JPRS ID: 9158 USSR REPORT PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

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JPRS L/9158
20 June 1980
~
~JSSR Re ort
_ p
PHYSICS AND N~ATHEMATICS
CFOUO 6/80)
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JPRS L/9158 _
20 June 1980
- USSR REPORT
J PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS
(FOUO 6/80)
CONTENTS
CRYSTALS AND SEMICO~IDUCTORS
Magneto-Optic Effects in Ferromagnetic Materials 1
FLUID DYNAMICS
Gas and Wave Dynamics 12
Problems of Flow Around Bodies With Three-Dimensional
Configuration 14
NiJCLEAR PHYS I CS
Radiation Damage in Refractory Compounds 16
Prospects for Using Relativistic Electron Beams in Industrial
Processes 20
OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY -
Proceedings of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, Topical -
Collection, P'hysical Optics 35
TfiERMODYNAMI CS
Porous Materials in Cryogenic Equipment.,....~,,.,.,.,~,,...~...,, 40
' a- [III - USSR - 21H S&T FOUO]
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CRYSTALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
UDC 538.61 -
MAGNETO-OPTIC EFFECTS IN FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
~ Moscow VESTNIK AKADErIII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 2,1980 pp 15-23
[Article by Doctor of Physicomathematical Sciences G. S. Krinchik]
[Text] The development of magneto-optics began with the discovery of the
effect of rotation of the light polarization plane in glass placed in a
magnetic field, disc~~ered by Faraday in 1845. Since that time this scien-
tific direction has studied the characteristics of light interaction with
magnetized material. Classical magneto-optics mainly investigated phenom-
ena related to light and was essentially a section of optics. Problems of
classical magneto-optics were exhausted at the beginning of our century
and it turned out that this section of science was completed.
- The second stage in development of magneto-optics began in the 1950s when a
new approach arose to study of the interaction of light and matter: the
derived information began to be used to investigate the structure of the
material itself--a magnetically ordered crystal. This problem can already
- be related to the physics of magnetic phenomena (although magneto-optics is
_ actually at the junction of physical optics and magnetism). In the 1950s
this section of physics began to be developed at MGU [Moscow State Univer-
sity imeni Lomonosov] with regard to the problem of investigating magnetic-
ally ordered crystals from the results of the interaction of light, passing
through or reflected from them, with these crystals. -
riagneto-optic spectroscopy should primarily be distinguished in the indi-
cated section of magneto-optics. The problem of investigating a magnetic-
ally ordered crystal can be postulated in a manner similar to how main data
on the structure of the atom and on the arrangement of electron energy lev-
els are found from optical spectra, by observing the dependence of some
magneto-optic effect on the wavelength of light, thus finding the natural
frequencies and identifying them with the electron energy spectrum in the
magnetically ordered crystal.
When setting up these investigations, many scientists felt that it would be
impossible to find natural frequencies in the continuous spectrum due to the
1 .
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complexity of tl:e energy structure of the crystal. Investigations of '
FIAN [Physics Institute imeni P. N. Lebedev of the USSR Academy of Sciences]
in the field of inetal-optics and of MGU in the field of the magneto-optics
of inetals dispersed these doubts. Because of improvement in the method of
investigations and the progress achieved in understanding the structure of
r~etals, it was possible to find the natural frequencies and to identify them
~aith characteristic interband intervals.
_ Discovery of the nontrivial effect of variation of reflected light intensity
during rotation of the magnetization vector in a crystal was of important
significance. ~^ihen the magnetization vector is rotated with respect to
crystallographic axes, the band spectrum varies and this leads to variation
of the reflection coefficient. Because of the fact that the variations oc- _
cur at strictly specific locations of the Brillouiun zone, the spectrum is
well structured and clearly marked natural frequencies are observed in it.
For example, the transitiorbf 0.3 eV was identified with that between the
exchange-split bands (Fiqure 1) for the best studied ierromagnetic material
--classical nickel. Thus, one can immediately conclude that the main param-
eter of ferromagnetic material--exchange splitting--is eqv.al to 0.3 eV for
nickel.
Magneto-optical spectroscopy has the following advantages over ordinary
optics: first, it is based on the differential effect--variation of the re-
flection coefficient during field modulation is measured and therefore it is
easier to observe the characteristics of the crystal structure on magneto-
optic spectra than when measuring the total reflection coefficient; second,
the sians of magneto-optic effects depend on the sign of the electron spin
in the sub-band where ontical transition occurs, which permits determination
of this s.ib-band.
A model of the electron structure of nickel with reverse order of levels
was proposed on the basis of this information. It was previously assumed
that nickel has the same structure as its neighbor--copper, in which the
~l.ectrun conduction band at the L-point is located above the d-elec-
trc~n Land. To explain our experiment we had to reverse the order
of the sequence of the bands and to create a model with reverse order of
levels (Figure 2). The hole pocket in the vicinity of the L-point disap-
peared and some other effects appeared which were later confirmed in Fermi
experiments. The model of ferromagnetic nickel with reverse order of levels
and exchancte splitting of 0.3 eV is now the generally accepted model.
Easily distinguishable transitions which can be identified with a specific ~
distance between levels and from which we can reconstruct the electronic _
structure of the investigated crystal, are always visible on the magneto- -
optic spectra in magnetically ordered dielectrics: ferrite-garnets,
fer.rite-spinels and orthoferrites.
Tlle narrow ion lines of rare-earth metals, for example trivalent-europium
or terbium placed in a magnetically ordered ferrite-garnet crystal, are
2
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_ _ . . - - - _ ~
~
` ~ I
E ~
_ ~
t
- ~ I
~
_ i
i
i
i
~ 1 ;i00 hi i
ho: ;~Ei I
~ - I
0~ 10 ~ ~
- I T=iS H
-0.5
- -
Figure 1. Orientation Magneto-Optic Effect (Variation of Reflected
Light Intensity During Rotation of Magnetizati~n Vector
Related to Variation of Zonal Structure) in a Single Crys-
tal of Nickel in the Plane (110). The maximum of G at
0.3 eV corresponds to optical transition between exchange
split bands.
manifested most clearly. In this case very many spectral lines are observed
within a small energy range and the spectrum varies sharply as a function of
the magnetic state of the crystal (Figure 3). For example, when the magnet-
ization vector in the crystal rotates (in a field on the order of several
oersteds), the absorption line of specific frequency can either be opened
or it can be completely closed. We call this effect the controlled optics
of a ferromagnetic crystal.
The narrow lines of rare-earth ions provide information about the spectrum
of rare-earth ions in magnetic crystals. The overall pattern of the magne-
to-optic spectral structure (from the ultraviolet to tlie infrared) of a
_ magnetic crystal is characterized primarily by allowed strong transitions
in the ultraviolet regio- which determine the magneto-optic properties of
crystals of important practical significance.
The absorption of ferromagnetic dielectrics decreases upon moving to the
visible and infrared regions of the spectrum--this is the region of the
magneto-optics of transparent ferromagnetic materials. The discovery of
transparent ferromagnetic materials in the 1950s and the onset of the
"laser era" provided an additional impetus to development of magneto-optics.
3
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I Q 6
I I -
I ~ ~a~~' ~
I - -
I
IEF EF
~ L~ ~ L? ~
z
- ~ ~ I
Figure 'l. Model of the Band Structure of Nickel With Reverse Order
of Levels--the 3 d- band (L32) is Located Above the 4 s-band
(L' 2): a--without regard to band hybridization; b--with
regard to band hybridization
The Faraday effect was studied in the zone of transparency on ferri tes-
garnets and other ferrodielectrics and later on the simplest materials them-
. selves. Far example, simple gadolinium glass is magnetized by a fie ld on
the order of inegagauss to the extent that its susceptibility at optical
frequencies leads to rotations of the polarization plane by hundreds of de- -
gress due to the garamagnetic gadolinium ions. Similar effects were also
observed in metals slthough the first experiments showed that they are low
in value. However, we have now found that, along with ordinary, normal
- suscentibility which can be calculated from the Landau-Lifshits equation,
anomalousl.y high susceptibility related to interesting character-
istics of the interaction of light with a magnetic crystal (for example,
excitation of spin waves) is sometimes observed. Thus, study of so-called
hydromagnetic magneto-optic effects will apparent.ly become an effective tool
for investigation of maqnetic crystals.
Practical use of transparent ferromagnetic materials is similar to the use
of magnetic crystals in the region of the SF~' hand (modulators, gyrators and
devices for controlling an electromagnetic radiation beam). Modulators, non-
reciprocal devices and magneto-optic waveguides--all devices necessary for
integrated optics on transparent magnetic crystals--are created from these
materials. Specifically, magneto-optic interference waG observed in a thin
magnetic garnet crystal: due to interference of the transmitted beams, mag-
netization of the crystal led to variation of the intensity of the 1 ight
passing through the crystal by 20 percent.
The efficiency of devices based on transparent ferromagnetic materials de-
pends on how rapidly the magnetic structure of the crystal reacts to varia-
tion of the external magnetic field. The effectiveness of control in mag-
netic terms is determined by the speed of the domain boundaries of ferromag-
netic materials. Record speeds of the interface between two domains in an
4
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~ c; 7
~ ~I
* I~
(I
3'n t ~ ~ 7
I I
~ i
2 _ ~ I
I ~
I I ,
2~~ I I
- ~ ~ I
~ II ~ I
I,S ~ ~ ~
II ~ 1
~ ~ I I
~.o - I ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~11
~
~ 1 1
O,s I ~ ~
- ~i
\
~
~ i i
4~.o asoo asso sooo so5o s~uo h~,,cM-~
Figure 3. Variation of Absorption Spectrum of Europium ~arnet Ferrite
in the Region of ~F~--~~F6 During Rotation of the Magnet-
ization Vector by 90� : curve 1--H~! [110] [001] ; 2--
H ~j [110) , e ~r [001] ; plane (110) ; H--magnetic field; e--
electric vector of linearly polarized light wave
external magnetic field were found at the Department of Magnetism of MGU.
The speed of the interface in an orthoferrite crystal reaches 20 km/s in
control fields on the order of 800 Oe. Z'he sound barrier was initially
passed, that is, the excitation of sound in the crystal,and then the spin
waves began to be excited, which led to a new delay in the increase of
speed in the interface. Investigations in this direction are now continu--
ing, but the speed of 20 km/s already achieved makes it possible to control
the light beam in magneto-optic oxthoferrite transparent materials with
short switching time.
The next question which characterizes the possibilities of magneto-optics
is investigation of the surface magnetic transformations in the crystals.
We recall that light penetrates to a depth of less than 0.1 micron in met-
als. Similarly, quasi-metallic reflection can be created in ferromagnetic
dielectrics by varying the wavelength of light (changing to the ultraviolet
region) and light can be forced to penetrate the crystal by no more than
0.1 micron. But since most magneto-optic effects are proportional to the
magnetization of a crystal, the unique possibility arises of investigatinq
the surface layer of the ferromagnetic material regard less of its volume.
This method of investigating surface magnetic properties, which we pro-
posed and developed, has already led to some important results.
5
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~ . -
o 4 +
m / + +-+-f--+-_.__~
.o + g +
5 /
+
i ~
/ ~+a-+-}~-{-i--~--+2
+
3 ~
j+~
~ ,
Q i--1-+~-+--{--1--f--~ ..+_~-L
I.O 1.5 2,0 2,5
_ ~ ~w.aD
Figure 4. Frequency Dependence of Equatorial Kerr Effect Proportional
to the Magnetization of the Surface Layer on Steel EP-838:
1--initial Electropolished specimen, annealing in a vacuum;
2--at T= 500�C; 3--at T= 940�C; 4--at T= 1,100�C.
First, the phenomenon of surface magnetism--spontaneous magnetic transform-
a~ion in the surface layer--was discovered. Due to the fact that the sym-
metry of circulation of magnetically active surface ions is different than
that in the volume, the magnetic structure should seemingly rearrange itself
only in the first atomic layer. However, because of the exchange interac-
tion between the first and adjacent layers, this disturbance is propagated
inside the crystal to typical depths on the order of 0.1-2 microns. A
macroscopic "cloak"--a surface layer--is created, surface magnetism occurs
and magnetic reconstruction of the surface domain occurs.
Rearrangement of the magnetic structure of hermatite to orthoferrite type
(the type of magnetic orderinq of another crystal) was first discovered by
using the magneto-optic method.
There are also simpler examples of important magnetic phase transformations
on the surface of ordinary crystals, ordinary steels and so on. As an illus-
tration one can cite the structural materials for thermonunlear reactors.
We carried out this work jointly with the Institute of Metallurgy imeni A. A.
Baykov of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Due to the fact that the austeniz-
ing additive evaporates in nonmaqnetic steel in a vacuum space with very
slight heating of the specimen (to 200�C), phase transition is completed in
the surface layer: the stPel changes from nonmagnetic austenitic to the
ferromagnetic state (F9.gure 4). The effect is absent in the initial state
or in the case of a polished surface of the specimen since there is nc mag-
netic phase on the surface.
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2 -
I
1,5 2,0 2,5
r. 0 ~ ~ ~ _
o f 0 ~ hw,3E
~ ~ 3
_ ~J - ? 2
+ +
-3 -
+
_4 \ /
~l ~
~
'6
F _5 ~ { * ~
,igure 5. Equatorial Kerr Effect Proporatioal to Magnetization of
Surface Layer. ZrNiH3 Compound Heated in Air at T= 200�C
for Three Hours: 1--in the absence of a field; 2--in a
permanent field (easy axis); 3--in a permanent field (diffi-
cult axis)
_ Thus, the method of diagnosis of materials designed for thermonuclear reac-
tors appeared. Moreover, the fact itself of formation o� a ferromagnetic
layer several microns thick during vacuum treatment or utilization of an
item is interesting. It was established that a ferromagnetic surface film
always forms in any nonmagnetic steel of the investigated type (chrome,
manganese or some other stainless steels) when they are treated in vacuum
tubes.
Another example of magnetic phase transformations was obtained when inves-
tigating ferromagnetic catalysts. The investigation was carried out jointly
with the chemistry department of idGU, where nickel-zirconium catalysts are
� bcing developed. It turned out that their activity varies with a time from
zero to some finite value. Chemists suggested that this is related to sep-
aration of nickel ori the surface of the initial nickel-zirconium nonmagnet-
ic system. This hypothesis was confirmed by investigations which we car-
ried out using the magneto-optic method. It turned out that there is n~ -
magnetic layer on the surface and there is no magneto-optic effect in the
initial state of nickel-zirconiwn nonmagnetic alloy. When the specimen is
heated in an active gas (the magnetic phase does not form in a vacuum ir~
this case), a layer appears which yields the typical magneto-optic curves
corresponding precisely to ferromagnetic nickel, that is, a ferromagnetic
layer which is the basis of the catalyzing component, is formed on the
surface.
When this process was investigated in an external magnetic field, it turned
out that it significantly affects the nature of formation of the magnetic
layer in the surface region (Figure 5). Specifically, the presence of a
magnetic fie13 during treatment of a catalyst makes the latter sharply
- anisotropic in the magnetic sense.
7 -
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A less understandable phenomenon is the effect of the magnetic field on
_ the rate of heterogeneous chemical reaction, for example, in carbonyliza-
tioz~ of nickel. In this case the rate of reaction varies in a periodic
manner as a function of the value of the magnetic field with continuous
variation of the magnetic field in the region where nickel satu~ration oc-
curs. The time dependence of the oscillatory processes occurring on the
surface of ferr~magnetic sermiconductors--so-called chalcogenide spinels--
was also observed.
Let us turn to investigation of magneto-optic effects with low resolution
(on the order of several microns).
As noted above, the surface properties of magnetic materials can be studied
by reducing the depth of light penetration and by thus acting only on the
surface layer. Let us now imagine that, besides a restriction in depth,
the light beam impinging on the investigated material is limited spatially.
Based on this idea, one can create a device which permits measurement of
the magnetic characteristics of magnetic material in a volume on the order
of 10'13cm3 since the measurements can be made on a section of one square -
micron (with maximum optical resolution) and with depth of light penetra-
tion less than 0.1 micron. We developed this method to investigate natural
small magnetic formations existing in ferromagnetic materials. This natur-
al form~tion on the order of fractions of a micron wide is, for example,
tlie, interface between two domains. Magneto-optic signals reaching the de-
vice from the point of emergence of the domain boundary to the surface of
the ferromagnetic material, that is, from an area measuring on the order of
0.5-1 square micron, G~ere measured.
io
Y
: ~ -
~ x ' -
~ ~ W An
n _
4 g I? t. rnh~
~ A `~~~5~~~~~" q~
V v
04
c 6.'
3
-i0
Figure 6. Magnetization Distribution of Elements of a~Chevron Readout
Sensor Along Lines A, A' and A" (Curves 1, 2 and 3, Respectively) ~
In a Field of Hy = 60 Oe: a--components of sensor for stretching
bubbles; b--central component for recording; L= 20 microns
and W = 4 microns ~
8
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Developm~nt of a device designed for physical investigations was completed
approximately five years ago. It turned out that by this time engineering
required the development of artificial magnetic components of very small _
dimensions. It should be noted that the t~ndency toward miniaturization
of magnetic devices will be developed in the future. Similar to how the -
method of magnetic measurements brought about a revolution 20 years ago in
conversion from ordinary objects of investigations to film objects (having
3-4 times less volume) and vibrating magnetometers, sensitive electronic -
circuits and so on had to be created, the field of ineasuring new magnetic -
- components must now be organized. These components not only became thinner
(their thickness comprises fractions of a micron)--their area was reduced
by a factor of one million: a single c~mponent is located on an area of
10 X 10 square microns. The unique method of ineasurement for the time being
which meets the requirements of increased sensitivity and resolution is the
magneto-optical method.
So-called bubble~ -cylindrical magnetic domains--are used as micron compon-
ents formed in thin transparent magnetic cr.ystals. Applicatian of a mag- -
netic field causes a reduction in the area of the magnetic phase of one _
direction. Spheres (their height is equal to the thickness of the crystal),
which move along the crystal by means of a specially applied grid of control
permalloy elements,are formed from this phase with a further increase of the
field. Thus, a mill.ion of these information recording components can be
located in a crystal 1 cm2 in area.
A chevron readout sensor !is used for signal recording. Approaching the
readout system, the bubble is first severely stretched by the first rows of
elements, then passes through the central element between whose individual
regions are bridges for transmission of current. Thus, a magnetoresist-
ive readout sensor is achieved since the electric signal is recorded by
variation of the resistance of these central elements. The magnetization
of the elements in a given field at any point can be measured with typical
dimensions of a single component of 2 X 10 square microns (Figure 6). As a
result the main functional char~icteristic of the given device--distribution
of magnetization in its components--can be restored. The dependence of
magnetization on the magnetic field at a specific point of the qiven com-
ponent can also be measured.
~
The described device is a unique magnetic microscope which can be used for
different purposes. By varying the magnetic structure of the crystal by
means of the magnetic field, one can record the variation of reflected light
intensity and can see the distribution relief of magnetization through the
components. If light polarization varies, the effect caused by the normal
component of magnetization is recorded and then the effect caused by its
tangential components is recorded. As a result all three independently
measured magnetization con:ynonents are restored.
Let us present yet another example of a modern magnetic device with micron
components~ So-called integrated magnetic heads with film components are
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~ jI x Y
0.8 z -
I
~ ~.6
~ 2
_ 0,4
\
0.2
2 ~ 6 B 10 12
o ~ '
W x, MMM
-0.2
1 -
-0,4
-0.8
-0,8
-I -
-1.~
14
~ _
Figure 7. Distribution of Magnetization on Working Surface of Integral
Magnetic Head: curve 1 shows the dependence of the tan-
gential component of magnetization IX; curve 2 shows the
_ dependence of the normal component of magnetization IZ. The
zero values of magnetization correspond to the gap of the
head.
� now being developed. The current winding of the head is a system of non-
r;~agnetic films, the magnetic circuit is a system of sprayed films of mag-
netically soft material, the tip has an information-recording section meas-
uring 2 X 100 square microns and that in the best heads measures 2 X 20
square microns. The described method of micron resolution permits one to
study the magnetization distribution of this section, which is the main
characteristic determining the efficiency oi the device. By studying the
tangential and normal magnetization component separately, complete informa-
tion can be found for calculating the magnetic fields at any distance from
t'r~e head (along the vertical and horizontal) and one can determine the ef-
ficiency of the components (Figure 7).
Ttie given examples show that the new scientific trend--the magneto-optics
_ of ferromagnetic materials, developed at the Chair of Magnetism of the
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Physics Department of biGU, led to development of new methods of physical
investigations and laid the bases of the crystal optics of magnetically
ordered crystals. This made it possible to discover a number of new physi-
cal effects and to work out methods of investigation and checking of mag-
netic components and systems of modern computer equipment.
The scientific communication of G. S. Krinchik was heard with great inter-
est at a meeting of the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Summar-
izing the results of the discussion, the President of the USSR Academy of
Sciences, A cademician A. P. Aleksandrov noted the great significance of
investigations of magneto-optic phenomena in ferromagnetic materials, car-
ried out at MGU, for modern computer technology and wished further success
in development of this important direction.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1980
[8144/1102-6521]
6521
CSO: 8144/1102 ,
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FLUID DYNAMICS
GAS AND WAVE DYN?iMICS
Moscow GAZOVAYA I VOLNOVAYA DINAMIKA in Russian 1979 signed to press 9 Jan
79 pp 2, 199-200
[Annotation and table of contents from book edited by Kh. A. Rakhmatulin,
_ "Moskovskiy Universitet" Publishing flouse, 200 pages, 300 copies]
- [Text] Annotation:
This collection includes articles reflecting both traditional and new direc-
tions being developed at the chair of gas and wave dynamics of the Mechanics-
Mathematics Department of Moscow State University. The bulk of the works
presented are devoted to problems of gas dynamics and the dynamics of a so-
lid deformable body. This collection is intended for use by specialists in
- the Field of continuum mechanics, graduate students and students.
Table of Contents:
_ Solving 'I~ao-Dimensional Problems of Ideal-Gas Fluidics (Kh. A. Rakh-
ma tulin and A. A. Khamidov) 3
Approximations in Setting Up a Barrier-Piercing Problem (A. Ya. Sago- ~
monyan) 1~
Analytical Method of Determining Aerodynamic Forces and Moments for
Unsteady Particle Movement in Different Rarefied Gases (A.I.
Bunimovich and N. I. Sazonova) 32 -
Development of Two-Phase (Gas-Film) Detonation (I. N. Zverev, N. I.
Zverev and N. N. Smirnov) 44
Movement of Slender Bodies in a Linearly Elastic Medium (A. L. Pav-
lenko and A. V. Zvyagin) 57 -
Possibility o� Appearance and Disappearance of Wrinkle Fronts With
Normal Incidence of a Cone on a Diaphragm (S. S. Grigoryan and
B. V. Kuksenko) 68
Tnteraction Between a Longitudinal Wave and a Sh~rp Bend in a
Filament (V.F. Maksimov and B.V. Osnach) 72
Thermoelastic Spherical Waves Caused by the Instantaneous Liberation
of Heat in a Closed Spherical Space (P. E. Sabodash, B. Mardonov and
Sh. T. Kadyrbayev)
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Change in Concentration Near a Slightly Oscillating Spherical Electrode
in an Electrolyte Solution (r1.A. Vorotyntsev, B.M. Grafov and
S.A. Piartem'yanov) 8,5
The Problem of Shock Wave Movement in a Tapering Channel (S.V.
Guvernyuk) 91
Quasi-Rayleigh Wave Propagation in Piezoelectric Media (Kh. A.
Rakhmatulin and Yu. N. Kuliyev) 100
Theory of Associated Oscillations of Piezoceramic Discs
(Kh. A. Rakhmatulin and A.M. Allaverdiyev and Yu. N. Kuliyev) 108
'I~ao-Dimensional Steady Rarefaction Wave Propagation (Kh. A.
Rakhmatulin and A.P. Barpiyev) 118
Basic Solutions to [dave Equations for Cylindrical Shells
(A. Ya. Sagomonyan) 127
Shock Impact on a Spherical Shell (A. Ya. Sagomonyan) 134
Unsteady Movement of One Class of High-Speed Three-Dimensional
Bodies (A.I. Bunimovich and L.G. Sadykova) 140
An Analytical Method of Determining the Aerodynamic Forces Acting
on Solids of Revolution During Flow Under Conditions of the Law
of Localizability (A.I. Bunimovich and O.A. Khots) 146
Two-Phase Detonation in Pipes (T.V. Ramodanova and I.N. Zverev) 155
Detonation in a Porous Plate Impregnated With Liquid Oxygen
(I.N. Zverev and I.S. Gayevskaya) 159
Approximate Method of Solving Problems of Forced Oscillations of a
Thin-Walled Hemispherical Piezoceramic Shell on a Rigid Base
(B.V. Kuksenko and A.M. Abdulgalimov) 166 _
Movement of a Stiff, Smooth Str:ip in a Linearly Elastic Medium
(B. Mardonov, F.K. Mansurov and R. Sh. Yakomova) 171
Electrical Properties of Nonconducting Contact Between Metal and
a Solid Electrolyte (M.A. Vorontyntsev and A.A. Kornyshev) I76
Radio Cylindrical Source (Kh. A. Rakhmatulin and V.V. Lubashevskiy) 182
Chemically Reactive Non-Self-Similar Boundary Layer Behind a
Shock Wave (I.N. Zverev and R.V. Ramodanova) 18~
Determining the Separation Zone of an Infinitely Long Beam from its
Base Under the Impact of Concentrated Forces (B. Mardonov, D.S.
Osmonkulov and A. Barayev) 191
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo universiteta, 1979
[142-11052] .
11052 `
CSO: 1862
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UDC 532+533+629.135
PROBLEMS OF FLOW AROUND BODIES ~dITH THRE~-DIMENSIONAL CONFIGURATION
Novosibirsk ZADACHI OBTEKANIYA PROSTRANSTVENNOY KONFIGURATSII in Russian
1978 signed to press 25 Dec 78 pp 2, 126
[Annotation and Table of Contents from book "Zadachi obtekaniya prostranst-
vennoy konfiguratsii" edited by N. F. Vorob'yev, 400 copies, 126 pages]
[TextJ The coll~ction includes papers on calculation of flow around bodies
with three-dimensional configuration. The problem of a supersonic flow
around delta-shaped aircraft (wing-air scoop-fuselage) is considered in the
first paper within the framework of linear theory with regard to the effects
of diffraction with reflection. Two papers are devoted to justification
and realization of a seconc~order numerical scheme for approximation of cal-
culating nonviscous gas-dynamic flows at supersonic speeds. Problems related
to calculation of incompressible flow around wings according to the discrete
vortex scheme of the wing are outlined in one paper. One paper considers
the problems of organizing ~ommunication (dialogue) of man and machines,
which occur when solving problems of flow around bodies.
The ccllection is of interest to specialists involved in problems of flow
around bodies.
Contents Page
1. Vorob'yev, N. F., On Solution in Linear Postulation of the Problem
of Supersonic Flow Around Three-D imensional Configuration 3
2. Shashkin, A. P. and Volkov, V. F., One Scheme of Numerical Calcu-
lation of Nonviscous Gas-Dynamic Flows 17
3. vol'kov, V. F., Application of Linear Theory to Selection of the
Grid in Numerical Solution of Prob lems of Supersonic F1ow Around
Bodies 5~
4. Vorob'yev, N. F. and G. N. Shashkina, The Problem of Selecting
the Discrete Vortex Scheme of a Wing 65
. 14
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5. Bokovikov, Yu. G., Structural Analysis and Psychol~gical
C~aracteristics of the P4an-Computer Communication Process 102
COPYRIGHT: INSTITUT TEORETICHESKOY I PRIICLADNOY MEKHANIKI
[140-6521]
6521
CSO: 1862
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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
UDC 669.018:539.1
RADIATIOp DAMAGE IN 1tEFRACTOR? CO~t~ODNDS
Hoecaa RADIATSIONNO~tE POVREZ~BNIYE TUGOPLAVIRH SOYEDIN~NIY (Radiation ~
- Damags in Rofractor~ Co~powida) in Russian 1979 signed to preas 29 Aug 79
pp 2-b, 160 ~
[Aanotation, introduction snd table of conteata from book by Mikhail
Sawich Roval'chanko, Val~riy Vladiuirovich Ogorodnik~ov, Yuriy Ivanovich
Rogovoy, Aleksandr Gavrilovich Urays?iy; Atosizdat, 1,300 copies, 160
pagea)
[Teut~ This book syat~natis~s avsilable data on radiation damge in -
refractorq coepouads. It eYasiaes the fmida~entals of the theory of
radiatic~ daaage in solids ts it applias to binary comprnmds; aechanis~s
which cre~te radiation defecta; chaagea in internal nnergq, structnre ~
and propv~~tiea of refractory eo~pounda und~r the e~fecta of ionizing
radiation; beluvioral chsractarietica ot boridea irradiated ia connection
with burn-up of boron; sa well ar the phenosenon of racovary of �tructure
and propertiea of rafractory cospounds during post-radiation annealing.
~
This book ie intendad for ecientific workare and ~aginaers ~?orking in
the field of radiation saterial acinnce aad reactor construction. It
tiay slro be uaeful to studenta and post-graduates in ths conesponding
epecialties.
Tables - 24. Figures - 83. Sibliographical entries - 203.
Introduction
Deciuions of the 25tb CPSII Congreas pointed out the neceasitq for further
accelerated development of nuclear energy and an increased proportion of
nuclear power etations in the averall eaergy balance of the couatry. The
development of nuclear energy, ~rhich is following a path topard creation
of more poMerful nuclaar reactora and development of fast-breeder reactora,
reqairea the developa~ent of nev ~atarials, ahich ar~ capable of performing
mider the difficnlt coaditions o! �imaltaneons exposnre to high machanical -
streas and te~p~ratnree.aggressive ageats~and iatising radiation.
- 16
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For these reasons the proepective materials for nuclear energy are
refractory caRpounda~ thair alloye sad compouads. Devoted to the questioa
_ of the affects of irradiation on solide are: sonographs of S.T. Koaobe-
ya~wkiy (66], G. Dina and G. Vinayard [37], V.S~ Bavilov and N.A. IIkhin
[8], M. Tho~son (123), S.T. Kiahkin [54), V.V. Pon'kov~kiy [101~, A.N.
Shalayev [136], Ye.A. I~arkovskiy, M.M. Rrasnoahchekov, V.I. Tikhonovich
and V.G. Chernon [16], V.P. Gol'tsev [25]~ O.A. Troitskiy and D.G.
- Shteynbexg (125j, B. ReYly [49j, B. Last~sn [76], A.R. Semanynk and V.I.
Rhivrich (68]~ Yu.Y. Likhachev and V.Ya. Pupko [77J; a nun~ber of collact-
ions (15, 33-35, 81, 102~ 126]; and a number of abatracte (9, 19, 22, 43,
51, 119, 127]. Further, the effects of ionizing radiation on inetru-
meate, electronic camponents and radiotechnical ~aterials are eaamined
in moaographs [14, 139]. In tbese ~rorks primasy attantion is devoted
to matals, semicondnctors and ionic crystals.
1'his work preaents the reaulte of eystematic etudy of the effects of
nuclear reactor radiatioa on the atructure and propertiea of refractory
compouads specifically, compoaade of transition ~atala with such
_ non-setals as B, C, H(borides, csrbides, nitrides), aa aell as racipro-
cal conpouade of these sstarials.
Metallic refractory compounds (coaponade of netale with non-netals) are
characterised, along with a high melting temperature, by a high degree
of hardness, thersal and alectrical conductivity aad chemical durability
uader the effects of variona agreesive agents, fncludiag nalten metale
(52, 53, 98, 110-112, 114-118, 121]. They have a naique crystal-cheaical
strncture and a comple~c natnre of chemical bonding [2, 4, 24, 69, 124J.
This uaiqueneea it manifestsd in the fact that, ~ndged by electrical
propertiee, they appear as tppieal metale, ~fiile at the eane tima~ ~udged
by mechaaical propert3ao, they resemble oxide-based ceranic aaterials
and covalent cryetals.
Compounda for~ed from non-~etals (84C, BN and others) ezhibit semiconduct-
ive propertiee and have a high meltiag temperature~ hardnees and chemical
durability. Thotmal conducti~rity of these co~rounds depends pri~arily on
the lattice paraa~ster, Which can be quiCe great as a resnlt of lav atonic
~ras~ .
The realm of poeaible uee of_c8rbidea and nitrides in reactore ia in
etructnral elefenta in the core :one, in moderators, reflectore and
natrices for auclea~ fuel diepersion. Additionally, sosa carbides (alloys
of uraaiua, thorim snd plutonius carbidas pith niobina arid zirconiun
carbidas) can ba used ae csthode nateriala for couveraion of nnclear
eaergy into elactrical eaergy [lOSj. Carbides and nitridea can be ueed
as coatinga on refractory ~tals and alloye used in reactor constructiou
(20~ 38].
17
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The large cross section of slo~ neutron capture by boron allo+~a borid~a
to be uoad in regulating dsvices and as a biological ~hield against
neutron radiation [102].
This work e~mines the fwida~eatals of tha theory of radiatiou da~sge ia
solida, priaarilq biaary compouada. It also aets forth ezperiseatal data
on radiatioa durability of refractorq co~ponmds and their theoretical
interpretation. In particnlar~ attentian ie devoted to mechanieas for
: radiation damage, change in stracture and propertiee of refractos~? materi-
ale uader the effect4 of ionizing radiati.on, the peculiaritiee of radi-
ation damage to boYides in conasetion ~rith (n,a)-reaction in l~B nuclei,
as vell ae the phenamanon of recovery during annealing. Aa attempt ia
made to establieh a quantitative relatioiuhip betpenn changes in structnre
and changes in properties.
Contents Page
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Fundamentals of the Theory of Radiation Damage in
Refractory Campounds S
_ 1.1. Interaction of radiation ~?i.th a eubetance 6
1.2. Dynamica of radiation damage 9
1.3. Nature and properties of radiation defecte 14
1.4. Computer modeling of radiation dsmage in biaary crystale 19
1.5. Anneanling of radiation defects 21
Chapter 2. Change in the Pine Structnre and Properties of Refractory
- Compounde uader Etfects of Ionizing Radiation 26
2.1. Damage to etracture 26
2.2. Stored-up energy 51
2.3. Change in phyaical propertiee 61
2.4. Change in mechanical propertias 75
_ Chapter 3. Me~croetructural Changes and Radiation Durability of
Refractory Ccre~pounds. 94
3.1. Perturbation of neutron flus bq absorptive materiala 94
3.2. Neutron diffusion in an abeorptive medium 101
3.3. Accumulation of impurity atoms and gas swelling 109
3.4. Radiation aurability 115
_ Chapter 4. Phenamena Occnrring During Annealing o~ Irradiated
Refractory Compounds �~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.s~~� 1~9
4.1. Stages of aaaealing and temperature pereistence of
radiaCion defects 119
~1.2. Recavery of fine QtrllC~Ll1'E 1z1
' I8
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4.3. Recwery of propertiea 129
- 4.4. Generation of gaseona fission prodncts 146
Conclasion 149
81bliOgraphy 1S1
GGPYSIGET: Atomizdat, 1979
[141-12184]
iziea
CSO: 1862
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PROSPECTS FOR USING RELATIVISTIC ELECTRON BEAPiS IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
- Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian I1o I1, 1979 pp 57-68
[Article by Doctor of Technical Sciences Ye. A. Abramyan]
[TextJ The tluxes of fast, accelerate~ electrons were used for the first
time in engineering at the end of the last century to obtain x-radiation.
Many properties of an electron beam high propagation rate, the possi-
bility of high energy concentration, relative simplicity of generation and
control today provide the basis for the operation of many instrumenta
and devices. In certain cases accelerated electrons interact with matter,
causing various useful effects: light emission (on a television screen),
penetrating radiation (in the x-ray machines), heating and welding of
metals (in the electronic welders). In other instruments the electron
tubes and the devices for generating superhigh frequency emission the
beam is used to transport energy, close electric circuits and other targets.
The rapid development of nuclear engineering and technology during the
postwar years has promoted the development of new methods of working
materials based on the use of ~amma-quantum and accelerated charged
particle fluxes. Obviously, one of the most developed methods of radiation
technology at the present time is the use of a relativistic (having almost
the speed of light) electron beam on matter.
Interaction of Electrons and Matter
The nature of the interaction of a fast-electron flux with matter in the
general case depends on the energy and intensity of the beam and also the
_ duration of the irradiation. With high beam density, heating and evapora-
tion material can take place. If the intensity does not exc:eed several
hundreds of watts per~.square meter, and the exposu~e time is on the order
of 0.1 seconds, the temperature of the irradiated ~ta.terial rises insignifi-
cantly, and ionization plays the primary role.
The electron beams used for radiation treatment of products on an indus-
trial scale havg~.the following characteristic parameters: an energy of
0.15 to 10 Mev, an average power of 3-150 kilowatts. In this energy
range the electron energy losses in the matter take place basically as a
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result of multiple collisions with orbital electrons of the atoms; for
each collision the primary electron is repelled, and the bound electron -
either separates from the atom or goea into orbit with greater energy. The
tra~ectories of the primary electrons reaemble brownian motion although the
displacement in the initial direction predominatea. Fig 1 ahows the
tra~ectory of the electrons having an initial energy of 0.15 Mev in the
ordinary atmosphere. In a material with high densitv, the theoretical
picture of the electron transmission is retained, and only the scale of the
image changes. Fig 2 shows the ionizatinn density distribution in the
depths of the material in the electron energy range of 1-10 Mev. The
determination of the thickness of the layer a in which the nonuniformity
of the~.ionization density is +20% is of praa.tical interest. For unilateral
irradiation of a material ~ith a density p.by electrons having an energy
E, a(cm)=0.33E(Mev)/p(g/cm and in the case of two-way irradiation
a(cm)=0.8E(Mev)/p(g/cm3).
CY
S
0
I
2
0,8
d /
-S ~ z 0~6
o ~
~ 0,4
0
0,2
Zmax
~ 0,2 0,4 0,0 0,8
~2`TonuiNNa warepNana,r/GM~.M3B
~
_~go
5 IO 15 , ZOcr
Figure 1. Standard electron tra- Figure 2. Ionization density
jectories with an initial energy of distribution of the material for
0.15 Mev emitted into the atmosphere one-way (1) and two-way (2)
(calculated by the Monte Carlo method irradiation
for room air temperature) Key:
1. Dosage, relative units
2. Thickness of the
material, g/cm2=Mev
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~ v.� v~ ~ a~a~u~ uua~ VI~LL
The unit of ineasure of the absorbed dosage of one rad corresponds to
absorption in 1 g of the irradiated material with an energy of 100 ergs '
(or 1 Mrad-10 ~oules/g). Thus~ the irradiatton with a dosage of 25 Mrad
of material with a density of p=1 g/cm~ lead:s to heating by 60�C.
In order to eliminate the overheating of the material with large irradiation
dosages it is performed in several steps.
As is obvious from the presented relations, the relativistic electrons .
have high penetrating capacity; in the atmosphere the maximum mean free
path z~X of the electrons with an energy of 1 Mev is 3.8 meters; in
water it is 4.3 mm. This makes it possible to emit a beam of electrons
from an evacuated volume where acceleration takes place throu3h a thin
ft~il into the air and machine parts directly in the atmospher.�e.l As the
material for the emission windows, foil is used made from light metals
titanium, aluminum and others; the thickness of the windows will usually
be 15-100 microns.
i,o
a o,e
m
_
.
0
0
0
0 0,8
a
~
s
m
~
~
a
a 0,4
m
:
m
_ ~l~o.s
0
0 0,2 o,a o,e
:
z max
Figure 3. Ratio of the most probable energy of the electrons
passing through the material to the initial energy as a
function of the thickness of the material.
z~ is the depth of penetration of the electrons; the electron
energy is 0.1 to 1 Mev, and the material is titanium
Key:
1. Electron en~r~y, relative units
lIn some cases in order to avoid oxidation of the materials, the irradia-
tion zone is filled with inert gas most frequently nitrogen.
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30 -
i~
i
i
i
i
25 i~
1/~
i
/
?
- S 20
u ~
' n /
a~ ~
m ~
i 15 2
m /
7 ~
$ / .
O 10 ~
_ s ~
~1) i 3
5 ~
/ 4 �
~
/ ~ '
~ ~r 4 8 6 10
l2~ 3HeprNA anenrpoNOa, M36
Figure 4. The conversion factor for conversian of the energy
of the accelerated electrons into bremsstrahlung
energy as a function of the electron energy for tungsten
(1 and 2) and aluminum (3 and 4) targets.
Curves 1 and 3 correspond to a total energy of the gamma-
quantum f lux, 2 and 4, to the energy directed along the
path of the beam.
Key :
1. Conversion factor, %
2. Electron energy, Mev
On passage of the electrons through the foil they lose part of their
energy and are deflected from the initial direction. Both processes have
a probability nature. Fig 3 shows the energy loss by the beam on passage
of it through different layers of the material. As a rule, the electron
losses in the emission window are 1-2% for energies of about 1 Mev and
to 10-15% for an energy of 0.15 to 0.2 Mev.
On bombardment from the irradiated products and on passage through the
foil, the beam generates the secondary electron flux. With an increase
in the energy of the primary flux, the probability of returning in the ~
opposite direction f or the primary or knock-on secondary electron
- decreases.
The greater part of the existing industrial units with electron beams
have electron energy below 1.5 Mev. This eliminates the danger of the
occurrence of residual radioactivity, the threshold energy of which exceeds �
this level.
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Radioactive isotopes created by bremsstrahlung
Element 9Be 2H 127Y ~Li 81Br 14N 31p
Threshold 1.67 2.23 9.8 9.8 10.7 10.65 12.35
energy, Mev
Thus, the danger of the appearance of radioactivity becomes significant ~
only with an energy of 9-10 Mev.
With an increase in the electron energy, the losses to bremsstrahlung
increase (~ee Fig 4). With an E*�ergy on the order of 1 Mev, these losses
- are negligibly small and they are not considered when calculating the
energy balance of the irradiation process. With a beam energy of 4-6 Mev,
the proportion of the energy converted to bremsstrahlung. is tens of
_ ~ percer?tages. Therefore, the irradiation of the thick layers of the
; material with bremsstrahlung, the penetrating capacity of which is
almost two orders higher than for the electrons, can become prof itable.
A signif icantly different physical p icture occurs on interaction of an
- intensive, concentrated electron flux with matter.
The beams with an energy to 100-120 kev and the density of 104 to 106
- watts/cm2 have been industrially assimilated; they ar.e used for the
welding and fusion of inetals in a vacuum or at reduced~pnessure. For ~
relativistic energies, the concentrat ed beam can be coupled out into the
~ atmospheLe and also used for the heat treatment of materials,
The application of the beam as a tool for the treatment and destruction of
rock is of interest. In particular, on irradiation by a pulse beam, -
fast, adiabatic heating and cleavage of the rock take place; a significant ~
role is also played by the electric breakdown of the charge accumulated
_ i.n the body of the material.
When treating materials with an intense beam outside a vacuum, the basic
problem is to maintain high energy intensity (on the order of 106 watts/cm2)
a t a distance o f tens of centimeters from the emitting device. An obvious
way of dec,reasing the beam dispersion is to increase the electron energy. `
However, according to the experimental papers which have appeared in
, recent years,l the electron dispersion in the atmosphere decreases
significantly both with an increase in intensity and an increase in the
_ power of the beam. Obviously, heating of the air by the electron beam
takes place, as a result of which the interaction cross section of the
. electrons with the medium decreases in the channels formed. The analogous
fact anomalously deep transmission of the electron beam into the metal
also exists in the case of electron welding of inetals in a vacuum.
�
_ See: J. F. Lowry, B. W. Schumacher. "Extended Working Range for Elec-
tron Beams in the Atmosphere," NUCLEAR INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS, Vol 130~
1975, p 577. ~
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Industrial Radiation Processes
With a certain measured irradiation, the destruction of the intramolecular
bonds leads to the formation of new compounds with given properties. For
variation of the structure of the materials usually significantly less
energy is required than for the traditional technological processes. This
fact is especially promoting the spread of radiation technology at the
present time when the cost of oil and other ~nergy sources is increasing
steadily. In a number of cases the application of ionizing radiation is
the only possibility for obtaining a material with given properties. The
most economically advantageous regions of application of the radiation are
irradiation of live organisms (sterilization of inedical equipment, products,
the control of insect pests) and the irradiation of polymers.
There are two basic methods of varying the structure of polymers: cross-
linking the formation of transverse bonds between adjacent molecules
and destruction the rupture of principal chain of the molecule. In the
fi~st case, the molecular weight increases and a spatial structure is
formed; in the second case the ma.ss of the molecule decreases. In both
cases the physical properties of the materials f.ormed differ from the prop-
_ erties of the initial products. Anather energy-advantageous class of
radiation technology is the chairi reactions in which one act of initiation
= of the chemical reaction leads to a change in many of the chemical bonds.
i
The standard radiation processes with electron accelerators which have
become widespread at the present time are presented in the table.
Industrial Applications of Intense Electron Beams
with an Energy of More than 150 kev
Process Ener , Mev Dosage, Mrad
- Cross-linking of polyethylene 0.3-4 10-25
Production of thermo-shrinking polymer 0.3-4 10-25 -
products
Hardening of coating 0.15-0.5 2-50
Graft polymerization 0.3-2.5 1-30
Sizing of textiles 0.3-1.5 0.5-5
Manufacture of fiberglass 0.5-1 1-40
Vulcanization of rubber 0.5-10(15) 5-30 -
Sterilization of inedical equipment 1-10 2_5
Treatment of waste water 0.5-4 0.05-1
The cross-linking of polyethylene is one of the first radiation processes
mastered on industrial scale in our country and abroad. The spatial grid
formed during the cross-linking decreases the fluidity and solubility of
the polyethylene; the heat resistance and the impact tou~hness increase
significantly. The high power of the radiation dosage which electron
25
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acceleraturs can support decreases the role of radiation oxidation of
the irradiated polymers competing with the process of cross-linking and
having a negative effect on the mechanical and electrical properties of
the material. The cables with insulation made of radiation-modified poly-
ethylene are used for higher current load; they retain their fitness for
work for several hours at a temperature of 200 to 250�C and for hundreda
of hours at 110�C. In an oxygen-free environment such insulation cgn be
preserved for a long time at a temperature of 250 to 300�C.
Another application of an irradiated polyethylene is based on the "memory
effect": on heating products made of polyethylene and subsequent deforma--
tioii and then cooling in the deformed state the polyethylene can store
its initial dimensions "in memory" for a long time. The heating of a
product made from such a polyethylene at a temperature of 100�C returns -
it to these dimensions.
Radiation hardening of coatings i~~also one of the most widespread meth4ds
based on the application of accelerated electrons. It includes the
polymerization of monomers or low-molecular polymers, the crass-linking
of polymers formed and the appearance of chemical bonds between the
molecules of the coating and the base. In contrast to the cross-linking
and the destruction for which the modification of the polymer molecules
takes place, the process of polymerization of the monomers gives a chain
reaction in which the series of chemical conversions is caused by a single
act of ionization of excitation. In the case of radiation polymerization,
contamination is absent, whereas for chemical polymerization, catalysts
are used which remain in the polymer and have a negative effect on ifs
qualitieso The prucess can take place at a temperature which is optimal
for growth of the chains for any state of the material, including the
solid phase.
The costs of the radiation and ordinary hardening of the coatings are
close, but in the first case higher thermal stability, mechanical strength
and chemical strength are achieved. Explosion and fire danger in the
- production process decrease.
In the case of graft polymerization, one polymer is grafted to another
undsr the effect of ionizing radiation. The molecules of the copolymer
formed are different from both the grafted one and the base polymer. In
contrast to the radiation hardening where the basic process is polymeriza-
tion of the applied layer and bonding to the substrate plays a secondary
role, in this case the formation of the copolymer is the principal effect.
Radiation grafting can be accomplished in a thin surface layer and in the ~
body of the material.
The treatment of fabrics with an electron beam promotes ,improvement of their
use and operating qualities. Radiation grafting to textiles lends them
chemical and antirotting strength, wrinkle-proofness, oil resistance.
It lowers the capacity for accumulation of static electric charges, con-
tamination, and so on. Here, various radiation-chemical processes are
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used: cross-linking, destruction, graft polymerization, copolymeriza-
tion, and so on.
The process of manufacturing multilayered f iberglass obtained by impregna-
tion of glass fabrics with a binder made of a mixture of polyester
resin and vinyl monomer and copolymerization of them is similar to the
radiation modification of the fabrics. The polymer material formed has ~
high chemical strength, high impact toughness and low density. The strength
characteristics of the fiberglass obtained by the radiation method are
appreciably higher than for the fiberglass manufactured by the thermo-
chemical method.
In the case of radiation cross-linki.ng of rubbei, pri.mary chemical bonds
occur between the carbon atoms, and the spatial grid is formed which by
comparison with the ordinary chemical vulcanization insures greater heat
resistance, resistance to aging and deformation at high temperature, and
wear resistance.
For vulcanization of tire rubber which does not achieve vulcanization by
the thermal process but is already capable of retaining its shape, the
tire is irradiated with electrons with an energy on the order of 10 Mev.
Irradiating the product in contact with a graftable monomer, it is possi-
- ble to obtain rubbers of various versions. The gas-phase graft
polymerization on the surfaces of fabrics and f ibers to increase their
adhesion to the rubber is of interest. Obviously, this mei:hod can be
used to increase the adhesion of the rubber to synthetic fabrics.
Successf ul results have been obtained by vulcanizing extruded products
made of silicone rubber and the manufacture of thin-walled.products.
The primary advantage of radiation sterilization of products is the low
energy expenditures. Thus, for sterilization under a dosage of 2.5 Mrads
per gram of materials =.ix calories are absorbed, which corresponds to -
heating of water by 6�C (in contrast to the usual sterilization by boiling).
In practice all of the microorganisms receive a lethal dosage during the
irradiation, and at the same time no chemical changes take place in the
irradiated material. If it is necessary to keep the sterilized objects
for a nrolonged time, they are GQaled azd then irradiated. The most wide-
spread waterial for packaging is nolyethylene which is transparent for
radiation and nonpermeable for bacteria. As a result of significant
thickness of the irradiated products in many cases it is preferable to use
bremsstrahlung or gamma radf:atibn. Some medical materials (for example,
surgical threads), sterilized by radiation, have better characteristics
than those treated by ordinary methods.
For a number of years a study has been made of radiation sterilization of
food products which permits meat, fish, berries and fruits to be stored
for a long time at ordinary temperatures. However, the widespread use
of this process is being held up as a result of the necessity for compre-
hensive and prolonged checking of possible chemical changes in the part
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itself. The use of food products irradiated by a dosage of about 0.1 Mrad
is permissible in many countries; the possibility of sterilization by
doses of 2-S Mrads remains problematic. The process of disinfestation
of grain irradiation of the grain stored loose with a dosage on the
order of 0.1 Mrad in order to sterilize the insect pests is closer to
realization.
The radiation treatment of industrial waste and sewage is one of the
methods ~f decreasing the environmental pollution. Under the effect of
ionizing radiation, organic and other pollutants decompose. The processes
_ of destruction, radiolysis and other processes improve the process of
purifying waste water: the precipitation and coagulation are accelerated.
The cost of the treatment increases in the case of combining radiation
with chemical or physical agents or with biochemical purification. Obtain-
ing ozone by radiation and then using it to purify water is of interest.
In addition to the above-enumerated purposes of the application of
electron accelerators they can obviously be used on a broad scale for
the treatment of leather vroducts, the~pur~~ication of gaseous chlorine to
remove hydrogen, atmospheric nitrogen fixation, irridiation of
cuncrete and in a number of other cases.
The application of a concentrated relativistic beam for the processing of
ma~erials outside a vacuum still has not become widespread. For the weld-
ing of inetal, individual devices are being used with a beam energy of
about 0.15 Mev, a power on the order of tens of kilowatts and also experi-
mental accelerators with an energy of about 1 Mev in the same power range.
In the existing devices the beam diameter in the atmosphere near the
emission device is 1-3 mm.
Let us note that at the present time, in addition to high energy concen-
tration in the pulse electron beam, record energy fluxes are obtained
(to 2�1013 watts), and effective utilization of it is insured: the
efficiency of the conversion of the energy to an electron flux and from
the flux into matter reaches 60-90%. The application of the concentrated
relativistic beams in industry is still being held up by technical complex-
ity of their generation and signif icant radiation danger.
Industrial Electron Accelerators
The first devices of generating relativistic electron beams for applied
purposes were based on the systems for accelerating particles used in
research accelerators. Although the electron energy required by industry
(0.15-10 Mev) is several orders below the energy attained on the best
research devices (2�103 Mev), more rigid requirements are imposed on the
industrial accelerators with respect to reliability and efficiency; in
some cases the accelerators must have minimum size and weight. The tech-
nological process w~ith the electron accelerator must insure cheaper pro-
duction by comparison with other technological methods, including
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with the irradiation by gamma quanta of an isotopic source. In the last
15 to 20 years, several new types of accelerato rs have been specially
developed for industrial purposes, which has p ermitted the support of the -
growing introduction of radiation technology. There are two classes of
industrial devices; direct-action accelerators (with an energy to 3-4 Mev
and a power to 200 k3.lowatts) and linear accel erators (with an energy of
3-10 Mev, and a power to 10 kilowatts). The d evices of thefirst class
contain a high-voltage generator which generates a~voltage equal to the
acceleration energy and an accelerator in which under the effect of this
- voltage the electrons are accelerated in a potential electric field. Such
_ devices convert up to 60-90X of the energy taken from the industrial net-
- work to the energy of accelerated electrons. In linear accelerators, the
high-frequency electric field is used,and the ab solute value of the high
voltage of th~.structural elements is significantly lower; the efficiency
does not exceed 5-10Y.
The schematic diagram of a direct-action accel erator is shown in Fig 5, a.
In addition to the accelerator and the high-vol tage generator the device
contains a unit for discharge of the beam into the atmosphere. If the
accelerator is designed for radiation treatmen t of materials, the intensity
of the irradiation of the target (moving perpendicular to the figure) must
be no more than 100-200 watts/cm?,~ ,and ~~,n order to increas~ the cross
section:the beam is scanned by an alternating (5 0-5000 hertz) magnetic field--
in one or in two mutually perpendicular directions. The concentrated
electron beam is emitted from a vacuum into the atmosphere through the
through channel near which several vacuum pumps are installed which pump
out the air which gets into it.
I'or accelerator energies of 0.5 to 0.7 Nfev and higher the accelerators in
the hign-voltage generator are in a single sealed volume (vessel) filled
with electrically strong gas (a misture of nitrogen with SF6) ur~der a
pressure of up to 15 kg/cm3. The electric strength of this gas medium
under operating conditions is 150 to 300 kv/cm, which makes it possible to
create high-voltage devices which are signif icantly more compact than the
equipment with air insulation. Thus, the accelerators are functioning
successfully on an energy of 1-1.5 Mev and a beam power of several kilo-
watts in a vessel with a volume of less than 1 m3. For energies of 0.15
to 0.7 Mev the accelerator can be located at a d istance of several meters
from the high-voltage generator, connected to it by a cable. This permits
removal of the generator from the radiation-hazardous zone and a decrease
in mass of the radiation shielding.
- The most widespread accelerator is the accelerat ion tube (see Fig 5). The
primary problem occurring on development of the tube is to insure electric
strength with minimum length of the tube and maximum beam current. The
reduction of the length of the tube increases the admissi.ble current
~ density (the perveance of the system), which, in turn, permits a decrease
in the channel diameter in which the electrons ar e accelerated and the ~
overall diameter of the tube. In the existing tubes the electric field _
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(4) BdnycHHOe
~ ~oHHo
_ ~1) (2) (3~
11N~eKTOp YcNOpnwuiee Paaeepraearouiee 06ny4aewaA
~ yCTpONCT80 yCTPOMCTBO 06b9HT
~ ~1fir'~~~ ~~~,,~t ~ ~5~
i ~ ~ ~ ,
. ~
BWCOHOBO11hiHNN f@:1CP8T0~7 ~
(6)
~ . ~
b Ha~~~~ C � ~11)
BMCOH080JIbTHdii
, aneKTpoq
~ ~ ~ HaMNIN /~11A yCHOPBHNA
~ ~ ~311QMTPOH08 HaTOq(1,2,
~ ~ ~ 3nenTpoqm ~ ~ ~
~ 9 ~
~
~ ~ lO-tOO MHM ~
0 0 ~1~~ .
Figure 5. Direct-action accelerator.
a-- schematic diagram of the accelerator, b-- schematic of a
- compact multi-aperture tube, c-- cross section of the device
with single�high-voltage gaps for the acceleration of a ribbon
beam
- Key:
1. Injector 7. Cathode
2. Accelerator 8. Channels for electron accelera-
3. Scanning device tion
4. Discharge opening 9. Electrodes -
S. Irradiated target 10. 10-100 microns
6. High-vo~'.tage generator .11. High-voltage electrode
12. Cathode
gradient is no more than 2-3 MV/m; the constancy of the gradient ~s insured
by intermediat2 electrodes, the potential on which is maintained by an
external voltage c:ivider (not shown in the figure).
The most vulnerable sections for breakdown are the surface of the insulator
in the vacuum and through cilannel on the tube axis in which the electrons
move. Acceleration and breeding of secondary particles can occur in the
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channel, Zeading to the formation of an avalanche and, as a result, to
breakdown of the tube. The processes causing tube breakdown still have
not been subjected to calculation. The basic methods of increasing the
fitness of the acceleration tube are elimination of the losses on trans-
mission of the basic accelerator beam in the acceleration channel, attenua-
Cion of the secondary particle flux and also the use of protective spark
gaps laced between the electrodes.
One of the methods of increasing the electric gradient and miniaturization
of the tube obviously is smaller sectioning of it (to spacing between
the electrodes of tens of microns instead of the centimeters used today)
and acceleration of the electrons in many small-diameter parallel channels
(see Fig 5, b).1 It has been discovered experimentally that many of the
_ insulating media in micron gaps are capable of withstanding a static
- electric field with an intensity on the order of 1 MV/cm, and the problem
consists in insuring these gradients in a multilayer structure in the
presence of many openings for electron acceleration.
Another version of the accelerator is used to generate a ribbo.n electron
beam with an euergy to 200-300 kev (see Fig 5, c). Here the voltage is
applied to a single unsectioned vacuum gap; the average gradient of the
electric field is 15-25 kv/cm. The optoelectronic properties of the
system insure the required cross section of the electron flux without the
scanner. Unfartunately, with an increase in voltage in such systems it
is necessary signiticant~.y to reduce the gradient of the electric field,
which leads to a decrease in perveance and an increase in the dimensions
of the devices. The leading active studies in many laboratories of the
mechanism of vacuum breakdown obviously permit the voltage level to be
raised in such devices.
The high-voltage generators of direct-action industrial accelerators
differ signif icantly from the devices for increasing the voltage used in
electrical engineering. As a rule, significantly higher voltages are
required here but lower powers than in the power electrotechnical systems.
In addition, the high-voltage generators of industrial accelerators which
generate voltage of more tha.n 0.5 to 0.7 MV must be placed inside a
radiatior, shielded facility and, consequently, be sufficiently complex.
Whereas the voltage generated by high-voltage electrotechnical sources is
released into fhe atmosphere, in the industrial accelerators all of the
elements under voltage usually are located in an insulating medium which
is significantly better than the air compressed gas, oil or a vacuum.
1See: E. A. Abramyan, B. A. Altercop, G. D. Kuleshov. "Microsecond
Intensive E-beams," REPORT ON THE 2ND INTERN. TOPICAL CONF. ON HIGH
POWER ELECTRON AND ION BEAM, RESEARCH AND TECIiNOLOGY, Ithaca, USA, 1977.
31
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The basic principles used for high-voltage generation are mechanical
charge transport, single-step transformation and staged voltage increase. -
The charge transport by a moving belt is the basis for operation of one of
the first high-voltage sources the electrostatic generator (van de Graaf _
generator). In the latest devices of this type a potential of about 30 MV
has been reached. Versions of this system include the palletrons in which
the charge is transported by a chain and the rotary generators. The
essential deficiencies of electrostatic generators are low power (no more
than several kilowatts) and the presence of moving parts.
The three -phase step-up transformers have in practice unlimited poss3;bi1-
ities for increasing the generated power. As a rule, in such devices an
_ increase in voltage is combined with rectification. In certain generators.
the rectifying elements are.desigaed for ~h~ total voltage; in others,
the secondary winding is made up of many sections, each of which has
rectifying elements. In some devices a continuous magnetic circuit is
under ground potential, the insulation between the primary and secondary
windings and other elements of the generator is provided by gas gaps or
- solid insulation, in others the magnetic circuit is separated into
individual elements insulated from each other. At the present time in a
number of lal~qratortes high-voltage generators are being developed on the
basis of the three -phase transformers for a voltage on the order of 1 MV
and a power of 1 Mwatt .
In the power range from 10 to 100 kilowatts, several versions of the
single-phase systems are used: the stage generators, the pulse trans-
formers with high repetition frequency, electronic transfiormers, and so on.
One of the models of the industrial accelerators is the high-frequency
resonator in which the high voltage is generated, and the electron accelera-
tion.takes place in a potential field.
The linear electron accelerators contain a waveguide in which the high-
frequency field with a traveling wave is created. The wave propagation
rate at each point corresponds to the speed of movement of the accelerated
electrons. Beginning with an energy of 2-3 Mev, the electron velocity
changes little, and the waveguide structure becomes constant. j~ith some
approximation it can be considered that with an increase~�in the energy of
the accelerated particles, the rate and the cost of the linearaccelerators
increase proportionately to the first power of the energy, and the direct-
action accelerators, to a power of 2.5-3. The latter is connected with
the fact that with an increase in the absolute pdtential on the structural
elements in all three directions, the length of the high-voltape gaps
and insulators increases.
Trends in the Development of Process Units with Electron Beams
Simultaneously with the expansion of the sphere of use of the electron
beams, the power and the output capacity of the radiation devices increase.
32
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Whereas in the first industrial accelerators the power of the beam was
units of kilawatts, in the near future it is necessary to expect the
appearance of devices with a power of about 1000 kilowatts (see Fig 6).
With an increase in power, the cost of the beam energy and, consequently,
the cost of irradiation decreases, On the one hand, this makes the more
energy-consuming radiation processes profitable, and on the other hand, it
permits conversion to ir.radiation of massive products by bremsstrah}.ung
generated on the internal target of the accelerator.
~ 300 '
m ~
: ~
i 250 I
T '
C
Y '
i
V Z~~
O
2
~
O
~ 150
~1~
ioo
50
1950 1955 1960 1985 1970 1975 1880
~2 ~~Ad
Figure 6. Growth of the power of industrial aevices
Key:
1. Power in the beam, kilowatts
2. Years
It must be noted that at the present time U�S� industry is using
230 accelerators with a::otal power of 2000 kilowatts and 60 isotopic
sources; the cost of r~.~terials treated with ionizing radiation exceeds
$1 billion per ;Jea�r,i It is poasible to expect that the powers of the
devices and tk~e scale of their application will increase significantly
as a resul.i of the assimilation of radiation treatment of waste water and
the application of concentrated beams in mining and metallurgy. The
use of radiation to treat textiles, paints and varnishes (including
automobile parts) and to sterilize food have great potential possibilties.
In addition to the creation of reliable accelerators and the irradiation
technology, in a number of cases it is necessary to overcome a psycholog-
ical ba~rier connected with the usual idea of radiation, the measured
application of which for technological purposes presents no danger.
1See: J. Silverman, "Current Status of Radiation Processing." REPORT ON
THE 2ND INTERN. MEETING ON RADIATION PROCESSING, 1978, Miami, USA.
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i - � ;C~ ~ ~ -
~ .
- , ~
'?E: 4
~ ` ti~. � .
. ~f . . ~,N, ,
13~1 ~ � r,~Y.~Si
".w~ i . ~ '4 v~`, t'Fr`.
i
~ ~ s . ~ ~ ~
~ % r
" %
! / ' %
. , .
~.~.e..�,.,,
. ~
~ , y..
~ ; .
..~.~i~+i:
~ y.: I
~ ~1~~~~ ~ ~ ~
:..e
M ~ t .
:3
' 4r
Figure 7. Irradiation zone of the first Soviet industrial
device for electron beam treatment of polyolifene cable
insulation
In the more distant future intense relativistic electron beams can be
used to transmit energy, and the synchrotron:electron emission~ for
technological purposes.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stov "Nauka," "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR," 1979
[8144/1133-10845]
10845
CSO: 8144/1133
34 ~
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OPTICS AND SPECTROSCOPY
PROCEEDINGS OF THE MOSCOW POWER ENGINEERING INSTITUTE, TOPICAL COLLDCTION,
_ PHYSICAL OPTICS
Moscow TRUDY MOSKOVSKOGO ORDENA LENINA ENERGETICHESKOGO INSTITUTA, TEMATI-
CI~SKIY SBORNIK, FIZICHESKAYA OPTIKA in Russian No 426, 1979 pp 2, 81-86
(Annotation and abstracts from the collection "Trudy moskovskogo ordEna
Lenina energeticheskogo instituta, tematicheskiy sbornik, fizicheskaya
optika" edited by Doctor of Physicomathematical Sciences, Professor V. A.
Fabrikant, Moscow Power Engineering Institute, 86 pages]
[Text] The collection contains theoretical papers carried out at the De-
partment of Physics of I~+~I [Moscow Power Ehgineering Institute) during 1977-
1978 and joined by a common theme--investiqation of optical phenomena in
cavities, gaseous and solid-state media. Investigations of the statistical
properties of the electromagnetic field occupy a significant position. The
statistics of radiation reflected from an atomic gas filling a half-space
are considered. Nonlinear phenomena in scattering of an electron beam in
the f~eld of a strong electromagnetic wave are analyzed. The kinetics of
radiation during free-free transitions are investigated. The effect of
resonances on the threshold intensity of radiation upon optical breakdown
in a gas is analyzed. The method of integral equations and the method of
beam matrices are compared in papers devoted to calculation of phenomena in
optical cavities and the new criterion of the stability of optical cavities
- is introduced. The problem of the boundaries of applicability of the dif-
fusion theory of photon transport in solid-state photocells is
considered.
The collection may be useful for specialists in optics and quantum radio
physics.
UDC 535.31
The Stability of Arbitrary Spherical Cavities, Ye. F. Ishchenko and G. S.
Ramazanova.
It is shown that the traditional geometric condition of stability loses its
significance for cavities containing an active medium or diaphragms with
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rvn vrrtl.irw U~C~ U1VLY -
transverse amplification (absorption) inhomogeneity. The criterion of
stability--attenuation of the natural fields with unlimited separation
from the cavity axis--is proposed. The calculating apparatus which per-
mits an estimate of stability ia presented. The possibility of reciprocity
of stability for counterwaves in a circular cavity is shown.
~ UDC 535.31
The Applicability of Huygens Principle to Calculation of Cavities Contain-
ing a Weakly Inhomogeneous Medium, G. S. Ramazanova.
The applicability of the method of integral equations to calculation of
the natural waves of cavities containing a weakly inhomogeneous medium is
checked by comparison to the method of beam matrices, which follows from
the wave equation. It is shown that both methods yield an identical result
in approximation of i.nfinite apertures.
UDC 621.378
~ Methods of Calculating the Effects of Misalignment of Open Optical Cavities,
Ye. F. Reshetin.
It is suggested that the effects of arbitrary misalignment of a linear sym-
metrical cavity be calculated as the sum of the effects occurring due to
symmetxical and antisymmetrical inclinations of the mirrors. The limits
of the applicability of this approximation are estimated. Calculation of dif-
fraction losses yields the greatest error; shifting of the field on mir-
- rors and variation of the phase-lead with misalignment coincide with
exact calculations.
UDC 621.378
The Effects of Misalignment of Open Optical Cavities, Ye. F. Reshetin.
The main trends in variation of diffraction losses, phase lead and shifting
and distortion of the electromagnetic field on the mirrors of linear sym-
metrical cavities during misalignment are studied by computer calculation.
Some anomalies caused by field distortion on the mirror edges are determined.
UDC 535.14
~ Relaxation of the Statistical Characteristics of Radiation in A Resonance
Cavity, B. A. Veklenko.
The time moments of the photon density matrix, which describes the evolu-
tion of the electromagnetic field due to instantaneous variation of the
Q-�actor of the resonance cavity, are found in analytical form. The cal~cu-
lations are based on iteration of the control equation found in the paper,
which takes into account the fast time-variable processes and is related to
integral differential equations.
36
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UDC 535.14
The Statistical Properties of Radiation Coherently Reflected From a Half-
Space, B. A. Veklenko.
The evolution of the photon density matrix during resonance reflection from
an atomic gas filling a half-space is considered. It is shown that the
statistical properties of the reflected radiation are described by binomial
distribution whose parameters are determined by Fresnel formulas.
UDC 621.383.52 ~
The Collection Coeff icient in Phbtocells ~;ith Thin Front Layer, A. M. _
Vasil'yev and I. I. Z~ukhov., -
Collection carriers in photocells with front layer thickness comparable
to the length of the free path of the carriers generated by short-wave
_ light is considered. It is shown that use of diffusion theory in photo-
cells with very thin layers is incorrect. The probability method of
calculation, possible in this case, is presented. The values for collection
of carriers are compared to those found from diffusion theory.
UDC 537.531.2
Damping Processes in a Bichromatic Field, A. K. Lebedev.
Derivation of the kinetic equation of the evolution of an electromagnetic
wave of arbitrary intensity upon interaction with an electron beam injected
into a rarified plasma is presented. The plasma is under the effect of a
second wave of arbitrary intensity. The case of damping processes with
Coulomb scattering is considered. Z'he formulas are generalized for the
case of several external waves and also for the case of a nonmonochromatic
wave. The kinetic equation for the density matrix of bremsstrahlung in the _
field of an external classical wave is found.
UDC 537.531.2
Amplification of a Weak Wave During Bremsstrahlung of an Electron Beam in a
Rarified Plasma in the Field of a Strong Electromagnetic Wave, A. K. Lebedev.
The nonlinPar amplification factor of bremsstrahlung in the field of an ex-
ternal classical wave is analyzed. It is shown that the amplification, fac-
tor is classical and differs qualitatively from the case of a very strong -
second wave in expansion of a second wave in intensity. Formulas for dif-
ferent cases of electron injection are discussed. Amplification of the
- radiation is suppressed for short-acting potentials. -
37
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rvn vrrtl.ltw UJC, ULVLY
UDC 535.14 ~
The Density Matrix of Subsystems Under Thermodynamic Equilibrium Conditions,
B. A. Veklenko.
A regular method of calculating subsystems (for example, a photon gas)
which generally interacts strongly with its own environment under thermo- -
- dynamic equilibrium conditions is proposed. The method is based on a com-
_ bination of generalized quantum Green functions and Matsubari temperature
technique. _
UDC 533.9.01
The Spectra of Many~Electron Systems in a Dense Medium, L. L. Podlubnyy.
The variational pri~ci,,pp.eiis used for theoretical�description of strong
interac*ion of many-electron systems (atomic and ionic) with a thermostat
(plasma). The energy of the ground state of the system is calculated. The
formalism of functional integrals and Feynman integrals from electron tra-
jectories in random fields is used to describe electron behavior in a dense
medium.
UDC 539.18
Calculation of the Potential Curves by the Model Potential Method, I. V.
Avilova.
Wave functions of Fuss's model atomic notential were used to calculate
single-electron two-center integrals which are used in calculating the
paremeters of two-atom molecules and the characteristics of atom-atom in-
_ teraction. It is shown that the model potential in the form of Fuss's
atomic potential leads to comparatively simple expressions suitable for
- mass calculations.
UDC 533.9
The Theory of Resonance Optical Breakdown of Gases, V. A. Kas'yanov and
A. N. Starostin. -
A quantum kinetic equation is found for electrons in a plasm:, in the field
of an intensive electromagnetic wave during photon resonance of radiation
~ with energy qf,some ~tomic (molecular) transition. The instantaneous and
adiabatic activation of the field and the saturation mode are considered.
Estimates af the reduction of the threshold intensity during resonance op-
tical breakdown compared to the nonresonance case are presented.
38
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~
UDC 532.537.226
The Ratio of Relaxation Times foz Strongly Polar Fluida,V.P. Kobelev and
M. S. Checheybayev.
~
Experimental data for the relaxation times of strongly polar fluids are ana-
lyzed. A.~relation is found to estimate the microscopic relaxation times for
strongly pblar.fluids from measurements of the macroscopic relaxation time and
permeabilities based on a new expression of the local field. The calcu-
lating data are in good agreement with experimental data.
UDC 537.531.2
An Equation for the Density Matrix of High-Intensity Bremsstrahlung, G. B. _
Tkachu?; .
An expression is derived for the density matrix of bremsstrahlung. The
equation takes into account photon-electron interaction in all orders of per-
turbation theory. Electron i.nteraction with scattering cenf~ers is de-
s~ribed in Born approximation. Taking into account many-photon~-processes
_ is necessary when considering the interaction of high-intensity radiation
~ with the plasma.
- UDC 537.531.2
The Effect of Shielding the Coulomb Potential On Bremsstrahlung Amplification
, of a Monoenergetic '~lectron Beam, A. K. Lebedev.
The effect of shielding..on the polarization-frequency characteristics of
the bremsstrahlung of a=monoenergy electron beam ir. a plasma is considered.
Suppression of amplification with an increase of shielding and also disap-
pearance of the anomaly in weakly linear amplification is shown. Graphs of
the dependence of radiation polarization and the amplification factor as
a function of frequency for different values of the shielding parameter from
zero to infinity are presented.
COPYRIGHT: Moskovskiy energeticheskiy institut, 1979
[146-6521]
6521
CSO: 1862
' 39
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THERMODYNAMICS ~
UDC 536. 48
POROUS MATERIALS IN CRYOGSNIC BQUIPI~NT
Kiask PORISTYYE MATBBIALY V 1CRIOGBNNO~Y T8I~IIRB (Porous Msterials in
Crpogenic Equip~ant) in aassian 1979 sigaed to pres� 2 Nov 79. pp 2, 221
[Aaaotation and table of coateota fYOi book by Laow~rd Leoaidwich
Vaail'yev, Galina Ivanovaa Bobrova~ Svetlaas Aleksandrovna Tanayeva;
Naaka i Tekhnika, 1,040 copies~ 224 pages]
[Tezt] This book aza~i.nes original de~igns of cryogenic equipment Mhich
utilise porous el~senta: cryogeais heat tubes, st~an chamb~rs, porous
nozzles~ porous cryogeaic coadnctor~, pe~row csqog~nic intakas, etc.
It prea~.nts reo~ilts of a=pesi~ental stndiss of heat eschsage in porous
crqogeaic ubl~ aad poroas cond~etors and the thermo-phpsical character-
istica of structnral and thatsal-insulating sat~rials in crpogenic
equip~oent in tbe 10-400�R temp~rature spectrua. It analyzes results
of studiee of theraal proparties of poroas thermal in~ulatioa and po~ders
over a broad tesparature spectrun in operational uee. Structural =
materiala axa pYesented in the forn of various polymeric�compo~ition~.
This book is intended for ~orkers in scientific research institutes,
planning organiz~tions and design bureaas and engineeriug-tachnical
workera, uaivareity atudents and post-graduate studenta.
Tab les - 30. IlZnstrationa - 46. Bibliographical entries - 249.
Contents Page
Introdnction .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~� 3 -
Chap ter 1~ Stractural C~aractaristics of Cspillary-Porous Bodiee 7 ,
1.1. Heat pach~g~,in the oresence of phase traneition on poroue
sad developed heating surface 15 :
1.2. Heat exchange aad ra~iataace in a porous body with filtration
of liqaid aith phase tranaition 41
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Cbapter 2. Pornua Heat Exchaagars in Cryogenic Equipment 63
2.1. ,Cryogenic;~electrical transaission lines 63
2.2. S~toerconducting solestoide 71
2.3. Cooling of crpogeuic electrical tranemisaion liaee 73
2.4. Poroua conductors 97
2.5. Low--te~peratura seaeoPS 99
2.6. Crpogenic heat tubes 103
Chapter 3. Thermo-physical Propertiea of Structural and Thermal-
inaulation Hateriale in Cryogenic Eqaipment 116
3.1. Mathode for mfasurea~nt of thereo-physical characterietics
in the 4.2-400'R teanperature spectrum 116
3.2. Calculation aud eaperin~ental atudy of tharmo-phyeical
properties of pocoue nstarisls 135
3.3. Calcnlation and e~,periaeatal study of thermo-phqeical
propertias of poly~eric materiale 148
Bibliography 210
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka i tekhnika", 1979
[143-12184J
12184
CSO: 1862
END
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