~ ( ~ I
I ~ I
~
~ . ~
~ f~q
Fig. 2. Evaluations of spectrum of surface rise S yl(f) on the basis of 14
wave records registered using different filters in frequency bands: filled
circles first; triangles second; open circles third -
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ruK urrlUltkL uat uivLr
3. Observational data. One of the graphic examples of variability of the
statistical characteristics of short gravitational waves (ripples) is
given by experimental data obtained under relatively uniform conditions
in the course of one hour in the case of a small unstable wind whose
velocity varied in the range from 1.5-2 to 3-4 m/sec.
Figure 1 shows fragments of wave records registered during this period
and Fig. 2 shows the spectrum of the surface rise S n(f), constructed from
these records. As a convenience in interpretation, the spectrum taking in
the broad frequency region from 0.05 to 30 Hz has been broken down into
several intervals: 1) fundamental energy-carrying oscillations; 2) short
gravitational waves with periods Iess than 1-0.5 sec; 3) gravitational-
capillary waves; 4) capillary waves.
The evaluations of spectral density S71 (f) in Fig. 2 were obtained in the
processing of 14 wave records by the method described above (also see [71).
In the second-fourth intervals vertical segments are used to designate the
upper and lower values of the S rL(f) evaluations, found using all the wave
records. The greatest variability was present at frequencies greater than
5-8 Hz, where the spectral density varied in a range exceeding the 80%
confidence interval.
Figures 1 and 2 show that during measurements at the sea surface there
were several systems of waves. First there was a very gently sloping swell
arriving from the open sea (period T~l)04.2 sec, wave length L( l) 30 m,
height hMA~25 cm). Second, there was a local system of waves (T(2).-,1.2
sec, L(2) 0 2-2.5 m, h(2) < 5-10 cm). Third, there were short gravitation-
al ripple waves (T3�%0.5, L(3)_,0.3-0.5 m). Finally, on the wave records
one could the most high-frequency components, relating to the third and
fourth spectral intervals. In Figures l,c and 3,a it can be seen clearly
how on the surface of ripples, having periods of the order of 0.5 sec,
there is propagation of capillary ripples, with a still higher frequency,
arising during a brief "gusty" intensification of wind velocity from 2 to
4.5 m/sec (for this wave record we obtained high S rt (f) values in the
fourth interval).
Due to the fact that the spectral density lenvel S r?(f) at high frequencies
changed in a wide range, during the observation period the state of the
sea surface was far from saturation. Accordingly, in this case in describ-
ing the spectrum it is impossible to use the usually employed models of
the spectra (such as the Phillips spectrum f-5 for $ravitational waves,
the spectrum f-4 for the third and the spectrum f-1/3 for the fourth in-
terval [3, 13] The general tendency to a decrease in S n(f) in the sec-
ond interval is close to f'4�5, and in the third and fourth intervals the
slope of the spectrum becomes less.
4. Nonlinear effects. One of the interesting characteristics of these wave
records is that in their different sectors there are changes in the nature
of the wave oscillations, having periods centered at 0.5 sec. Figure 3,
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as an example, shows fragments of wave a:ecords selected in such a way that
this type of structural variability is demonstrated. It can r� seen that
there was an alternation of sectors in which the wave oscillations had a _
"trochoidal" character (Fig. 3, a, c, e) with sectors of the record where
the form of the oscillations became closer to "sinusoidal" (Fig. 3,b,d).
We wi11 examine this circumstance in greater detail.
7 a
d- b _
p c
e d
d e
Fig. 3. Variability of short-period gravitational waves. The wave records
were registered in the third frequency band at successive moments in time,
separated by intervals of about several minutes.
As is well known, gravitational waves of finite amplitude at the surface
of a fluid have sharper crests and more gently sloping bases in comparison
with sinusoidal level oscillations in small-amplitude waves. This pheno-
- menon is represented by a model of Stokes waves of finite amplitude in
which the wave profile is represented in the form of a series
- a cos tz + z a a cos 2 k x - 16 aj a cos ty ,t x + . . . , (1 >
where a is wave amplitude; k= 277h/L is the wave number of the surface
waves; 06= ak is the steepness parameter ( a=OT h/L = nj') . Expreasion (1)
shows that the deviation of the wave profile from sinusoidal is the strong-
er the greater the steepness of the wave 9 . We note that with an accuracy
to the third order of magnitude the profiles of Stokes waves and trochoids
are identical [10]. Therefore, in this context the term "trochoidal" indi-
cates the character of change of the wave profile. In order to shorten tHe
writing of the expressions we will designate the "trochoidal" amd "sinus-
oidal" parts of the wave records as T and S structures respectively. Thus,
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the appearance of a T structure can serve as an indicator of an increase
in wave steepness (and accordingly, nonlinearity).
In the dynamics of surface waves an important role is played by nonlinear
interactions, including internal, associated with an effect of finite am-
plitude. Thus, the investigations of Benjamin and Feir have shown that
waves of a finite amplitude are characterized by nonlinearity, leading
with time to their destruction [8, 14]. In the random field of wind waves
the physical pat;arn is much more complex, but it is also characterized -
by internal relationships between the different components. The intensif-
ication of nonlinear interactions is accompanied by the disruption of the
Gaussian character of the wave field. This should lead to an increase in
the cumulants of the statistical distributions.
These qualitative reasonings help in understanding why the variability of
statistical characteristics can serve as an indicator of the manifesta-
tion of nonlinear interactions in waves. In particular, it can.be expected
that the "trochoidality" and "sinusoidality" of wave oscillations is man-
ifested somehow in the statistical characteristics. In actuality, as indi-
cated by the data cited in the table, the asymmetry
A = (N 0'X)-1 ~ (xi - x)3,
1
excess N
E_(N Q X)_1 G(Xi - x)4 - 3
and Cornu coefficient 1
-2
N
K=N [d2( ~Ixi - xl ]
x
changed considerably in those ca5es when the nature of the wave record
changed. The indicated A, E, K values indicate some deviations from a nor-
mal distribution (for normal distributions A= 0, E= 0, K=M/2). Al1
the E evaluations fall in the region of negative values, which possibly is
attributable to an inadequately deep suppression of the low-frequency com-
ponents during signal filtering prior to registry. Except for this, the be-
havior of the A, E, K values was similar: for the T-structure their values
were greater than for the S structure.
Despite the fact that on the wave record 3,e one can clearly see tl:e high-
frequency components (capillary ripples), A, E, K evaluations were obtain-
ed for it which fall in an intermediate interval in comparison with the
evaluations for 3,a,c and 3,b,d. Evidently, the variability of the stat-
istical characteristics is not so much associated with the presence of
high-frequency components as with a change in their character. Thus, this
ma.kes it possible to judge what kind of oscillations predominate in the
record.
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The table also gives evaluations of the dispersion of wave oscillations
in different frequency bands: (Cr.2) in the band 2-30 Hz (energy of ripples
with a period 0.5 sec); (~y2)2 in the band 4-9 Hz (corresponds approximate-
ly to the energy of the second, third and fourth harmonics of these
ripples); (b~)3 in the band 9-16 Hz (energy of components in the third
interval); (o~f)4 in the band 16-30 Hz (energy of the components in the
fourth interval). It can be seen frum these data that the variability of
the parameters ((y~)3 and (O:~)4 does not correspond to the nature of the
variability of the A, E, K parameters. At the same time, the T structure
differs from the S structure in having a higher level of content of harmon-
ics in the spectrum.
The contribution of the nonlinear harmonics of the fundamental mode of the
oscillation can be evaluated using the coefficient of the harmonics L'fS)-
representing the ratio of the amplitudea of the hai-monic components to
the amplitude of the fundamental mode. For example, for regular waves of
finite amplitude, represented by expression (1),
O'S = a` +Q' t - � (7" + (2)
/ from which it can be seen that with an increase in wave steepness the rela-
tive content of the harmonics increases. In the case of acontinuous wave
spectrum, to be sure, it is impossible to indicate precisely where spe-
cifically the contribution to spectral density is caused only by the har-
monics and where it is caused by gravitational waves with the same fre-
quency. However, if the T structure alternates with the S structure, it
can be expected that some idea about this is given by the coefficient O',
similar in sense, which we will define as the square root of the ratio of
the.dispersion of the harmonics (that is, the dispersion (Or2
',7)21 taken in
the band 4-9 Hz, which approximately corresponds to the harmonics. of waves
of the fundamental mode, having periods of about 0.5 sec), to the disper-
sion of the waves of the fundamental mode.
f}
r=~~6?~~/[C6r~,-C 6fi)~-C6~)~'C 6~ c3>
In the last line of the table we have given the values of the 2r' coef-
ficient; these show that for the T structure the specific content of harmon-
ics is two or three times greater than for the S structure (although, to be
sure, it cannot be assumed that the determined d'values correspond precise-
ly to the relative level of the harmonic components). Figure 4 shows the correlation between the statistical characteristics of
the A, E, K distributions and the determined values of the coefficient
for one and the same cases of ineasurement (for 11 series). Despite the
scatter, it can be seen that higher values correspond to higher A, E, K
values. This agrees with the assumption expressed above that there is a
correlation between nonlinearity in waves and impairment in the Gaussian
nature of the wave field.
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F ,l I t
,Ar
~ Is

~
~ .
, .
_11{~lf I! I 
.
� g
!
.
, .R
L.
.
.
.
2
r
Fig. 4. Dependence of statistical characteristics of distribution on spe-
cific content of harmonics in spectrum: asymmetry; excess;
� Cornu coefficient
Table 1
Variability of Statistical Characteristics of Short-Period
Components of
N 2-4 m/sec;
- Wave Field. Wind velocity U
Total
Dispersion
of Wave
Field
a
0-2 = 17.2
cm2
Number of Wave Record in Fig.
3 a
b
c
d
e
Wind velocity, m/sec
1.5-2
1.5-2
2.2.5
2.25
4-4.5
Type of structure
T
S
T
S
T
Asymmetry, A
+0.38
-0.03
+0.45
-0.04
+0.10
Excess, E
-0.16
-0.96
-0.32
-1.15
-0.76
Cornu coefficient, K
1.00
1.40
1.52
1.31
1.44
Dispersion of ripples,
2- 30 Ha, (C1 n)1 cm2
0.150
0.143
0.276
0.243
0.256
Dispersion of harmonics
4-9 Hz, ((yn)2 cm2
0.013
0.003
0.018
0.003
0.012
Dispersion of HF comporients
of third interval 9-16 Hz,
0.0002
0.0002
0.0017
0.0003
0.0005
(0, ~ )3 cm2
Dispers3on of HF components
of fourth interval 16-30.Hz,
( Or~)4 cm2
0. 0003
0.0006
0.0005
0.0005
0.0014
Coefficient of harmonics
0.31
0.15
0.27
0.11
0.22
5. Physical interpretation. The collected data on the variability of the
statistical characteristics of the distributions of the short-wave compon-
ents of the spectrum in themselves still do not make it gossible to draw
any conclusion as to what physical mechanism leads to the appearance of a
T structure alternating with an S structure. For such an analysis it is
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evidently necessary to ensure monitoring of a considerably greater number
of parameters than was done in our investigations. Nevertheless, since
it can be seen from the table that changes in wind velocity exerted an
influence for the most part on the components of the third and fourth
intervals, it can b e assumed that the variability of structure observed at
lower frequencies was not associated with the direct influence of the
air flow on the und erlying surface, but with some other mechanism.
It is known that the form of the waves can be modified if the waves are
propagated in a reg ion of variable current velocity, since in this case
there is an exchange of energy between the waves and the current [16, 17].
One of the special cases of such interaction is the interaction between
surface and internal waves in the sea. Rather strong effects must be ob-
served when there is coincidence of the phase velocity Ci of internal
waves with the group velocity Cgo of surface waves [9, 15]). Experimental
investigations carr 3ed out in flumes [18] indicated that with such a"res-
onance" interaction between surface waves and internal waves the ampli-
tudes and slopes of the surface waves can vary by a factor of 2-2.5.
It can be postulated that fluctuations of the & coefficient observed dur-
ing our measurement s were caused by such a mechanism. In actuality, by
comparing expression (2) and the tabulated data we find that the c.hanges
in T by a factor of 2-3 were associated with changes in the steepness
of waves having per iods of about 0.5 sec. The group velocity of these
waves is approxima tely 40 cm/sec, and this is rather close to the charac-
teristic values of the phase velocity of propagation of the first modes
of the internal waves in the shelf zone. Accordingly, the assumption made
does not contradic t the known data on the changes which can occur with sur-
face waves during their interaction with internal waves. Sounder conclu-
sions can be drawn, to be sure, only after carrying out investigations
relating to different aspects of the problem as a whole.
Summary
1. When there is a weak wind the wave spectrum does not attain saturation,
as a result of which there can be significant fluctuations of the spectral
density level at the high frequencies. In the spectrum it is possible to
discriminate the following wave systems: locally excited and arriving from
other regions of the sea. Instability and wind gusts evidently exert an in-
fluence for the mos t: part on the capillary spectral region (third and fourth
spectral intervals) _
2. The short-perio d ripples on the wave records can appear to be "troich-
oidal" (T structure ) in the course of some time interval alternating with
other intervals when the rippl es appear "sinuso idal" (S structure).
3. The changes in the characteristics of short-period ripples-can be judg-
ed from the change in the statistical coefficients of the A, E, K distrib-
utions. In addition, the T structure is characterized by a higher specific
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a V1\ Va ~ 1V i~ll/ V~Jli VL\L~
content of harmonics in the spectrum, that is, a greater nonlinearity in
comparison with the S structure.
4. It can be postulated that the observed variability in structure is caus-
ed by nonlinear interactions in the waves, such as the interaction of sur-
_ face waves with currents and internal waves.
The authors express appreciation to Doctor of Physical and Mathematical
Sciences V. V. Yefimov for discussion of the results of the study and use-
ful advice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Krylov, Yu. M., SPEKTRAL'NYYE METODY ISSLEDOVANIYA I RASCHETA VETROV-
YKH VOLN (Spectral Methods for Investigation and Computation of Wind
Waves), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1966, 255 pages.
2. Glukhovskiy, B. Kh., ISSLEDOVANIYE MORSKOGO VETROVOGO VOLNENIYA (In-
vestigation of Sea Wind Waves), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, 1966,
284 pages.
3. Phillips, 0. M., DINAMIKA VERKHNEGO SLOYA OKEANA (Dynamics of the Upper
Layer of the Ocean), Moscow, "Mir," 1969, 267 pages.
4. Khristoforov, G. N., "On the Problem of Constructing Physical Models
of the Upper Boundary Layer in the Ocean," MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE
ISSLEDOVANIYA (Marine Hydrophysical Investigations), No 3, Sevasto-
pol', pp 92-112, 1970.
5. Khristoforov, G. N., Zapevalov, A. S., Proshchenko, V. G., "Experimen-
tal Investigations of Structure and Variability of Temperature Fluc-
tuations in the Upper Layer of the Sea," SOVETSKO-FRANTSUZSKIYE IS-
SLEDOVANIYA. VZAIMODEYSTVIYE ATMOSFERY I OKEANA (Soviet-French In-
vestigations. Interaction Between the Atmosphere and Ocean), Sevasto-
pol', Izd. MGI AN UkrSSR, pp 46-61, 1978.
6. La Fond, Ye. S., VNUTRENNIYE VOLNY. Ch. 1(Internal Waves. Part 1),
MORE (The Sea), Leningrad, Gidrometeoizdat, pp 346-373, 1965.
7. Khristoforov, G. N., Smolov, V. Ye., Zapevalov, A. S., "Measurement
of the Spectrum of Sea Waves in a Broad Bange of Scales," EKSPERI-
MENTAL'NYYE ISSLEDOVANIYA V MORE (Experimental Investigations at Sea),
Sevastopol', Izd-vo MGI AN UkrSSR, pp 43-48, 1978.
8. Benjamin, T. B., "Instability of Periodic Trains of Waves in Nonlin-
ear Systems With Dispersion," NELINEYNAYA TEORIYA RASPROSTRANENIYA VOLN
(Nonlinear Theory of Wave Propagation), Translated from English, edit-
ed by G. I. Barenblatt, Moscow, "Mir," pp 83-104, 1970.
9. Pnillips, 0. M., "Interaction Between Surface and Internal Waves,"
IZV. AN SSSR, FAO (News of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Physics of
the Atmosphere and Ocean), Vol 9, No 9, pp 954-961, 1973.
30
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10. Kirsman, B., WIND WAVES, Prentice Hall, New York, 9, p 676, 1965.
11. Longuet-Higgins, M. S., "The Effect of Nonlinearities on Statistical
Distributions in thr� Theory of Sea Waves," JOURNAL OF FLUID MECH.,
Vol 17, p 3, pp 459-480, 1963.
12. Perry, R. B., Schimke, G. R., "Large Amplitude Internal Waves Observ-
ed Off the Northwest Coast of Stmmatra," JGR, Vol 70, No 10, pp 2319-
2324, 1965.
13. Mitsuyasu, H., "Measurements of the High-Frequency Spectrum of Ocean
Surface Waves," JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY, Vol 7, No 6, pp
882-891, 1977.
14. Benjamin, T. B., Feir, J. E., "The Disintegration of Wave Trains on
Deep Water. Part I, II," JOURNAL OF FLUID MECH., Vol 27, pp 417-444,
1967.
15. Gargett, A. E., Hughes, B. A., "On the Interaction of Surface and In-
ternal Waves," JOURNAL OF FLUID MECH., Vol 52, P. 1, pp 179-191, 1972.
16. Longuet-Higgins, M. S., Stewart, R. W., "The Changes in Amplitude of
Short Gravity Waves on Steady Nonuniform Currenta," JOURNAL OF FLUID
MECH., Vol 10, p 4, pp 565-583, 1961.
17. Longue t-Higg ins, M. S., Stewart, R. W., "Changes in the Form of Short
Gravity Waves and Tidal Currents," JOURNAL OF FLUID MECH., Vol 8, P
- 4, pp 529-549, 1960.
18. Lewis, J. E., Lake, B. M., Ko, D.R.S., "On the Interaction of Inter-
nal Waves and Surface Gravity Waves," JOURNAL OF FLUID MECH., Vol 63,
P 4, pp 773-800, 1974.
_ COPYRIGHT: Morskoy g idrofizicheskiy institut AN UkrSSR, 1979
[351-5303]
5303
CSO: 1865
31
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UDC 551.46.083
CHARACTERISTICS OF REMOTE SOUhDING INSZ'RUMENTS IN THE PRESENCE OF
INTRINSIC NOISE
~
Sevastopol' MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA in.Russian No 3, 1979 -
pp 142-150
[Article by M. G. Poplavskaya]
Abstract: The article gives an analysis of the
characteristics of instruments for remote sound-
ing of the ocean surface: gain in measurement
accuracy, c.hange in signal-to-noise ratio and
transmission band, obtained as a result of op-
timum correction of the signals of these instru-
ments. It is shown that optimum correction con-
siderably improves the metrologizal character-
istics of remote instruments.
[Text] One of the most important problems in mea.suring physical fields at
the ocean surface by remote instruments installed on flightcraft is an
increase in their resolution. Methods are now known which make possible
instrumental solution of this problem. For example, the authors of [1]
proposed a method based on use of coherent optical apparatus for the
processing of data obtained using side-looking radar with a synthesized
aperture. However, this method is unsuitable when processing the signals
of a passive radar. The authors of [2] presented a mathematical method
" for increasing the resolution of remote sounding instruments optimum
linear correction of their output signals, whose ob3ective is to bring
the shape of the corrected signal closer to the shape of the measured
process, observed at the center of a resolution element. It examines an
ideal case when the internal noise of the instruments is not taken into
account. Allowance for the influence of the internal fluctuation noise
of the instruments seriously limits the possibilities of the correction
itself.
In this article we examine the increase in resolution of remote instru-
ments by the method of optimum eorrection of their output signals, tak-
ing internal noise into account. The theoretical aspects of solution of
this problem were presented in [3]. It describes a method for correction
applicable to an additive mixture of signal and internal noise of the
32
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instrument (the noise is assumed to be "white" and uncorrelated with the
signal), first transmitted through an RC filter. Expressions were derived
for the spectrum of the instrument correction function and the gain in -
measurement accuracy on the assumption of homogeneity, isotropicity and
a"frozen-in" character of the field. As an application of the results
we used theoretical model s of the field and the instrument function for
an instrument whose spectra had the form of a Gaussian curve. The advan-
tage of such models is the possibility of representing the investigated
characteristics in simple analytical form.
/rt)
Sensor t ~RC filter ~I KoppesTi-
Aarmaoic ~ e'=*tXarrp py~ee U opt cor
aasmQ
Correctiag link
Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit of remote sounding instrument.
KEY:
A) Sensor
B) RC-filter
C) Correcting link
In this article we give an analysis of the gain in measurement accuracy,
change in the signal-to-no ise ratio and the transmission band as a result
of optimum correction for models of fields whose one-dimensional spectrum
has the form [4] j
P . .
where 2 p+ 1 is the degr ee of decrea.se of the spectrum with an increase
in frequency. We examined rew4te instruments with sensors of four types:
1) sensor with uniform averaging;
2) sensor with the instrument function x1/3 K1/3 (x) (K y(x) is the Macdon-
ald function);
3) sensor or the radiometer carried aboard the "Cosmos-149" satellite [5];
4) sensor of the wide-angle radiometer used in making measurements from
the TIROS-II satellite [6].
The spatial-spectral characteristics of these sensors were investigated
in [7].
Figure 1 shows the equivalent circuit of a remote sounding instrument. Here
X(t) is the input signal; Y(t) is the signal at the sensor output; N(t) is
instrument internal noise; Y1(t) is the signal and noise mixture; Y2(t) is
33
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1' VA\ Vl l' lUl[1L UJL1 VL\L1
the signal at the output of the RC filter; Yopt cor is the signal after
optimum correction.
The measure of the gain in accuracy of ineasurement with optimum correc-
tion, in accordance with [3], is
= d Z/ d 2cor min,
where t
Y(t)-.Y(t)]
and d cor min [yopt cor (t) - X(t)] 2
One of the quality criteria for the mesuring system is the signal-to-noise
ratio. By this term is meant the ratio of signal power to noise power. The
greater this ratio, the higher is the quality of field measurement. Assume
that 7"j1 is the signal-to-noise ratio at the RC f ilter output (point 3,
Fig. 1) and ~ 2 is this ratio after signal correction (point 4, Fig. 1).
Then the '2 = n 2/rjl value characterizes the change in the signal-to-noise
ratio as a result of correction and
P (w) J~~~ (2a)
f5(~,) I ~ (rv) Ild~v '
0
w) /~,l (w) d~v (2b)
~
Z J' J (W) ZW d V
a
and in turn
('V) = P U(,V) : g (!rJ )
W.
�
Here C(W) is the energy spectrum of the signal at the instrwnent sensor
input; A(eAJ) is the reciprocal energy spectrum of the signal at the sensor
output and the field at the center of its resolution element;
S(J) is the noise energy spectrum N(t); p(cd) is the frequency character-
istic of the RC filter. The function
~(Aj) s 'f(W 1 .
_ ,oW~ ~A10) +J(w)~ (3)
is the frequency characteristiic of the optimum correction of the instru-
ment signal with its fluctuation noise taken into account.
34
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We will find the aP value characterizing the change in the transmission
band of the corrected instrument. We will denote the spectral character-
istics of the instrument before and after correction by K1(&)) and K2(w)
respectively. Taking into account that the spectral characteristic of the
instrument is [7] the ratio of the signal energy spectrum to the noted
one-dimensional energy spectrum of the field Q1(&)) (here the instrument
noise is not taken into accouut) we f ind that the signal power transfer
coefficient from noint 1 to point 3(Fig. 1) is
It (4)
and this coefficient from point 1 to point 4 is
(S)
Denoting by ed1 and 4d2 the frequencies satisfying the ratios
,t,~~,) : 0, S, it's (~v O, 6,
we find that the presence of a correcting link increases the instrument
transmission band by a factor of al = &2/Ci1.
The complex program prepared for an M-220M electronic computer makes it
possible using the initial mass of data, describing any instrument func-
tion with axial sqmmetry, to compute the parameters JA-,'7 and Jf with
different z= Rx/Lx values (except for z= 0, where an uncertainty arises);
here RX is the radius of a sensor resolution element; Lx is the character-
istic scale of the measured field. The results o� computations for differ-
ent S1 = S(0)/C(0) values (where S(0) and C(0) are the energy spectra at
zero for noise and signal respectively at the sensor output) are repre-
sented in figures and tables. The )A ,V'j and 4 values with z= 0 for the
value P= 0.5 were computed using the formulas
! + _ _ _ `r Z /;.~i J-!
.
0~' f (l 0 a ;1
/+s1
where T is the time constant of the RC filter; X = VpT/Lx; e = S1/1 + S1;
F(oC ,fi ; d' ; t) is a hypergeometric function; Vp is the velocity of in-
strument movement. For p different from 0.5 the j.A,71 and 4 values were
computed approximately.
We will investigate the behavior of the P-, rj and 4 curves in dependence
on z for the considered sensors and field given by formula (1) with differ-
ent p, d' and Sl values in four cases: 1) different sensors with P, oyand
S1 equal to 0.5, 0.05 and 10'2 respectively; 2) the sensor of a SA radio-
meter with a change in the time constant of the RC filter Q'= 0.05; 0.25;
35
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0.5) with p= 0.5 and S1 = 10-2; 3) sensor of a SA radiometer with con-
stant p and ~ values (p = 0.5 and,~'-0.05) for different noise: Sl = 10-4
(low no ise) and S1 = 10-2 (considerable noise); 4) sensor of a SA radio-
meter with S1 and d' constant, equal to 10'2 and 0.05 respectively for
P = 0.5 and 1.
u
Fig. 2. Dependence of gain in measurement accuracy on z value:l~) for sen-
sors: 1) with uniform averaging; 2) with instrument function x 3 K1/3 (x);
3) "Cosmos-149"; 4) TIROS-II wide-angle radiometer; b) for radiometer of
"Cosmos-149" satellite (SA): 1) Y= 0.05; 2) a'= 0.25; 3) 0.5.
The effectiveness of optimum correction is determined by the value~-~-~ 1;
the greater the � value, the more effective is the correction. We will
examine the change in this value in dependence on the variable z for the _
cases considered above.
In the f irst case (Fig.- 2,a) all the � curves decrease with an increase in
z(with an increase in the radius of a resolution element) first rapidly,
for 0` z:, z/_ ~ p-> , c11~

/st\T `/t'~~ ~R /1+`if ,r/1
P R T
where Z~ S is an elementary a-rea in the section of a system of detectors
with a r3dial plane with the coordinates i and j. '
In Cartesian coordinates the field of probability of registry of a cascade
has a synmietry relative to the i-axis and the plane perpendicular to it
which passes through the j-axis. Accordingly, computations are made in
the first quarter of the plane for circular voltnnes with the section AS.
- Figure 3 shows the results of the computations for _;kR = 0.8 and I/R = 1.1.
The isolines represent lines of equal probability of registry of cascade
radiation with an energy 1.3 MeV by sensors of the radius R. The values
of the probability of registry of a cascade generated at a point in space
are indicated in relative units in the numerator of the fraction. The
greatest probability of registry relates to sources lying in the plane j
i at the distance 0.4R from the center of the system, but due to an in-
~ crease in the volume of the peripheral regions the flux of registered
cascade radiation decreases slightly with distance from the center. This
is indicated by the values of the integrals of probability of registry
from the regions bounded by the isolines. In Fig. 3 they are given in the
denomina.tors of the fractions. The full integral for the space lOR ;Ls
equal to 7719. Accordingly, the peripheral regions of space introduce a
substantial contribution to the registered flux of cascade radiation.
In order to choose the optimum relationship of geometric dimensions of the
detection system we carried out computations of the dependence of the in-
tegral of probability of registry of cascade radiation in space on the
ratio t /R, which was selected because specifically in such a cnmbination
the geometric parameters enter into expression (11).
Figure 4 gives the results of these computations, from which it follows
that the maximum statistical probability of the measurement is with
e/R = 1. However, due to the design peculiarities of the system and the
conditions for its operation it is necessary that a part of the space
with a maximum probability of registry be "cut out" b,y the sealed capsule
of the detectors; this results in a considerable decrease in effectiveness
of the system.
' 52
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,a

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4
jw ~
,
~
Y
~
0
O
~~'-8s .
. 1.2
re~n
~
~
" Lfr 'u J -
Fig. 3. Field of probability of reg- Fig. 4. Dependence of flux of cas-
istry of cascade radiation by a sys- cade X-radiation registered by
tem of two detectors in a homogeneous 6 - complex on distance between
emitting-absorbing medium. detectors. A) Integral of probabil-
ity of registry.
The three-channel X - complex used in investigating the radioactivity of
sea water incorporates the above-mentioned merits of rejection of the -
background with a considerable increase in effectiveness, together with
a low level of its own background. Its principal parameters are the fol-
lowing: weight 20 kg, dimensions 0 1200 x 500, limiting depth of
submergence 100 m. The submergible part consists of three sealed capsules
held in a rigid frame with a fixed distance between the BDEG2-6931-20
NaI(T1) detectors 0150 x 100, placed in them. The submergible unit also
includes a highly stable system for electric supply of the detector and a
communication line based on a cable of the RK type.
The intrinsic background of the sensors with respect to K40 emission (1.46
MeV) is 3-2 pulses�min-1; the.effectiveness in the sea medium is not less
than 20%. The on-board unit includes six AI-256-6 (two in each channel
for registry of totaZ and cascade ~ -background), a unit for control of
coincidence analyzers, and also a unit for the registry of information.
Under field conditions the instrumentation indicated a high performance.
The resolution of the spectrometric channels in the instrument was not
53
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l Vl v~ ~ 1~J1~11J Ve/I..~ V!\1~�
worse than 13% (in the Cs137 line 662 KeV), instability not greater
, than 1-2 channels in the 1.46-MeV line in 24 hours of continuous operation.
Large detectors based on NaI(T1) monocrystals with a working volume of 1.5
Tt or more are extensively used at the present time for ~-spectrometry and
_ radiometry of small activities of natural media. The high effectiveness
of the detector, in combination with great linear dimensions, makes it pos-
sible to accelerate analysis of the 6 -field of radioactive elements of
emitting-absorbing media. Due to the faet that-the technology for the pur-
ification of NaI construction materials, glass, ete. from impurities of
radioactive elements has not yet been developed to an adequate degree, the
content of K40 isotopes and the members of the radioactive series in stan-
dard detectors is usually determined by the purity of the initial raw mat-
erial and therefore is different even in articles of the same series.
We investigated three different types of NaI(T1) detectors with crystals
measuring: a) scintillation unit 0150 x 100, BDEG2-6931-20, produced
1975; b) set of crystals 0150 x 100 and a FEU-49 photomultiplier, pro-
duced in 1964; c) a set of NaI(T1) crystals 0 200 x 100 and a FEU-49
photomultiplier, produced in 1975 (Fig. 5), which we used for the d'-
spectrometry of sea water. For discriminating the background of a'-radia-
tion of radioactive origin in sea water we used the method of protection
of the sensors by a layer of fresh water. For this purpose the set of
radiation sensors was placed in a rubberized cylinder with a volume of
S m3, fresh water was poured in the cylinder and it was sealed. Monitor- ,
ing of the effectiveness of shielding against the radiation of the iso- _
topes present in sea water was accomplished using the inte..:.:,ity of the ~
K10 photopeak.
Normalized spectra of ~-radiation of sea water of different salinity 0,
17, 341/0o for a depth of 60 m are shown in Fig. 5. In all the spectra,
ot~ier than curve 1(Fig. 5,a) there are intensive peaks of a natural
K4 radiation source; in measurements with a modern scintillation unit
in fresh water this peak virtually disappears. In spectra obtained using
an "a" detector in the soft energy range, due to the low intensity of the
scattered radiation of high-energy sources, there are peaks of I5-radia-
tion of the series U and Th, present in the construction materials of the
detector; in others they are masked by intensive K40 scattered radiation.
This is the peak 0.59 MeV, which must be attributed to the monolines 0.588,
0.511-Te208 (Th) and 0.609 - B1214 (U), as well as the peak 0.92 of the
monolines 0.911, 0964 and 0.969 MeV - Ac228 (Th). The intensities of these
peaks are of the same order of magnitude due to the comparability of the
content of U and Th in the construction materials of the sensors. In the
spectra of series "a" there is also a series of less intensive peaks
a result of superposing of the radiation of less intensive gamma lines of
members of the U-Th series. These peaks are 0.35 MeV and 1.1-1.2 MeV.
In measurements at the water surface the intensity of these peaks (0.59 and
0.92 MeV) somewhat increases, in our apinion attributable to processes of
inelastic interaction between cosmic radiation and the matter of the con-
struction ma.terials of the sensors, specifically: A127(p, p', A127; S128
54
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(p, 2p, S) A127, giving gamma radiation with an energy 0.84 MeV and anni-
hilation ~ -quanta.
The K -6 background registered by the detectors in sea water consists of
cascade radiation of isotopes of natural and artificial origin; the back-
ground of cosmic radiation of the cascade type and the processes of reg-
istry of a high-energy charged particle by two sensors; random coinci-
dences caused by loading of the spectrometer channel in the detector;
characteristic background of the detectors, including errors in the elec-
tronic circuits.
As is well known, the counting rate of random coincidences caused by load-
ing of the spectrometer channel of the sensors is expressed by the formula
'7I~ (13)
Here f, is the cofncidence circuit resolution time, in our case being
1+0.5 m�sec; nlj, n2j are the counting rates (loadings) of sensors with
a given discrimination level. We took the data on nlj, n2j in the process-
ing of spectra of total ~-radiation.
The contribution of random coincidences for the real background of Y-ra-
diation in sea water and in the material of the sensors is 10-2-10'3
pulses�min-1 for the low horizons and 1 pulse�min-1 for the surface and
is a small part of the intensity of the cascade radiation of sea water.
The characteristic ~ - a background of the detectors, determinerl under
conditions of protection of the sensors by a layer of fresh water, gave
values of the same order of magnitude.
The cascade background of cosmic origin is essentially dependent on the
me-Rsurement horizon. It decreases considerably in the first 10-30 m from
the surface and continues to decrease with depth. An examination of the
parameters of the o""-background of cosmic origin is the subject of a spec-
ial investigation. Here it is important to note that it has a considerable
spatial anisotropy IO - Ivert cos 010, oG = 2 for 100 meq, OC = 3 for 2000
meq. This circumstance makes it possible to discriminate it in the process-
ing of the results.of ineasurements made using different instrument channels.
A fundamental difficulty in measuring the radioactivity of sea water by the
direct method is the small level of its activity against the background of
considerable fluctuations caused by the nonstationary character of the ra-
diation background in sea water and different kinds of instability of in-
strument operation. Due to the fact that the {naccuracy in measuring ac-
tivity is proportional. to N, where N is the registered number of gamua
quanta, reliable registry of the effect of disturbance of the field of
gamma radiation and identification of the factor responsible for this dis-
turbance is possible when there is ajufficiently high statistical proba-
bility of ineasurement, that is, with an increase in the mass of the detec-
tor and the measurement time. However, such a means for increasing the
statistics is fundamentally limited by the characteristic zime scale of
55
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1'Va VL'L' LVLLIL UJL' VLVLL
V
b
~
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0
41
U
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41
d
b
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d'


~
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a~
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v
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w-4
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b
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,Y/~IYIf ' aY/e?iiJ O~!/~OdO.YJ a~82 $II'~~IIAO~
56
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
.
~
'F
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~ Q .
00
4
~
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a~
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cd
4.1
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0
~
u
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cn k
w
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e

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FOR OFFICIAL ITSF ONI.,Y
fluctuation of the radioactivity field, the limited size of the scintil-
lation detectors produced by industry, the uncontrollable instabilities
of the spectrometer amplification channel of the instrument and fluctua-
tions of the y background of nonradioactive origin.
J In this connection the problem arises of the most complete possible use
of the information obtained from the iadiation detector, that is, the
rapid spectrometry of radiation, which in contrast to radiometry makes
it possible to identify small-scale fluctuations of radioactivity on the
basis of changes in the form of the spectrum during short time intervals.
In combination with the multichannel principle, which in itself increases
the number of ineasurable informative criteria of the effect, such changes
make it possible to separate fluctuations of nonradioactive origin and ap-
parent disturbances caused by instability of operation of individual meas-
uring apparatus channels. What has been set forth above makes possible a
considerable increase in the voliune of statistical information for the
necessary time intervals and selection of its maximum specifically at the
time of maximum field disturbance.
The processing of information must be accomplished using the principle
of direct connection between the spectral analyzers and the shipboard
computer and includes the following tasks: correction of spectrometric
information (channel-by-channel); discrimination of random omissions,
failures and "surges," identification and discrimination of background
trends and fluctuations caused by the background of cosmic radiation and
instability of instrument operation; reduction of channel-by-channel
spectrometric information to a single energy scale and accumulation of
statistics; discrimination of pulsations of the field of radioactivity of
sea water and determination of their spatial-temporal and spectral (en-
ergy) parameters; identification of the reasons for fluctuations of the
field of radioactivity of sea water on the principle of the generalized
least squares method on the basis of information on the spectra of sample
sources; determination of the correlations between fluctuations of the
field of radioactivity and fluctuations of other hydrological fields and
also the correlations of their parameters.
- As a result of electric and magnetic induction in the instrument components
it is common to observe considerable surges in the spectra; they must be
regarded as serious gaps and rejected. The form of such a surge can serve
as a criterion for carrying out the operation. They occur during a very
short time, considerably less than the exposure time,and therefore an ex-
cess of I~(E�) over IP(Ei) by a value greater than 3 O-P(Ei) must be as-
signed to adoubtful case and there must be checking of the nature of the
fluctuation with respect to the form of the line in the energy spectrum. If
the fluctuations are caused by the appearance of activity in the measured
volume, it has the form of a Gauss curve; the presence of a doubtful fluc-
tuation in L-J'in the energy spectrum can be identified as a surge.
57
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rvIX va'a Lvirw UJL vLIa, i
Due to the different kinds of instabilities in operation of the spectromet-
ric channels of the instrument it is virtually impossible to achieve a
standard scale for individual channels of the Y -complex; moreover, in
the measurement process there can be small long-period fluctuations of
the amplification factor for the spectrometers, for example, due to the
instability of the temperature regime of the submergible unit, which can
lead to apparent temporal fluctuations of activity in the medium. Accord-
ingly, monitoring of the stability of energy calibration of the channels
is necessary for correction of time series of spectra, their reduction to
a single energy scale in time [10]. Floating calibration of the spectro-
meters is accomplished on the basis of the reference peaks 1.46, 0.9, 0.55
MeV and 0.5 MeV respectively in the spectra of total and cascade a'-radi-
ation.
The discrimination of fluctuations of intensity of the field of d'-radia-
tion of sea water, instabilities of the instrument and variations of the
background of cosmic radiation is accomplished by making an analysis of
the mean square values of the relative fluctuations of intensity (R2) in
different channels
~p2~ ~ _ B a[JGT) ~ZE~ . (15)
Here
~
(yio +M
m y and nv are the intensities in the two analyzed channels; (XS is the
reliability criterion; 2 is the significance level.
Incidentally we clarify the relative instability of the instrument chan-
nels
9=C , < m> are the mathematical expectations of the counting rates in these
channels. After obtaining reliable evaluations of the reality of the fluc-
tuations of activity of the sea medium it is possible to combine the time
intensity series obtained in different channels for analysis of the spatial-
temporal scales of the distribution of activity in the ocean.
Summary
Use of the method of spatial-temporal and energy rejection of the back-
ground of interfering radiation on the basis of multichannel spectrometry
considerably broadens the possibilities for measuring small activities of
the sea medium and increases the reliability of the collected information.
58
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The instrument created on the basis of this principle, operating in a
regime of rapid ~(-spectrometry, has high informative qualities.
It is desirable that further improvement of the method be carried out on
the basis af the multichannel principle with the indispensable condition
of processing of the collected information on an electronic computer in
real time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Lavrenchik, V. N., Sofiyev, G. N., "Intensity and Spectral Composition
of ~-Radiation of Ocean Water," IZV. AN SSSR, SER. GEOFIZ. (News of
the USSR Academy of Sciences, Geophysical Series), No 2, pp 25-27,
1962.
2. Khitrov, L. M., Kotlyarov, K. A., "Deep-Water ~ -Radiometer and Meas-
urement of the Radioactivity of Deep Water Layers in the Indian
Ocean," OKEANOLOGIYA (Oceanology), 2, pp 16-17, 1962.
3. Vinogradov, A. S., "Optimization of the Submergible Scintillation
Sensor Method," MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE ISSLIDOVANIYA (Marine Hy-
drophysical Investigations), No 3, Sevastopol', pp 191-199, 1969.
4. Vinogradov, A. S., Vinogradova, K. G., "Measurement of the Activity of
Sea Water by the Submergible Scintillation Sensor Method," METODIKA
I APPARATURA DLYA GIDROFIZICHESKIKH ISSLEDOVANIY (Method and Instru-
mentation for Hydrophysical Investigations), Kiev, "Nauk. Dumka," pp
122-130, 1969.
5. Batrakov, G. F., et al., "Field of ~ -Radiation in the Upper Layer of
the Black Sea," ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA (Atomic Energy), Vol 33, No 3, pp
785-788, 1972.
6. Sapozhnikov, Yu. A., et al., "Effectiveness of a Scintillation Detector
of Jf-Quanta in an Isotropic Emitting Medium," ATOMNAYA ENERGIYA, Vol
40, No 3, pp 246-21+8, 1976.
7. Pachurova, V. I., TABLITSY INTEGRO-EKSPONENTSIAL'NOY FUNKTSII (Tables
of Integrodifferential Functions), Moscow, 1959, 65 pages.
8. Kosourov, G. I., PRIBORY I TEItHNIKA EKSPERIMENTA (Experimental Instru-
ments and Methods), No 5, pp 95-98, 1962.
9. Khayakava, S., FIZIKA KOSMICHESKIKR LUCHEY. CH. I, YADERNO-FIZICHESKIY
ASPEKT (Physics of Cosmic Rays. Part I. Nuclear Physics Aspect), Mos-
cow, "Mir," 1973, 96 pages.
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rvn urr luiew uoz vaL.

10. Vinogradov, A. S., Vinogradova, K. G., "Features in the Processing of
Experimental Gamma Spectra in Investigation of Ocean Radioactivity,"
MORSKIYE GIDROFIZICHESKIYE ISSLEDOVANIYA, No 1, Sevastopol', pp 212-
224, 1969.
11. Chesselet, R., "Application en oceanogra-fie de la methode de spectro-
metrie gamma 'in situ'," REV. INTERNAT. OCEANOGR. MED., pp 5-21, 1967.
12. Chesselet, R., Nordemann, P., "Rapport DE /Sep/ 1563-194," BULL. INT.
SCI. TECH., p 64, 1962.
13. Proctor, C. M., "Response of e'-Scintillation Detectors for rield Sur-
vey Use," LIMNOLOG. OCEANOGR., 7, pp 273-279, 1962.
14. Riel, C. K., "New Underwater Gamma Spectrometer," ELEKTRONIKA (Elec-
tronics), 36, No 10, pp 37-38, 1963.
15. Akijama,T., "On an Instrument for 'in situ' Measurement of Y-Ray Ac-
tivity in Deep Water of the Ocean," THE OCEANOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,
Vol 17, No 1-2, 69, 1965.
16. Sybesma, C., "Measurements of Continuous Energy Distribution of Gamma
Rays on a Scattering Medium," p 40, Amsterdam, 1961.
COPYRIGHT: Morskoy gidrofizicheskiy institute AN UkrSSR, 1979
[351-5303]
5303
CSO: 1865
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TERRESTRIAL GEOPHYSICS
UDC 551.242:551.79(235.211+235.216)
QUATERNARY TECTONICS AND THE ABYSSAL STRUCTURE OF PAMIR AND TYAN'-SHAN'
Moscow SOVETSKAYA GEOLOGIYA in Russian No 2, 1980 pp 78-96
[Article by V. N. Krestnikov., I. L. Nersesov, D. V. Shtange,
Earth Phyaics Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences]
The study of the abyssal structure of the earth's crust and its relation
t4 the surface tectonic movements remains as before an urgent problem.
In one of the first papers on this problem published 18 years ago [5],
a quite detailed comparison was made between the nature of development of
the earth's crust during the most recent and earlier stages with the M dis-
continuity relief. Recently new data have been obtained on the
Quaternary tectonics of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan' [12], which indicate that
the modern structural level was formed basically in a comparatively short
_ time interval about 1 million years. It is natural that the intensive
tectonic movements that have occurred here had an abyssal nature and could
not find expression in the M discontinuity relief.. For the Quaternary .
period, predominantly asceading movements and constant buildup of their
velocities are characteristic, which distinguishes these movements from the
lates t, which during the entire period of activation beginning at the end
of the Paleogenic, have changed more than once with respect to intensity,
and in a number of cases, evensvwith respect to sign. Therefore the inves-
tigat ion of the relation of the M diecontinuity relief to the Pleistocene
and Holocene movements appears to be more expedient than with the latest
as a whole.
History of Quaternary Tectonic Movements and the Modern Structural Level.
In Northern and Central Tyan'-Shan', the end of the PliQcene is character-
ized by aCtenuation of the tectonic movements and the onset of a quiet
period [12]. During this time there were a large number of lakes
separated by low gently sloping divides with altitudes to 1000 meters.
Somewhat later, in the early Pleistocene, the tectonic movements were
, attenuated in the rest of the territory of Tyan'-Shan' and in'Par.ir, where
the mountainous country already existed with altitudes at individual points _
to 3000 meters and more. With the end of the period of tectonic quiet and
intensification of tectonic activity begins the Quaternary hiatory of the
region itself. The movements of the Quaternary period were attenuated
first in the Central and Northern Tyan'-Shan' and somewhat later, in the
rest of the territory.
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Thus, the Quaternary stage of development began with sharp intensification
of differentiated, predominantly ascending movements, the velocities of
which successively increased to the Holocene and reached the largest
values in the last 10,000 years. During this phase, the modern structural
level was formed, the basic features of which were created in the pre-
Quaternary time.
On the whole, Tyan'-Shan' and Pamir are a complexly built block mountain
structure where both positive and negative structaral elements are clearly
isolated, which ar_e separated in the majority of cases by dislocations
with a break in cantinuity of various orders. On the diagram of *he
summary Quaternary vertical movements (Fig 1) it is clearly obvious that
in the described region the structural elements of the sublatitudinal
Tyan'-Shan' strikes enjoyed a clear advantage, and the antj-Tyan'-Shan'
northwesterly and northeasterly direction have subordinate significance.
The territory of Tyan'-Shan' is divided into the western and eastern parts
by the Talaso-Fergan abyssal fracture zone of northwesterly strike. Dur-
ing the entire latest stage, especially in the Quaternary period, their
development diff ered s ignificantly.
The eastern part of Tyan'-Shan' which includes Central and Northern
Tyan'-Shan' developed as a single block experiencing distortion from
south to north during the process of the general uplift. Relatively uni-
form distribution of uplifts and depressions with respect to area is
characteristic of this part. Here a clear trend is noted toward increase
in scales of the basins from south to north and scales of the uplifts
in the:southerly direction. The basic structural elements are elongated
in the sublatitudinal direction; in plan view, they are ares slightly
convex to the south. In the north of this part of Tyan'-Shan' there are
two large basins the Chuyskaya and Iliyskaya separated by the uplift
of the Kindiktasskiy Mountains, the amplitude of the uplift of which in
Quaternary time exceeded 500 meters; the central parts of these depressions
experienced absolute downwarping in the Pleistocene.
To the south of the Chuyskaya and Iliyska.ya Basins, separated from them
by the Northern Tyan'-Shan', Alma-Ata and Zailiyskiy abyssal fracture
zones is the system of uplifts of the Kirgizskiy, Zailiyskiy Alatau and
Kungey Alatau Ridges. The greatest amplitudes of their Quaternary move-
ment exceed 1000 meters. The uplifts of the Zailiyskiy and Kungey Alatau
Ridges are separated by the Kemino-Chilikskiy abyssal fracture zone. The
Talasskaya Basin (in the extreme northwest of the territory it connects
with the Chuyskaya Basin) is connected to the northeastern end of the
KirgizRidge with respect to the Ichkele-Susamyrskiy abyssal fracture.
During the Quaternary period, the Talasskaya Basin experienced relative
downwarpings.
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South of the uplift of the Kungey Alatau Ridge is one of the largest basins
of Central: Tyan'-Shan' the Issyk-Kul' Basin, one of the largest basins
of the entire region where the lacustrine conditions have been main-
tained to the present time. It is characterized by a relative downwarp
in Quaternary time, but it is not excluded that its central part also
experienced absolute downwarping. In the northeastern part the Issyk-Kul'
Basin is separated from the uplift of the Kungey Alatau Ridge by the
Tyupskiy abyssal ftactur e zone coupled on the west to the Kemino-Chilikskaya
zone, and on the east to the Terskey-Talasskaya zone. The Terskey-
Talasskiy abyssal fracture zone separates the Issyk-Kul' Basin from the
uplift of the Terskey Alatau Ridge, the amplitudes of the movements of
which exceed 1000 meters. Together with the uplif t of the Kokshaaltau
Ridge, it forms one of the largest mountain systems {_n Centr.al Asia.
Two abyssal fracture zones pass through this system the Atbashskaya and
the Nikolayev line, with which a number of depression zones are associated.
In the west the uplift of the Terskey Alatau Ridge is submerged and
becomes the Naryn Basin, relatively downwarped in the Quateraary time.
In the south the latter b ecomes the Atbashskaya Basin coupled with respect
to the Atbashskiy abyssal fracture zone with the Atbashskiy Ridge, the
amplitude of the ascending movements of which is more than 1000 meters.
In the east, the uplift of the Atbashskiy Ridge becomes the Terskey Alatau -
and Kokshaaltau system. In the western part of Central Tyan'-Shan' the
structural elements of the Tyan'-Shan' strike are sharply broken off by
the Talaso-Fergan abyssal fracture zone.
The western part of Tyan'-Shan' is characterized by the presence of two
large basins absolutely downwarped in Quaternary time and a comparatively
small number of smaller ones. An important characteristic of this terri-
tory is the clearly expressed trend toward the confluence of individual
uplifts into large systems with quite large uplift amplitudes. One of
the few independent large positive structural elements the Fergan
Ridge uplift strikes in a northwesterly direction from the Soviet
border with China in the southeast to the Naryn River valley in the north-
west parallel to the Talaso-Fergan abyssal fracture zone and genetically
connected with it [8]. The northeastern limb of the uplift is cut off by
a fracture zone, and the southwestern limb smoothly submerges and becomes
the Fergan Basin. The maximum uplift amplitudes in the axial part exceed
2000 meters.
The Fergan Basin, which in plan view has a triangular shape, is located
to the wast of the Fergan Ridge. In the North the Naryno-Chichkanskiy
abyssal fracture zone separates it from the uplif ts of the Chatkalo-
Kuraminskaya Mountain sys tem. In the South along the Southern Fergan
abyssal fracture zone it is coupled to the uplift of the Gissaro-Alayskiy
Mountain system. The structure of the basin is complex; a number of
structural zones and individual structural elements are isolated within
its boundaries. In the southeastern part the basin is intersected by the
Vuadil'-Kugartskiy abyssal fracture zone. During the Quaternary period, _
the central part of the basin experienced absolute downwarpings.
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The Chatkalo-Kuraminskiy region located north of the Fergan Basin is a
system of the latest uplifts and basins of northeasterly strike. Here
the Ugamskoye, Sandalashskoye, Chatkalo-Kuraminskoye and Atoynokskaye
uplifts are isolated along with the Pskemskiy, Chatkal'skiy,
Angrenskiy and Nanayskiy Troughs that separate them. The uplifts and
troughs, as a rule, are controlled by dislocations with a break in con-
tinuity. In the East, all of the structural elements are broken off by
the Talaso-Ferganskiy abyssal fracture zone, and on the Northeast, they
are bounded by the Western Tyan'-Shan' abyssal fracture; in the westerly
directinn the uplifts gradually submerge, becoming complicated by the
transverse Chatkalo-Kuraminskiy abyssal fractures. The maximum uplift
amplitudes of the Chatkalo-Kuraminskaya Mountain system exceeded 1500 m
in the Quaternary period.
The Gissaro-Alayskaya uplift system located south of the Fergan Basin has
sublatitudinal Tyan'-Shan' strike, and in the East it is coupled with the
Fergan Ridge uplift. The largest structural elements of the system are the
uplifts of the Zeravshano-Gissar, the Turkestan and Alay Ridges, the
"40th parallel" basin, the Verkhnegul'chinskaya and Pendzhikentskaya Basin
and the Zeravshanskiy Trough. With respect to str'ke the large structural
elements are bounded by regional and abyssal fractures.
From the South the Zeravshano-Gissar uplift is controlled by the southern
Gissar abyssal fracture zone, and it is separated from the uplift of the
Turkestan Ridge parallel to it by the Zeravshanskiy abyssal fracture zone.
The Zeravshanskiy Trough located between them traced in the middle and
lower courses of the Zeravshan River strikes in a westerly direction to
the city of Samarkand.
The uplift of the Turkestan Ridge in the North is separated from the
Fergan Basin by the Southern Fergan abyssal fracture zone, along which
there is a change of "40th parallel" depressions. From the North the
basins are bounded by the systean of latitudinally elongated anticlinal
uplifts. In the East the uplift of the Turkestaa Ridge becomes the Alay
uplift, which is also separated from the Fergan Basin by the Southern
Fergan abyssal fracture zone, and in the East it is coupled with the up-
lift of the Fergan Ridge. In the western part of Gissaro-A1ay the struc-
tural elements undergo virgation and are bounded on the whole by the
Western Tyan'-Shan' abyssal fracture zone, to the West of which the ampli-
tudes of the uplifts decrease sharply. Here basically the descending
- tectonic movements predominated; the maximum amplitudes af the ascending
movementa are known in the central part of Gissaro-Alay, where they
exceeded 2500 meters in Quaternary time.
The articulation zone of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan' strikes in a sublatitudinal
direction, bordering Pamir on the North and on the West. Its southern
boundarS is the Darvaz-Karakul'skiy abyssal fracture zone; its ncrrthern
boundary is the Gissaro-Kokshaa.l'skiy.abyssal fracture; in the East is
the Alay Basin bordered on the North by the Alay Ridge uplift and on the
South by the system of uplifts of Northern Pamir. To the West and South
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of the Alay Basin are the uplifts of the Zaalayskiy, Petr Yervyy,
Vakhsh, Surkhku and Vneshniy Darvaz Ridges. Southwest of Pamir is the
Tadzhik depression, within the boundaries of which several structural
zones are isolated. An entire series of uplifts and troughs of predominantly
submeridional strike have developed here.. The amplitudes of the movements
in the iadzhik depression fluctuate within very broad limits: in the
depression zone the absolute downwarpingssometimes exceed 500 meters at
the same time as some of the positive structural elements experienced an
uplift of more than 1000 meters. The uplift amplitudes of the articula-
tion zone of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan' are maximal in the central and eastern
parts (1500 meters) and in the extreme East (2000 meters).
; The mountainous structure of Pamir was formed during the process of clostire
of the Alpine geosynclinal and subsequent ascending differentiated
tectonic movements. Its structural elements in plan view form ares wt�ich
are convex fn the northerly direction. In the formation of the modern
structural plan the meridional zonality connected with the development of
the Pamiro-Himalayan abyssal fracture zone has great significance [6].
During Quaternary time Pamir wa3 finally separated by this zone into the
western and eastern parts which are two large megablocks 3istinguished
with respect to nature of tectonic development.
The largest structural element of Western Pamir is the Northern Pamir up-
lift located in the vicinity of the Darvazskiy, Vanchskiy, Yazgulemskiy,
Academy of Sciences and Northern Tanymas Ridges, the central part of the
Zaalayskiy Ridge and the eastern part of Petr Pervyy Ridge. In the North
the Darvaz-Kara'.cul'skiy abyssal fracture zone separates it from the
Tadzhik depression and Pamiro-Alay; in the South it is bounded by a large
regional fracture, and in the East by the Pamiro-Himalayan abyssal frac-
ture zone. The maximum amplitudes of the Quaternary movements of this
uplift exceed 2500 meters.
In addition to tYe Northern Pamir uplift within the boundaries of Western
Pamir a number of other, less significant structural elements are isolated:
Bartangskiy, Guntskiy, Dzhoushangozskiy and Vakhanskiy Troughs, the western
parts of the Rushanskiy and Southern Pamir.uplifts. Some latitudinal
- strikes and good expression in the relief are characteristic of them. The
amplitudes of the ascending movements of the Rushaaskoye uplift within the
boundaries of the Western Pamir zone exceeded 2500 meters, and Southern
Pamir, 2000 meters.
In Eastern Pamir the intensity and differentiation af the tectonic move-
ment are appreciably less. In the North the development of the latest
structural plan has caused submeridional strikes of the basic structural
elements and among them, the largest the Karakul '-Kokuyb el 'skiy Trough,
the Akbaytal'skoyeand Sarykol'skoye uplifts, the Rangkul'-Aksuyskaya
region of relative downwarping. For such large structural elements located
' in the South as the Vakhanskoye uplift, the Alichurskaya and Zorkul'ska.ya
Basins, the eastern parts of the Rushanskoye a*:d Southern Pamir uplifts,
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sublatitudinal strikes are characteristic. All of the positive structural
_ elements of Eastern Pamir experienced ascending movements in the
Quaternary time with amplitud e exceeding 2000 meters; the basins, just
as in Western Pamir experienced relative downwarpings.
On the whole, the investigated region was characterized in Quaternary
time but by the predomina.nce of intensive ascending movements, the scale
of which was 2000 to 3000 meters or more. The descending movements had
subordinate significance and were manifested in local sections. The
greatest intensity of movement was reached in Pamir, where their amplitudes
within the boundaries of the uplifts exceeded 2000 to 2500 meters every- -
where. In Tyan'-Shan' the ascending movements were most intense in the
eastern part of the Turkestan Ridge, and their amplitude reached 2500 m. .
In the Quaternary period, the differences in tectonic conditions between
We-ctern and Eastern Tyan'-Shan' continued to deepen: Western Tyan'-Shan'
experiesiced intensive differentiated movements, and Eastern Tyan'-Shan'
developed on the whole as a single bloek. During this time just as in
the pre-Quaternary time, an --'mportant role in the tectonics of Pamir and
Tyan'-Shan' was played by the abyssal fracture zones. Breaking up the
entire earth's crust into blocks, they to a great extent determined the
nature of the tectonic development of Che territory. Usually these are
steeply dipping reverse thrust faults, the amplitudes of the displacement
along which vary within broad limita in time and in space. The ma3ority
of them are of ancient occurrence, and only the Pamir-H.imalayan abyssal
- fracture zone began to be fixed in the Mesozoic. The strike of the
abyssal fractures is predomina.ntly Tyan'-Shan' in accordance with the
general structural plan, but some of them have transverse, anti-Tyan'-
Shan' strike. The most intensive movements of the Quaternary time occurred
along the Darvaz-Karakul', Talaso-Fergan and the Pamir-Himalayan abyssal
fracture zones. The lea.st active were the Central Tyan'-Shan' fractures.
In the Quaternary history of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan' ob.viously the trans-
verse regional dislocations with a break in continuity begin to acquire
important significance, which can be combined into two systems: of
northwestern and northeastern strikes. For the western part of Tyan'-Shan',
the fractures of northeasterly strikes parallel to the Western Tyan'-Shan'
abyssal fracture are characteristic, and for the eastern part, northwesterly,
parallel to the Talaso-Fergan fracture. The anti-Tyan'-Shan' regional
dislocations are fixed well in thestructure of the region from the
Pleistocene. Part of them are clearly isolated by the geological data,
and others, predominantly in Central Tyan'-Shan', are established both -
_ by geological and geophysical methods of investigation [4, 111.
The transverse dislocat3ons with a break in continuity attract attention
by their high modern tectonic aetivity. Thus, in the western part of the
Tyan'-Shan' (the regions of the Turkestan and the Zeravshanakiy Ridges),
all of the terrace complexes are shifted along them. In Central
Tyan'-Shan', in particular in the eastern part of the Issyk-Kul' Basin,
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they are fixed predominantly by geophysical methods. In addition, accord-
ing to our observations, the displacements of the planation surface formed
at the end of the Pliocene and also the discharges of thermal, radon and
sulfuratted water are connected with them. A number of "trenches" are
associated with one of the transverse zones at the bottom of the
Tyupskiy Bay. These trenches are traced along both of its shores in the
form of small bays. The occurrence and the development of anti-Tyan'-Shan'
regional fractures in the Quaternary period permits the conclusion that
at the present *_ime the previously -~ormed structural plan of Tyan'-Shan'
is being rearranged.
The MohoroviYic Discontinuity Relief. The new version of the schematic
of the M discontinuity relief is based on seismologic data. The procedure
used here was described in detail earlier [5], and it is not considered
in this paper. When compiling the new schematic, the data from the results
of reeording two large industrial blasts in the vicfnity of Alma-Ata
when building the dam at Medeo and in the western part of the region
were used. The data from recording the blasts at the seismic stations of
Central Asia made it possible to obtain more reliable information about
the deviations of the times of arrival of the waves at the station from
the averaging holograph. Just as before, these deviations were corrected
at the expense of hypsometric altitudes of the location of the stations,
and the change in travel time of the waves in the sedimentary series.
In addition to the reference blasts, the materials from recording some of
the earthquakes in Central Asia and adjacent regions within the limits of
the epicentral distances to 800 km were used. When analyzing the
results of the observations, the data from the temporary stations of the
Complex Seismological Expedition (KSE) of the Earth Physics Institute of
the USSR Academy of Sciences which worked on the seismic regionalization
of the hydraulic engineering sites of Central Asia were also taken into
account. These studies performed from 1963 to 1976 in the Pyandzh,
Vakhsh, Ili, Charyn, Chilik river bas3ns and the Naryn River valley
significantly expanded our ideas about the nature of the structure of the
M discontinuity. In addition, in the Pyandzh River basin, observations
were also made in the territory of Afghanistan, which permitted us to
obtain a number of determinations of the thickness of the earth's crust
also for its northern part. Since the stations of the Complex Seismologi-
cal Expedition of the Earth Physics Institute of the USSR Academy of
Sciences operated pr.imarily in the boundaries of the mountainous part of
Central Asia, for estimation of the variation in thiclaiesses of occurrence
of the M discontinuity in adjacent parts of Southern Kazakhstan, pub-�
lished Lources were also used [3, 8, 9, 10]. The deep seismic sounding
data were gridded with the seismological data in overlapping sections in
Northern Tyan'-Shan'. It must be noted that an insignif icant number of
deep seismic sounding observation points were used for this region (about
15).
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When studying the times of deviations from the average hodogi-aph for the
entire territory of Central Asia the velocity at the M discontinuity
was taken equal to 7.95 to 8.05 km/sec. These velocities obtained by
counter blast observation systems do not contradict the previously pub-
lished data on the value of the boundary velocity and the foot o� the
crust. The mean wave velocity in the crust considering corrections for
the sedimentary series wes taken at 6.0-6.1 km/sec. Its values were
also cYecked by earthquakes with different depth of center in Northern
Tyan'-Shan', in the Garm region and in the lower cour5e of the Naryn
River. The numerous data on the Lg wave propag3tion in different direc-
tions from the earthquake center are additional evidence of the correct-
ness of its estimate. The interference wave obviously quite well
characterizes the mean velocitX in the earth's crust cZose to 3.53 km/sec
at distances to 800 lan. This does not provide grounds for proposing the
presence of a significant difference in the mean velocities of the
volumetric waves in the crust. The Pg interference wave, which in prac-
tice has a velocity of 6.0-6.2 km/sec in alI directions also indicates
constancy of the mean velocity of the earth's crust.
The new map (Fig 2) differs significantly from the previously published
one with high substantiation. Wh-eYeas its first version was constructed
by approximately 400 values, for the investigated version about 700 were
used. The number of observation points in the eastern part of Northern
Tyan'-Shan', in the Tadzhik depression, in the northern part of
Afghan3;stan and the northern border of the Fergan Basin was increased
s ignif icantly .
- On the new diagram it is clearly obvious that the predominant strikes of
the structural elements of the rl discontinuity are sublatitudinal,
Tyan'-Shan'. Within the boundaries of Tyan'-Shan' it is possible to
isolate two belts of increased thickness of the earth's crust (more than
50 km) separated by a zone of shallow depths of occurrence of the M dis-
continuity. The individual structural elements of the M discontinuity
relief in the majority of cases also have Tyan'-Shan'. strike. However,
the uplifts and the basins of anti-Tyan'-Shan' strike, for example, in
the vicinity of the Talasskaya Basin, the Chatka.lo-Kuraminskaya Oblast,
the Kindiktasskiy Mountains, and the central part of Issyk-Kul' are noted.
In the M discontinuity relief it is also possible to isolate proposed
fracture zones which are established by a sharp increase in horizontal
thickness gradients of the earth's crust. Just as the other structural
elements, they are primarily Tyan'-Shan' strike, but fractures of anti-
Tyan'-Shan', northeasterly and northwesterly strikes are noted among them.
In Pamir the pattern of thickness isolines of the earth's crust in
general emphasizes the submeridional structural plan. Unfortunately,
the data available at the present time permit a schematic of the M dis-
continuity relief to be compiled for all of Pamir, and they characterize
ita western part. On the whole, a trend is noted toward an increase in
thickness of the earthYS crust in the direction from west to east,
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Relation of Quaternary Tectonic Movem;ents to the Abyssal Structure. In
reference [5] a comparison wa.s made between the ancient and modern tec-
tonics and the M discontinuity relief. Since the new M system does not
have theoretical differences from the'previous ly compiled system, it is
inexpedient to make such a comparison again. Therefore in this article
the M discontinuity relief is considered only in connection with the nature
of the Quaternary tectonic movements of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan'. A compari-
son of �he tectonic movements occurring in the last':million years with
the structure of the earth's crust was made first. With respect to
nature of the Quaternary movements within the boundaries of the investi-
gated territory it is possible to isolate three large regions which
differ with respect to development and structure Eastern Tyan'-Shan',
Western Tyan'-Shan' and Pamir. They have also different abyssal struc-
ture, but at the same time they have some common features of the M dis-
continuity relief. Thus, the Tyna'-Shan' strikes of the basic structural
elements clearly predominate with subordinate value of the anti-Tyan'-
Shan' strikes, and in Pamir the transverse submeridional zonality clearly
appears which is characteristic of the latest phase of development of
this region. Another current feature is the block structure of the
earth's crust of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan'. Here in the overwhelming majority
of cases there is a relation between the movement of the blocks of the
earth's crust in the Quaternary time and its thickneas. The most uplifted
blocks correspond also to the greatest depths of occurreace of the M dis-
cnntinuity, and the subsided ones, the least. However, in a number of
cases the inverse relations are also noted. The abyssal fracture zones
actively separating the tectonic blocks which d eveloped in Quaternary
time in many cases are completely or partially traced in the M discon-
tinuity relief.
The most complex relation between the M discontinuity relief and the
vertical Quaternary tectonic movements is noted in the eastern part of
Tyan'-Shan', which was developed by a single large block. Within its
boundaries positive and negative structural elements of higher orders
were formed. From the Narth along the Northern Tyan'-Shan', Alma-Ata
and Zailiyskiy abyssal fracture zones the Chuyskaya and Iliyskaya Basins
and also the uplif t of the Kindiktasskiy Mountains aeparating them, which
are quite clearly expressed in the M discontiauity relief, are adjacent
to this block. The Chuyskaya.Sasin which on the whole has experienced
absolute downwarpings corresponds to reduced thickneas of the earth's
crust (about 35-40 1m), and the uplift of the Kindiktasskiy Mountains,
significant thicknesses reaching 60 km in the southeastern part.
The more complex relations of the Quaternary movements and the M discon-
tinuity relief are noted in the Tliyska.ya Basin. In its central, most
downwarped parts there are regions�.af "both-reduced (to 40:45 km) thickneas
of the earth's crust and increased to 55-60 km. Th.e region of abyssal
occurrence of the M discontinuity is in the ea.stern part of the Iliyskaya
Basin and includes the uplift of the Ketmen' Ridge. The system of up-
lifts of the Kirgiz, Zailiyskiy Alatau and Kungey Alatau Ridges located
south of the Chuyskaya and Iliyskaya Basins corresponds to a
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~ VL\ VL ~ iVtalJ NVL V~\Y~
significant increase in thickness.of the earth's crust to 65 1m in
the central part.
In the vicinity of the Kemino-Chilik Graben, in its Chilik sectiono the
depth of occurrence of the M boundary decreases sharply to 40-50 1m.
On the east end of the Zailiyskiy and Kungey Alatau Ridges the thickness
of the crust also reduces sharply. The presence here and on the west end
of the uplift of the Ketmen' Ridge of high thickness gradients of the
earth's crust permits the proposition of the existence of latentl. anti-
Tyan'-Shan' dislocations in the break in continuity of northwesterly
strike. The latent dislocation,s of the break in continuity separate a
comparatively narrow band of reduced thickness of the earth's crust
(45-50 1Qn) of northwesterly strike.
A characteristic structure distinguishes the region of the Issyk-Kul'
Basin relatively (and in the central part, possibly, also absolutely)
downwarped in Quaternary time. Here the thickness of the earth's crust
increases sharply to 60-65 km. In the western part of the basin the depth
of occurrence of the M discontinuity also decreases sharply to 45-50 kn,
and the region of the crust with reduced thickness elongated in the sub-
latitudinal direction is also isolated. In the southeasterly direction
from the Issyk-Kul' Basin there is a broad strip of increased (to 60-65 km)
of the crust traced to the Atbashskiy abyssal fracture zone; south of
the latter, there are no data on the depth of occurrence of the M discon-
tinuity. The mentioned strip intersects the system of uplifts of the
Terskey Alatau Ridge, which does not find expression in the M discontinuity
relief.
It must be noted that the positive:structural elements located south of
the system of uplifts of the Kirgiz, Zailiyskiy Alatau and the Kungey
Alatau Ridges in practice are not expressed in the.M discontinuity relief.
The small uplifts of the Taktalyk and the Kek-Iyrim-Too Ridges, the ampli-
tudes of the movements of which in the Quaternary time do not exceed
500 meters constitute an exception, but they are well expressed in the
M discontinuity relief, the depth of occurrence of which reaches 55-60 km
here. At the same time, in the basins of the western part of Central
Tyan'-Shan' significant decreases in the thickness of the earth's crust
are noted. The Ketmen'tyubinskaya, Susamyrskaya, Chayekskaya and
Naryn Basins correspond on the whole to a single uplift in the M discon-
tinuity relief, the depth of occurrence of which is minimal in the Naryn
Basin and is 40 to 45 lan.. This is the least thickness of the earth's
crust known in Central Tyan'-Shan'.
1By latent, we mean the structural elements well expressed in the M dis-
continuity relief, but not appearing on the earth's surface.
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In the western part of Tyan'-Shan' separated from the eastern zone of the
Talaso-Fergan abyssal fracture, in spite of"-.the mo re complex differentiated
Quaternary movement, the M discontinuity relief is somewhat simpler.
Even a tectonic suture which is active over the extent of the entire
geological history such as the Talaso-Fergan abyssal fracture in practice
is not expressed in the M discontinuity relief in the selected cross sec-
tion. Its structural elements are traced without displacement in both
limbs of the fracture. In exactlq the same way, the changes in thickness
of the earth's crust are also not connected-with the uplifts of the Talasskiy
and Fergan.Ridges next:to the fractures [7]. In this part of Tyan'-Shan',
- just as in the eastern part, significant relations of the Quaternary
tectonic movements and the M discontinuity relief are noted.
In the region of the Chatkalo-Kuraminskaya system of uplifte, a compara-'
tively small increase in thickness of the earth's crust to 50-55 1m is
observed, that is, it has the same value as in Che Talas Basin. Thus, the
system of uplifts for the maximum amplitudes of the ascending movements in
Quaternary time will be more than 1500 meters, and the basin, the ampli-
tude of movements of which does not exceed 500 m, are characterized by =
identical thicknesses of the ea.rth's crust, and they are not distinguished
with respect to the M discontinuity relief. In the direction of plunge of
the uplifts of the Chatka.lo-Ruraminskiy region the thickness of the crust
decreases sharply to 40-45 km along the abyasal fracture zone.
The M discontinuity relief in the Fergan Basin is highly characteristic.
In the central section, the thickness of the crust increases sharply to
55-60 lan. This region has a shape which is elongated in the sublatitudinal
direction; it is bounded from the North and the South by the latent dis-
locations with a break in continuity. In the western part the crust thick-
ness is somewhat less (50-55 lmn) , that is, the same as in the western part
of the Gissaro-Alayskaya system of uplifts. In the extreme eastern part
of the basin only the thickness of the crust characteristic for the stru---
tural elements 40-45 km is noted.
A clear relation between the Fergan Basin in the western part of Tyan'-Shan'
and the Naryn Basin in the East is detected by the M discontinuity relief.
The Gissaro-Alayskaya system of uplifts located south of the Fergan Basin
also corresponds to increased thickneas of the ear th's crust. The
intensive tectonic movements of this region, the amplitude ot which
exceeded 2500 meters in the central zone in the Quaternary time, have.
found reflection also in the M discontinuity relief. The thickness of
its:occurrence also reaches 60-65 lm here. Both the Tyan'-Shan' and the
anti-Tyan'-Shan' directions were reflected in the structure of the M die-
continuity. Occupying the central and eastern par ts of Gissaro-Alay,, the
region of increased thicknesses of the earth's crust (55-60 km) is
characterized on the whole by sublatitudinal strike, but its western
boundary is paral.lel to the anti-Tyan'-Shan' dislo cations with a break
in continuity which developed in the Pleistocene and the Holocene, and it
is possibly related to them. In the western part of Gissaro-Alay the
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Quaternary tectonic movements were less intense, and the thickness of
the earth's crust decreases here to 50-55 1m, respectively.
For the Tadzhik depression located south of Gissaro-Alay, a signif icant
decrease in thickness of the eaith's crust is characteristic. The
depression itself experienced relative downwarpings and, in places,
even absolute downwarp ings in Quaternary time. Sn the M discontinuity
relief it corresponds to the uplift, the central part of which coincides
with the most intensely downwarped region of the Tadzhik depression.
The depth of its occurrence wt.ll be 35-40 km here. In the articulation
zone of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan', a decrease in thickness of the earth's
crust to 50-55 1[a is observed. This is much less than in the adjacent
regions of Pamir and Gissaro-Alay. In the eastern part of the articula-
tion zone (the vicinity of the Alayskaya Basin) this reduction in thick-
ness of the earth's crust is not noted.
In Western Pamir where the intensity of the ascending Quaternary movements
is very great, the d epth of occurrence of the M discontinuity increases
sharply. However, no clear relation of the surface structure of the
- plan to the thickness of the earth's crust is noted. Only such large
structural elements as the Northern Pamir uplift, the amplitude of uplift
of which exceeded 2500 meters in Quaternary time f inds some reflection !
in the M discontinuity relief. This uplift is connected with an increase
in depth of its occurrence to 60-65 km and also an increase in the dimen-
sions of the region of great thicknesses of the crust. On the whole,
the M discontinuity r elief in the territory of Western Pamir has sub-
meridional zonality expressed in the fact that from West to East the
thickness of the earth's crust increases, and in the vicinity of the
Pamiro-Himalayan abyssal fracture zone it reaches 65 lan or more. Un-
fortunately, the data on the M discontinuity in Eastern Pamir is unavail- _
able; therefore it does not appear possible to talk about general laws
for all of Pamir.
A comparison of the surface structure of tYie plan formed in the Quaternary
period with the structural plan of the M discontinuity will permit isola-
tion of large tectonic blocks which have developed in the entire volume
of the earth's crust in�:the investigated region.
In the eastern part of Tyan'-Shan' in the North is the Chu-Iliyskiy block
which belongs to the slightly activated part of the epipaleozoic platform.
On the South it is bounded by the Northern Tyan'-Shan', Alma-Ata and the
Zailiyskiy abyssal fracture zones. For this block, in spite of its
significant differentiation, the descending Quaternary movements and com-
paratively shallow depths of occurrence of the M discontinuity are
characteristic in general.
South of Chu-Iliyskiy, the Northern Tyan'-Shan' block is isolated, within
the boundaries of wh ich there are a number of large uplifts and basins.
On the whole, in Quaterriary time it experienced intensive uplift, and the
thickness of the ea.rth's crust reaches significant values here.
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Southwest of Northern Tyan'-Shan' is the Naryno-Fergan block the
most complex with respect to structure. Such large basins of Tyan'-Shan'
as Naryn and Fergan an3 also the uplifts of the Chatkalo-Kuraminskaya
Mountain system are isolated here. With respect to nature of the M dis-
continuity relief, the regions located on both sides of the Talaso-Fergan
abyssal fracture belong to this block, but the data on the structure of
the M discontinuity indicate that at least at the present time this frac-
ture does not play a significant role in the abyssal structure of the
earth's crust. Within the boundaries of the Naryn-Fergan block the thick-
ness of the crust varies within quite broad limits from 49-50 to
55-60 km, but on the whole the occurrence of the M discontinuity is pre-
- dominantly shallow here.
The Gissaro-Alayskiy block located to the South and separated from the
Naryno-Fergan block by the Southern Fergan abyssal.fracture zone is
cha.racterized by grea.t thicknesses of the earth's crust. At the same time
the intensity of the latest and the Quaternary movements here was signif-
icant. Thus, in this block the relation of the surface deformations of
the earth and the M discontinuity is normal, just as in the other, Tadzhik
block, the surface structure of which corresponds to the Tadzhik depres-
sion. Here the regions of relative downwarping, and in places, even
absolute downwarping, correspond to a sharp decrease in thickness of the
earth's crust. The most downwarped part of the depression also
corresponds to the minimum depth of occurrence of tha M discontinuity.
To the East of the Tadzhik block, separated from it and from the Gissaro-
Alay block by the Darvaz-Karakul'skiy abyssal fracture zone is the
tectonic block of Western Pamir. This block, which in this part of Asia
experienced the most intense Quaternary ascending tectonic movements is
characterized also by the greatest thicknesses of the earth's crust. It
is entirely possible that further studies of Pamir will permit estimation
of the structure of the M discontinuity even in its eastern part. It is
possible to expect that it will be isolated as an independent tectonic
block inasmuch as the nature of its development in the modern and
specially Quaternary time differ sharply from that in the western part of
Pamir, and it differs fram the latter by the largest abyssal fracture zone
in Asia, the Pamiro-Himalayan.
Thus, by the data from studying the Quaternary tectonic and the structure
of the M discontinuity within the boundartes- of Tyan'-Shan' and Pamir
it is possible to isolate six large blocks of the earth's crust distin-
guished by geological structure and development: the various relations
between the direction and intensity of the Quaternary tectonic movements,
the thickness of the earth's crust, and so on. Aowever, they are also
characterized by a general law the more intense and stable the Quaternary
ascending movements, the greater the depths of occurrence of the M dis-
continuity corresponding to them, and vice versa.
In recent years, with the development of the procedure of seismologic
investigation, studies have been made of the horizontal nonuniformities
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of the upper mantle. In Tyan'-Shan' and Pamir the given problem has been
the subject of papers by L. P. Vinnik and A. A. Lukk [1, 2]. The authors
of these papers compiled schematics of tlie lateral variations of the
propagation rate of the longitudinal wave in the upper mantle and they
made an effort to compare them with the latest tectonic movement and the
relief of this part of Asia. Such systems with some generalizations and
additions in Pamir made by the authors o# the given article are presented
in Fig 3.
It was noted above that the relations of the surface structure of the
earth's crust and the M discontinuity relief in Tyan'-Shan' and Pamir
are complex and varied. In a number of cases, the structural element of
the ea.rth's surface and the foot of the crust do not have mutual
correspondence or expression. Therefore direct comparison of the latest
tectonic movements and horizontal nonuniformities of the upper mantle
is highly possible without considering the structure�of the intermediate
layer the deep horizons of the earth's crust. Unfortunately, the data
on the variations of the mean propagation rate of the longitudinal waves
in the upper mantle only exist for parL- of the described territory, which
does not permit discovery of the general relations between the horizontal
nonuniformities of the upper mantle, the structure and the latest develop-
ment of the earth's crust for the entire region. However, a comparison
of even these available materials is of significant interest.
In Central and Northern Tyan'-Shan' in the upper 150 km of mantle, depend-
ing on the nature of propagation of the longitudinal waves, regions of
high, low and intermediate velocities are isolated (see Fig 3). A compar-
ison of them with the latest structural plan has demonstrated the follow-
ing [1]. The regions of high velocities in the plan coincide with the
largest depressions of this part of Tyan'-Shan': Iliyskaya and
Issylc1cul'skaya. The low velocity reg-Lons extend toward the intensely
developed uplifts of the Kungey Alatav., Zailiyskiy Alatau, Terskey Alatau,
Kokshaaltau and Kirgiz Ridges, and the intermediate longitudinal wave
velocities are noted both in the vic initiea of the depressions and the
uplifts. However, this is not a general law. In the large depressions
Chuyskaya and Naryn intermediate and not high longitudinal wave
velocities are characteristic for the upper mantle; the same velocities
are also characteristic of the regions of such large uplifts as the
Atbashskiy Ridge, the western end of the Terskey Alatau Ridges the system
of uplifts of the Dzhumgal-Too Ridge, and so on. In addition, the regions
of high velocity do not wholly encompass the Iliyskaya and the Issykkul'skaya
Basins,but only parts of them; the regions of low velocities, in exactly
the same way do not completelq correspond to the uplifts with which they
are associated.
More def ined laws appea.r when compar ing the horizontal nonuniformities of
the upper mantle with the structural plan formed as a result of the
Quaternary vertical tectonic movements and with the M discontinuity relief.
Here it turns out that the regions of high velocities explictly extend to
the sections of the large basins in wh3ch the increased thickness of the
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earth's crust is noted, for example, the western and eastern parts of the
Iliyskaya Basin and the eastern part of Issyk-Kul'. The regions of low
velocities of the longitudinal waves are also connected with an increase
in thickness of the earth's crust, but in combination with the intense '
ascending tectonic movements, especially the end of the Quaternary period.
In cases where the depressions or parts of them correspond to a decrease
in thickness of the crust (for example, the Naryn, the Chuyskaya, the
central part of the Iliyskaya, westem part of Issyk-Rul'), in the regions
of the upper mantle corresponding to them, intermediate longitudinal
wave velocities are observed. The same values of the longitudinal wave
velocities are fixed in the regions of the uplifts,in the case where
reduced thicknesses of the earth's crust correspond to them, as is noted
for a number of intensely developing positive structural elements which
we have discussed earlier.
If the discovered law is weak for all of Tyan'-Shan', then on the-general
level it is possible to expect that the central part of the Fergan Baein
will correspond to the region of high Iongitudinal wave velocities; the
Tadzhik depression will correspand to intermediate; the central and eastern
parts of Gissaro-Alay will correspond to low. It is necessary to note
that in Ceatral and Northern Tyan'-Shaa' the transverse anti-Tyan'-Shan'
directions are expressed in the horizontal nonuniformities of the upper
mantle much worse than in the M discontinuity relief.
In the vicinity of the Alpine geosynclinal, in Pamir, the average propaga-
tion rates of the longitudinal waves ia the upper mantle is approximately
2 to 3% higher than in Tyan'-Shan', which undoubtedly is connected with
the peculiarities of the development of this region. However, j ust ae in
Tyan'-Shan', it is possible to isolate regions of relatively high, low
and intermediate loagitudinal wave velocities (Fig 3). For clarity and
convenience of comparison these three qualitative relations both in Pamir
and in Tyan'-Shan' are indicated in unique provisional notation independent
of the absolute magnitudes of the velocities. This is also caused by the
fact that when discovering the general laws of the geologically
heterogeneous territories it ia more expedient to uae the relative char-
acteristics permitting estimation notR.only of the differences, but also
similarity.
In Pamir, in contrast to Tyan'-Shan' between the surface structure of the
earth's crust, the M discontinuity relief and the horizontal nonuniformi-
ties of the upper mantle no relatiost;,ig:~obseY'ved. Probably this arises
from the xearrangement of the structural level of the described region
taking place in the latest, especially in Quaternary time, in which the
predominant role began to be played by meridional directions. Thus, the
Pamiro-Himalayan abyssal fracture zone which developed actively in the
earth's crust and penetrates deeply into the mantle, cuts the focal region
of the Pamir-Gindukushskiy deep earthqua.kes, separating it into two parts
Murgabskaya and Khoroggkaya [6]. Obviously the separation of the
regions of intermediate longitudinal wave velocities in the upper wantle
77
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is connected with it. This again confirms the abyssal nature of the
rearrangement of the structural level occurring in Pamir in latest time
and the significance of the Pamiro-Himalayan fracture zone in the develop-
ment not only of the earth's crust,.but also significantl}r deeper horizons.
In addition, the general location of the regions with different longitud-
inal wave velocities in the upper'mantle, their f orm in plan, the out-
lines of the boundaries also confirm the proposition of the existence in
the mantle of ineridional zonality to depths of 200-250 km.
In spite of the sharp differences in development, Pamir and Tyan'-Shan'
have a common important feature: the abyssal fracture zones (with the
exception of the Pamir-Aimalayan zone.) which are quite clearly expressed
in the M discontinuity relief are not isolated in the upper mantle accord-
ing to the data on the variations of the longitudinal wave velocities.
Penetrating into the mantle, they clearly damp, not reaching depths of
150 to 250 km for which the determinations of the longitudinal wave
velocities were made.
Thus, the analysis of a new schematic of the M discontinuity relief and
comparison of it with the modern structural level and the Quaternary
tectonic movements as a whale confirm the basic conclusions drawn by the
authors earlier [5]. The appearance of a large number of new seismologic
data permitted highly reliable estimation of the peculiarities of the
abyssal structure of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan'. In particular, they conf irm
the block structure of the earth's crust of this region. The large tec-
tonic blocks are bounded by the vertical and subvertical abyssal fracture
zones penetrating into the mantle and completely or partiallq expressed
in the M discontinuity relief. By the geo].ogical data, the abyssal frac-
tures in the majority of cases have developed since the beginning of the
Paleozoic or even since the Pre-Cambrian. This permits the proposition
that the separatiun of the earth's crust of the described region into a
number of large bounded blocks began in the Phanerozoic. The existence of
horizontaY submeridional compression during the period of formation of
the blocks obviously determined their linear sublatitudinal elongation.
Each of the tectonic blocks is complicated by a large structural complex
consolidated at a different time.
The studies of recent years have made it possible quantitatively to
estimate the intensity of the tectonic movement of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan'
in Quaternary time. A comparison of them with the M discontinuity relief
offered the possibility of discovering the basic laws of development of
the earth's crust in its entire volume in the last million years. The
tectonic development of this region in the Pleistocene and the Holocer_e
occurred on the whole inherited; the structural plan did not change sig-
nificantly by comparison with the Neogenic part of the activation stage.
The performed comparison conf irmed the existeace of a defined relation
between the nature of the movementsz-of �the isolated blocks of the
earth's crust and the M discontinuity relief. The blocks with high
intensity of the ascending movements also correspond to great Chicknesses
of the earth's crust, and vice versa, the thinnest crust characterizes
79
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the block expressing the predominantly descending movements. However, the
effectiveness of the Quaternary movements, just as the latest on the whole
is connected with the consolidation time. The blocks consolidated in the
early stages are characterized by less intense movements and, as a ruley
they have a thinner crust.
Thus, the thickness of the earth's crust and the nature of the tectonic
movements in the general case can indicate the consolidation time af one
block or another. At the same time the interrelations of the tectonic
movements and the M discontinuity relief are very complex and varied:
the increase in thickness of the earth's crust does not correspond to any
uplift on the surface, and the decrease does not correspond to any
depressi4n. The most clearly inverse relation (the uplift is the thin
crust, the depression, thick) is expressed in the central parts of the
Fergan, ?liyskaya and Issyk-Kul' Basins where the depth of occurrence of
the M discontinuity increases sharply and also in the Chatkalo-Kuraminskaya
Mountain system of uplifts where the thiclrness of the earth's crust
decreases significantly. The uplifts of the Fergan and the Talas Ridges
actively developing in the latest and Quaternary time in general are not
expressed in the M discontinuity relief.
It is known that during the entire Mesozoic and the greater part of the
Paleogene in Tyan'-Shan', the platform conditions existed, and the terri-
tory of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan' was leveled. At that time the earth's crust
was in a state of isostatic equilibrium and, what is characteristic of
the platforms, should have had comparatively small and sustained thickness.
Consequently, the modern M discontinuity relief was formed as a result of
the endogenic activation beginning at the end of the Paleogenic and subse-
quent intense tectonic movements of the NPOgenic-Quaternary time. It
appears that there is a continuous relation between the processes causing
deformation of the M discontinuity and the tectonic movements expressed
in the surface structure. If this is so, it is possible to state that the
deformatton of the M discontinuity occurred not continuously, but just as
in modern times, there were periods of yuiet or deformations of inverse
signs even occurred. The latter phenomenon probably is characteristic of
the eastern part of Tyan'-Shan,' wher e at the end of the Pliocene, the
ascending movements were replaced by descending movements, and with the
beginning of the Pleistocene, the ascending movements again sharply pre-
daminated.
Thus, the M discontinuity relief was formed obviously basically in a
comparatively short time during the Quaternary period, that is, it is
possible to talk about variation in structure of the entire earth's crust
in geological res?ects in this part of Asia. An important characteristic
feature of the Quaternary history of the investigated territory is the
development of anti-Tyan'-Shan' structural elements. In the surface
structure they began to be fixed only in the beginning of the Pleistocene,
but are clearly isolated in the M discontinuity relief. At the same time
80
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~
there are structural elements, in particular, the Talaso-Fergan abyssal
fracture zone which actively developed during the entire activation phase,
but nevertheless were not expressed in the M discontinuity relief. In
addition, the existence of latent dislocations of the break in continuity
and other structural elements not manifested in the surface structure is
noted.
All of this permits th.e proposition that in Quaternary time the process of
rearrangement of the structural plan of the earth's crust of Pamir and
Tyan'-Shan' takes place. Here an important role begins to be played by
the transverse anti-Tyan ' Shan' directions. Inasmuch as the rates of the _
ascending movements constantly 3.ncrease from early Pleistocene to the
Holocene, it is possible to assume that the intensity of the arrangement
also increases. It is entirely possible that the occurrence of the rela-
tions for which the uplifts correspon(l to small thicknesses of the earth'a
crust and the basins, large ones, is also connected with rearrangement.
A comparison of the latest structural plan, the M discontinuity relief
an3 the horizontal nonuniformities of the upper mantle has demonstrated
the following. In Northern and Central Tyan'-Shan' the lateral variations
of the longitudinal wave propagation rates in the upper mantle are caused
by the structure of the earth's crust as a whole, determining the sub-
latitudinal Tyan'-Shan' directions with weakly expressed anti-Tyan'-Shan'.
yn Pamir the picture is somewhat different. The horizontal nonuniformities
of the mantle at depths of 200-250 km confirm the submeridional directions
here which are characteristic of the rearrangement taking place and
clearly manifested in the M discontinuity relief; in the surface structure
of the earth's crust they are almost not expressed. The difference in
abyssal structure of these two regions can be caused both by the fact that
in Pamir the rearrangement takes place more intensely than in Tyan'-Shan'
and by the fact that it began there earlier, possibly in the Paleogenic
with general endogenic activatfon of the tectonic movements or even at
the end ol the Mesozoic.
Thus, it is posaible to draw.the conclusion that tree generation of large
structural forms of the earth's crust in this part of Asia is taking place
in the upper mantle at:depths of no less than 200-250 ?cm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Vinnik, L. P.; Lukk, A. A. "Aorizontal Nonuniformities of the
Upper Mantle in the Regions of Platform Activation of Central Asia,"
IZV. AN SSSR. FIZIKA ZEMLI [News of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Earth Physics], No 7, 1975, pp 15--29.
2. Vinnik, L. P.; Lukk, A. A.; Mirzokurbanoy,.M.. "Quantitative Analysis
of the Velocity Nonuniformities of the Upper Mantle of Pamiro-
Gindukush," IZV. AN SSSR. FIZIKA ZEMI,I, No 5, 1918, pp 3-15.
81
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3. ZEMIVAYA KORA I VERKHIYAYA MANTIYA SRIDNEY AZII [Earth's Crust
and Upper Mantle of Central Asia], edited by I. Kh. Khamrabayev,
Moscow, Nauka, 1977.
4. Knauf, V. I. "Abyssal-Block Nature of the Structure of Tyan'-Shan',"
TRUDY UPRAVLENIYA GEOLOGII I OKHRANY NEDR PRI SM KIRGSSR
[Works of the Administration of Geology and Conservation of Minerals
under the Council of Ministers of the Kirgiz SSR], No 2, 1962.
5. Krestnikov, V. N.; Nersesov, I. L. "Tectonic Structure of Pamir
and Tyan`-Shan' and Its Relation to the MohoroviciE Discontinuity
Relief," SOV. GEOLOGIYA [Soviet Geology], No ll, 1962, pp 36-69.
6. Krestnikov, V. N.; Shtange, D. V. "Pamir-Himalayan Abyssal Fracture
Zone," IZV. AN SSSR. FIZIKA ZEMLI, No 7, 1977, pp 16-26.
7. Krestnikov, V. N.; Shtange, D. V. "Quaternary Aistory and Seismicity
of the Talas-Fergan Abyasal Fracture Zone," IZ V. AN SSSR. FIZIKA
Z04LI, No 6, 1979, pp 31-46.
- 8. KuniR, N. Ya.; Ivanov, A. P.; Shatsilov, V. I. "Abyssal Structure
of the Earth's Crusto" GEOLOGIYA SSSR [Geology of the USSR], Vol 40,
Moscow, Nedra, 1971.
9. Kunin, N. Ya.; Shatsilov, V..I.; Ivanov, A. P. "Abyssal Structure of
Southern Kazakhstan Accordimg to the Results of Deep Seismic Sound-
ing," BYUL. MOIP. OTD. GEOL. [Moscow Society of Naturalists Bulletin,
Geology Division], No 6, 1970, pp 53-66.
10. Pushka.rev, I. K.; Ivanov, A. P.; Shatsilov, V. I. "Abyssal Seismic
Studies by the Arys'-Balkhash Profile," GEOFZZICHESKIYE
ISSLEDOVANIYA V KAZAIQiSTANE [Geophysical-Studies in Kazakhstan],
Alma-Ata, 1968, pp 43-47.
11. Rezvoy, D. P. "Anti-Tyan'-Shan' Structural Direction of the
Tectonics of Central Asia," GEOL. SB. L'VOVSKOGO GEOL. 0-VA
[Geological Collection of the L'vov Geological Scciety], No 9,
Moscow, Nedra, 1965.
12. Krestnikov, V. N.; Belousov, T. P.; Yermilin, V. I., et al.
CIiETVERTICHNAYA TEKTONIKA PAMIRA I TYAN'-SHANya [Quaternary Tectonics
- of Pamir and Tyan'-Shan'], Moscow, Nauka, 1979.
COPYRIGHT; Izdatel'stvo "Nedra" Sovetskaya geologiya, 1980
[8144/1433-108451
10845 -END-
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