JPRS ID: 8994 USSR REPORT ECONOMIC AFFAIRS

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• Collection: JPRS
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• Content Type: REPORTS

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0 OECEMBER 1979 (FOUO 28179)
i OF i
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JPRS L/8821
- 17 aecember 1979
USSR Report
RESOURCES
(FOUO 2-8i79)
r
FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATION SERi/ICE _
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USSR REPO RT
RESOURCEs
(FOUO 28/79)
~
1
JPRS L/8821
17 December 1979
CONTENTS
PAGE
ELECTRIC POWER AND POWER EQUIPMENT
Key Trends in Improvement of the Construction of Nuclear
Electric Power Plants
(V.I. Borisov, I.L. 5apir; ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO,
Sep 79)
1
Baykal-Amur Mainline Electrification Progress Reported
(A.A. Tamamshev; ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL`STVO, Sep 79)
6
Aleksey Sergeyevich Gorshk.ov Hits Age 75
(TEPLOENERGETIKA, No 9, 1979)
10
Thermionic Topping of Electric Power Stations
(V.I. Dobrokhotov, et al; TEPLOENERGETIKA, No 9, 1979)..
12
FUELS AND RELATED EQUIPMENT
Environment and Development of Gas Extraction in Northern USSR
(A.V. Yspishev; IZVESTIYA. AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, SERIYA
GEOGRAFICHESKAYA, Jul-Aug 79)
26
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[III - USSR - 37 FOUO]
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_ ELECZRIC POWER AND POWER EQUIPMENT
KEY TRENDS IN IMPROVEMENT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF NUCI.EAR ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Moscow ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO in Russian No 9, Sep 79 pp 2-3
[Article by V.I. Borisov and I.L. Sapir, engineers]
[Text] At the present time the development of nuclear power has become a -
. decisive factor influencing the structure of the country's fuel and energy
balance. In particular, energy development in the European sector of the
USSR is based chiefly on the utilization of nuclear power.
The national economic plan for the lOth Five-Year Plan period calls for the
- introduction of 13 million to 15 million kW of capacities at nuclear electric
power plants. It wi11 increase even more in the next five-year plan period.
In the future the annual entry into service of capacities at AES's [nuclear
electric power plants] must reach five million to eight million kilowatts. -
The complexity of the task facing building and installation organizations of
the USSR Minenergo [Ministry of Power and Electrification] is governed by the
- fact that nuclear electric power plants are two- to 2.5-fold more labor in-
tensive and materials intensive than traditional thermal plants. Specific -
indicators of work volumes for nuclear electric power plants are given in the
_ table.
Table
Indicators in terms of 1 kW
AES with
AES with
GRES with K-800-240
of installed power
WER-1000
RB14K-1000
turbine
reactor
reactor
Amount of co5 crete and ferro-
concrete, m
0.14
0.25
0.08
Weight of inetal building struc-
tures (including facing and
fittings), kg
23
38
16
3
Amount of finishing work, m
0.7
0.99
0.16
_ Floor area, m
0.85
0.12
0.04
Weight of pipelines with fifit-
4ngs, kg
7.09
11
3
[Table continued on followfing page]
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Table [continued]
Cost of building and installation 100-110 120 80
work, rubles
Labor costs, man-days 4.5 5.6 2�1
Accomplishment of the program planned for the creation of vast-scale domestic
- nuclear power requires the performance of the following key measures for im-
proving the planning, construction and installation of AES equipment:
A changeover to the construction of AES's in keeping with unified and stable
projects.
The erection of AES projects made of prefabricated monolithic structures.
The setting up of a building industry base for.the purpose of ma.king possible
the combined delivery to construction sites of reactor section structures and
other special AES structures.
The creation of stable highly skilled construction and installation teams,
which will make possible the conti.nuous entry into service (at a one- to
two-year interval) of 1-million-kW-capacity power units at each construction
site.
The faster-pace construction of well organized housirLg projects for construction
and installation and operating persorinel.
In the USSR Minenergo the head organization in the area of the construction of
AES`s is the Soyuzatomenergostroy A11-Union Association, which is made up of
building, building-and-installation and housing construction organizations,
precast ferroconcrete and metal structure plants, as we11 as the Atomenergo-
$troyproyekt [expaftsinn unknown] Institute.
For the successful solution of the problems facing nuclear power is required the
active combined work of practically all subdivisions of the USSR Minenergo.
For power units whose entry into service is planned in the llth and 12th
five-year plan periods, the Teploelektroproyekt [All Union State Institute
for the Planning of Electrical Equipment for Heat Engineering Structures]
Institute has developed a unified project meeting the key requirements for
continuous and industra.al construction. The single-unit arrangement used in
the project makes it possible to arrange for continuous construction with a
one-year entry into service rate. Plant-fabricated building structures have
been unified. .
The Atomenergostroyproyekt Tnstitute in cQnjunction with the Gidromontazh
[State All-Union Construction and Tnstallation Trust of G7.avgidroenergostroy
[Main Administration for the Construction and Installation of Hydroelectric
Power Plants in the Central and Southern Regions]] Trust has developed a pre-
fabricated monolithic protective shell with reinforcement made of sheet metal.
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The Gidroproyekt [All-Union Planning, Surveying and Scientific Research
Institute imeni S.Ya. Zhuk] Institute has u-~veloped a pro,ject for an AES
with an RBMK-1000 reactor, providing fox the extensive employment of unified
reinforcement panels used for erecting major areas of the AES's reactor sectian.
However, in the process of further planning, in the working drawings executed
the number of type sizes of pillars, crossbars, partitions and ceiling slabs
has grown excessively.
= In addition, in the projects of both of the above-named i.nstitutes insufficient
attention has been paid to unification of the building structures of utilities
- services units, sanitation unlts and a number of other units for ancillary
production purposes. -
A key trend in the work of Soyuzatomenergostroy has been the creation of
specialized construction industry enterprises. The development of series plans
for reactor sections, in which provision is made for the employment of plant-
fabricated building structures, will make it possible to create fundamentally
new building and installation organizations--so-called nuclear power construc-
tion combines (AESK's).
The objective of an AESK is to fabricate and deliver to the construction site
- a complete set of building structures for the reactor section and other special
AES structures. Measures for the improvement of the construction of nuclear
electric power plants call for the unification within the framework of a single
organization--a nuclear power construction combine--of the base plant for the
fabrication of special structures and of subdivisions for the installation of
these structures. The following are the necessary conditiQns for the success-
ful operation of an AESK:
SCability of project decisions, in keeping with which each combine must erect
an AES in a period of five to six years.
= The faster-pace and complete performance of work relating to preparation of
the territory and base-level projects in large areas for future development.
The unification in a single organization of the processes of fabricating,
outfitting and assembling building structures.
Precise delineation of the territorial zones for the operations of each
combine.
The optimal annual output for a single AESK is two power units with a WER-1000
reactor, or one with an RBMK-I000.
Under conditions of thorough specialization in the performance o� building and
installation work and the continuous construction of AES's there has been a
sharp increase in the need to observe technological discipline in the con-
struction process. The overall coordination o,f a11 work in construction and
the en.surance of the timely entry into service o� capacities should be accom-
plished by a general contracting organization (territorial trust).
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1VL't Vl'1'1V1[1L UJL' VL\LL
For a changeover to continuous construct4on it is necessary to develop
appropriate p].anning forms. Here the proper attention must be devoted both
to the drawing up of a scientific program and to supervision of its fulfillment. _
Scientif ic planning must of necessity be coordirated for each specialized
flowline process and must be in strict agreement with the basic tech-nological
rules for the construction of an AES. Sy these rules must be regulated the _
following: noY-cns for the duration of construction and appropriate financing
It year by year; standard item and volume graphs for the completion of work for
each specialized flowline process; obligatory deadlines for the delivery of
key, auxiliary and nan-standard equipment, pipelines, cable, etc., the building
and installation work technology for all AES structures, and r_he choice of key
~ gear, rigging and low-level mechanization equipment; norm-setting documents for
labor intensiveness, materials intensiveness and the duration of work for in- ' dividual construction technology units of an AES; and a quality control system
for all types of construction and installation work.
As know-how is accumulated and methods of construction and installa.tion are
improved these rules will be refined. The issuance and correction of new
technological rules is one of the key objectives confronting the Atomenergo- i~
stroyproyekt Institute. The fulfillment of these rules will make it possible
to assign in good timF the front line of operations to allied organizations. '
Enlisted to take part in this work should be, obviously, specialized installation
organizations, as well as Energostroytrud [expansion unknown], Teploelektro- ~
proyekt, Gidroproyekt and Orgenergostroy [All-Union Institute of the Planning
of Electric Power Projects]. _
A component of these rules should be an op'timal system for the mechanization of
building and installation work. Experience in building AES's has demonstrated -
that the BK-1000 and SKR-2200 tower cranes made by plants of Glavenergostroy-
- mekhanizatsiya [USSR State Industrial Committee for Power Engineering and Elec-
trification Main Administration for Construction Mechanization] solve the
problem of supplying basic installation gear. It is necessary also to speed
up the output of SKR-3500 cran2s. Experience in the operation of concrete
laying complexes at the Chernobyl', the Smolensk AES and a number of others
has demonstrated their h3gh efficiency. However, it must be mentioned that
the effectiveness of their employment depends to a great extent on the exten-
sive utilization of powerful concrete pumps and automatic concrete mixers.
For the purpose of making possible the required pace of construction, it is
necessary in the immediate future to expand considerably the output of concrete
pumps and spare parts for them, as well as of manipulators designed for in-
creasing the e�fective area of concrete pumps.
A highly important condition for the stable operation of bnilding and installa- _
tion teams is precise organization of the supply of materials and equipment. �
In the Soyuzatomenergostroy Association at the current time a changeover is
being made from the supply of materials and equipment according to orders for
- an AES as a whole to a system of out.�itting iri terms of construction technology
- units. This work is being done together with planning organizations. Classi-
fiers have been developed for consrruction technology units into which AES
projects have been divided.
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In the immediate future planning organizations must ensure the thorough
issuance of planning and estimating documentation .for a1l classifier elements.
One of the most important conditions for ensuring the timely entry into =
service of capacities at an AES has been, as a rule, the faster-Face con-
struction of residential and public buildings. -
_ A great number of dwelling units and public buildings in settlements of power
engineering personnel are being built at the present time out of brick, which
considerably'increases building costs. At the present time six active large- - panel housing construction plar.ts of tl:e USSR Minenergo are making homes
- according to plans not in keeping with modern technical specificatiens and - the GOST [All-Union 3tate Standard].
Often in the construction of an AES there are not enough structures for large-
panel dwelling units and public buildings, as well as carpenter's items,
built-in furniture, etc.
The main prablem the Soyuzatomenergostroy Association has been hit with at
the present time is an insufficiency ef building and installation personnel.
In connection with this is requi.red systematic and steady work on the part of
planning and building-and-installation organizations wit-h regard ta reducing
labor intensiveness and improving labor productivity.
- COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO, 1979
CSO: 1822
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, ELECTRIC POWER AND P0WER EQUIP'MENT
BAYKAL-AMUR MAINLINE ELECTRIFICATION PROGRES$ REPORTED
_ Moscow ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL'STVO in Russian No 9, Sep 79 pp 78-79
[Article by A.A. Tamamshev, engineer: "The Baykal-Amur Mainline"]
[Text] The BAM. This brief but pregnant word has become close to millions
of Soviets. And it is no wonder: The Baykal-Amur Mainline is being built
by the entire country.
220 kV Severobaykal'sk Substation
_ In terms of the extent of its route, the amount of building and installation
-and other kinds of work, the multitude and complexity of engineering struc-
tures and the advanced mechanization equipment employed, the BAM knows no
equals in the world. But the BAM, of course, is not only a new cross-country
railway line. It is also new toCans and sett].ements, �uture plants and enter-
prises. It is a].so great energ}r, calling ~or uti],ization of the water resources
of the Vilyuy, Zeya, Selemdzha and Bureya rivers, as wi:11 as of deposits of
Neryungri coal.
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Construction of the mainline has required an ever increasing consumption of
. electric power. The ma.jor consumers of electric power are Severobaykal'sk,
Tynda, Tygda and other worker's settlements, as we11 as the Baykal'skiy and
Severo-Muyskiy tunnels--many hundreds of kilometers remote from powerful
sources (the Ust'-Tlimskiy and Zeyskiy GES's and the Neryungri GRES). There-
fore, the country's power engineers and, in particular, its electric power
_ network workers, are confronted with great and difficult problems: For
supplying with electricity a railway mainline which extends 3140 km from west
- to east it is necessary to construct 7190 km of electrotransmission lines and
- to put into service 1.5 million kW�A of transformer capacities at electrical
substations.
~
Crossover of Qne 220 kV Overhead Line Over the BAM
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' Electric power network construction in the area of the BAM has its own
features, determined primarily by the severe natural climate and complex
geological conditions, the lack of materials and equipment centers and con-
tinuously operating transportation arteries, as we11 as by the lack of sufficient
exFerience in designing and constructing V'L's [overhead lines] and substations
in this region. The high annual temperature differentials (about 80�C) and
the severe soil conditions complicate the performance of operations and impose
special requiremeirts on the operation of machi.nery and gear. The diversity
of soil--from permafrost to rocky (even along the route of a single electro-
- transmission line)--results in the need to use in plans different foundation
designs, which interferes with a unified technology for carrying out building
and installation work. Such specifications for building structures as a
drastic reduction in their weight because of complicated transportation con-
ditions, a high degree of prefabrication for the purpose of reducing labor
costs at stations, and technological feasibility with allowance for the possi-
bility of using helicopters have acquired a special meaning in tlae area of the
BAM.
= It has not yet been possible to solve all problems. But in spite of the
difficulties, the teams of planners of the Siberian, Tomsk, Far Eastern and
Northwest divisions and of the Irkutsk OKP [okrug committee on transportation]
of the Energoset'proyekt [All-Union State Planning, Surveying and Scientific
Research Institute of Power Systems and Electric Power Networks] Institute
and of builders of the Vostoksibelektroset'stroy and Dal'elektroset'stroy
Trusts have done everything possible to fulfill the quotas for supplying the
BAM with electricity. Here are some figures: In 1977 were put into service
500 km of 220 kV VL's and 201,000 kv�A of transformer capacities at substations
- and 16.3 million rubles were utilized; in 1978, 513 km of 220 kV VL's and
50,000 kV:A of tr ansf ormer. capacities, but in more remote and nearly inaccess-
ible regions of the BAM, and 19.7 rubles were utilized. During these years
the inexpensive electric power from the Ust'-Ilimskiy GFS arrived at the
Baykal'skiy Tunnel and in Severubaykal'sk through a 600 lun electrotransmission
line, and the central section of tHe BAM and Tynda received power from the
Zeyskiy GES.
In the current ye ar it is necessary to fulfill even more strenuous quotas:
to put into service more than 800 km of 220 kV VL's and to master more than
- 26 million rubles of construction and installation work. And in the way that
- planners and builders are working today is felt the know-how gained from
previous years. The technical decisions adopted earlier have been improved;
in particular, the metal content of supports for 220 kV VL's has been reduced,
a more advanced crossarm design has been developed, providing for suspension
of a cable for high-frequency communications channels, and less materials
intensive foundations have been intrpduced. Ever more extensive use is being
made of advanced methods of performing work, taking into account the specific
features of the azea of construction. k'or example, whereas pxeviously heli-
copters were used only for de7.ivering freight, now installation work is being
_ performed by means of them, which has made it possible to shorten considerably
the duration of construction and to reduce labor costs.
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The brigade coRtract has been introduced univezsally. Now more than 52
percent of a11 brigades are working according to this advanced method. The
winner of the socialist competition for results of the second quarter of 1979
was the collective of mechanized column No 30 of the Vostoksibelektroset'stroy
Trust.
In shock-work fashion are laboring the brigades of communist labor of comrades
N.P. Selivanchuk and V.S. Golubev.
"At the present time the key attention of builders has been directed toward
furnishing with electric power the Severo-Muyskiy Tunnel now under construction,"
reports N.K. Petrov, manager of the Vostoksibelektroset'stroy Trust. "For this
p urpose, in keeping with the socialist obligations assumed, it is necessary to
put into service ahead of schedule a 300 km 220 kV VL from Severobaykal'sk to
- the Severo-Muyskiy Tunnel. Working successfully on construction of this elec-
trotransmission line are the collectives of inechanized columns No 104, 30 and
- 41 of our trust. Already 605 foundations and 490 supports have been installed
and wiring is being installed all over. Another important problem is to com-
plete successfully the construction of a 220 kV VL from Tynda to Neryungri
180 km in length and to furnish with inexpensive electric power from the
Zeyskiy GES the Tynda-Berkakit Main Rail Line, and to mine Neryungri coa1.
Mechanized column No 106 is coping successfully with this problem."
- There is no doubt that the quotas for 1979 and for the entire five-year plan
period as a whole, for supplying the BAM with electricity, will be fulfilled
successfully.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", ENERGETICHESKOYE STROITEL'9TV0, 1979
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ELECTRIC POWER AND PQWER EQUIPMENT
ALEKSEY SERGEYEVICH GORSHKQV HITS AGE 75
Moscow TEPLOENERGETIKA in Russian No 9, 1979 p 75
- [Article: "Aleksey Se:geyevich Gorshkov (On the Occasion of liis 75th Birth-
day)
[Text] Professor Aleksey Sergeyevich Gorshkov, doctor of technical sciences,
turned 75 years old on 22 August 1979.
~
After finishing Leningrad Polytech-
nic Institute imeni M. I. Kalinin
in 1930, A. S. Gorshkov worked in
the Leningrad power system. During
World War II he headed the staff of
the troubleshooting and production
research organization Lenenergo
(now "Energoladka").
In 1943 he was appointed deputy
chief of the Technical Division of
the People's Commissariat of Elec-
tric Power Stations, USSR.
A. S. Gorsttkov was director of the
All-Union Scientific Research Heat
Engineering Institute i.meni F. E.-
Dzerzhinskiy from 1948 to 1967.
During that time the institute was
enriched with many scientific and
engineering personnel; an up-to-
date experimental base was estab-
lished in Moscow and an affiliate
of the institute in Chelyabinslc.
Ties with industry were strengthened,
promoting scientific and technical
Progress in tlie production and
assimilation of heavy power equipment with el-
vated and supercritical steam
parameters. Work was done to further develop
central heating, to introduce
the first gas turbine and nuclear power
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istallations, to develop and apply improved facilities for complex automa-
tion of power equipment, to master the efficient utilization of various
fuels etc.
A. S. Gorshkov is currently working in the institute as the scientific super-
visor of compreliensive studies and design work on a:zeavy, highly economical
power unit with elevated supercritical steam parameters.
As responsible editor of IZVESTIYA VTI, member of the editorial board of
TEPLOENERGETIKA, and a member of'the editorial council of Energiya publishing
house, A. S. Gorshkov is actively promotirig the disse*nination of advanced
- knowledge and the communication of the operating experience of the leading
power stations to broad groups of electric power workers.
He has published a number of works, including the book "Tekhniko-ekonomiches-
kiye pokazateli teplovykh elektrostantsiy" [Technical Economic Indexes of
Thermal Power Stations]. His methodological guides for determining the eco-
nomic effectiveness of ineasures to improve thermal power installations and
hist texts for upgrading electric power workers' qualifications are used ex-
tensively in the power systems,
A. S. Gorshkov has headed a chair in the Power Engineering Academy and is
currently teaching at the All-Union Institute for Improvement of the Qualifi-
cations of Leading Workers and Specialists of the USSR Ministry of Power and
EIectrification.
He is a member of the scientific and scientific-technical councils of the
USSR Ministry of Power and Electrification, the Al1-Union Scientific Research
Heat Engineering Institute imeni Dzerzhinskiy and the Power Engineering In-
stitute imeni Krzhizhanovskiy.
Aleksey Sergeyevich is an honored member of the Scientific and Technical
SocietS* of Power Engineering and the Electrical Equipment Industry. The
Al1-Union Council of Scientific and Technical Societies awarded him the title
of honored worker of the Scientific and Technical Society. He is an active
participant in the Council of Senior Electric Power Workers.
Being for several years head of the Soviet component in the scientific and
technical operations section of the CEMA Permanent Commission on Electric
Power, A. S. Gorshkov has made a substantial contribution to the development
of international scientific and techni.c:al ccoperation.
A. S. Gorshkov's work has beeii recognized with high government awards: the
Red Banner of Labor, two "Badge of Honor" awards, and medals.
Greeting Aleksey Sergeyevich Gorshkov on this glorious anniversary, we wish
him good health and continued success in his fruitful scientific endeavors.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", "Teploenergetika", 1979
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ELECTRIC POL1ER AND POWER EQUIPMENT
`l'HJ;RMIUNIC '.I'UPPINC Or ELE("I'RIC POWEP. S'I'A'CTONS _
- Moscow TEPLOENERGETIKA in Russian No 9, 1979 pp 2-7
[Article by V. I. Dobrokhotov, D. V. Karetnikov and R. N. Maraginskiy, can-
didates of techni.cal sciences]
[Text] An impor'tant scientific and technical problem in the thermal power
field is improvir.g the efficiency with which the thermal energy derived from
- burning fossil fuels is used. At modern thermal power stations with unit i
= capacities of 300, 500 and 800 MW, the rated net efficiency is 38-39%. Cal- ~
culations shoTa that the maximum efficiency, with primary and secondary steam ~
temperatures at a level of 540-5600C, can be brought up to 41-42%. Further !
improvement of the efficiency of the steam turbine cycle can be achieved on-
iy by raising superheated steam temperature; this requires new grades of steel
for the power equipment and it becomes necessary to employ two-stage super-
' heating, which complicates power station fuel arrangements. The solution to
this problem should come from the scientific research and technical-economic
comparisons which organizations of the USSR Ministry of Power and Electrifi-
cation and the Ministry of Power MachinP Building are engaged in. -
- Another way to increase the efficiency of fossil fuel utilization at thermal
power stations is development of efforts in the field of steam and gas cycles
and direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy. The combina-
tion of direct-conversion devices with stearrt turbirte units Iets us anticipate
improvement of full-cycle efficiency to 50-55% with MH'J generators, and to
45-50% with thermionic topping. .
In the text which follows we examine some alternative procedures of.thermionic
toppiug of the steam turbine cycle of thermal power stations.
The ultimate stage of the combined cycle, in this instance, employs ther-
mionic converters--stationary devices for the direct conversion of thermal.
energy to electricity. The temperature gradient which "runs" the converter
exists between the temperature in the combustion chamber and the maximum tem-
perature of the basic cycle. In this case, the efficiency of the power plant
functioning in the combined-cycle mode is expressed by the formula (Figure 1)
rl=ilII+qT (1 'IQ) f
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(
- [7 = 717] (7` 7r. + ~I -74
15017 �c 1600 �c
1000nBr (T)
1000KBr(T) (1)
(1)
, i 200trer(.7) 2)
- Iepn03nuccuaNNaA ~
HadcmpauKa ~~L S ~
(3) ' 800KBT(T) S20KBj
409KBT(9) ( L) .IZOKBT~3 (2)
( 4) /Ia/roBou namen ( 4) Papo&u lramen
S40 �C 540 �C
600KBr(T) (1) 480K8rN (1)
( 5) Tenno chpac a (5) T n` � P0� b
Figure 1. Energy balance of a conventional power station untopped (a) and
topped (b). Key: 1. kW (therMal); 2. kW (electrical);
3. thermionic fiopping; 4. steam boiler; 5. heat discharge -
wherel9n is the steam power cycle efficiency (it is assumed that, in com-
bined-cycle operation, the whole plant is functioning); 71T is efficiency of
� the thermionic emission cycle. If, for instance2'1in = 0.4 and 71T = 0.2, then
'Yi = 0.52, so that the efficiency increment proves to be considerable. The
possibilifiy of using thermionic converters wa.s examined earlier [1],
but just in the last few years has the possibility approached the threshold
of practical realization [2-4] thanks to progress in thermionic con-
verter development. In the United States, the efforts on topping comprise
the basis for a national program of work on thermionic converters. The
Stone-Webster and Foster-Wheeler industrial power engineering concerns, to-
gether with the "Thermoelectron" and "Razor" research firms, with federal
financial support and the participation of more than 10 other organizations,
- are engaged in planning, design and research studies on experimental plants
with fioppings. These studies are pointing up not only the possibility
- of the practicaZ realizaC.ion of thermionic topping, but its pote-ntial econo-
mic expediency as well.
Thermionic Converters
A thermionic converter (Figure 2) consists of two closely spaced electrodes
--an emitter and a collector--with the space between them evacuated or filled
with cesium plasma. The emitter is heated to a temperature at which there is
significant thermionic emission. The electrons going from the emitter to the
collector, which is considerably cooler than the emitter, build up a negative
charge on the collector. When the collector is connected to the emitter a-
cross a load, a circuit is formed through wt:ich current flows.
The physical processes in thermionic converters have been described [5-7].
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~ (6)
~
k'igure 2. Diagram of a thermionic converter.
�~t;~'~~;�Ij--3 z Key: 1. emitter 1300OC; 2, flow
j1@J of electrons; 3. cesium
ions; 4. coll ector 550�C;
t y11..1 5. load; 6. heat supply;
s
i
l71 #'d// 'i ( 7) 7. discharge of unused
~YU(Yh~ r/iSNHHOi 0
i,.cnnn heat
From the thermodynamic standpoint, the thermionic converter is a heat engine
whose operation basically approximates the Carnot cycle. The cycle is not
1 ideal due to irreversible losses in the transport of electrons across the
gap and non-optimal conditions of their condensation on the collector. The
electron gas, evaporating from the emitter, negotiates the potential field
of the interelectrode space, giving up to the field a part of its kinetic
energy, and is condensed on the collector. The cycle is completed by the
passage of the electrons across the eTectrical load.
The working temperature of the converter is governed by requirements as to
capacity, service life and reliability. If we assume a reasonable--from the
standpoint of practical Pmployment--value for the converter's specific capa-
- city, then the working temperature depends on the level of progress in ther-
mionic conversion. Several years ago the working temperature of a thermionic
converter at a power level of 3-5 W/cm2 was about 16000C. Now, thanks to the
use of more improved electrode pairs, it can be reduced to about 13000C. And
- further reduction is possible in the future. With the use of more perfect
electrodes the converter's internal losses drop (which enables temperature
_ reduction); hence, with the same output the converter's efficiency goes up.
_ The efficiency also rises as a result of reduction of heat losses to radia-
tion from emitter to collector, proportional to the fourth power of the
temperature. The results from mathematical analysis [3, 8, 91 provide the
basis for this appraisal and are shown in Figure 3. The system employed is
an are system common to n:ost modern thermionic converters and the prospective
systerrt is understood to be one in which electron energy transport losses have
- been successfully eliminated. The curve segments forming an unbroken line
have already been experimentally substantiated. Maximum anticipated effi-
ciency amounts to over 35%.
The heat flow through the converter is carried by radiation and by the elec-
trons. The unused heat (i.s., that not converted to electricity) is dis-
charged at the collector. 1'he optimum collector temperature is governed by
the collector material and the converter system and lies in the range of
450-600aC.
In practice, the density of the current (current per unit of heat-absorbing
surface) passing through the converter depends on the emission capacity of
the emitter (i.e., temperature and output performance) and on the internal
resistance of the converter's structural elements. The value lies in the
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O
V
ZO
10
~ ~ ~ ~
14 Bm~cn Z
( l~
/IP~cnrnm
u~Naiu (2
pr,w
un
~

-

JBm/cn z (3
OC60~HNM!!
;4)
tI00 , 1300 . �C 1500
- Figure 3. Relationship of calculated efficiency of a thermionic converter
functioning with minimum losses to the working temperature for
various levels of specific power (the curve segments forming an -
unbroken line have been experimentally substantiated).
Key: l. 14 W/cm2; 2. prosgective system; 3. 3 W/cm2; 4. em-
ployed system
- 8-15 A/cm2 range. The voltage at the converter output is determined by the
_ contact potential difference of the electrodes less internal losses during
the flow of the electron current, and it amounts to 0.5-1 V(to increase the
output voltage, in practice, individual thermionic elements are combined in
a bank). The specific power of modern thermionic converters is 4-8 W/cm2.
It must be noted that the nominal "electric yield" of present-day steam
boilers (i.e., the electric power generated in the steam turbine cycle per
unit of heat absorbing surface of the unit) amounts to 8-15 W/cm2.
At the present time, engineering development of thermionic converters for
a temperature range of 1500-16000C is at the stage of consummation. A ser-
vice life of about 5 years has been attained in laboratory tests of individ-
ual elements. Thermionic energy set-ups in which various heat sources were
employed--concentrated solar energy, decay of radioactive isotopes, nuclear
fission reaction (nuclear reactors)--have been tested and have functioned
- successfully for a period of several thousand hours. The total information
file of test results has now surpassed 107 element-hours.
Thermionic converter development, resulting in a gradual lowering of the
working temperature an average of 40-500C each year, has reached a stage
which enables a transition to new ground. Heretofore, the basic materials
for the high temperature (emitter) part of a thermionic converter were high-
melting metals (tungsten, molybdenum, niobium) and their alloys, which had
_ to be carefully shielded from contact with air by keeping them, for example,
under vacuum. Now there are technicaZ decisions moving toward the develop-
ment of thermionic converters with an emitter working temperature of about
13000C, which is the upper.limit for low-alloy chrome alloys. These alloys
are plenti.ful, much cheaper than the high-melting metals and, in particular,
- they are able to function in air or in a chemically active environment
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[4, 10, 111. In connection with this development there emerges the oppor-
tunity to utilize thermionic converters for the experimental topping of
modern thermal power stations. For such industrial utilization, however,
Lherc must be either tiomc additional increment to the heat resistance of
the converters' structural units (for example, some cermets, carbides and
sitalls are more heat resistant and can be used as protective coatings), or
further improvement of the converter. Given the current rate of scientific
and technical development in this field, it will take a few more years to
-provide the opportunity for industrial realization of thermionic converters.
This time can be used to a3vantage to experiment ti,rith topping.
So we can figure that the thermionic converter, in essence, has arrived, and
can, practically, in the very near future, be regarded as an untonomous power
generating element which, when heated to 13000C, produces 4-5 W of power for
every square centimeter of emitter surface and forms at output a thermal flux
of 15-20 W/cm2 at a temperature of 500-6500C.
Thermionic Topping
The thermodynamic cycle of a combination of thermionic topping and a basic
- Rankine steam power cycle in Ts coordinates is shown in Figure 4[3, 101.
The upper temperature of the thermionic cycle (temperature of thermionic
converter emitters) depends on durability required of the materials'for o~er-
ation in a combustion chamber and on thermionic conversion efficiency. he
limit value, as noted above, is about 13000C, but its variation over the cy-
' cle for classicai steam boiler operation reflects the flame temperature dis-
tribution throughout the height of the combustion chamber. In order to pro-
vide for high efficiency of the majority of thermionic converters going into
topping and for their structural uniformity, it is advisable, obviously, to
ensure a balanced temperature fielci throughout the height of the combustion
chamber and, at the same time, to limit the peak flame temperature so as to
lessen the formation of nitrogen oxides. The lower temperature of the ther-
- mionic cycle is governed by the optimum temperature of the converter's col-
lector, with the proviso that it remains higher than the temperature of the
pertinent parts of the basic cycle by a value at least that of the tempera-
ture head requisite for heat transfer. Thus, for example, in a shielded
_ zone it is possible to use converters with a relatively low optimum tempera-
ture (350-40000 whereas, in a superheater zone, converters with optimum
. collector temperature over 5500C should be employed. Under these conditions
" the basic and topping cycles have no eifect on each other.
The true'efficiency of stations with thermionic topping differs somewhat
from that determined by the formula given earlier. A more exact expression
for the efficiency is:
- ~1=~1n--~ f k.nr (1-~R), where )t is a coefficient accounting for unavoidable losses in series connec-
tion of single thermionic converters as well as heat losses with respoct to
topping structural elements (k w0.8 according to accepted estimates); f is
a coefficient accounting for enthalpy used in combined cycle functioning.
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T 31wn(w.wu/Mn1r 73/1 (1>
\
(2) :
T3
Figure 4. Thermodynamic scheme of a com-
Tl nunc ~3) bined cycle in Ts coordinates.
4) Key: l. elementary thermionic
T, coriverters
T 2. emitter temperature
s
5) 3. maximum steam temper-
'J~ atur e
S 4. collector temperature
5. saturation temperature
To raise it, it is advisable to cover as much as possible of the combustion
chamber surface with thermionic elements and, evidently, to use high tempera-
ture air heaters as well. On the whole, from engineering calculations of
several versions of topped stations, taking into account internal needs
and other unavoidable losses, it follows, approximately, that ll=T1n-i- (0,4=0,5)rlT,
Therefore, with the employment of modern thermionic converters a station's
efficiency can be increased 6-9% and, prospectively, 12-15%. These figures
are significant enough for the idea of thermionic topping to require care-
ful examination.
An important property of thermionic converters is the possibility of putting
together a power plant made up of a considerable number of individual con-
verters or groups of converters, i.e., modularity. This enables us to have:
thermionic power plant output parameters almost totally independent of the
scale factor; increased plant reliability in the case of matrix (series-
parallel) switching of individual elements (according to estimates, malfunc-
tioning of even up to 25% of all elements due to internal sherts or circuit
interruptions won't lead to a total outage); substantial economy in the pro-
cess of plant development.
Additional positive features of the thermionic converter may emerge if whol-
ly autonomous (as with ga.lvanic cells) individual converters are used. This
- will provide: opportunity to distribute converters in groups with each group
adjusted for optimum operation in accord with local parameters of heat flow
in the zone where the group is situated; repair work by way of replacing sin-
gle modules or groups of converters; opportunity to use proven technology of,
industrial mass production.
The difficulties in using the thermionic method relate mainly to the low
output voltage of the single-converter and comparativelq low density of ener-
gy generation, resulting in the notable volume of inetal used in a thermionic
_ plant, and also to the known difficulties in inverting the low-voltage dc to
standard-parameter ac.
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I3ut the use of thermionic converters for topping will yield certain advan-
tages.
1. `1'lie thermionic thermodynamic cycle has no effect on the basic Ran-
kine cycle. The working temperatures and the heat fluxes of thermionic con-
verters and in the combustion chamber of steam boilers almost exactly coin-
cide. Hence, the standard steam power, energy-producing and other equipment
of ordinary stations can be used practically without modification for the
basic cycle. Under certain conditions the question may also be raised in
the future about the use of topping to raise the efficiency of existing
stations in the case of radical reconstruction or the extensive replacement
of just steam boilers.
One particular difficulty in producing steam boilers with topping is the
need for maximum equalization of the heat-generating field around the walls
of the chamber where the thermionic modules are located. As thermionic con-
converters are improved the requirement for uniformity of heat generation
will steadily diminish.
2. The processes of the combustion of fuel and conversion of heat to
electricity are spatially separated.
Thermionic topping can be employed with any type of fuel, including some
- grades of coal, which would contribute to solving one of the cardinal prob-
lems of modern thermal power engineering--upgrading the efficiency of solid
fuel utilization.
3. Thermionic converter elements do not bear substantial mechanical
loads, so it is primarily the requirement for heat resistance that is im-
posed on the modules' materials and parts. This simplifies the structural
materials aspect of topping.
4. The electrical efficiency of the topping remains almost constant
under load variations in the range of 20% to 100% [11-12].
5. Since it is in essence an electronic device, the thermionic conver-
ter's response to sharp surges in electrical load is pra.ctically inertialess.
6. The use of thermionic topping enhances the ecological situation in
the station locale. An increase of 10% in station efficiency leads to a re-
duction of some 20% in atmospheric discharges and 25-30% in thermal contami-
nation.
We will note, finally, that thsrmionic converters may in the future find use
as an intermediate component between MHD topping and the steam power basic
cycle, and also as topping in combination with high-temperature nuclear re-
actors.
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Topping Arrangements
'!'Ilc, 1 i illc het wcen tlic processes wli ich Cakc place in thc boil er' S stcam and
wat.er 1001) uncl l.lie Lhermi.onic converLers is tlie heati led oLf trom the con-
verter collectorsa If the thermionic modules are built into the combustion
chamber and are in direct contact with the combustion gases (so-called ver-
sion wi.th built-in topping), the heat may then be removed from the collectors
by one ot two methods--by direct connection of the collectors with the steam
and water loop or by means of an intermediate heat exchanger. A diagram of
a steam boiler of the former type is presented in Figure 5. 'lhermionic mod-
nap (1)
(2)
r37
(3) coo (4)
aao
Taiuru6o �
E- BOdQ
9oJavx ( s )
i I T3l1
1
~II I I I y-
Figurc S. Diagram of a steam boiler with built-in topping (the zones for
placement of thermionic modules are cross hatched). Key: l. steam;
2. thermionic converters; 3. fuel; 4. water; 5. air; 6. gases
ules are placed on the walls of the combustion chamber and in the zone of the =
radiative steam superheater. Transfer of heat from the modules to the shield-
ed heating surfaces of the boiler occurs via direct heat contact. This is
characteristic of a topping system developed in the United States by the
"Thermoelectron Corporation" [11,13].
In another version, the heat in ;.he topping is transferred from the modules
to the boiler surfaces not by direct contact but via heated air specially
blown between the modules and the boiler's heating surfaces. The construc-
of the unique thermionic cenverter for this version is shown in Figure 6.
F,
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. Figure 6. Diagram of a buiit-in type thermionic top-
ping element with an auxiliary-heat ex-
S changer. Key: l. housing; 2. emiti:.er;
3. collector; 4. cesium space; 5. assembly
6 collar; 6. current tap; 7. insulator;
~ 8, heat pipe
8
isach converter is equipperl with a finned collector heat pipe for effective
heat removal by the air flow. A schematic diagram of this type of topped
station is shown in Figure 7, which also includes the temperature values
= calculated for significant areas [11].
The advantages of a system with heat lead-off by direct contact are a lesser
temperature drop between the converter collectors and the boiler tubes, and
_ the absence of extra power usage for air input. A'shortconiing exists in the
difficulties of ensuring sound and stable thermal contacts of the converters
and the steam boiler in the case of the unavoidable temperature variations
- under actual operating conditions.
The heat pipes are heat transfer devices of the subl imation-condensat ion
type designed to carry intense flows of heat with a very small temperature
drop--a rapidly developing field of engineering heat physics [14]. Tempera-
tures of up to 600-6500C (range of the collector temperatures of thermionic
converters) are regarded as mastered from the engineering standpoint with re-
spect to heat pipes, including conditions involving a hostile environment [15].
. There is laboratory experience in the prolonged functioning of heat pipes at
even higher temperatures--up to 1500-1600�C--albeit in an inert environment.
Progress in this direction is quite remarkable, permitting the hope that the
sphere of application of high temperature heat pipes will rapidly expand.
For example, a thermionic converter can be equipped with a heat concentrator
_ in the form of an emitter heat pipe. Such converters can be used in those
parts of a combustion chamber where the temperature of t,he gases is high e-
nough but the heat flow is iizadequate for effective converter functioning.
In the studies cited, the thermionic elements have been assembled into modules
comprising flat plates, each several square meters in size. The modules were
_ arranged into matrix schemes with so many elements in them series connected as
to yield an output voltage of 300 V for a module at optimum load. The dc at
the converter output was inverted to standard-parameter ac. According to the
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S/towa ~,uOr/v) ( 14) D,.,,dyx (16)
17ep6u vrieiu 6a.rGyx
1 7~inupuvHeiu 6aadyx ~ 9
/
_ IS - 6.. \ , ~ -L 5
"C 800'C0>p nBT 20)
0 riv
179 �C
fZ ~J �
if
(21) Ox~Q,rrdarusaA 6nda
Figure 7. Thermal schematic of a station with built-in topping of the type
incorporating an auxiliary heat exchanger. Key: 1. combustion
_ chamber; 2. steam boiler; 3. secondary steam superheater;
4. inverter; 5. fuel preparation; 6, high temperature air pre-
heater; 7. steam superheater; 8. low temperature air preheater;
9. blower; 10. generator; 11. heater; 12. condenser;
13. cooling tower; 14. coal (330 t/hr); 15. primary air;
16. air; 17. secondary air; 18. thermionic converters;
- 19. 1900 t/hr; 20. 750 MW; 21. cooling water
caiculations performed, the thermionic capacity of this station is 330 MW;
the overall efficiency is 45.4% in the version with heat removal by air con-
vection and 47.8% with contact removal of heat, at a steam-turbine-cycle
e�ficiency of about 38%. In these calculations, the specific heat supply to
- topping was taken as 22 W/cm2, i.e., the same as for ordinary steam boilers
(effective 0.37). There is a possibility in the future of approximately
doubling the heat supply by improving the combustion process [16]; the station
- efficiency will thereby go up another 1.5-2%.
A diagram of a steam boiler with external topping [12] is presented in Figure
8. In this case, the steam boiler tube bundles have been replaced by bundles
- of heat pipes which form the combustion chamber loops. A major part of the
heat is taken by the system of heat pipes outside of the combustion chamber
where the thermionic converters and steam generating system are located. To
lessen the�portion of heat that doesn't get used in the combined cycle there
is a high temperature air preheater installed at the output of the fire box
_ equipment. By calculations, the efficiency of this plant version may amount
to 46.8%, and may be upped to 52% in the future.
A comparison of the versions with built-in topping and external topping shows
that advantages of the former are less metal content and less additional
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. lin: a ut1 ~ l~
C 3) .
( 4) Bhia od.yuP nopa
I - -T- r(5 (2)
I
Boi,rad
nopa (1)
( 3) ran
6) I _ nx~a ( 2)
nupa
/nprn~ru
I ~ ( g)
( ( ~ I BinopuvHeid
Ton~urfo TentaBaiP mpy6nu 6o~dyx
~ I /I _ ~~1I00�CJ
( 9) numcn6
(]~0)
Figure 8. Diagram of a steam boiler with external topping. Key: 1. steam
output; 2. steam input; 3. thermionic converters; 4. outgoing
gases; 5. heat pipes; 6. burners; 7. fuel; 8. secondary air;
9. pulverizer; 10. cinder
development of nonstandard equipment. However, in the version with built-in
topping there may be problems with prevention of slagging of the modules when
low grade fuels are used, and penetration of combustion gas light components
(primariZy hydragen) , at the eLevated temperatures, inta the working space of
the thermionic converters. In the version with built-in [as published] top-
ping, due to the separation between the combustion chamber and the converters
by a heat pipe, the solution of these problems is considerably simplified.
In this version, too, there is no problem of equalizing flame temeprature
around the combustion chamber (the heat pipe, being an�- isothermal device,
averages out temperature over its cross section and conveys the heat flow
from the combustion chamber at the aver aged temperature).
However, the present lack of engineering experience with high temperature
heat pipes with large individual capacity in a combustion-product environrnent
is a serious handicap to realization of the latter version. Economic esti-
mates of the cost of thermionic topping done by specialists in the United
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States indicate that, for built-in topping, the cost of the thermionic equip-
ment including overhead Gnd profit amounts to $250/kW of installed topping
capacity (in 1976 prices). For external topping the figure is $390/kW. This
daesn't include the cost of additional equipment necessary to cover operation
()f t_he loppin}; ziL the pl.ant., 1)ecause of the sharp increase in the price of
electric power in the United States, a comparison of these data with the crist
of an installed kilowatt on an absolute scale is difficult. Comparative es-
timates indicate that specific capital outlays for top;ed plants may be just
a little higher than for conventional plants, so that as a result of fuel
savings the topping will yield considerable economic gain in the final analy-
sis. It is impossible to avoid reviewing the cri.teria of economic effective-
ness when fuel costs are showing an upward trend.
Conclusion
Progress in development of the thermionic method of conversion has reached a
level where thermionic converters can function in an ordinary atmosphere or
even in an evironment of combustion products from common fossil fuels. The
most significant advantage in this case is that thermionic converters can be
integrated with the heating surface of steam boilers and ised as high tem-
perature topping of the steam turbine cycle of thermal power stations.
The efficiency of the combined cycle may already be around 45%, and as the
- thermionic converters and steam boilers are improved, it may reach 50-52%.
_ The importance of the matter here discussed, its anticipated major economic
- impact, and the existence of real scientific and technical stores appear to
_ provide the foundation for going ahead with comprehensive studies using
- test installations to further improve the thermionic converter and examine
_ possibilities for designing steam boilers under consideration of topping in
order to formulate the scientific and technical prerequisites for a suffi-
- ciently precise engineering appraisal of the technical and economic pros-
pects in this pursuit and, as a possible consequence, to go ahead and build
an experimental thermionic topped steam boiler.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
l, Engdahl, R. E.; Cossano, A. I.; and Dowdell, R. B. COMBUSTION Vol 41
No l, 1970 p 24.
- 2. Karetnikov, D. V. "Nirith Session of the International Group for Communi-
cation on the Thermionic Method of Electric Power Generation," ATOMNAYA
ENERGIYA Vol 37 No 3, 1974 pp 280-281.
- 3. Apatovskiy, L. Ye.; Kucherov, R. Ya.; Moyzhes, B. Ya.; and Nevozhskaya,
Z. N. "On Thermionic Topping of the Steam Turbine Cycle," "Dol:lad na
Mezhdunarodnoy konferentsii spetsialistov po TEP"[Report at Interna-
tional Thermionic Conversion Specialists Conference], Eindhoven, Nether-
lands, 1975.
- 23
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4. Newby, G. A. "The United States ERDA's Thermionic Program," Report at
International Thermionic Conversion Specialists Conference, Eindhoven,
Netherlands, 1975.
5. "Termoemissionnyye preobrazovateli i nizkotemperaturnaya plazma" [Ther-
mionic Converters and Low Temperature Plasma], edited by Moyzhes, D. Ya. -
and Pikus, G. Ye., Moscow, Nauka, 1973, 480 pages.
- 6. H atsopoulos, J., and Gyftopoulos, E. "Thermionic Energy Conversion,"
MIT Press, 1974, Vol l, p 336.
7. Ushakov, B. Ao; Nikitin, V. D.; and Yemel'yanov, I. Ya. "Osnovy termo-
emissionnogo preobrazovaniya energii" [Fundamentals of Thermionic Energy
- Conversion], Moscow, Atomizdat, 1974, 288 pages. -
8. Rasor, N. S. "Methods for Improving Thermionic Converter Performance,"
Third International Conference on Thermionic Electric Power Generation,
- July 1972, pp 1027-1060.
9. K aybyshev, V. Z.; Karetnikov, D. V.; and Kulichenkov, A. I. "Volt-Ampere ,
Characteristics of 'lhermionic Converters at Low Emitter Temperatures,"
"Preprint IAE-2464" 1974, 24 pages. ' .
10. K aybyshev, V. Z.; Karetnikov, D. V.; Kulichenkov, A. I.; and Smolin,
A. L. "Thermionic Topping for Thermal Power Stations Using Solid
_ Fuel," 'Treprint IAE-2872" 1977, 12 pages.
� 11. Miskolczy, G., and Huffman, F. N. "Study of a Thermionic Topped Steam
P ower Plant," "'Dolclad na Vsemirnom elektrotekhnicheskom kongresse"
- [Report at the World Power Engineering Congress], Moscow, 1977.
12. Fitzpatrick, G. 0.; Britt, E. J.; and Carnasciali, G. "Increased Cen- tral Station Power Plant Efficiency With a Thermionic Topping System," ~
_ Twelfth Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Washing- -
- ton, D,C,, 1977, pp 1602-1609. -
13. Miskolczy, G., and Speidel, T. 0. P. "Thermionic Topping of a Steam
P ower Plant," Eleventh Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Con-
ference, Stateline, Nevada, 1976, pp 1050-1059. -
14. Proceedings of the Second International Heat Pipe Conference, Bologna,
- Italy, 1978.
- 15. Basilius, A., and Ewell, G. J. "Heat Pipes for Hostile Environments in
Energy Conservation Appilcati-on's," Twelfth Intersociety.Energy. Conver-
sion Engineering Conference, Washington, D.C., 1977, pp 493-497. -
24
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16. Lazaridis, L. J. "Jet Impingement Technology as Applied to Industrial
Gas Processes," Thirteenth World Gas Conference, 1976.
17. Morozov, G. N. "Comparative Evaluation of Technico-Economic Factors
for N11iD Thermionic Topping of a Steam Turbine Plant," Twelfth Inter-
society Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Washington, D.C.,
1977, pp 1733-1742.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya", "Teploenergetika", 1979
5454
CSO: 1822
25
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FUELS AND RELATED EQUIPMEPIT
UDC 911.2+502.7;338.45.553.691(57)
ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPML�:Ni OF GAS EXTRACTION IN NORTHERN USSR
Moscow IZVESTIYA AKADEMII PIAUKSSSR, SERIYA GEOGRAFICHESKAYA in Russian
No 4, Jul-Aug 79, pp 52-63
[Article by A. V. Yepishev: "The Effect of Geographic Conditions and the
Requirements of Environmental Protection on Development of the Gas In-
dustry in the Northern USSR"]
i -
[Text] This article investigates the unique physical ~
and economic geographic conditions and special envi- I
_ ronmental characteristics of the primary locations of i
the gas industry in the North, compares their effect ~
on the development of the sector, and proposes ways to
� take this effect into account in planning development '
of the gas industry in the most promising regions.
The gas industry is a promising, swiftly developing spctor in the Northern
USSR. The process of industrial development of gas deposits covers all
the new territories; a series of crucial problems of development of the
North as a whole is concentrated in them. The regions of gas industry
development emerging there are becoming the "testing ground" in which
the effectiveness of various key aspects of the strategy for development
of the entire zone must be confirmed.
- Geography is very important in considering the regional characteristics
of development of the North. The geographic approach makes it possibZe
to deepen and supplement the generally accepted methodology of economic
planning for development of the sector in the undeveloped regions of the
North by studying the effect of the economic geographic position, natural
conditions, and environmental demands.
In large part geographic conditions determine differences in the effi-
- ciency of development of the gas industry in various regions. Planning
- practices and the necessity of comparing alternatives for placement of
enterprises demand clarification of regional differences in the effect
of geographic conditions, a comprehensive assessment of them, and con-
sideration of tha policy of developing particular territories in the
_ North. This article attempts to find ways to solve these problems, and -
this has significantly predetermined this scientific methodological or-
ientation. Of course, such an evaluation must be made first of all for
the most important prospective gas industry regions. ~
26
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The territory where the sector is located in the North includes gas ex-
- traction regions, deposits and groups of deposits, and gas pipeline
corridors. Overall these regions occupy a considerable part of the
- North in the European USSR, Western Siberia, and Western Yakutia. At
the same time, they typically have differentiation of location within
the zone by regions with diff.erent geographic conditions. An analysis
- of the raw materials in different regions of the zone shows that the
northern part of Western Siberia is most promising for creation of a gas
extraction industry. This region already has extremely large proven gas
bearing structures and its gas reserves have the highest density. The
Komi ASSR and Yakutia have the geological prerequisites for increasing
gas reserves to compensate for deposits now being worked and to increase
extraction.
The North Tyumen' gas region occupies a leading place in gas extraction
at the present and for the future. The deposits discovered there, -
Medvezh'ye, Urengoy, Yamburg, and Zapolyarnoye, have balance reserves of
- more than 1 trillion cubic meters of gas. Each of these deposits occupies
- several thousand square kilometers. Two other extremely large deposits -
are the Kharasavei and Bovanenkov deposits on the Yamal Peninsula.
The gas pipeline systems in the principal extraction regions of the
northern Tyumenskaya Oblast and the Komi ASSR are being'formed with due -
regard for the established geography of gas consumption: the principal
gas customers are located in the European part of the couatry. The prin-
cipal lines for transporting gas from the North are the following: -
- Vuktyl - Ukhta - Torzhok, Medvezh'ye - Punga - iJkhta - on to
Torzhok, Medvezh'ye - Punga - Nizhnyaya Tura - on to the Central Zone, -
Urengoy - Tyumen' - on to Chelyabinsk, and Yamal - Ukhta.
Evaluation of the Economic Geographic Positien of Gas Industry Regions
The economic geographic positioa of the regions can have a significant
effect on development of the gas industry: with the shifts of the sector
. to the eastern and northern regions of the country this will become more
important.
- Evaluation of the economic geographic position requires an analysis of
current progress in development of the regions and planned changes in the
future. The current process of development has the following regional
characteristics (see Figure l, next page). In each region development
_ is carried out along major interregional transportation lines: primarily
railroads and the Northern Sea Route in the European and Western Siberian
North, aizd by river and highway in Western Yakutia. The transportation
centers of Nar'yan-Mar, Pechora, Ukhta, Urengoy, Surgut, Yakutsk, and
Tiksi are developing at the connecting or intersecting points of these
main routes, the most favorable geographic locations. New towns are
springing up where existing settlements are being expanded to play the
role of local development bases for several fields or a region (the
cities of Plar'yan-Mar, Usinsk, Ukhta, Nadym, Urengoy, Surgut, Yakuts~,
and the field settlements of Vuktyl, Yagel'nyy, and Mastakh) in re-
gions of concentrated development of the sector. Tyumen' and Tomsk
- 27
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- act as support bases. The methods used to operate installations of the
sector are also linked to differences in territorial development: the
tour of duty (watch) method for the entire Yamal region, for certain gas
preparation shops at large deposits, and for compressor plants that are
far from existing development bases; permanent residence by service per-
= sonnel at other deposits (in the communities of Pangody and Vuktyl) and
for base compressor plants (Nadym, Peregrebnoye, and others).
_ Location relative to established development bases and main transporta-
tion lines allows an assessment of the advantages of the economic geo-
graphic position of prospective regions for development of the sector.
' The economic geographic position is described below on the basis of par-
ticular factors and possible methodological approaches to evaluating them
are suggested.
Position relative to consumers. This may be evaluated by comparing in-
daxes of the average distance of gas transportation for base years in
the immediate and remote future. The average distance together with a
whole system of other indexes is now used to evaluate solution alterna-
tives for the development and location of gas transportation systems
(Furman et al, 1977). The average length of gas transportation lave i.s
found dividing the volume of transportation work QL by the volume of gas
arriving Qa
1ave _ Q11-f - Q2L2 . . L .
� Q" " t:t~t
4a
The average distance may also be evaluated in cost terms, adopting an ar-
bitrary cost per kilometer of gas pipeline as the unit of ineasurement.
According to our calculations, the average distance in gas transportation
in the long run varies in the following ranges: 3,000-3,300 kilometers
for Tyumen' gas; 2,100-2,150 kilometers for Northern European gas; f rom
250-450 kilometers (consumption within the region) to 2,300 kilometers
(for transportation to Pri-.norskiy Kray) for Yakut gas.
Because the sector has a high index of mat erials-int ensivenes s it is very
important to evaluate another factor of the position, remoteness of gas
industry regions from the enterprises that supply elements of fixed capi-
tal and from support bases. A calculation of the relacive remoteness of
each region makes it possible to compare their transportation geographic
positions. Taking the smallest calculated remoteness value as one, we -
derive correction coefficients to it for the other regions to reflect the
increase in number of days required to deliver freight in comparison with
delivery to the standard region. -
According to calculations made with due regard for freight storage time
at transshipment points, the coefficients of relative remoteness of re-
gions from the nearest plant producing pipe (in the city of Vyksa) com-
pared to the distance for the rlorth of Western Siberia, which is least
remote, were as follows: 1.1 for the European North, 1.9 for the Yamal
Peninsula, and 1.2-1.3 for [destern Yakutia. The relative remoteness may
be assessed economically by calculating national economic losses from the
- "freezing" of the freight during the transportation process (Burkhanov,
1971). 29
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rum v^riView uorj V141J1
The position of prospective regions relative to regional factors of
location. This may be evaluated by comparing the remoteness of prospec-
tive gas territories from internal development bases and transportation
axes. The manifestation of regional factors of location related to
prospects for development of the gas industry is evaluated by experts
in the following manner:
1. For the European North and Yamal and Gydanskiy
peninsulas - worsening of the position in a
northeasterly direction with greater distance
= from development bases, transportation net-
works, and reliable sources of water supply;
= 2. For the remaining gas territories of the Tyumen`
North - favorable position related to gravita-
tion to bases and transportation networks, but
- with a growing scarcity of water resources;
3. For the gas territories of Yakutia - an improve-
ment in the posit ion in a westerly direction re-
= lated to the emergence of a new economic geo-
graphic situation, drawing closer to the Lensk -
Mirnyy highway and to consumers in the northern
rayons of Irkutskaya Oblast and in connection
with favorable conditions for insuring year-
round water supply.
= The economic geographic position improves significantly with continued de-
velopment of the "economic framewo?-k" of a territory, in particular with
construction of Synya - Usinsk and Surgut - Urengoy railroads.
The factor of nosition relative to other gas industry regions. This should
be assessed from the standpoint of receiving an additional economic im-
pact from the possibility of using existing sectorial material-technical
facilities or building them for developing regions or regions just open-
ing up.
The impact of this factor is realized most fully when a series of gas ex-
traction regions is connected up in one direction or where regions with
different directions of gas transportation are located close to one an-
other. In this respect, the development of the transportation link to
Yamal gas is less advantageous than successively connecting up tliz
- Medvezh'ye, Urengoy, Yamburg, and Zapolyarnoye deposits. The gas industry
regions in Western Siberia have the greatest potential for neighboring
and intermediate economic geographic positions.
The possibility of cooperation between the gas industry and other sec-
tors that establish prerequisites for the development of the particular
region plays a definite part in improving the economic geographic posi-
tion of the gas industry. A present-day example of cooperation is the
share participation of the Ministry of the Gas Industry and the Ministry
of the Petroleum Industry in f inancing construction of the Surgut -
Urengoy section of the Surgut-Kogolymskaya railroad. The greatest impact
30
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_ from cooperation is possible for the North of.jdestern Siberia (excluding
the Yamal Peninsula) because of the large scale of construction, whereas
- the Yamal Peninsula and Western Yakutia have the least potential. To
evaluate the economic impact from cooperation with other sectors in the
North we suggest relating expenditures for the regional infrastructure
for all sectors of specialization planned for the coming 15-20 years
proportional to the national economic impact from the production of this
output by the sectors in the region with due regard for the time -
- factor (Faustov et al., 1975).*
Thus, an evaluation of extraction areas at the regional level shows that
the areas of Western Siberia (without the Yamal Peninsula) have the most
- favorable economic geographic position and the Yamal Peninsula has the
least.
Special Features of Considering Natural Conditions When Building Produc-
tion Installations of the Sector
tidhen building production facilities in these regions the problem arises
of determining the uniqueness and intensity of manifestation of local
natural conditions and their regional differences. Because the greatest
differentiation of natural conditions occurs on the routes of gas pipe-
_ lines, the questions of considering and evaluating their effect on the
organization and cost of construction are very important.
= The conditions of construction of gas pipelines in northern regions dif-
fer significantly from conditions in the middle zone (see Figure 2, next
page). They determine the seasonality of certain production operations
- and significantly lengthen the total construction time for installations.
The specific importance of particular natural factors in the total im-
pact of natural conditions will vary because of regional differences.
Thus, where construction operations are carried on in the open air the
air temperature is most important in Yakutia, but on the Yamal Peninsula
the combination of air temperature and win3 velocity is crucial. When
selecting a route in the European North and North of Western Siberia
the degree of flooding in the presence of permafrost is most important,
_ while in the mountainous regions of Fastern Siberia and the Northeast
the topography is the key consideration.
At the present time the effect of natural conditions is evaluated in
_ consolidated calculations in the preplanning and technical specifica-
tions stages by groups of natural factors based on available information
about the region. Specifically, the climatic group of factors, which
* Major interregional expenditures and different ways to spread them
among the principal prospective sectors indirectly confirm the prop-
osition expressed in the literature as to the necessity of a dif-
ferentiated (understated in the initial stage of development of the
sector) evaluation of the efficiency of capital investment in regions
- just being opened up (Agranat, Loginov, 1976; Kirillin, 1974).
31
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determines the seasonality of jobs and makes work in the open air im-
possible on some days. However, dif.ferent criteria are adopted to
calculate allowable air temperatures, wind velocity, and precipitation
in the form of rain and snow. This is shown graphically in S. A.
- Rakita's work (1977). _
It appears that to standardize the basic criteria that mean a stoppage of
- work in the open air, we must adopt the permissible values of air tem-
perature (-40 degrees C.) and wind velocity (15 meters/second) that are
most widespread in planning practice. A study of long-term observations
showed that the greatest frequency of days in the year with tempera-
tures below -40 degrees C. and wind velocity of more than 15 meters/sec-
ond is observed in the more northern and eastern regions of prospective
develogment. The number of no-work days per year ranges from two to 19
percent depending on regional conditions. These findings make it possible
to divide the territory of these regions into a southern part and a
northern part, for which the proportion of no-work days ranges from two
_ to 10 percent and more. The latitudinal boundarj between these parts runs
between the cities of Vorkuta and Pechora in the European North, between
_ the settlements of Tazovskiy and Urengoy in Western Siberia, and between
Yakutsk and Chul'man in Yakutia. Regional diff erences in air tempera-
ture and wind velocity are reflected in the organization of gas pipe-
line construction in different sectors.
Topography, tiydrography, and permafrost conditions are evaluated by
choosing coefficients of increase in construction costs envisioned in
normative documents currently in use: Kr for territoriai regions of
the country with especially complex construction cQnditions; KtP for the
- topographical conditions of a territory. However, the problem is made
difficult by the fact that the line must be broken into distinct sectors
corresponding to the requirements of definite values of Kr and Ktp on
the basis of a study of natural conditions. In this case, even in the
- seage of consolidated calculations and drawing in as much available in-
formation as possible, it is necessary to strive for a more detailed
breakdown of the route into sectors that reflect the demands of norma--
- tive coe�ficients of increased costs.
The analysis made by us of natural conditions along the routes of pros-
pective gas pipelines enabled us to divide each of them into sections
using normative coefficients of increase relative to the initial cost
of construction. On this basis the full cost of building one kilometer
of each section was calculated. A more differentiated approach to
evaluating natural conditions along routes makes it possible to de-
termine the cost of building gas pipelines with greater accuracy. At
the same time, it becomes possible to make a more reliable quantitative
evaluation of the effects of regional difference in natural conditions
on the cost of construction in the North. Thus, our analysis showed
that the increase in gas pipeline construction costs traceable to
natural conditions varied from 24 to 39 percent. Ia most of the seciions
evaluated (primarily marshy permafrost ground) this index was 34-39 per-
cent. For sections with thawed ground the increase in cost was less
than 30 percent. Thus, the increase in construction costs owing to
natural conditions for the more northern parts of the prospective pipeline
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routes evaluated (marshy areas in the permafrost zone) was about 10 per-
cent greater than for sections to the south. In other words, natural
conditions in the North cause a meridional pattern of increasing con-
struction costs.
Geographic Aspects of the Relationship Between the Gas Industry and the
Environment
Current scientific literature has suggested a territorially differenti-
ated approach to the problems of using, protecting, and restoring the
natural environment in the North (for example, Agarnat, 1976). The es-
sence of the geographic approach is to forecast regional diff erences in
industrial impact on the environment and the vulnerability of the envi-
ronment, and solving the problem of environmental protection with due
regard for these factors. Regional differences in the interaction be-
tween the environment and gas industry facilities depend on character-
istics of the location of the sector and differences in natural condi-
tions in the regions. It must be considered here that the greatest in-
dustrial impact on the environment is created by spread-out extraction
- installations, while the vulnerability of northern territory is seen
most strongly in the construction of linear facilities, that is, pipe-
lines.
The industrial impact that is created results from the consumption (with-
drawal) of natural resources and discharge of pollutants. Among the
natural resources consumed are water, mineral raw material, and wood for
production of building materials, territory taken for development, and
the natural gas for the sector's own regional needs. The discharge of
1 industrial pollutants depends on the physico-mechanical composition of
the raw material being extracted, by-products of extraction (condensate,
petroleum, and layer water), and chemical agents used in gas exploration,
extraction, and transportation (methanol, diethyleneglycol, and others).
The volumes of natural resource consumption and discharge of pollutants
are determined by the degreP of production coacentration :(they can be
- calculated by projected norm:.�). Concentration of the gas industry rela-
tive to the environment plays a dual role. The lower specific expendi-
ture of water per unit of output and reduction in built-up area are
important ways to rationalize the use of nature in northern regions.
At the same time, this process involves an intensified impact of the
sector on each unit of territory taken for development. The radius of
manifestation of industrial impact enlarges here and territorial dif-
ferentiation is greater: the volume of resources extracted per unit of.
- territory and the content of pollutants will decrease at greater dis-
tance from the industrial installation.* However, the cause of pollu-
tion of the water and air basins the radius of industrial impact will
_ significantly exceed the territorial distribution of the impact on re-
sources consumed.
* Thus, an analysis of materials on the development of deposits makes
it possible to divide their territory up into zones by intensity of
withdrawal of natural resources: intensive (land, water, timber, and
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It shouid be observed that the area drawn into interaction with gas indus-
try installations is much greater than the territory actually occupied by
these installations. With greater production concentration this relation-
ship intensifies. According to our calculations the territory now occu-
pied by installations of the sector in the North is abcut 20,000 square
kilometers, so we may consider that the sector is having an impact on an
area of hundreds of thousands of squa-re kilometers.
When choosing the optimal variation for location of the sector in the North,
in addition to a determination of the industrial impact on the environment
~ there must be an estimate of the degree of wlnerability of the environ-
ment. The two types of data complement one anotner. The degree of envi-
ronmental vulnerability is linked to characteristics of natural conditions.
- With identical conditions uf impact on the environment (industrial impact)
consequences may differ depending on the concrete natural situation. In
other words, natural characteristics nay aggravate or mitigate the indus-
trial impact. Environmental vulnerability manifests itself in the North
with the following types of impact by the gas industry: pollution of
bodies of water and the air; removing the vegetative cover; and impact on
the soil or ground. The special characteristics of their vulnerability
in the North are reviewed in the scientific literature (PROBLEMY SEVERA
_ 1973, No 18, and others). With respect to the gas industry, the addition-
al complexities of environmental protection related to the greater vuiner-
_ � ability of the Northern environment may be noted.
During drilling work stable drilling platforms without vegetation should be
chosen to preserve the heat balance in the top layer of ground. Chemical
- treatment of the flushing liquid used in drilling an3 pumping runoff water
into special ejection wells are required to prevent contamination of ground
and surface water by toxic substances.
Because the rivers of the North liave less capabiZity for cleaning them-
selves, decontamination of industrial runoff is a serious problem at dP-
posits of the Urengoy type, covering large areas. The volume of industrial
runoff at a deposit where gas extraction is up to 100 billion cubic meters
a year is several thousand meters a day. It has been established that
during the exploitation of deposits the mineralization of outflowing layer
waters rises signi.ficantly, to 16-18 grams/liter (Medvedskiy et al, 1978).
Centralized collection of waste water must be set up to prevent the con-
tamination of various sectors. The increased air humidity in the North
, and lessened self-decontamination potential make it necessary to avoid
polluting the air with products of combustion, especially in oil field
regions which have significant discharges of by-prodlict gas, for example
the middle Ob'. Because it takes many years for a forest to replace itself,
there must be higher requirements for preservation of the forest and re-
placement of the forest in regions of concentrated gas development, in the
transitional zone from the tundra to the taiga.
mineral and hydrocarbon raw materials) a few kilometers within the field;
moderate (water, timber, mineral raw material) dozens of kilometers
within the gas extraction region; slight (timber and mineral raw material)
- dozens to hundreds of kilometers.
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The vulnerabil;_ty of the Northern environment is considered most fully
in the construction of pipelines. This is done through the construction
norms and rules that are worked out. They recommend protective steps
and consider accumulated construction know-how as fully as possible.
However, snforeseen accidents and fires in gas line and compressor
plants, especially those located in forested areas, cause significant
harm to the enviroament.
An evaluation of the characteristics of vulnerability based on topography,
hydrography, vegetation, and frozen ground conditions enable us to iden-
tify three degrees of environmental vulnerability in order of diminish-
- ing value of regions of prospective development (see table below).*
The regions of the European North and North of West Siberia above the
Arctic Circle have the greatest (degree I) vulnerability. Degree II cor-
responds to regions located south of this boundary within the distribu-
tion of permafrost. Sections of regions on passes through the Polar
ilrals and Stanovoy Range belong in the third category of vulnerability.
A combined evaluation of the industrial impact on the environment and
the degree of its vulnerability in regions of gas industry development
shows that the most critical problem of environmental protection in the
future will occur in the regions of Western Siberia, and by comparison
the problem will be less severe for the European North and Yakutia.
Lessening unfavorable influence on the environment involves reducing the
industrial impact (increasing the capac ities and improving the operation
of decontamination facilities, partial switching of the withdrawal of
resources and disposal of production wastes after decontamination to areas
more remote from the center of construction development) and seeking to
develop less vulnerable territory (pr..imarily sections of river valleys
. and mountainous sections with large-textured or thawed ground, enclosed
bodies of water, and deciduous and conif er forests). In fhe regions
north of the Arctic Circle which have the highest degree of vulnerability
the problem of self-support, for example providing local building materi-
als, is much more complex. The demands of environmental protection there
- may be one of the important factors determining the advisability of im-
- porting construction materials (at least in part) from other regions and
- cutting down on the number of service and auxiliary facilities.
Expenditures for environmental protection measures must also increase in
conformity with an increase in the industrial impact on the environment
and the degree of its vulnerability. The bulk of all essential expendi-
tures for these purposes is incurred in the initial stage of develop-
ment of the sector. These expenditures nave distinctive features of com-
position under northern conditions. At spread-out installations (com-
pressor plants and installations for comprehensive preparation of the gas
* The evaluation was done using classifications of plant wlnerability
(Nefedova, V. B., 1976) and frozen grounds ("Spravochnik po
Proyektirovaniyu" [Planning Handbook], 1977) developed for the
North
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Table. Vulnerability of the Northern Environment in Regions of Gas
Industry Development (characteristics of vulnerability, ranked
by degrees, I-III, according to distinctive features)
4. Topography
I. Dissected maritime plains with peat bogs with flat and Iarge
hummocks
II. Dissected maritime plains, interfluves.
III. Mountainous country, river terraces and floodplai.ns.
B. Hydrography
I. Large rivers flowing to the sea, first and second order tribu-
taries. Territary more than 50 percent flooded.
II. Large enclosed bodies of water, third and higher order tribu-
taries of large rivers. Territory 25-50 percent flooded.
- III. Small enclosed bodies of water. Territory less than 25 per-
cent flooded.
C. Vegetat ion
I. Moss-like tundras.
II. Dark conifer and deciduous green moss forests.
III. Brush, deciduous and conifer forests.
D. Frozen ground conditions
I. Icy, silty loams. Subsidence of more than 40 centimeters/
meter when thawed.
II. Icy sandy loams and sand. Subsidence of 10-40 centimeters/
meter when thawed.
III. Icy large-textured ground or thawed ground. Subsidence less
than 10 percent or not present.
at the fields) the chief expenditure heading for environmental protection
is building decontamination structures and installations to utilize po-
_ tential pollutants: methanol, hydrocarbons, and sulphur compounds.
These expenditures raise the full cost of projects several percentage
_ points. But from a national economic standpoint they are essential and
entirely justified. They will be highest in the permafrost zone because
there it is necessary to build engineering structures to prevent the
~ frozen ground from thawing.
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In the developed regions of the country the principal expenditures in
constructing linear installations, pipelines, are the costs of removing
structures and rebuilding roads and bridges. In the North the chief ex-
penditurES are for installation of the heat insulation layer in perma-
frost sectors, making a way for travel along the pipeline, setting up ex-
perimental gas pipeline sectors and permafrost stations, and extensions
of the route to go around regions with unfavorable natural conditions.
Despite the high demands made on industrial construction with respect to
- the especially vulnerable environment of the North, in current planning .
_ practice expenditures for environmental protection measures in these re-
gionj are lower than during the construction of similar facilities in the
" middle zone of the country. Thus, although three times as much gas is
extracted at the Urengoy deposits as at the Orenburg deposit, expendi-
tures for environmental protection measures at Urengoy are projected as -
several times lower. It is obvious that this represents an underestima-
tion of the heightened vulnerability of the Northern environment. Not
all essential expenditures for environmental protection are being con- '
sidered. Additional economic losses may occur from disruption of the en-
vironment as the result of such "half-hearted" decisions. '
Careful preliminary study of the vulnerability of the environment and set- i
ting up experimental sectors require additional expenditures. However, ;
these steps are necessary because scientific development of the issues of '
environmental protectien must precede intensive development of the sector
in the North. For example, it is already time to build experimental sec- -
tors in prospective development regions in t'�a main sectors of the pipe-
line systems: on various frozen ground and on the bottom of Baydarau
I3ay on the Yamal - Ukhta route; in marshy sectors with permafrost on
the Nadym - Salekhard route; in the mountainous sector of the Yakutsk
BAM route.
The geographic point of view makes it especially clear that the gener- -
ally accepted criterion of optimality, minimum calculated costs, is un- _
acceptable for evaluation of the economic efficiency of capital invest-
ment to protect the environment. In view of the heightened vulnera-
bility of the Northern environment, savings of investment capital may �
lead to losses that exceed the particular savings many times. FurtY?er- -
more, the geographic approach makes it possible to evaluate the full
national economic effect of environmental protection by comparing expen-
ditures for enviornmental protection measures during the development of
the sector in the particular region not only with the prorit from utili- _
zation of industrial waste and savings from accident-free operation of
industrial installations, but also with the potential savings from
- natural resources conserved.
Based on the analysis presented in this article the regions of the North
can be ranked by favorability of geographic conditions for development
of the gas industry. The North of the European part of the country re-
- quires least expenditures owing to the effect of natural conditions.
Expenditures for environmental protection are least for Yakutia. At
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the same time, construction costs for gas pipelines are highest for
Yakutia and it is most remote from development bases and main transporta-
tion lines. The North of Western Siberia (without the Yamal Peninsula)
has the rnost favorable economic geographic position, but the problem of
- environmental protection is most complex there hecause of the large
scale of development of the sector. The Yamal Peninsula has the worst
conditions. Conclusions
The problems posed in this article, studying regional differences in the
effect of the economic geographic positions, natural conditions, and
environmental protection requirements and developing ways to evaluate them
and take them into account in long-range planning for development of the
gas industry can be solved on the basis of quantitative and qualitative
analysis using normative materials and direct calculation, methods em-
ployed in long-range sectorial planning, and traditional geographic tech-
niques.
The combinations of factors identified as important for evaluating the eco-
- nomic geographic position of gas industry regions reflect the basic mean-
ing of the economic geographic position of regions in the North. The
analysis shows that the position of gas industry regions will improve
significantly in the future following economic development of the terri-
tory, above all the northern region of Western Siberia.
_ NaLUral conditions have the greatest effect during the construction of
, linear facilities, pipelines. This effect on the route is highly dif-
ferentiated and significantly increases construction costs and number of
days lost when working outdoors. The general trend is for an increase
in these problems as one moves further north.
The evaluation of the gas industry's impact on the environment is ex-
pressed by a consideration of its vulnerability. The degree of impact
depends on the concentration of production and the degree of vulnera-
bility depends on local natural conditions. Three degrees of environ-
_ mental vulneraLility are distinguished. They require diff erent expendi-
tures for environmental protection measures. It is most important in the
future to consider the demands of environmental protection during develop-
~ ment of the sector in the North of Western Siberia because it will
_ tlave the greatest industrial impact on an environment characterized by
= heightened vulnerability.
_ The regional characteristics of the geographic approach to development
_ of different regions considered above may be used in working out prospects
for the development and location of the gas industry in the North.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Agranat, G. A., "Ecological Geographic Aspects of the Economics of
Exploitation of Nature Using the Example of the North," IZV. AN SSSR.
SERIYA GEOGR. 1976, No 3.
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- Yux ur'r'tCtAi, utit u.;LY
2. Agranat, G., and Loginov, V., "Development of Northern Territories,"
KOMMUNIST 1976, No 2, -
3. nurkhanov, V. F,, "K Otsenke Kolichestvennogo Vliyaniya Geograficheskikh -
Usloviy na Ekonomicheskuyu Effektivnost' Transportnykh Putey v rayonakh _
Novogo Osvoyeniya Territoriy Severa Tyumenskoy Oblasti. Prirodnyye
Usloviye Zapadnoy Sibiri" [Eti�aluation of the Quantitative Impact of Geo-
. graphic Conditions on the Economic Efficiency of Transportation Routes
in Regions of New Development in Northern Tyumenskaya Oblast. The
Natural Conditions of Western Siberia], Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo -
Universiteta, 1971.
4. Kirillin , A. D., "Ekonomicheskaya Effektivnost' Sozdaniya i Razvitiya
Gazovoy Promyshlennosti Yakutskoy ASSR" [The Economic Efficiency of
Creation and Development of the Gas Industry of the Yakut ASSR], Yakutsk,
1974.
- 5. Kosmachev, K. P., "The Search for New Approaches to Forecasting the Pro-
cess of Development," DOKL. IN-TA GEOGRAFII SIBIRI I DAL'NEGO VOSTOKA
1973, No 41.
6. Kryuchkov, V. V., and Shvetsov, P. F., "Features of the Subarctic Land-
- scape and the Effect of Industrialization Processes on It," PROB1aEMY
SEVERA No 18, 1973. _
- 7. Medvedskiy, R. I., et al, "Okhrana Okruzhayushchey Sredy pri Osvoyenii
Gazovykh Mestorozhdeniy Severa Tyumenskoy Oblasti. Nauchno-Tekhnicheskiy
Obzor" [Protection of the Environment During Development of the Gas
Deposits of Northern Tyumenskaya Oblast. Scientific-Technical Survey],
Moscow, 1978 (series "Natural Gas and Environmental Protection).
8. Nefedova, V. B., "Study of the Condition of the Environment in the
North of Western Siberia in Connection with Economic Development and
_ Environmental Protection, " VESTN. MOSK. UN-TA 1976, No 5.
9. Rakita, S. A., "Kolichestvennyye Metody Otsenki Vliyaniya Regional'nykh
Usloviy Severa na Proizvodstvo. Sotsial'no-Ekonomicheskiye Issledovaniya
Rayonov Severa" [Quantitative Methods of Evaluation of the Influence of
Regional Conditions in the North on Production. Socioeconomic Studies _
of Northern Regions], Izd-vo MGU, 1977.
10. "Spravochnik po Proyektirovaniyu Magistral'nykh Truboprovodov" [Handbook
on Planning Trunk Pipelines], Leningrad, Nedra, 1977.
11. Faustov, G. M., Yepishev, A. V., and Gandkin, V. Ya., "Regional Expen--
, ditures for Uevelopment of the Gas Industry in the North. Abstract"
- EKONOMIKA GAZOVOY PROMYSHLENNOSTI Moscow, 1975, No 7.
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12. Furman, I. Ya., Makhova, L. I., and Neskubo, B. I., "Metodicheskiye
Ukazaniya po Opredeleniqu Ob"yema Transportnoy Raboty na
Ma.gistral'nykh Gazoprovodakh" [Methodological Instructions for Deter-
mining the Volume of Transportation Work on Trunk Gas Pipelines],
- Moscow, VNIIEgazprom, 1977.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Nauka, IZVESTIYA AN SSSR, SERIYA GEOGRAFICHESKAYA,
1979 _
11,176
CSO: 1822
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