JPRS ID: 9107 LATIN AMERICA REPORT

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22 FEBRUflRY 1988 (FOUO 2r80) 1 OF 1
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JPRS L/8942
22 February 1980
USSR Report
BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIERICES
(FOUO 2/80)
FBIS FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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- N 0 T I C E
Effective 1 March 1980 the title of this report will be changed
to USSR REPORT: LIFE SCIENCES. This report will now be issued
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as follows:
1. USSR REPORT: LIFE SCIENCES
BIOMEDIC.AL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
2. USSR REPORT: LIFE SCIENCES
EFFECTS OF NONIONIZING ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
3. USSR REPORT: LIFE SCIENCES
AGROxECHNOLOGY AND FOOD BESOURCES
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JPRS L/8942
22 February 1980
USSR REPORT
BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIi:NCES
(rouo 2/80)
This serial publication contains articl.es, abstracts of articles and news '
items from USSR scientific and technical journals on the specific subjects
reflected in the table of conter_:s.
Photoduplications of foreign-language sourees may be obtained from thz
Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D. C. 20540.
Requests should provide adequate identification both as to the source and
the individual arCicle(s) desired.
CONTEHTS
AGROTECHNOLOGY
PAGE
- Improvement of the Microbiological industry Control
System
(E. V. Yezhov; MIKROBIOLOGICHESKAYA PROMYSHLENNOST',
No 1, 1979) 1
Determination of the Lytic Activity of Lysosubtilin Using
Different Substrates
(0. V. Kislukhina and T. A. Kuznetsova; MIKROBIOLOGI-
CHESKAYA PROMYSHLENNOST', No 1, 1979 5
Growth of Pleurotus Ostreatus in a Deep Culture
(N. I. Shmatov, et al; MIKROBIOLOGICHESKAYA
PROMYSHLFNNOST', No 1, 1979) 10
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiological Problems of Automatic Identification of Speech
(L. A. Chistovich, et al; VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSR, No
9, 1979) 12
PSXCHIATRY
Recent Directions of Clinical Research in Soviet Psychiatry
(E. Sternberg; FORTSCHRITTE DER NEUROLOGIE PSYCHIATRIE, _
Vol 47, 1979) 24 -
- a - [III -~USSR~- 21A S&T FOUO;
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CONTENTS (Continued) Page
PUBI.ICATIONS
Book Analyzes Action of Neutron Radiation on Anjtnal
Epithelium
(B. I. Monastyrskaya, et al; RANNYYE EFFEKTY DEYSTVIYA
NEYTRONOV NA KLETKI EPITELIYA ZHIVOTNYKH,31 !3ct !8)........ 45
Book Analyzes Social Psychology in the USA
(F. N. Shikhirev; SOVREMENNAYA SOTSIAL'NAYt.. PSIKHOLOGIYA
SShA, 1979)..............................I 49
- Psychological Probl.ems Related to Space Flights
(L. G. Rodionova; PSIKHOLOGICHESKIYE PROBLEMY KOSMICHESKIKH 55
POLETOV, 12 Dec 79) ..................s.............
Book Analyzes Effects of Hyperbaric Environment on Human Body
, (G. L. Zal'tsman, et al; OSNOVY GIPERBA?ICHESKOY FIZIOLOGII,
- 18 Apr 79) 60
RADIOBIOLOGY
Chemical Prophylaxis of Radiation Injury
(Aleksandr Sergeyevich Mozzhukhin anci Foma Yur'yevich
Rachinskiy; KHIMICHESKAYA PROFILAKTIiCA RADIATSIONNYKH
PORAZHENIY [CHEMICAL PROPfIYLAXIS OF RAiIIATION INJURY],
1979) 69
SCIENTISTS AND SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZA7:IONS
First Conference of Ural Hydrobiologisi-s
� (I. V. Kozlova and Yu. G. Andreyashkin; GIDROBIOLOGI- j
CHESKIY ZHURNAL, No 5, 1979)........,....������������ '2
Obituary Notice: Yakov Pavlovich Frumkin
(ZHi;RNAL NEVROPATOLOGII I PSIKHIATRII, No 9, 1979)......... 77
- b -
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AGROTECHNQLOGY
UDC 85:663.1
INIPROVEMENT OF THE MICROBIOLOGICAL INDUSTRY CONTROL SXSTEM
Moscow MIKROBIOLOGICHESKAYA PROMYSHLENNOST' in Russian No l, 1979
pp 38-40
[Article by E. V. Yezhov, All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Bioengineering]
[Text] Improvement of the sector's control structure means organizing
all-union industrial, production, and scientific-production associations.
In light of this, the sector administrations of the USSR Council of
Ministers Main Administration of Mircrobiological Industry have been
transformed into all-union industrial associations, which in turn contain
both enterprises representing independent legal persons on one hand, and
production and scientific-product ion associations on the other. Trans-
formation of sector administrations into all-union industrial associations
and organization, within their composition, of industrial associations
are fundamental changes within the existing microbiological industry
control system. All-union industrial associations and production
associations are units that operate on the basis of economic accountability,
which is a method for controlling socialist production, while sector
administrations were,purely administrative organs.
Despite the fact that the foundations of enterprise economic accountability
were laid back in the 1920's, economic accountability of associations is
a new form of khozraschet. This goes a long way to -~xplain the absence
of theoretical research on this probtem. Consequently the sectors face
cumplex problems concerning the development (refinement) of certain
premises of :-hozraschet in application to microbiological industry; we
cannot wait for the sciPntific research to end before we solve these
problems. And there are a rather great deal of such problems. As an
example it was noted in the recommendations of the All-Union Scientific
Conference "The Problems of Creating Complete Economic Accountability in
the Economy of Developed Socialist Scoiety" that creation of a khozraschet
- system adequate to the economy of developed socialism would be possible
only within the framework of a unified complex of ineasures calling for
alteration of the economic mechanism, to include mutually coordinated and
successive improvement of the planning methods, the organizational structure
1
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of control, the distribution of capital investinents, and reinforcemer.t
of economic stimuli and the mutualrelationships between enterprises and the
state budget. The conference went on to indicate a number of priority
problems that await their solution, particularly the theoretical problems
of khozraschet (creation of a unified khozraschet system including sector,
regional, and program aspects; revelation of opti:num forms of centralized
planned control of the activities of khozraschet units in conjunction with
their economic indeDender.ce; creation of a system of long-term planned
economic standards and a price-forming system; work on the theoretical
problems concerned with the economic mechanism of capital investments, and
so on); problems associated with improving the organization of khozraschet
(transfer of the principal operational functions of management to large
industrial, production, and scientific-production associations, trans-
formation of the ministries into scientific-technical and economic centers,
and so on); the problems of improving the system of economic levers and
stimuli (establishment of mutually coordinated criteria of capital
investment effectiveness to be used in relation to all participants of
production, conversion of the bulk of capital investments to a self-
- payiiig and self-financing system, development of new depreciation norms
with a consideration for economically grounded values for the life and
� obsalescence of fixed capital, and so on).
The effectiveness of the work of khozraschet associations can be insured by
creating economic stimulation funds, reserves, and a system for their
sensible use. Of special significance in this case is the question of
creating a system of fund-forming indicators which would be selected as a
rule by the associations themselves with a consideration for the concrete
tasks they face and the specific features of their production operations.
The urgency and importance of making a'correct choice of fund-forming
indicators stem from the fact that in the end, they influence the action
of the mechanism of economic accountability.
The question as to the place (level) of formation of different funds and
- reserves, and of the principle of their distribution and utilization is
becoming no less important. In this case it is important to centralize
some of the functions, the ones having to do with directing the activities
of individual enterprises toward completion of certain tasks facing the
association, and at the same time to decentralize other functions concerned
with the use of funds and reserves, so as to insure the necessary inde-
pendence of the enterprises within the association.
Another urgent problem is that of establishing the order of forming and
utilizing reserves for economic regulation when organizing concrete
- industrial and production associations. Science cannot offer ready-made
recipes iri this regard at the moment. Moreover the different ministries
and departments follow different procedures for forming and utilizing
reserves. As an example the USSR Ministry of Instrument Making,
Automation Equipment, and Control Systems permits acquisition of equipment
with assets from the reserve of depreciation deductions earmarked for
2
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overhaul, while other ministries do not. We can cite many such examples,
and this means that if we are to organize concrete associations in micro-
biological industry, we would have to make concrete decisions related to
the choice of the ways for forming and utilizing reserves.
- Among all of the problems we need to solve when creating the khozraschet
mechanism, that of defining the en.terprise as a legally independent
person has special place. The Statute on The Socialist Enterprise states
that if an enterprise is a legally independent person, then it must
possess a charter, an independent bookkeeping balance, and a separate
bank account, and it may maintain independent accounts with suppliers,
buyers, and the budget. But the statute does not clearly spell out whether
all of these components must be present, or if presence of just one would
be enough. This is a very important question, and apparently it must be
resolved in each concrete case with a consideration for the unique features
_ of the association being created (the number of enterprises, its di.mensions,
its territorial integrity, the complexity of the production operations, the
cooperative and marketing relationships of the enterprises, and so on).
In light of tr.e above, the Main Administration of Microbiological Industry
_ finds itself facing a number of problems of inethodological and practical
nature, solution of which would make it possible to create effectively
operating industrial and production associations. Foremost among them are:
determination of the economic and legal status of enterprises within the
association; creation of funds and systems of fund-forming indicators
insuring successful introduction of fundamental khozraschet principles;
creation of economic reserves; stimulation of enterprises to solve
_ scientific-technical problems associated with technical progress;
centralized development of a system of material, financial, and labor
standards; development of a system of planning ard accounting indicators
for industrial, production, and scientific-production associations,
enterprises bearing the rights of a legal person, and enterprises without
the rights of a legal person; development of the forms and sector-specific
procedures of drawing up the plans and accounts of the associations;
development of sector-specific procedures to be used in the application of
estimated prices when forming and utilizing reserves in the associations,
and the methods for computing a working capital standard for the
association insuring correct and uniform allocation of working capital and
creating the conditions for formation of the association's working capital;
improvement of the wage system with the goal of raising its effectiveness,
and so on.
The scale of the work and the complexity of controlling industrial,
production, and scientific-production associations require that the system
that is to control these complexes must insure a sensible relationship
between centralization and decentralization, a combination of vertical
(linear-functional) and horizontal control (interfunctional); optimum
distribution of rights and responsibilities; fina'11y, effective uti.lization
of the information and computer systems.
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Obviously when we create a concrete control structure we must utilize new
organizational concepts insuring effective control over specific -
- technical programs for creating and assimilating new prr~.ducts, raising and
maintaining their quality, arriving at integrated solutlons to prnduction
problems, and so on. This in turn requires that each concrete association
(industrial, production, and scientific-production) develop a matrix-type -
control structure which would organically unitelat 3iff.erent levels of the
control structure, the linear-functional reyationships in the control
apparatus with the branched interfunctional coordinating system.
If we are to create oontrol structures by which to unite microbiological industry
associations, we would need to carefully analyze the existing structure
and study the experience we have accumulated in creating association
control systems in other sectors; we would need to arrive at a clear idea
of the goals and tasks fa.cing the association for which the structure is
being developed. Finally, the developed structure must be tested at a
ccncrete facility.
As we develop the control structure of the association ar.d create the
khozraschet mechanism, we must remember that all of the problems
associated with this process must be worked out in integratad fashion.
In my opinion the existing microbiological industry control structure
should be transformed into a new system based on khozraschet complexes by
the Main Administration of Microbiological Industry in accordance with a
completely developed master plan for improving the control system of
microbiological industry. Considering the complexity, scope and urgency
~ of the problems that must be solved when organizing associations on a
- khozraschet basis,it would be desirable to organize a special subdivision
dealing with the problems of improving control of microbiological industry.
As I see it, this subdivision should solve the problems of tying in the
tasks and functions of the production unit with the control structure,
with the principles of khozraschet and the forms of economic stimulation;
this subdivision mustdevelop the instructions and methods applicable to these
problems, it should study the experience of other sectors, and it should
utilize this experience for the needs of microbiological industry.
[543-11004)
COPYRIGHT: Otdeleniye nauchno-tekhnicheskoy informatsii i tekhniko-
ekonomicheskikh issledovaniy mikrobiologicheskoy promyshlennosti
_ (ONTITEImikrobioprom), 1979
11004
CSG: 1840
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AGROTECHNOLOGY
UDC 577.15.087.5
DETERMINATION OF THE LYTIC ACTIVITY OF LYSOSiJBTILIN USING DIFFERENT
SUBSTRATES
Moscow MIKROBIOLOGICHESKAYA PROMYSHLENNOST' in Russian No 1, 1979 pp 22-24
[Article by O. V. Kislukhina and T. A. Kuznetsova, All-Union Scientific
Research Institute of Bioengineering]
[Teat] Cell walls or the cells of different microorganisms are used as
substrates to determine the activity of lytic enzymes by the turbidimetric
method. The choice of the substrate depends on the specific action and
sphere of application of the lytic enzyme or complex of lytic enzymes.
Mierococcus ZySOde2kt2CZlS cells or cell walls are used as the specific
substrate for determining the activity of bacteriolytic glycosidase. The
activity of a complex of yeast-decomposing enzymes is determined from their
action on the cells of yeast in the genus Candida. In addition to lytic
enzymes with clearly pronounced specificity, such as the lytic glycoSidases,
there exist lytic enzymes with a broad spectrum of action--lytic proteases '
and peptidases. Owing to the presence of protein compuunds in the cell
walls of all microorganisms, these enzymes lyse the cells of various
microbes to one extent or another. Studying the specificity of lytic -
enzymes in a lysosubtilin preparation obtained from a Bac:iZZus subtiZis 402
culture, we discovered two lytic peptidases in the preparation,exhibiting -
differing specificity in relation to synthetic peptides. The preparation
lysed the cells of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and
yeaFts. Use of the preparation is most promising in relation to lysis of
bacteria in the E. coZi group, and yeasts. The substrates we selected for
lytic activity deteYminations were E. coZi and C. guiZZiermondii yeast
cells, as well as cells of the lysosubtilin producer B. subtiZ2s, which we
had used for this purpose previously. The qoal of our work was to find a
substrate to be used in standa.rd determination of the lytic activity of
lysosubtilin, and to clarify the possiblitity for comparing the bacterio-
lytic and yeast-decomposing activity of lysosubtilin. The latter is
extremely significant to regulation of the preparation's production and
use, since it can be used in hydrolysis of both yeast and bacterial biomass.
When bacterial and yeast cells are exposed to lytic enzymes produced by
B. subtiZis, maximum activity occurs at low ionic strength and at a pH
value close to neutral (Table 1).
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Variation of the temperature within 30-50�C produces an insignificant
impact in the case of bacterial substrates; this is especially true for
]y:;()~;uh; i I iu G10kh from P. -117-4htiZ2^ 402, which has a Lemperature o}>timum
of 30�C. The effect of temperature was more strongly pronounced when the -
activity of lysosubtilin was measured in relation to its effect upon yeast
cells. The ratio of activities measured at the end point of the 30-40 and
40-50�C intervals was 3.6 and 2.8 respectively. The former value somewhat
exceeds the temperature factor of the rate of chemical reactions following
van't Hoff's law. Fol.lowing the lead of other researchers, we selected a
temperature of 401C for standard measurements of the activity of lysosubtilin
in relation to yeast cells. -
E. eoZi cells, which underwent 80-90 percent lysis, were found to be the
most sensitive substrate for determining the degree of substrate lysis by
lysosubtilin G10kti in equal conditions (temperature--40�C, time of exposurP
to enzyme preparation--1 hour, lysosubtilin concentration--1 mg/ml reaction
mixture at a preparation activity of 1,000 units/mg E. coZi substrate;
buffer solutions were not added to the reaction mixture). When lytic
activity is determined in standard conditions, the limits of this substrate's
' hydrolysis may be 20-39 percent, while when activity is determined with
yeast and B. Sl.lbtZZZS cells the range of a direct proportional dependence
between the amcunt of enzyme and the degree of substrate tiydrolysis
decreases by 12-15 and 5 percent respectively (see Table 1). The scatter
- in permissible values of the degree of hydrolysis can be explained by the
complex nature of the preparations which contain, in addition to lytic
enzymes, neutral protease and trace quantities of B-glucanase. Neutral
protease is capable of lysing bacterial and yeast cells. The yeast-
decomposing action or the enzyme grows considerably when it is combined
with S-glucanase. The optimum conditions for synthesizing bacteriolytic
enzymes, neutral protease, and R-qlucanase differ; therefore the ratio of
these components in the lysosubtilin enzymatic complex depends on the
conditions under which fermentation proceeds, on the producer strain
- employed, and on the closeness with which the productian conditions are
maintained in the preparation isclation stage.
One significant requirement governing the choice of substrates to be used
in determining lytic activity is presence of a range of substrate optical
density values within wYuch determination of activity wnuld provide identical
values, given maintenance of a permissible degree of substrate hydrolysis--
that is, within which the absolute value by whi.ch the optical density of
the reaction mixture decreases does not depend on its initial optical
_ density. The rPason for this requirement lies in the fact that lytic
enzyme substrate suspensions are standardized in relation to optical
density, and not concentration by weight. We cannot arrive at an exact
- cor_respondence between these values, since optical density does depend to
a certain degree on the procedure used to prepare the susper_sion. We
had demonstrated eaY�lier that an initial optical density of 0.8-1.5* for
- * Optical density values greater than 1 were measured in cuvettes 3 or
5 mm thick.
7
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a susperision of E. coZ2 cells and within 0.5-1.5 units for B. suht2Zis
cells does not have an influence on the determination of lysosubtilin
activity, given a permissible degree of substrate hydrolysis. The
absolute value of the decrease in optical density experienced by a
suspension of C. gui?Ziermondii cells having an initial optical density of
- up to 3.6 units increases as the initial density rises, even though the
degree of substrate hydrolysis remains within permissible limits (11.7-
14.7 percent).
The obtained results prevent us from recommending the use of C. guiZ22-
ermond2i yeast cells for standard determination of the lytic activity of
lysosubtilin. Nevertheless we did use yeast cells when comparing the
activity of lysostlbtilin in relation to different substrates, selecting
a reaction mixture optical density of 1.6 units as the standard.
We can see from Table 2 that the ratio of activities measured in relation
to E. eoZi and B. S1dbtZZZS cells is constant--1:4. Activities measured
in relation to bacterial cells and yeasts do not correspond obviously.
This is understandable, if we consider that the mechanism of enzymatic
lysis of bacteria and yeast differs, and that lysosubtilin has a complex
nature.
We believe on the basis of our research that it would be suitable to use
E. eoZi cells when determining the lytic activity of lysosubtilin.
[543-11004]
COPYRIGHT: Otdeleniye nauchno-tekhnicheskoy informatsii i tekhniko-
- ekonomicheskikh issledovaniy mikrobiologicheskoy promyshlennosti
(ONTITEImikrobioprom), 1979
11004
CSO: 1840
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AGROTECHNOLOGY
UDC 582.28-113
GROWTH OF PLEUROTUS OSTREATUS IN A DEEP CULTURE
Moscow MIKROBIOLOGICHESKAYA PROMYSHLENNOST' in Russian No 1, 1979 p 22
[Abstract by N. I. Shmatov of "Experience in Deep Cultivation of PZeurOtus
ostreatus Mycelium in Complex Mediums" by A. S. Bukhalog, E. F. Solomko,
L. A. Parkhomenko, M. N. Martynenko, and R. K.Pchelintseva in "Proiz-
vodstvo vysshikh s"yedobnykh gribov v SSSR" (Production of Higher Edible
Fungi in the USSR), Kiev, Izd-vo Naukova dumka, 1978, pp 29-321
[Text] The ease with which a mycelial culture can be obtained from the
fruiting bodies of PZeurotus ostreatus, the rapid growth of the mycelium,
and this mushroom's unpretentiousness in relation to nutrient sources
makes it a convenient object of cultivation in liquid nutrient mediums.
Cultivation of P. ostreatus in mediums containing different nutrient sources
demons-trated that growth occurs fastest, with formation of the largest
biomass, in complex mediums containing higher plant extracts or decoctions.
The authors propose a nutrient medium for P. ostreatus containing a 10
percent red clover decoction, sucrose, peptone, and mineral salts; this
medium produced a high yield in a test tube agitator--up to 20-30 gm of
mycelium per liter. Good results were also obtained with the same medium
in which peptone was substituted by urea (up to 17 gm ASV [not further
identified] per liter on the third day and up to 22 gm on the fifth day).
P. ostreatus was subjected to a number of fermantation steps in a stand
fermenter. It was demonstrated that the method by which the seeding
- material is prepared has a tremendous influence on the length of the lag
phase. When the seeding material is cultivated on the surface of the
cultvxe medium for 5 days the lag phase lasts 10-12 hoLirs, while when the
seeding material consists of mycelium grown in medium in a fermenter the
lag phase is practically absent, and the growth rate is significantly
higher. In one of the experiments the mixing rate was increased at the
end of the exponential growth phase fYOm 350 to 500 min-1, which resulted
in a doubling of biomass in 6 hours. Despite the fact that biomass
continued to increase following a longer period of cultivation (more than
3 days) , the increase in cultivation time led to a decrease in the quantity
of crude protein from 27 to 18 percent.
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The morphology of culture growth must be kept under control, since large
mycelial balls contain many degenerative vacuolated cells having a low
protein content. Formation of large smooth mycelial balls was noted when
growth occurred in agitated flasks seeded with a small quantity of seeding
mycelium (up to 10 percent by volume). The dimensions of the balls
decreases when the quantity of the inoculate is increased to 1 gm ASV/liter,
or when it is grown in flasks containing baffles whiclz promote better mass
exchange and aeration.
[543-11004]
COPYRIGHT: Otdeleniye nauchno-tekhnicheskoy informatsii i tekhniko-
ekonomichesk.ikh issledovaniy mikrobiologicheskoy promyshlennosti
(ONTITEImikr.obioprom), 1979
11004
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PHYSIOLOGY
UDC: 612.85
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION OF SPEECH
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 9, 1979 pp 27-35
[Article by L. A. Chistovich, doctor of biological sciences; V. A.
Kozhevnikov, doctor of biological sciences, and Zh. A.Pershin]
[Text] The problem of automatic identification of speech was put to
engineers about 20-25 years ago, in connection with the appearance of
electronic computer technology. It soon was separated into two tasks.
One was to identify isolated command words from a limited vocabulary. This .
task can be performed quite well by means of formal mathematical methods,
and it does not require investigation of either perception processes or
speech formation.
The second task related to automatic identification of natural continuous -
speech without vocabular restrictions underwent significant evolution, and
_ it began to be formulated as the task of comprehending the meaning of a
verbal communication, emerging into a greater problem, that of man's
communication with a machine in the natural human language. There is no
- need to prove the importance of this problem. For example, the possibility
of verbal dialogue with a computer over a telephone would open up utterly
new prospects of computer applications.
It became obvious about 10 years ago that the only proper fnrmulation of the
problem of automatic comprehension of continuous speech is to define it as
a problem of modeling processes of perception and comprehension of human
speECh. Soviet researchers were the first to demonstrate the inevitability
of such an approach. At present it is accepted everywhere; there has been
a drastic intensification all over the world of basic research directed _
toward defining the process of perception and comprehension of human speech.
We know that the first variants of systems that could, if we were to
stretch the point, be called systems of comprehension of coherent speech,
were developed in the last 2 years. Although there are still some serious
restrictions with regard to the system's operating conditions, it became
obvious that the task had moved from the realm of science fiction to
reality. Another perceptible result of the research that was done is that
the principles of organization of the system were largely defined. It became
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know-n which successive units of infermation processing this system must
contain and which questions pertaining to these different units are the
mc>st imPortant.
In general, a certain new scientific direction was formed, which not only
combined branches of knowledge that seemed to be remote from one another,
but defined the tasks tha*_ are within the competence of, let us say,
acoustics specialists, physiologists, phoneticists or mathematical linguists.
Processing of a human verbal signal begins with auditory analysis of this
signal. Different scientists (Darwin, Sechenov, Pavlov) expounded the view
_ long ago that upon perceiving an acoustic verbal signal man reconstructs
verbal movements corresponding to this sound. In the 1960's, our team at
the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov, USSR Academy of Sciences,
conducted a cycle of studies for the purpose of experimental verification
of this hypothesis.
We used a very simple procedure. Verbal signals (natural or artificial--
synthetic) were presented to a subject, and he had to repeat them as
_ accurately and rapidly as possible. A syste:n of sensors was developed, which
made it possible to record concurrently with speech the set of articular
_ phenomena, i.e., to observe the movements and sequence thereof made by man.
First of all, the obtained results revealed that there is very rapid recoding
of verbal signals into movement: the lag of articulatory reactions from the
time that a sound is presented to a subject constitutes 150-200 ms.
These data are of basic significance; they show that the requirements with
regard to volume of immediate auditory memory of the model are not very
high; the model must process simultaneously a relatively short segment of
the signal. Longer segments of speech can be memorized in concise form,
as a program of articulatory movements, rather than an auditory image.
Recoding of a perceived verbal signal into a program of articulatory
movements is tantamount to description of the signal in the form of a
sequence of discrete elements, which can really be designated by phonetic
signs. This thesis is confirmed by experiments, in which subjects imitate
svnthetic signals. It was found that the a group of auditory signals,
which differ physically from one another but are within a certain common
range of parameters, induces the same response, while a group of signals
falling into another range induces a different reaction. The number of
such reactions is rather limited.
Recoding of a verbal speech signal into a series of discrete elements,
phonetic images, is a mandatory prerequisite for singling out and analyzing
words in the communication, i.e., to find the semantic meaning of a word and
its grammatic characteristics. In other words, as soon as a verbal signal
is transformed into a series of discrete elements it passes to the input of
the next level of information processing. Development of a model of this
level, which is called a model. of the analyzing part of language, is in
the hands of mathematical linguists, psycholinguists and neurolinguists.
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In Lliis report we shal_1 discuss only the lower levels of signal proces5iilg,
the levels on cohich transformation of a verbal signal into discrete phonetic
elements occurs. In computer language, these levels are rAferred to as
the unit of primary processing that singles out the useful tags in the signal
and tlie unit of phonetic interpretation.
The key question in developing such units [or modules] is the nature of the
useful tags isolated in the signal.
The initial verbal signal constitutes sonic pressure that changes in a
certain way in time. It can be recorded with an oscillograph. Figure 1
illustrates an example of such a tracing, in general, for a very simple
word "kakoy" [,ohich]. The oscillograms of verbal signals are quite variable
in different people, and it is virtually impossible to determine from them
what was uttered. Processing of these signals is needed. What sort of
processing?
Al1 serious researchers have long since abandoned an empirical search for
metho3s for processing the initial signal. Two routes became delineated:
on2 oriented on a model of speech formation and one oriented on a model
of perception,
The former route appeared very attractive at the start, since an acoustical
model of word formation has already been developed in a rather good approxi-
mation. Using some simplifications, the model can be described with a
relatively small number of parameters. Thus, it remains for us to find
mathematical methods of processing a sonic signal that would enable us to
reconstruct the current values of these parameters and, from them, make
a phonetic interpretation. However, expressly the research teams that
took this route before others and investigated it the best have become dis-
appointed with this approach. Now, more and more attempts are bei.ng made to
try the second route, i.e., to address oneself to the mechanisms of hearing.
One can arbitrarily single out two parts in the auditory system: peripheral
and central. The peripheral part refers to the cochlea of the middle ear,
which is a complex hydrodynamic system that begins to oscillate in response
to sonic signal. This is where spectral analysis of sound is actually made.
Here too, in the mLddle ear, there is a system of receptors, sort of sensors,
that are situated along the cochlea and transform mechanical oscillations
of different regions of th.e cochlea into nervous impulses that flow along
the fibers of the acoustic nerve.
The central auditory system consists of an entire set of accumulations of
neurons organized in a specific way, ganglia that are situated in different
parts of the brain and interconnected by neural pathways.
At the present time, the peripheral part of the auditory system is being
studied intensively. Although the physical processes occurring in the
cochlea are not yet completely understood, there are sufficient data
characterizing the cochlea as a spectral analyzer to define the specifications
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for a functional model thereof. The process of transformation of inechanical
oscillations into neural impulses has been studied considerably ].ess; however,
cven in this resPect, we understand approximatety which farmal trau;5formationti
- of a slgnal must occur and which effects should be reproduced by the model.
Figure l. Oscillogram of the word, "kakoy." There is 10-fold
amplification on the bottom tracing. Time mark 20 ms
~ooo
Hz
020
Hz
.
. .
12B iooHz
2 3
Figure 2. Block diagram of linear variant of model of peripheral
auditory analysis
The situation is immeasurably worse with r(=_gard to investigation of the
central part of the auditory system. Al1 :Cnformation available in this
area is limited to a set of effects and functions obtained by
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neurophysiologists deal.ing with the reactions to sound of neurons of central.
elements, on the one hand, and psychoacoustics specialists who deal with
sound perceT-tion. For the time being, only some conjectures can be made
on the basis of these data concerning the principles of signal transformation.
But it is expressly central auditory processing of a signal that is of
the most interest to those who investigate speech.
Having begun experimental studies in this direction, we soon becanie con-
vinced that, first of all, we must have a model of the peripheral part of
the auditory system; without it we simply do not know what image travels to
the input of the central levels of sonic signal processing. In practice, we
had to create this model in the form ef an instrument, in order to oUtain
~ images of any sonic signals with the use thereof. We also hau to supplement
this model with the next, more "central" units [modules] for information
process, which we are now developing.
The studies dealing with a functional model of the cochlea were conducted
mainly by V. S. Shchuplyakov at the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P.
Pavlov. Then specialists from the Ecole Nationale Superieure d'Acoustique
et Radio-Electricite in Grenoble joined in this part of the work, and
with them we are presently conducting research on the topic of "Acoustic
Dialogue Between Man and Machine." At the present time, this model has
been executed in the form of two digital variants and an analog machine.
Figure 2 illustrates the block diagram of the model. The CY [synchronizer?]
unit adjusts the input signal to the frequency characteristics of the midd].e
ear. Units 1 are resonance filters with low Q factor that are connected
successively and insulated [separated?] by buffer amplifiers. Their fre-
quency characteristics multiply and, as a result, there is formation of
frequency and amplitude characteristics with a very steep incline in the
direction of high frequencies. Units 2 are resonance filters that form a
long electric line reproducing passage of waves along the cochlea. Units 3
are resonance filters with average Q factor that provide for additional
formation of frequency characteristics. The output signal from eac11 filter
represents oscillations of a specific circumscribed region along the axis oC
the cochlea. Thus, the entire system provides for "frequency--coordinate"
transformation and serves as a parallel-action spectrum analyzer.
Figure 3 illustrates the model's respor_se to the word "kakoy." The obtained
- image can be arbitrarily called an acoustic spectrogram. The frequency is
plotted on the y-axis and time on the x-axis; the black areas reflect
intensity of oscillations.
One of the key questions of automatic identification is that of segmentation
of the signal. If the signal first separates into segments (such segments
are clearly visible in Figure 3), such features as length of segments, such
concepts as initial spectrum, end spectrum, etc., can be used to identify it.
However, as a rule most sounds in normal continuous speech do not separate,
and there are no pauses between most words in a phrase.
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Figure 3. Image of the word "kakoy" at output of model of acoustic
spectral analysis; xPU --kHz
If there is no segmentation, one must be governed by the current values of
the spectrum or other parameters of the signal. A typical approach is to
take spectrum samples every 10 ms and to determine each time which vowel
or consonant sound this sample resembles the most. Expressly this approach
is used in most systems of automatic speech identification in present use.
However, studies on man conducted in recent years established reliably that
the duration of the segments--this applies to both the sounds and pauses--
is a f.eature of paramount importance, which is used for auditory discernment
of both vowels and consonants.
Neurophysiological data indicate that there is some sort of inechanism in the
nervous system for singling out the ends of a sound: a significant number of
neurons responds only at the start or end of a sonic message. A series of
psychoacoustic studies was conducted to identify these mechanisms. It can
now be asserted that drastic changes occur in the envelope of impulse
density in some frequency channels of the auditory system, i.e., in the
groups of neurons related to narrow segments of the cochlear membrane.
In the first approximation, the experimental data are described here by a
model that consists of a band filter with central frequency of 25 Hz,to the
input of which comes a rectified signal submitted to logarithmization
from the output of the cochlear filter. There are devices that pr.ocess
the marks of auditory segmentation at the output of the band filter.
- Figure 4 illustrates the model's reaction to the same word, "kakoy." We
_ see that the marks indicate the phenomena designated as the "start" of the
sounds (black marks), "end" of sounds (white marks) and frequency "transi-,
tions," white oblique marks.
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Tnterestingly enough, our model, like man, begins to demonstr.ate pauses in
- the signal when they last only 4-5 ms. Obviously, one of the flaws of most
existing systems of automatic speech identification is that they do not
no*_ice brief acoustic events.
A r_lassical question that arises when studing problems of speech identifica-
tion pertains to the choice of phonetically significant spectrum parameters.
This can be explained conveniently by demonstrating the acoustic spectrum
of the natural stationary vowels, u, o, a[Russian vowels, pronounced as
"ee," "o" and "ah"] (Figure 5). The spectra were obtained using the digital
variant of the model of a cochlea. We see that the patterns are quite
complex.
A series of studies was conducted with synthetic vowels, in order to find
minimal differences in sounds (or, what is the same thing, in their
spectral images), with wbich these sounds are referable to two different
vowels and to determine the condiLions under which there is maximum
similarity of perception of sounds with obviously different spectral
images. The results of these experiments warrant the belief that the
first stage of central processing of the peripheral acoustic spectrum is
singling out local heterogeneities in it (on the frequency axis). The
simplest and physiologically plausible model that can do this is a procedure
of so-called lateral inhibition, which makes it possible to calculate
something that is close to the second derivative from the curve that des-
cribes the spectrum. The parameters of such a model have already been
determined in the first approximation.
At the next stage of information processing there is integration of the
image of the sonic signal over rather wide regions of the frequency scale,
the range of averaging is at least an octave. At present we are considering
several variants of a model of this second stage. Experiments are being -
conducted to choose a variant and define the quantitative parameters of -
the unit of the model.
The researcher is constsntly confronted with contradictory requir.ements
when working on the problem of automatic speech identification. On the one
hand, he cannot lose either time-related or spectral details of images; on
the other hand, the information must be amplified, both on the time axis
and frequency axis. It can now be maintained that these problems are
being solved concurrently for hearing. The peripheral image of the signal
is reproduced in the central auditory system in several parallel versions,
each of which singles out something inherent in it. But it is important
that the axes of the images remain the same in all versions, axes of time
and frequency. Thus, the principle followed differs substantially from the
one presently used by engineers, who try, fram the very beginning, to
drastically reduce the amount of information processed.
The question arises as to whether there is any sense in striving to copy
in a technical system the princirLps of signal processing by the brain. Many
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L
specialists answer it in the affirmative. The outlay of human labor and
computer time would, in this case, be directly referable to investigation
and development of a model, and as soon as algorithms are developed, even
if they are cumbersome, that are acceptable, they can be run by means of
microprocessors.
The conclusions ensuing from the research already completed amount to the
following:
As a result of experimental investigation of inechanisms of acoustic segmenta-
tion and mechanisms of central auditory processing of spectral information,
a set of effects and psychoacoustic functions was found that limits
drastically the number of permissible models of the phenomena and that permit
evaluation of the structure and parameters of a number of units for process-
ing sonic information.
Figure 4. Image of the word "kakoy" at output of model for processing
amplitude changes in "auditory channels"; top--output signals
of band filters, bottom--segmentation marks.
The research on simulation of hearing made it possible to develop an opera-
tional system of processing acoustic information executed in digital and,
in part, analog form. The system is so des?gned that it can be expanded
in the future. Our immediate task is to test the possibility of reproduction -
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by tlie model of neurophysiological and psychoacoustic effects, which were ilot
taken into consideration when it was develo ped, and ta assess the capabili-
ties of the model, from tce standpoint of receiving signals in the presence
of noise.
u o a
q
~

~
I
I u
~ t
1 L
� `
Figure 5.
"Acoustic spectra" of stationary
vowels, u, o, a
0,25 05
Af ter presentation of this paper Academician L.M. BREKHOVSKIKH asked for an update on
the actual status of this reseacch at the present time and the number of
words that the computer now understands. V. A. Kozhevnikov answered that
the team at the Institute of Physiology is working on the basic aspect of
the probiem, trying to help the engineers who, proceeding empirically,
developed a system capable of perceiving speech, but the words have to be
pronounced most distinctly, seParating phrases with pauses, and the
vocabulary is limited to slightly over 1000 words. The computer gives
answers with great delay, so that it is difficult to have a dialogue with it.
Academician P. L. KAPITSA deems it important to single out, in the problem of
automatic speech identification, the study of the cerebral impulse-signal,
with which the process of transmission of information begins. He asked
whether one should study signals by recording them directly, just as
electroc:ardiograms are used to study cardiac function. V. A. Kozhevnikov
said that this is a A,,~ry difficult, if not impossible, route, since it would
require insertion of electrodes in the human brain and analysis of the
function of millions of receptors and ensembles thereof, the principles of
action of which are not yet known.
Academician I. A. GLEBOV remarked that the process of verbal communication
berween man and machine consists of two parts: acoustic information--
machine and machine--acoustic information. Which of them is more difficult
to study? Probably the former. V. A. Kozhevnikov agreed with this and
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reported that the problem of synthesizing speech has already been solved: -
a machine converses with an operator. As for the first psrt of the process,
each individual has his own manner of speech and people's voices are
different, as well as pronunciation; under such conditions, it is very
difficult fcr a machine to single out what is important and meaningful,
the main gist.
Academician M. A. STYRIKOVICH stated that a machine receiving ordinary human
speech is, so to speak, confronted with the task of reading an illegible
manuscript, rather than a printed text, and only a guess can be made about
the meanings of a number of letters according to their combinations in words.
The main difficulty for the machine consists of the fact that each sound
is not expressed by a single signal, but a combination of hundreds of
signals that have to be analyzed in order to "guess" their meaning. This
is a very difficult engineering task.
In the discussions of this paper, K. P. Ivanov (acting director of the
Institute of Physiology imeni I. n. Pavlov, USSR Academy of Sciences)
reported that one of the most interesting projects of practical importance
of the Institute of Physiology has been submitted for consideration to
the Presidium of the Academy; it goes far beyond the framework of ordinary
conceptions on conducting research in physiology. Even organization of
this work is very complex, because the team includes not only physiologists,
but acoustics specialists, mathematicians, engineers, but the physiologists
- are the moving force in elaborating the problem. In this regard, K. P. _
Ivanov stressed that the widespread opinion that physiology is related only
to meiicine is not quite true. The described study shows that modern phy-
siology is involved with tasks that touch upon many very serious technical
- tasks.
M. A. SAPOZHKOV (Moscow Institute of Electrical Engineering of Communica-
- tions) discussed the importance of team work by specialists in different
fields, scientists and engineers. It is only after identifying the
mechanism of speech perception that one can advance toward solving the
entire problem. The speaker believes that the individual differences
in human voices are so great that it is easier to recognize an individual
by his voice than his fingerprints. And although the acoustic features
of people differ and it is difficult to adjust the machine to this, the pros-
pects of solving the problem are already evident. It is imperative to
encourage work in the physiological aspect in order to "get down to the metal."
Academician P. G. KOSTYUK believes that the studies under discussion are of
basic interest to the physiologists themselves, since it is not deemed
possible to investigate the reactions of individual receptor elements,
individual cells, when there are hundreds of thousands of tllem and they
function simultaneously, using the method of electrophysiological study.
At present, modeling complex systems with due consideration of direct data
pertaining to their functions is the only route for physiologists. For this
reason, the research conducted by the authors of the paper is included in
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the complex "Brain" project (which is being worked on hy the Dcpartment of
Physio~logy, USSR Academy of Sciences), and it is being rel.ted upon as an
imporlant element in learning about the mechanism oE audttory perception.
V. I. GAI,LINOV (Scientitic Council for the problem of "Acoustics," USSR
Academy of Sciences) dwelled on the multiaspect nature of studies of speecfi
that are being conducted concurrently in a number of directions that
appear, at first glance, to be utterly unrelated: physiology, linguistics,
physics, cybernetics, etc. So many aspects can be explained by the fact
that, when formulating the r~-levant practical tasks, they cannot be expressed
in a purely technical form as can be done, for example, with tasks pertaining
to recognition of a limited number of commands.
If the submitted paper is considered from the point of view described above,
it becomes obvious that, in the first place, it represents a certain part!of
a major multiaspect project and, in the second place, this is an utterly
clear investigation in its scientifi.c set-up, and it will help solve a
number of applied problems.
T. K. VINTSYUK (Institute of Cybernetics, Ukrsinian Academy of Sciences)
stated that the problem of automatic recognition of verbal signals is also,
to a significant extent, a cybernetic problem, since cybernetics is largely
an applied science which is concerned with development of practical systems
of identification of verbal signals referable to a number of other problems.
Rather good results on recognition of a limited set of words, as well as
continuous speech, have already been obtained (true, under laboratory condi-
tions) in such institutions as the Computer Ceriter, USSR Academy of
Sciences; Institute of Mathematics, Siberian DeFiartment of the Academy, as
well as the Institute of Cybernetics, Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, in Kiev.
At the present time, cyberneticists view the problem of speech identification
essentially as a problem related to information processing. How should
this information be processed, how should a decision be made? Unfortunately,
physiology cannot answer this question. When will it be able to answer it?
Apparently, not soon. Investigation of processes of verbal signal processing
is a vnry important task, and it should he worked on from the physiQlogical
aspect; but, the speaker believes that apparently investigation thereof in
the physiological and cybernetic aspects will come together on the highest
level, sometime in the distant future, when we shall be able to refer to
recognition of speech in a natural language, let us say Russian.
N. G. ZAGORUYKO (Institute of Mathematics, Siberian Department of the USSR
Academy of Sciences) supported the studies of physiologists dealing with
the problem of sp2ech recognition. In his opinion, it is expressly the
achievements of physiologists that will become the main foundation in the
future for development of work in this direction, and physiologists have
already obtained concrete results that are used in development systems of
speech recognition. In particular, they have discovered the so-called
"masking" effect, which, when simulated in a machine, makes it possible to
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advance very substantially in such a difficult part of the problem as adapta-
tion of a machine to a speaker.
As already noted, such studies must be conducted by representatives of
different scientific directions. The All-Union Seminar-School oii Recognition
of Verbal Patterns unites different specialists and gathers togL_Lier over 100
scientific organizations, both academic and sectorial, once every 2 years.
One should consider the establishment of an official body that would
coordi.nate research on this subject.
L. V. ZLATOUSTOVA (Moscow University) called the attention of the audience
to the fact that the research conducted by the team at the Institute of -
Physiology, USSR Academy of Sciences, has a vast spin-off in linguistics,
- both applied and theoretical. Suffice it to state that the nomenclature of
perception units developed in this laboratory is used widely by specialists
in different fields. A system, in which one is able to bypass the lowest -
level of expression of speech, the acoustic level, will make it possible -
to resolve in depth and effectively the problem of automatic speech
recognition.
Summing up the discussion, Academician V. A. KOTEL'NIKOV, vice-president -
of the USSR Academy of Sciences, characterized the problem in question as
one of definite interest, from both the practical and applied, as well as
theoretical points of view. The mechanisms of identification by the human -
brain of an image, a sound are ver.y complex. Still, one can hope that
electronic machines will soon make it possible to run identification
[recognition] processes, especially if scientists will learn how this is
done in nature.
[56-10,657]
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR", 1979
10,657
CSO: 1840
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PSYCfI TATRY
a
RECENT DIRECTIONS OF CLrNICAL RESEARCH IN SOVIET PSYCHIATRY
Stuttgart FORTSCHRITTE DER NEUROLOGIE PSYCHIATRIE in German Vol 47, 1979
pp 1-23
[Article by E. Sternberg, Institute for Psychiatry of the Academy of Medical
Sciences of the USSR, i-ioscow]
[Text] The organization of research carries fundamental
importance for the planning and execution of research work
in psychiatry as well as for the organization of psychiatric
care, which has been developed systematically in the Soviet
Union. The system of state and territorial psychiatric dis-
pensaries assures the registration and inclusion of practi-
cally all psychiatric patients. It concentrates data on
history, progress, therapy, individual personality traits
of patient and family as well as of social status.
Optimal preconditions are established in this way, not
only for clinical-epidemiological population surveys,
but also for complete records of hospitalized as well
as of ambulant patients. The existence of six special
psychiatric institutes with large staffs and all the
necessary equipment constitute a favorable basis for
the execution of expensive programs, such as epidemio-
logic population surveys, extensive genetic-genealogic
familv examinations or the course of diseases in large
series. The article discusses fundamental theories of
Soviet psychiatry, its predominantly clinical-nosologic
and empiric-analytical character and points out, that
pathogenetically oriented research on endogenous
psychoses plays a central role in ongoing studies.
The following broadly developed trends of research are
discussed in detail: 1) Clinical-epidemiologic popula-
tion surveys, in which we describe detailed studies on
about 6000 scizophrenics. We describe also special
studies on ambulatory patients with senile psychiatric
abnormalities and on schizophrenic patients over 60
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_ years of age. This was complemented by a field study
of over 1,000 aged persons who were known to the dis-
pensaries. 2) Clinical-genealogical examinations of
4600 family members of schizophrenic probands. They
provided considerable information on genetic deter-
mination of the disease, age of onset and degree of
progression, thus viewing the problem of schizo-
phrenia in a new light. 3) Eleven hundred patients
of 60 or over, followed through several decades with
disease onset at various ages. The author discusses
the methods of prospective studies and the rules and
dynamics of progress in various forms of schizophrenia.
I should like to precede this report on recent clinical trends of Soviet
psychiatry with some introductory remarks and explanations. It should be
understood, that a single person cannot positively give an exhaustive re-
view of scientific and practical psychiatry of a vast country like the
Soviet Union. The country possesses in excess of 100 teaching chairs in
psychiatry, six psychiatric research institutes; a wide network of psqchiatric
- hospitals, sections of general hospitals, policlinics and psychiatric nursing
homes for chronic patients.
I restrict my report to the trends of clinical and clinical-pathologic work,
not only because one article could hardly do justice to the existing wealth
of material, but principally because I intend to portray those research ten-
dencies with which I am personally familiar, thanks to my activities.
To begin with I should like to emphasize that I desist from a discussion of
the numerous important and many faceted research in the subject of biologic
psychiatry, which is being carried out in numerous institutes of the country.
In this respect I might refer to numerous papers which were published abroad,
and to cnapters by K.K. Monachov and M.E. Vartanian in the monograph "Schizo-
phrenie, Multidisziplinare Untersuchungen," which was published in German. In
order to remain within the framework of this papery I also will not refer to
multiple problems of modern psychiatry therapy, particularly psychotherapy.
Besides, and exhaustive report on the state of nsychotherapy in the Soviet
Union was recently published by the Duesseldorf psychologist W. Lauterbach
(1978) who reports his personal experiences.
riy present report builds on previous papers that have been published in this
journal (1972, 1973) and dealt with certain aspects of the theoretic founda-
tion as well as some concrete paths of Soviet psychiatry. In order to avoid
repetition I shall deal primarily with futher developments of initiatives,
which have been mentioned in previous publications. There are good reasons
for discussing mainly studies in the area of endogenous psychoses. Questions
concerning these types of disease still are in the center of Soviet scientists'
scientific interest. This not only because of their frequent occurrance or
practical and theoretical importance, but also because the pathogenetically
oriented catamnestic, epidemiologic or genealogic studies of the age factor
etc, provedto be fertilefor clinical work in other areas of psychiatry. Thus,
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the emergence of stereotypes of disease development pxoved to he useful in
t}~e stuciy of clironic alcoholLsm and various other organic psychoseti. 7'he -
central role of endogenous psychoses in contemporary psychiatry also ex-
presses recent fundamental changes in the structure of psychiatric disease.
General medical progress has led to a considerable decrease not only of
progressive paralysis, but also of psychoses of infection as well as those
based on trauma and othe physical abnormalities. Last not least my primary
choice of research trends is very naturally based on my personal participa-
tion and acquaintance with them.
Again I should point out two significant items for this discussion:
1) The important role of psychiatric care organization in the Soviet Union,
and the organization of research in planning and execution of this work, and
2) certain theoritical foundations, which form the basis of clinicalpsychiatry
and determine its course.
I also must point out the importance of psychiatric dispensaries, which
have been functioning more than 50 years, in order to appreciate the charac-
teristic organization of psychiatry in the USSR. Built on territorial
principle, they offer not only free consultations, treatment and medication
for psychiatric patients, but also all necessary social, economic and legal
aid. The dispensaries function not only passively, like a policlinic, ac-
cessible to patients and family alike, but they practice active care in the
form of regular house calls by physicians and nurses. This is particularly
important for the completeness of our observations. Repeated reviews by
corresponding field studies shows that practically all organic psychoses,
psychopathic and neurotic abnormalities, phobias etc., are registered in
the district dispensaries.
This means, that the dispensaries dispose of complete patient records. It
is indispensable for the conduct of all-encompassing epidemiologic research.
It is also of primary importance in studies of endogenous psychoses and of `
the inclusion not only of severe, but also of milder forms of disease, which
are treated on an outpatient basis. No less important is the fact that it
guaranteF.s a continuous record of hospital and outpatient observations,
particul.arly concerning general health, the way of life and domestic circum-
stances.of patients. As a rule all observations are concentrated in the dis-
pensaries, They include clinical course, results of examinations, patient
history given by the patient himself and close associates, heredity,
personality development, family interreiations, social status, work dis-
ability and work- and living conditions. Naturally this concentration of
medical and social data affords a favorable climate for progress evaluation
and long range catamnesis, particularly since they frequently cover decades.
Organization also is important in the planning and realization of psychiatric
research. As mentioned above, the Soviet Union possesses at present six psychiatric
research institutes with adequate staffs and modern laboratories. On the basis
of central planning they usually work on special (monothematic) programs.
The program of the Inst4-:ute for Psychiatry of the Academy of Medical Sciences
for instance, pursues er.dogenous psychoses, primarily schizophrenia. It is
self-evident, that great research institutes are necessary for studies,
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which require considerahle manpower. This is true particularly of epi-
demiologic and genealogic studies. Multidisciplinary research is possible
and promising only wittiin the Eramework ot such institutions.
in regard to our basic theoretic positions I should like to refer to a de-
tailed account, which was published in this journal in 1973. Therefore,
I shall confine myself only to summarizing remarks. In the psychiatric
literature one frequently finds indications of certain similarities between
Soviet psychiatry and the so-called rlassical one which is based on the
teachings of Kraepelin. This is justified inasmuch as Soviet psychiatry
like Kraepelin always have attempted to base psychiatry on a scientific
basis. Soviet psychiatry always has been nosologic and tended to join
general medicine and pathology in the pursuit of research. Like German,
American and French psychiatry it has pursued a straight line within the
past decades. Radical directions of the so-called social psychiatry, such
as psychoanalysis and psychology in depth, purely mental concepts, existen-
tialism and anthropologic psychiatry failed to influence clinical nosologic
and analytic-empirical psychiatry. Still, it would be amiss to consider
Soviet psychiatry simply in orthodox kraepelism. Soviet psychiatrists
have shown that the original Kraepelin theory was basically prognostic and
that it lacked a theoretical basis in many respects. The establishment of
psychiatric entities by purely etiologic criteria was always believed to
be too narrow and only to be understood in historic context.
In past decades a considerable part of the formulation of inethodical and
theoretic aspects of psychiatric research has been performed under the
auspices of A.W. Snechnevski et al at the Institute for Psychiatry of the
Academy of Medical Sciences. In their work they defined nosologic forms
of disease by entities of etiology and pathogenesis.
Since we still know very little about the etiology of most psychoses, our
studies concentrated on pathogenesis. Thus we could broaden the attack on
biologic, genetic, epidemiologic and other studies. On the other hand our
clinical studies were directed mainly at the course of disease. Thus,
rules of successive changes and changes of conditions forming stereotypes
of disease progress, became the subject of clinical-pathologic studies.
The sequence of certain syndromes in the course of disease were viewed as
the clinical expression of underlying pathogenic processes. The poly-
morphism of clinical manifestations was seen asexpression of ramifications
of the pathological process. The importance of such a model could first
be demonstrated in the organic psychoses, as for instance in senile dementia
or progressive paralysis. By pathogenic concepts and clinical experience
we could establish three main course-types of schizophrenia, the chronic
(continuous progressive), the remitting (progression in waves) and recurrent.
The properties of structure of the various syndromes as well as the laws of
change were established for each type by years of exacting analysis of
manifestations and progress. It became necessary to separate general
pathologic rule of progress forms from special ones, i.e. bhose charac-
teristic for forms of specific diseases.
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In spite of his categoric denial of the unity of psychoses Kraepelin
examined possible evidence of general conformity of disease progress in
later years. His concept then was a rough approximation of genex'al rule5
of clitiea5e progrE:ss, Such as the succession af inelanchol.y, mznia, irra-
tionality and dementia. Going beyond these four stages oC psychos.[s lie
developed concepts of the preponderance of general basic forms of psychic
abnormalities. This found its formulation in the teachings of the 1920's.
Soviet psychiatry also worked out certain general pathologic concepts of
syndrome classification, i.e. arranging them into various strata. Schema-
tically they were shown as successive syndromes reflecting increasing severity
and involvement. The sequence of severity comprises asthenic-hyperaesthetic,
neurotic, affective, paranoid, hallucinatory-paranoid, paraphrenic and
catatonic syndromes, disturbance of consciousness as well as organic states
of epilepsy and dementia. This model makes it possible to determine not only
the possible range of syndromes (as for instance cyclothymia or schizophrenia),
but it also accepts the various types of psychoses (endogenous, exogenaus,
organic etc) as important preconditions for nosologic classification. Such
general psycho-pathologic concepts offered important new impulses to the
studies of psychiatric syndromes. Soviet psychiatry understands a syndrome
as an inseparable yet dynamic structural unity of positive and negative
changes of activity. This is in contrast to earlier tendencies regarding
syndromes as unique--as by Hoche and numerous French psychiatrists--and
static characteristics of pathologic--productivP symptoms. The peculiarities
of syndromes always indicate information of disease progress. Therefore
clinical psychiatry in the Soviet Union has made research on the structural
entities of psychiatric syndromes the subject of intensive study. Given the
unsatisfactory state of contemporaty psychiatric teaching, its prematurity
and contradictions, the difference of clinical criteria for disease entities
as well as the undoubted multiplicity of etiologic factors, Soviet psychiatry
has come to the opinion that only multidisciplinary research can provide
adequate methods for the scientific study of psychiatric diseases. For this
reason we planned and carried out studies of homogenous groups, i.e. patients
selected on the basis of clinical-psychopathologic, pathologic, neurophysio-
logic, genetic and pathophysiologic principles. Our German monograph on
schizophrenia, published in 1977, conveys an idea of the planning, organiza-
tion and practical execution of such a research program.
[de were guided by the conviction that one of the most important and promising
approaches can be seen in epidemiologic studies of certain populations or
groups of psychiatric patients. Transition from selected hospitalized patients
to all-inclusive epidemiologic studies should lead to further development oF
our knowledge. This tendency has taken a broad and in many ways original
development. Its potential scientific importance is self-evident. I should
like to point out some of the possibilities of this clinical- epiodemiologic
approach. It is the only way to determine the true incidence of agiven form
of disease in various population groups. Numerical estimation of character-
istic manifestations and progress, as well as the importance o� etiologic
factors can be obtained only by means of epidemiologic population studies.
They offer a complete picture of family relations, social status, employ-
ability and adaptability. For this reason they may also be used for
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objective verification of etiologic and pathogenetic hypotheses in psychiatry.
This type of investigation is also important for scientifically based planning
o� psychiatric institutions, the organization of psychiatric care and last
but not least the evaluation of treatment methods.
However, we are aware of the previously emphasized diEficulties of opidemio-
logic population studies. They have to involve sufficiently great popula-
tion samples in order to be meaningful. This in turn means expensive pro-
grams and ample staffs of qualified specialists. These obstaclca were over-
come by our specialized research institutes.
The problem of data gathering also presents considerable difficulties. In
_ this respect however, we are fortunate, because we possess complete patient
records in our dispensaries. They insure comprehensive pictures of at least
the psychotic patients, whether they are in clinics, hospitals, other in-
stitutions or at home. Clinical-epidemiologic research of schizophrenia,
which comprises the majority of our studies, can thus assume standardized
comprehension of populations.
Questions of inethodology naturally are of decisive importance for the validity
of clinical-epidemiological research. I might mention only two questions,
which play a great role in studies of national surveys*: The question of
data gathering, the "instrument" used and the quest for optimal methods
for identification of the patients' state of health.
In contrast to the questionnaires, self-evaluation scales etc., which are
used abroad, we use standardized exhaustive examination cards. These are
filled out by the examining psychistrist after examination, i.e. a semi-
structured phychiatric interview, and also the utilization of all available
documents. These cards contain all information on heredity, family history,
education and employment, social activities, personality structure, conditions
of family and domicile, prior diseases and damages, onset and progress of
disease as well as the entire clinical record, such as treatment in clinics,
outpatient depatments, measures for rehabilitation etc. The emerging clinical
status is then reviewed by us from the viewpoint of syndromes. iJe believe
that this method has obvious advantages. Clinical symptoms always are
artificially isolated, yet they usually have many connotations and are hardly
comparable because they depend to a great extent on the syndrome in which
they appear. Adequate and completely characterized syndromes however com-
pletely reflect all peculiarities of a psychic disturbance at any time. The
establishment of a syndrom catalogue is of special importance for classifica-
tion and its diagnostic value. It lists complete and interdependent syndromes,
based on theories and clinical examinations. The establishment of corresponding
glossaries are another precondition for classification and diagnosis. Thus
one may guarantee uniform judgment in various diseases.
*Considering numerous problems (which are less important in this work's
context) that have surfaced in the attempts at international cooperation
of epidemiologic studies, I should like to refer to the publication by
N.M. Sharikow (1977).
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ilsing the above describ.ed method, over 6000 s.chizophrenics and patients with
affec�Cive endogenous psychpses have heen studied epidemiologically in tlie
d i ti r r i c� t ci i SpontirlCl es n f Moscow. Analo};ou5 studies h;Ily (+f
seeding. The question has been raised of setting standards for removal of
biological production transformed by the fish without detriment to the pro-
duction properties of the body of water as a whole. There is a question
that requires a definitive answer: is it necessary to completely replace
the aboriginal ichthyofauna with new species. It is stressed (N. V.
Nesterenko, G. M. Lopatyshkina, N. M. Podkina) that seeding with whitefish
- of most roach and perch lakes did not result in a substantial increase in
the catches; commercial breeding in carp lakes was more successful. It is
imperative to conduct more in-depth studies of correlations between seeded
and aboriginal fish, as well as the influence of introduced species on
ecosystems as a whole. There were also two papers dealing with pond
pisciculture.
Several papers submitted data on nutrition, dynamics of population size and
distribution of young fish. An analysis was made of some biological distinc-
tions of pelyad from Ural lakes related to reproduction (Ye. L.
Galaktionova, A. I. Leont'yev). There was a discussion of the ichthyo-
fauna of bodies of water, morphological variability of fish in these
reservoirs (including coolants of state regional electric power plants),
as well as lakes and rivers. There was a survey of considerable material
pertaining to variability of Eurasian graylings (Ye. A. Zinov'yev), special
attention being devoted to the parallel between form-producing processes
within species and subspecies having an extensive range. Similar ecotypes
appeared in different regions, and their ecological features were found to
be the most similar; there was less frequent ccincidence of morphological
features. It was reported that there is a severe worsening of ecological
conditions in the Ural tributaries of the Ob' River related to anthropogenic
factors (V. R. Krokhalevskiy, V. I. Polymskiy). There are spawning grounds
of the pelyad, broad whitefish, Siberian powan in the Severnaya Sos'va,
Sunya, Voykar and Sob` rivers; there too, these fish find shelter during
the annual period of mass destruction in the Ob' River. It was suggested
that immediabe steps be taken for biological and technical amelioration of
these rivers, organizing protection of spawning grounds and particularly
against increasing poaching.
Macrophytes occupy extensive parts of Ural bodies of water, but they have
been studied very little. For this reason, one should welcome the appear-
ance of works shedding light on the composition and productivity of collec-
tions of macrophytes in Ural waters. Several papers submitted the results
of studies of phytoplankton in reservoirs and lakes (M. I. Yarushina,
P. P. Vasil'chikova and others).
Several papers contained information about the composition and production of
zoobenthos and zooplankton in lakes, their role in the biotic cycle of
matter. There was discussion of the taxonomic compositlon of midges
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[Chironomidae family] in the central Ural region (G. A. Sokolova), Oligo-
chaetae in the northern Urals (V. M. Popchenko), effects of anthropogenic
factors on the zoobenthos, zooplankton and fish (N. S. Solov'yeva, V. M.
Gol'din, M. B. Stepanova and others). It was noted (L. A. Sherstneva) that
the absence of penticides from water cannot serve as an indication of a good
toxicological situation in fishery-involved waters, since DNOK [dinitro-o-
cresol], Sevin and GKhTsG [hexachlorocyclohexane] settle at the bottom
very rapidly and remain virtually unremoved from debris and silt. All
pesticides are toxic for marine animals at all stages of their development.
Pesticides of the GKhTsG type are particularly dangerous, and the possibility
of presence thereof must be totally exluded. The results were submitted of
a study of composition and productivity of zooplankton in a small, but
interesting mountain lake, Arakul', which is used as a whitefish stock pond
(T. S. Lyubimova). There was a summary of results of studies of species-
related diversity, level of development and rate of zooplankton production
in six typical lakes in the southern and central Ural region (I. V. Kozlova).
fihe species-related diversity and composition of zooplankton there are de-
termined by mineral content of the water, pH, extent of overgrowth, level
of development and rate of production of zooplankton as a whole and of differ-
ent groups thereof, differences in temperature conditions, as well as rela-
tive profusion of highly productive species and age structure of populations.
There was a report on changes in the feed base of Lake Duvankul' related to
raising whitefish there (I. V. Kozlova, M. P. Koval'kova). Long-term ob-
servations of the feed base in the case of dense seeding are urgently
needed and should be planned; unfortunately, they are most often conducted
on the basis of individual'initiative (as in the above-mentioned case).
An effort was made to discuss the correlations between species-related,
morphological, energy and other aspects of structure, on the one hand, and
the system of control in biogeocenoses on the other (Yu. G. Andreyashkin,
N. I. Andreyashkina). The biocenosis that regulates the flow of matter
and energy is considered to be the controlling subsystem. The controllable
parameter is the correlation between chemicals in the cycle and th e output
signal is appearance of superfulous biogenous elements in the inanimate
part of the biogeocenosis. Control is implemented by altering the structure
of increment or even spe,~ies-related structure, Primarily in the phytocenosis.
Z. M. Balabanova summarized extensive material pertaining to Ural lakes,
where mass destruction phenomena are obser�ved annually. Other papers
gave information about the effects of anthropogenic factors (mainly regula-
tion) on hydrochemical conditions of the rivers in Chelyabinskaya Oblast
(A. F. Krivopalova). In connection with the change at electric power
plants to atomic fuel, there is a particularly acute question of investigating
- the effects of dumping excess heat and waste from atomic power plants on 
hydrobionts and the need to speedily elaborate the principles of ecological
standard setting for levels of radioactive substances in reservoirs (N. V.
Kulikov); a mathematical model has been proposed for the process of bacteri:ll.
oxidation of bottoms (A. J. Zatsepin); there was a report on the trial of
automatic classification in a study of size and age structure of mollusk
populations (I. M. Khokhutkin, Yu. A. El'kin); the results were submitted of
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a classification of lakes according to composition of zoobenthos, using a
method that took into consideration the Euclidean distance between
benttionic biocenoses in multidimensional space (K. Ye. Sherman); a link was
traced between the cyclic fluctuations of fisi, ^atches and level of solar
activity, consideration of which makes itpossible to predict catches with
fair accuracy (V. I. Medvedev).
The conference participants heard and approved of the program entitled
"Productivity and Protection of Inland Waters of the Soviet Union," which
was prepared at the initiative of G. G. Vinberg, corresponding member oE
the USSR Academy of Sciences and president of the VGBO, and they appealed to
all researchers to participate in its implementation.
In the decision that they adopted, it was noted that some positive results -
have been obtained from studies and development of biological resources of
Ural waters. Research is being conducted with success in the field of
production hydrobiology, hydrology, radioecology and hydrochemistry of `
bodies of water. '
Advances have been made in breeding and raising valuable fistl species (with
special mention of the fish industry enterprises of Chelyabinskaya and
Tyumenskaya oblasts).
Poor coordination of hydrobiological research and virtual isolation of
researchers working on Ural waters constitute a substantial flaw. As a
result, not all types of bodies of water are investigated, joint analytic -
work is not being done to evaluate the condition of the reservoirs, inter-
action between seeded and local fish has not been adequately studied, small
lakes (up to 100 ha in size), the importance of which has increased in
recent years due to use thereof as hatcheries, have not been submitted to
hydrobiological investigation; questions of marine toxicology and a number
of others have not been sufficiently investigated.
The following most pressing directions of hydrobiological work in the Ural
region were defined at the conference: joint studies of the str.ucture and
function of the main types of marine ecosystems; hydrobiological studies of
small lakes suitable for use as hatcheries; determination of correlations
between newly seeded and aboriginal fish; investigations pertaining to
more rational use of liquid waste from heat and atomic Power plants for
fishery purposes.
It was agreed that the question of expanding toxicological studies due to the
increasing pollution of water by industrial enterprise waste is an extremely
pressing one. The participants at the conference also deemed it timely to
summarize the significant material on hand dealing with hydrology and hyciro-
chemistry, flora and fauna of Ural waters in the form of a monographic des-
cription of the best studied bodies of water, as well as a retrospective
bibliography pertaining to hydrobiological and ichthyological studies of the
region in question.
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CUtc Vrrttllrtl. u13L w.,.,.
, This conference was instrumental in uniting the efforts of researchers con-
cerned with Ural waters. It was decided to convene regular conferences for
the purpose of continued coordination of studies.
[88-10,657]
- COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Naukova dumka"Gidrobiologicheskiy zhurnal", 1979
10,657
_ CSO: 1840
,
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SCIENTISTS AND SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATIONS
UDC 616.89:929 Frumkin
OBITUARY NOTICE: YAKOV PAVLOVICH FRUrIIZIN
- Moscow ZHURNAL NEVROPATOLOGII I PSIKHIATRII in Russian Vol 79 No S, 1979
pp 1428-1429
[Obituary]
[Text] On 29 September 1978 at the age of 76 the distinguished Soviet
psychiatrist, Honored Scientist of the Ukrainian SSR, and Doctor of Medical
Sciences Professor Ya. P. Frumkin passed away.
- Yakov Pavlovich Frumkin was born 17 August 1902 in Smolensk. In 1924 he
graduated from the Medical Faculty of. Moscow University after which he
worked for some time at the Department of Psychiatry of the university as
an ordinator and assistant under the direction of P. B. Gannushkin. From
1932 thraugh 1974 Yakov Pavlovich headed the bepartment of Psychiatry
of the Kiev Medical Institute imeni A, A. Bogomolets, and then, till the
end of his days, he was scientif ic consultant of the department. ~
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Ya. Y. Frumkin successfully developed qtiestions of clinical psychiz3try and
was one of those who developed the ideas of the Moscow school of psychiatry
of S. S. Korsakov and P. B. Gannushkin.
Yakov Pavlovich was a widely educated and talented clinician. He was dis-
tinguished by a rare ability to abserve. Following the principles of his
teacher, P. B. Gannushkin, Y. P. Frumkin carried out clinical investiga-
tions, penetrating deeply into the essence of psychopathological phenomena.
His differential-diagnostic and prognostic oninions were characterized by
exactitude and depth.
The greater part of 150 works published by Yakov Pavlovich are devoted to
- the study of clinical manifestations, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, `
and treatment of psychical illnesses, He worked out topical areas in
epilepsy, its clizical forms and types of course of the disease; he des-
- cribed the typological characteristics of epi2eptoid and arteriosclerotic
- dementia and of the psychoses accompanying these diseases. To the pen of
Ya. P. Frumkin belong a number af publications on the history of psychiatry, _
the organization of psychiatric assistance, psychotherapy, psychiatric
deontology and a method of teaching psychiatry. In collaboration with
Academician A. A. Bogomolets, Yakov Pavlovich participated in studying the
qsestions of geriatric psychiatry and reactivity during psychical illnesses.
Ya. P. Frumkin wrote monographs and school text books widely known in otir
[USSR] country: "Psychiatric Termi_nology" (1939), "A Shert Differential
Diagnosis of Several Mental Illnesses" (1951), the first native "Educational
Atlas of Psychiatry" (1963), "Psychiatry: Tables and Diagrams" (1977).
Under the direction of Ya. P. Frumkin more than 40 candidates' and doctoral
dissertations were completed and defended. A number of his students were
at the head of departments of psychiatry in medical WZes [i.e., institute
of higher learning] of the Ukrainian SSR, many are successfully continuing
their scientif ic and pedagogical activity and are organizers of psychiatric
- help.
Yakov Pavlovich was a brilliant pedagague. His brilliant and profound
lectures invariably attracted a wide audience not only of studer.ts, but also
� of practicing physicians. He was distinguished by the valuable gift of a
teacher, was always simple in communication; he loved his patients, enjoyed
= great authority and respect among students, physicians and scientists.
Yakuv Pavlovich Frumkin was a member of the CPSU since 1943. Many times "
- he was chosen as a member of the party bureau of the Faculty of Medicine,
and performed active social work. Over the course of many years -
Yakov Pavlovich was on the board of the All-Union and Ukrainian Societies
- of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists; in 1974 he was chosen Honorary
MemUer of the All-Union Society of Neuropathologists and Psychiatrists. _
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For his fruitful pedagogical, scientific, practical and social a^tivities
Prof Ya. P. Frumkin was awarded the title of Honored Scientist of the
Ukrainian SSR.
The blessed memory of Yakov Pavlovich Frumkir.--pedagogue, scientist and
human being wi-il remain forever in our hearts.
COPYRIGHT: "Zhurnal Nevropatologii I Psikhiatrii imeni S. S. Korsakova," 1979
(66-9193]
9193
CSO: 1840 E1V-D
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