JPRS ID: 8754 USSR REPORT TRADE AND SERVICES

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
• Release Decision: RIF
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 39
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 11
• Content Type: REPORTS

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R00020002001 1 -5
6 NOVEM6ER 1979 (FOUO 14l79) i OF i
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
- JPRS L/8754
6 November 1979
USSR Report
TRADE AND SERVICES
(FOUO 14/79)
FBIS FOREIGN BROADCAST INFORMATlON SERVICE
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
NOTE
_ JPRS publications contain information primarily from foreign
newspapers, periodicals and books, but also from news agency
transmissions and broadcasts. Materials from foreign-language
r sources are translated; those from English-language sources
are transcribed or reprinted, with the original phrasing and
- other characteristics retained.
Headlines, editorial reports, and material enclosed in brackets -
are supplied by JPRS. Processing indicators such as [Text]
or [Excerpt] in the first line of each item, or following the
last line of a briet, indicate how the original information was
= processed. Where no processing indicator is given, the infor-
mation was summarized or extracted.
Unfamiliar names rendered phonetically or transliterated are
enclosed in parentheses. Words or names preceded by a ques-
tion mark and enclosed in parentheses were not clear in the
original but have been supplied as appropriate in context.
Other unattributed parenthetical notes within the body of an
item originate with the source. Times within items are as
given by source.
The contents of this publication in no way represent the poli-
cies, views or at.titudes of the U.S. Government. -
For fsrther information on report content
call [phone] (economic); 3468
(political, sociological, military); 2726
(life sciences); 2725 (physical scie:ces).
- COPYRIGHT LAWS AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING OWNERSHIP OF
MATERIALS REPRODUCED HEREIN REQUIRE THAT DISSEMINATION
OF THIS PUBLICATION BE RESTRICTED FOR OFFICIAL USE ONI.Y.
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
USSR REPORT
TRADE AND SERVICES
(FOUO 14/79)
JPR5 L/8754
o" November 1979
CONTENTS PAGE
MANPOWER: LABOR, EDUCATION, DEMOGRAPHY
Tasks of Vocational and Tec,hnical Education Delineated
(A. Bulgakov; PROFESSIONAL'NO-TEKHNICHESKOYF
OBRAZOVANIYE, .Tun 79) 1
Shifts in Types of Labor Available in Rural Areas
(T. Kuznetsova; VOPROSY EKONOMIKI, Aug 79) 12
TRANSPORTATION
Calculating Cargo Fleet Tonnage keserves
(V. K. Lerner; TRUDY GOSUDARSTVENNOGO PROYEKTNO-
IZYSKATEL'SKOGO I NAUCHNO-ISSLEDOVATEL'SKOGO
INSTITUTA MORSKOGO TRANSPORTA, No 48, 1977) 22
Briefs
Patrol Craft Base 36
Truck Factory Decentralized 36
- a -
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
[III - US5R - 38 FOUO]
~
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
MANPOWER: I11BOR, EDUCATION, DEMOGRAPHY
TASKS OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL IDUCATION DELINEATED
Moscow PROFESSIONAL'NaTEKHNICHESKOYE OBRAZOVANIYE in Russian No 6, Jun 79
pp'3-8
[Article by A. Bulgakov, chairman of the USSR State Committee for Vocational
and Technical Education: "We Will Fulfill the Party's Plans"]
[Excerpt] The CC CPSU and Council of Ministers USSR decree on "Further im-
- provement of the process of teaching and educa::ion for the pupils in the sys-
tem of vocational and technical education" designates as a task of enormous
- political and national educational importance the supplying of younb work-
. ers to the country's national economy.
In the context of a developed socialism there takes place a continuous growth
of the role and importance of the working class in the social and economic
life of the country. Also making an impact on the development of this role
' is the system of vocational and technical education which creates the prin-
! cipal productive force--the highly skilled workers who possess all the
qualities necessary for the building of a communist society and for the
management of its affairs. _
We are several years removed from the historically important 25th CPSU
Ceiibress, which outlined the grandiose tasks of communist construction.
For all the workers of the country, including the workers of the vocational
and technical school, these years were a period of great successes in all
the sectors of economic and cultural construction. Bestriding the country
with confidence is the lOth Five-Year Plan. On its banner is the party
; call--for efficiency and quality. Behind these meaningful words lies the
' intensive development of all the sectors of the national economy, the at�
tainment of a high degree of productivity and production expertise, and the
~ all-round utilization of the production reserves, the achievements oF science
j and technology, and advanced experience.
~ Along with the problems of an economic and social character, the party
congress defined the task of continued enhancement of the teaching and
communist education for the younger generation and improvement of the
structure and system oP public education and its inseparable link--the trade
� 1
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
and technical school, which is now functioning in the role of the main and
Leading instrumental.ity fo.r the worker personnel. As was emphasized in
L. I. Brrzhnev's CC CPSU review report to the 25th Party Congress, "c0111-
mtuiLst education entails a conatant improvc:ment of the system of public edu-
caeLon and vocatioual training. This is especially important now in the
context of the scientific-technical revolution. It imparts to labor a
character which differs from the past and consequently also makes this
impact on the preparation of the individual for labor."
In giving concrete form to this thesis and developing further the statement
of principles prepared by the 24th CPSU Congress with respect to all-round -
enhancement oF the role of the vocatirnlal and technical school in the
general mechanism for the functioning of national production, the 25th
Party Congress brought into play a qualitatively new problem:'1to provide
for the training of highly skilled workers coming from among the young
people and destined for all the sectors of the national economy. 'ihis
training, which will be given primarily in the vocational and technical
educational institutions, will enabla the young people to obtain at the
same time a specialty and a general secon3ary education;' this program will
be of_fered in the secondary schools." _
The essentially new feature in this is the fact that the vocation,31 and
technical schools must naw prepare not simply skilled workers, as it did
before, but young workers of great slcill. This necessitates increasing
more than two-fold the acceptance of young people in the secondary and
technical schools during the years of the lOth Five-Year Plan. The Congress
also set up high standards for improvement of the teaching and educational
process in the vocational and technical school.
In full accord with the policy mapped out by the 25th CPSU Congress, the
Party Central Committee and the Council of Ministers USSR on 30 August 1977
adopted a decree on Furrher improvement of the process of instruction and
education for the pupils in the system of vocational and technical edu-
cation. This document represents a consistent continuation of the previous
party and government developmental decrees on the vocational and technical
school and it defines both the new tasks of the near futu�re and the policy
line for all-round development of the system in the future.
The growing maturity of Soviet societp has engendered a steady grocoth also
of the maturity of the state system of vocational education and, thanl.cs to
the unflagging concern of the party, it has launched a qualitatively new
stage of its development. Vocational education has today become the basic
school for the training of slcilled workers. In this respect there is a
fundamental and qualitative difference as compared to the role it played
in the previous stages oF the building of socialism. Indeed, in just three
years of the lOth Five-Year Plan there has been a 4.3 million increase in
the number of people in the country's working class and during these years
the schools trained more than 6.6 million young workers. In the lOth Five-
Year Plan the schools should train a total of approximately 11 million
2
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
skilled workers, These Figures give a fairly complete description of the
ever gr.owing rote of the vocational education system in the maintenance ~
of the size of the working class and they indicate that the vocatiotlal
and technical school is equipped to fulfill even more complzx ancl more ex- _
tensive tasks.
- Recent years have seen significant changes in the structure and cumposition
of the schouls for vocational and technical education. In the period from
1969 to 1979 the network of these schools has increased by more than ane-
third and it has now reached the figure of nearly 6,900 schools, the vo-
- cational and technical educdtion of young people is developing at rapid
rates in a number of Union rEpublics. Thus, for example; in the current
five-year plan alone training of skillcd workers encompasses inare than
~ Uzbek SSR and Armenian SSR had in all the 20 postwar years--a 1.4-fold
increase while Azerbaydzhan SSR and Kirgiz SSR had a 1.2-fold increase.
The number oi students in the vocational and technical schools is increas-
ing at ever more rapid rates. In the period of the same five-year plan the
number of them has increased nearly 1.5-fold and it now comprises 3.5 mil-
lion students.
- We may regard as a basic result of the current decade the conversion of
the system to the status of the main path of secondary vocational and
technical education. This year ma.rks the passage of only 10 years since _
the inception of the first PTU [vocational and technical school] and today
nearly 1.2 million young men and women are studying in these schools. The
network of technical schools is growing. The party has set the task of
seeing to it that in the next few years the majority of the young people 
wtio are graduated from the secondary general education school and assigned
~ to the sphere of physical production obtain a working vocation in the tech-
nical schools.
The level planned for attainment by 1980--to bring the proportion of
secondary and technical school pupils to 90 percent of the day-school
population--will undoubtedly be fulfilled. The Georgian, Lithuanian,
Mol3avian and Estonian union republics have already practically completed
the transition to the training of workers exclusively with secondary edu-
cation.
Stepping up the Effectiveness and Quality of the Educational Work
The vocational and technical schools are making an important contribution
to the enrichment of the intellectual potential of our society and to the
acceleration of scientific-technical and social-economic nrogress. This
f orm of training of worker personnel is the direction of the future be-
cause it enables us to successfully accomplish the great social tasks as-
signed by the party--elimination of the substantial differences between
physical and mental labor and between the city and the village and the
shaping of thoroughly and harmoniously developed people who have a high
3
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
ideological-political and cultural-technical level and possess vocational
mobility and stability, a capacity for creative activity, independence,
and civic consciousness and maturity. The party teaches us that nationsl
production ef�iciency is in many reapects determined by the level of the
, vocational training given to the workers engaged in this production be-
cause their knowledge, translated into the aggregate of labur, becomes an
_ ever more substantial part of the wealth of our society. These policies
' today also define the concepts of "efficiency" and "quality" in relation
to the activity of the vocational and technical schoolsand in relation to
the content of pedagogical labor in general. '
The process of improving the quality of the training of the young workers
is closely bound up with all-round improvement of the work of the secondary
PTU's as the leading educational institutions of the system. In light of
~ the requirements of the 30 August 1977 decree of CC CPSU and Council of
Ministers USSR, beginning with the 1978/79 academic year the vocational and
technical secondary schools have adopted training of highly skilled workers
in accordance with the new academic plans and programs, which, irrespective
of the vocation aimed at, provide for a single level of general secondary
education as well as political ideological, labur and moral training. These
schools have had a great deal of success in resolving such important prob-
lems as the introduction of a new list of occupations, the grouping of re-
lated occupations, the reduction of the Qupils' weekly study load to bring
it down to 36 hours, imorovement of the organization of instruction,
especially in the period of production practice work, and making broad
provision for the continuity and coordination of the vocational, technical
and general education training. We have also completed the preparation of
study plans for the technical schools.
In the prior years of the lOth Five-Year Plan the teaching collectives of
most of the educational institutions did a great deal to bolster the depth
and solidity of the knowledge and the capacities and skills of the pupils,
to intensify the ideological education orientation of the teachi.ng proczss,
and to increase the effectiveness of the pedagogical labor. Of the 1978
graduates 17 percent of the pupils obtained a higher grade on the job.
The instructional plans and programs are bein; successfully fulfilled in
most of the vocational and technical educational institutions. We have
achieved improvement of the quality indicaeors for pupil progress in
production training and in the subjects in the vocational and techn.ical
series. The highest quality indicators are being achieved in the secondary
and technical schools of RSFSR, UkrSSR, BSSR [Belorussian SSR]and Moldavia.
_ At the same time, there has been practically no change in the number of
secondary PPU graduates receiving diplomas with honors. A considerable
number of the pupils studying the general education subjects are progressing
only at the satisfactory level. This is due to the inadequate methological
training of many of the teachers, the lack of systematic organized individu-
al work with the pupils, the tendency to underestimate the importance of '
4
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
the correct organization of in-school coutrul, and the unsatisfactory ef-
fectiveness of the work for the introduction of advanced experience.
We tmist see to it that the lessons in all the subjects are supported by the
scientific0alidity of the instruction, that the teaching process is con-
sistently incorporating instruction which develops, educates and moulds,
and that every teacher and supervisor directs the perceptive activity of
the pupils, their training in rational ways of thinking, and the develop-
ment of inemory, attention, powers of observation, labor expertise, and
skill in the creative use oF the acquired knowledge. And this should be
achieved not just through the traditional methods but also through the
new, probressive methods of instruction and the active development in the
pupils of habits of independent work.
The vocational and technical educational institutions are achieving con-
tinued development ot the instrumentalities which are significantly escal-
ating the level oF pedagogical capability for theoretical instruction and
impruving the methods of implementing intersubject relationships, the prob-
lem and program instruction, the practical laboratory and computation plan-
ning work, microelectronic engineering, the video tape recorders, the
graphical projectors (coders), and the other technical instruction facil-
ities.
- There is need to focus cousiderably more attention on the instruction and
education for young people in the technical schools, this work to be struc-
tured on the basis of the age group characteristics and the general edu-
cation training. It is also required in these undertakings to make ex-
tensive use of lectures, seminar classes, and independent work by the
pupils with technical and reference literature, synopses, technical con-
ferences, etc. It is necessary to activate All-Union and republic unified
control projects and to prepare standardized examination papers in the
specialized and general education subjects for the most populous occupa-
tions.
The most im?ortant task for the next few years is to make comprehensive and
systema.tic provision for instructional and prooramming documents, textboc'�.:s,
visual teaching and methodological aids, film apparatus, ar.d instructional
materials. This is a vast field of activity for the WiMrs fAll-Union
Scientific Methods Center) and the VNII [All-Union Scientific Research In-
stitute] for vocational and technical education, the All-Union trust for
production enterprises, and the methods subdivisions of the system. The
need has now arisen for the development of the work of providing methods on
a comprehensive scale for the process of training Eor the leading occupations.
In the recent period the State Committee has made a special point of draw-
ing the attention of the vocational education organs and the schools to rhe
- matter of improvement of the production instruction for the pupils. A new statute was prepared in reference to the production training foreman and a
5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
list of the complex occupations was approved. In 1978 we held eight All-
Union competitious for pupil vocational proficiency.
We can cite quite a number of examples of successful creative work by the
pc:dagogical collectives. There is the order-decorated G PTU [State Voca-
- tional and Technical School] No 17 in the city of Frunze, which has a full
production series for sewn articles and shoes going from the training work-
shops to the counters of the stores, GPTU No 33 in the city of Kazan', No
11 in Tashkent, No 74 in Zhdanov, No 3 in U1`yanovsk, where the construc_-
tion specialists are permitting the pupils to go ahead an their own with
the construction of industrial installations and residential buildings,
GPTU No 22, 26 and 49 in Moscow Oblast, where the pupils are being trained
in the production of intricate output by the method of defect-free manu-
facture of products, and others.
It is necessary, jointly with the industry ministries and departments and
the base enterprises, to take all possible measures to step up the ievel
of production training and production practice, and to recruit outstanding
production specialists, instructors and workers. It is important to main-
tain constant communications with the school graduates and, particularly in
the first months follawing graduation, to listen carefully to the criticisms
voiced by the workers and the supervisors of the shops and services of
the enterprises with regard to the quality of the training of the young
workers, and from these criticisms and suggestions draw proper conclusions
and devise practical measures for improvement of the training process.
A 6JOd axample of this is the work beino done with school graduates at the
Noril'sk mining and metallurgical combine imeni A. Zavenyagin. There the
training for the hiring of P'D'[T graduates is being carried out on a
systematic basis throughout the academic year. Meetings are organized with
the pupils in the graduating grcups and their parents and they are given
the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the brigade collectives at
the place where they will work. They are sY:own the working places and
each graduate concludes a comradely agreement with a tutor. The result is
that all the newcomers are employed in a specialty and are given job
grades; this has put an end to the turnover�of recent PrU graduates.
However, one also comes up against instances of a callous and bureaucratic
attitude on the part of some of the enterprise managers trnaard the young
workers who have graduated from a school. The vocational and Lechnical edu-
cation organs must be relentless in combatting instances of this kind.
On the Basis of a Comp?-ehensive Approach
Concern for the future of the rising generation pervades every line of the
new CPSU Central Committee decree on "Further improvement of the ideologi-
cal and political education work." This decree declares: "The heart of
the ideological and political education work was and is the development in
the Soviet people of a scientific world outlook, a selfless devotion to the
6
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
"party cause and the communist ideals, and alove for the socialist homeland
and pro'Letarian internationalism." This most important doctrine must per-
vade the entire content of the training and educational work with the ob-
jective of producing a new type of production worker in our educational in-
stitutions.
Tht accomplishment of this task requires From the vocational and technical
education organs and the teaching colleetives Further improvement of al'L
the activity on the basis of a comprehensive approach and an organic unity
of the training and educational process.
Thi3 means primarily further improvement of the teaching of the social-
disciplines and maximum enlistment of the world outlook functions of the
general and specialized subjects. There must also be an intensification of
the work of study by the pupils of the Leninist theoretical legacy, the docu-
ments of the CPSU and the Soviet government, and the reports and speecYies of
General Secretary and Chairman of the Presidium of Supreme Soviet USSR
Comrade L. I. Brezhnev; also, an intensification of the work of indoctrinat-
ing the young generation of workers in the revolutionary, combat and labor
traditions of the Soviet opeople. Last year the vocational and technical
education institutions went over to the new program and teYtbooks for the
social disciplines, programs and textbooks which were prepared in light of
the decisions of the 25th C PSU Conbress a:id the new USSR Constitution. Im-
portant work has also been done to improvL the economic education and train-
ing of the pupils.
In the process of teaching the principles of labor and production economics
and political economy and in the extracurricular work in these fields the
i future workers are inspired to labor honorably and conscientiously for
; the good of the motherland, to make skillful use of the economic knowledge
they acquired in practical work, to fulfiZl the established production
- norms without any defective output, and to make efficient use of the working
time. It behooves us to improve the education of the young, men and women
� in a spirit of thriftiness and a careful attitude not only taward the text-
boolcs, the school pronerty and classroom equipment, and the expenditure of
materials and electric energy but also toward the school clothing. There is
need also to teach them how to spend wisely the money earned in the process
' of production on-the-job training.
In fsmiliarizin.g the pupils with the content of scientific principles and
the role and significance of the new USSR Constitution it is necessary to
do a consistent job of preparing the future young workers for fulfillment of
their civic duty to the motherland. An important event in improvement of
the ideological and political education of the pupils was the publication
of Comrade L. I. Breahnev's books "Malaya Zemlya [small land]," and "Tselina
[The Virgin Land]"--vivid historical documents on the military and labor
exploits of the Soviet peo-?le.
7
FOR OFFICIAI, USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Most directly related to the developmf:nt of profound ideulogical convictions
is the problem of labor education. In the vucational and technical educa-
tional institutions labor education is basic to the production training and
practice of the pupils, to their technical crea tive work studies, and to
- their inventive and rationalization endeavors. In 1978 alone the PTU work-
ers and pupils submitted more than 17,500 nationalization suggestions, the
overwhelming majurity of cahich were adopted for implementation with a
_ tentative econocnic efEect of more than 2.5 million rubles. More than
= 900,000 persons have taken an active part in the groups performing creative
technical work.
The workers and pupils of the vocational and technical education system
received w ith great satisfaction the inform.3tion that on the basis of the
results of the 1978 Al1-Union socialist competition the challange Red
Banners of the CPSU Central Couunittee, Council of Ministers USSR,AUCGTU.,
and CC of the Komsomol were awarded to the collectives of rural vocationat
and technical school No 10 in Khersons ka.ya Oblast, UkrSSR and technical
school No 9 in the city of Yerevan. The collectives of the educational
institutions of Georgian SSR, Moldavian SSR and 13 administrations for the
- first time won the challenge Red Banners of Gosprofobra [State Conunittee
for Vocational and Technical Education] USSR and the Central Committee of
the trade union of-workers of the state institutions.
The Pedagogical Personnel and Improvement of their Proficiency
Implementation of the plans for development of the vocational and technical
education and the quality of the training and educatf.on of the pupils will
to a decisive degree depend on the supervisory and engineer pedagogical
personnel, on improvement of their tra ining and advanced training, and on
a steady improvement of the quality of the personnel.
At the Fresent time there are at work in the vocational and technical edu-
cation system more than 300,000 persons, including 145,000 production train-
ing foremen and nearly 130,000 instructors, tutors and physical education
supervisors. Of the engineer pedagogical workers 90 percent are graduate
specialists. During 1978 assignment to the schools included about 17,000
young teachers who had graduated from higher and secondary technical
schools and more than 10,000 specialists From the base enterprises and
teachers from the general education schools.
However, it would be incorrect to draw the conclusion that we have fully
resolved the personnel problem and have supplied the schools with the
specialists needed to meet the present-day requirements. Some engineer
pedagogical workers still do not have the necessary education, adequate
production skills, and vocational expertise. We are seeing a large turn-
over of personnel, particularly foremen, and we are not showing the proper
concern for the young specialists. The task .facing us is to implement
measures in the near future for enlarging the training of the engineer
teachers, to organize a gradual transition to the trair.ing of production
8
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
instruction foremen with higher education, to take measures aimed at having
the industry pedagogical tekhnikums offer a broadly diversified training
for combinations of occupations, and, finally, to raise the level of the
graduates of vocational and technical schools to the point where it appro:c-
imates the level of the graduates o� the pedagogical VUZ's.
Under the conditions of the scientific-technical revolution and the ex-
ceptionally extensive flow of" scientific-technical data, one of the pressing
problems is the need for systematic escalation of the skills of the engineer
pedagogical personnel. For this purpose we have established a broad net-
work of diverse institutions--an All-Union institute for advanced training
of vocational and technical education supervisors and specialists, the
branches of this institute, and courses, seminars and departments.
Gosprofobr is planning to carry out considerable expansion and strengthenLng
of Lhe educational and physical production base of the All-Union institute,
to make it the future scientific methods center in this oblast, to establish
new republic and interoblast advanced training institutes, to raise the
scientific levei of the refresher training, and to step up its effectiveness
and quality.
The pedagogical practice work must be strengthened by the vigorous scientific
activity of our scientific institutions: the VNII for Vocational and Techr.i-
cal Education, the Ka.zan' NII [Scientific Research Institute]-,oF Vocational
, and Technical Pedagogy, the Department of r_he Pedagogy and Psychology of
Vocational and Technical Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
; USSR, the VNM [All-Union Scientific Methods] Center, and coordination of
' the scientific research with the industry scientific institutions. The
measures taken will enable us to develop the high-powered potential in the
vocational and technical education system and to achieve a genuine expansion
I of the scientific pedagogical work in the realm of the vocationa 1 and
technical school.
The most important requirement for the progress of the system of vocational
and technical education is further strengthening of the acadeinic and physi-
- cal base of the educational institutions. The ministries and departments
have adopted the appropriate orders and decisions of the boards. As before,
there is a pressing problem entailed in supplying the schools with modern
machine tools and other types of equipment and instruments. The matter of
joint work of the schools and the base enterprises has not been fully re-
solved. Because of this, the Gosprofobr USSR is now preparing a statute
; on the base enterprise.
The ministries and tiase enterprises must jointly review and approve new
norms for equipping study halls, laboratories and workshops and within the
next few years they must complete the development of these norms for each
o-F thc occupations for which they are oFfering training.
9
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
In the future econotnic development of the country a major role has been ac-
_ quired by the large national economic and social programs planned by the
party; the implementation of these requires a large number of highly skilled
workers. In this regard we should mention first of all the plans L-or develop-
_ ment of the agriculture of the nonchernozem zone of RSFSR and for the rapid
economic development of Siberia and the Far East; also, the intersectorial
programs for the establishment of territorial industrial and agrarian com-
plexes.
In addition to the territorial aspect of the planning, great importance
. also attaches to the sectorial aspect. In keeping with the consistent party _
- policy aimed at development of the industries which de termine technical
progress, we have recently expanded the network of schools and strengthened
their base, particularly in ferrous metallurgy, the chemical and coal in-
dustry, and machine building.
Accurding to the Ministry of Agriculture, 4 million machine operators are
_ currently employed in the rural localities and this number should be doubled
in the near future. On Chis basis our task is to establish a rural
secondary vocational and technical school or technical school in every
large agricultural region, to organize in these schools the training of
personnel whose work would assume the distinct features of industrial labor,
to fully resolve by the end of 1980 the matter of establishing training or-
ganizations in'the rural vocational and technical schools, and to make every
rural school a model cultural and technical center.
At the beginning of this year the CPSU Central Gommittee and the Council of
Ministers USSR adopted a decree on "Measures for further improvement of the
- training of slcilled personne 1 and assigning them in construction." This
decree delineated for the remaining two years of the five-year plan the in-
tention to train more than 600,000 young construction workers in the PPU'c.
The appropriate minisi.ries and departments have issued authorizations for
strengthening the educational and economic base of the vocational and tech-
nical schools. For the 1979-1980 period assignments were set up for the
construction of new training institutions. It was stipulated that these
installations were to be put into operation in a complex with taorkshops,
proving grounds, and public service buildings and residenCial facLlities.
To improve the quality of the pupils' training it was suggested that the -
staffing of Lhe school be carried out in collaboration with the base con-
struction and installation organizations.
Jointly with the Goskomtruda [State Committee for Labor] and the AUCCTU,
Gosprofobr USSR in 1978 reviewed the list of occupations, which included
new specialities. The occupations with broad specialization already com-
prise more than one-third of the list and the group o'L occupations for
girls has been enlarged. The vocational and technical education system
has been rightly criticized for the inadequacy of its training of young
workers for trade, public dining, and municipal and everyday service
10
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
enterprises, where female labor predominates. We have a large potential
f,or attracting girls to the PPU's, particularly in the rural localities,
and this potential should be exploited.
COP'YRIGHT: "Professional'no-tekhnicheskoye obrazovaniye", 1979.
7 962
CSO: 1823
11
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR UFFICIAL USE ONLY
MANPOWER: LABOR, EDUCATION, DENOGRAPA?
SHIFTS IN TYPES OF LABOR AVAILABLE IN RURAL AREAS
- Moacow VOPROSY EKONOMIRI in Russian No 8, Aug 79 pp 66-74
[Article by T. Kuznetsova]
[Text] The Julq (1978) CPSU Central Committee Plenum indicated the necessity
of "multiplying efforts on solving tha tasks of draWing urban and rural ma-
terial and cultural-personal living conditions closer to one another." One
such task is drawing the etructure of urban and rural aptieres of labor ap-
plication closer together. In the type of social division of labor Which
has evolved between the city and the countryside, the latter is character-
ized by a relatively limited choice of spheres of labor application as com-
pared with the city and by the socionconomic features of agrarian labor it-
self. Specific occupational-skills, socioeconomic and demographic struc-
tures of workers have been formed in rural areas.
~ Spheres of labor application are understood to mean types of activity and
production and nonproduction subdivisions created by aocial division of la-
bor as vi.ewed in terms of the aggregate of material-subatantive and socio-
ecanomic Working conditions and labor resources requirements. The struc-
ture of the spheres of labor application coincides with the structure of
the production and nonproduction spheres of the national economy. Spheres
of labor application are characterized by the conditions of people's social-
production activity, the opportuniCies for choosing a type of such activity,
and the distribution of labor resources in the social division of labor sys-
tem.
At present, meeting people's needs for appropriate types of labor activity -
is playing an ever-increasing role from the viewpoint of interest in labor,
increasing labor effectiveness, preventing personnel turnover, and sa on.
As the material and technical base grows and is strengthened, the USSR Con-
stitution notes, conditions are created for all laborers to actualize not
only their right to labor, but also their right "to choose an occupation, ~kind of employment and job in accordance with their calling, abilitiea, oc-
cupational training, education, and With consideration of social needs" (p
40).
12
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE OKLY
The socioeconomic equality of all laborers in socialist society providing
all those able to work with Work, draWing them into social production, and
so on is realized through the system of spheres of application of labor
which has evolved. At the same time, socioeconomic differences in rhe so-
cial status of people, nonuniformity in the use of production conditions re-
sulting from the present level of development of productive forces, are ex-
pressed in the spheres of labor application. Within a unified national eco-
nomy, the spheres of labor application in urban and rural areas are a unified
complex vhose parts move in an interrelated manner and which is as a whole
subordinated to general laWS, although each of these parts has its own socio-
economic specifics and its own direction of development.
The general pstterns of development of the spheres of urban and rural labor
application are characterized, first, by the generation of new types of ac-
tivity; second, by improvement in working conditions in existing types of
activity; third, by the growth of labor resources between different spheres
of labor application under the influence of scientific and technical progress,
labor productivity growth, and other factors. The socioeconomic specifics
of the spheres of labor application in rural areas as compared to urban ones
are expressed in a lower level of development of both the productive and Che
nonproductive sphere; in features of their structures resulting from the pre-
dominance of agricul.ture; in the distinction between agrarian and industrial
labor; in the existence of a specific sphere of labor application the
private subsidiary farm more typical of rural areas than of urban areas,
and others.
Branches determining technical progress and using a more skilled workforce,
more complex equipment and, consequently, providing workers with better work-
ing conditions, are concentrated in urban territories. In rural areas, the
basic sphere of labor application is agricultural production, in part, pro-
cessing branches and branches servicing agriculture, as well as branches and
production not associated with agriculture but using local resources.
Investments in the urban and rural production spheres of labor application
can be compared with a certain degree of approximation. In 1940, capital
investments per person employed in industry exceeded similar capital invest-
ments in agriculture 7.5-fold; in 1965, that difference was 2.2-fold, and in
1977 1.1-fold. In the last 10 years, growth rates in capital investments
in agricultural production per person employed in it have been higher than
in industry. The indicated differences in amounts of capital investment have
been reflected in the status af the spheres of urban and rural labor applica-
tion and have determined the mriterial-technical and socioeconomic specifics
of the latter. The concentration of skilled personnel and the bulk of the
material and financial resources in the cities has facilitated not only de-
veloping branches with a high level of production in them, but also broaden-
- ing the range of those branches. The level of development of nonproduction
branches in rural areas is lawer than in cities. In terms of number of work-
era employed, branches of the production sphere in rural areas considerably
exceed branches of public services.
13
FOR OFFTCIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
- FOR OFFICIAI, USE ONLY
The number of workers in the basic branches of public service differs sub-
stantially in urban and rural areas, although urban and rural areas are ob-
served to be draWing closer ta one another in this regard.
Relationship of Number of Workers Employed in Cities to Number of Workers
Employed in Rural Areas, per 10,000 residents
1465 1970 1975
trade
3.6
3.5
3.0
housing and municipal services
9.9
10.5
8.9
education, culture
1.4
1.4
1.4
public health
3.0
3.0
2.4
communications
7.3
5.7
4.1
transport
10.4
9.0
7.4
construction
4.5
3.7
3.2
The features of the branch structure and level of development of spheres of
labor application in the countryside are supplemented by the specifics of
their social forms. Different forms of socialist ownership presuppose dif-
ferent sources of developing labor application spheres. This determines in
significant measure their differentiation in terms of level of development
and working conditions, which relates first of a11 to agriculture itself.
Data on the structure of agricultural production by farm category testify
to the differences between them in terms of the availability of capital to
labor and labor productivity.
Structure of Agricultural Production by Farm Category in 1977 (in percent)
gross agricul-
fixed agricul-
average an-
-
tural output
tural produc-
nual number
tior
af workers
employed in
agriculture
all agricultural production
100
100
100
including:
social production
74.4
94.1
86.3
kolkhozes
37.7
43.3
50.0
sovkhozes
34.7
49.0
35.2
interfarm agricultural
enterprises
2.0
1.8
1.1
privute subsidiary farming*
25.6
5.9
13.7
*When examining the production atructure in private subsidiary
farming, con-
aideration should be given to the assistance given i.t by social
production.
One important indicator describing the features
of the spheres
of labor ap-
plication is the power available
to it. It is
2.3-fold higher
at interfarm
14
FOR OFFICIAL USE 0[JLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OI'FICIAL USE ONLY
agricultural enterprises than on kolkhozes and 1.35-fold higher than on sov-
khozes. LeC's look at the level of inechanization of the most labor-intensive
processes, specifically, at stockraising farms. The least complicated opera-
- tion (supplying water) on hog and cattle farms nearly coincides in termg of
level of inechanization on kolkhozes, sovkhozes and inter�arm enterprises,
80-90 percent. The more complex operation of supplying �eed is 26-30 per-
cent mechanized on cattle-raising sovkhozes and kolkhozes, 56-62 percent
mechanized on hog-raising farms, and at interfarm enterprises it is 78 per-
cent mechanized in the first inatance and 85 percent in Che second; cleaning
- manure out of premises is 55-57 percent mechanized on cattle farms and 80
percent mechanized on hog-raising farma on the kolkhozes and sovkhozes, and
81 and 86 percent mechanized at interfarm enterprises. Piaturally, working
conditions are better and more highly skilled labor ie used at enterpriaes
. with a higher level of collectivization, apecialization and concentration
of production. This is borne out bq the proportion of machine operators
among all workers in each type of farm. In 1977, it was 14.6 percent on
kolkhozes, 17.2 percent an sovkhozes and 30 percent at interfarm agricul-
tural enterprises. At the same time, kolkhozes account for 52.3 percent
of the machine operators, sovkhozes far 46.4 percent, and interfarm enter-
prises for 1.3 percent.
The spheres of labor application in the countryside are considerably more
regionally-specific than in urban areas. Thus, the forma and types of the
spheres of labor application are considerably more diverse in rural regions
with a developed system of roads, a dense network of settlementa near large
cities. In relatively undeveloped regions with a low population density and
occupying large areas in which population centers are relatively rare, the
spheres of labor application are generally specific and limited. There are
regions with a high population increment, ones with little population moUil-
ity, and ones in which the population is redistributing intensively and flow-
~ ing out, which also influences develupment of the spheres of labor applica-
tion. The spheres of labor application and the number of workers are closely
interrelated. On the one hand, the spheres of labor application must corres-
pond to the amount of labor resources and ensure that they will be used. On
the other hand, the spheres of labor application themaelves, their composi-
tion, scope and structure, largely determine the number of vorkers of a given
region, the size and composition of the population in it.
The resettlement system has a great influence on development of the regions
and the spheres of labor application in them. Naturally, the larger sattle-
menCs create broad opportunities for workers to choose a sphere of labar ap-
plication. However, the developed road and transport lines, called the "vi-
tal arteries of the countryside" at the July (1978) CPSU Central Committee
Plenum, which link rural settlements with each other and with the larger
centers and which expand the choice of spheres of labor application for rural
residenta could be an alternative in this particular case. Also important in
this instance is the role of each settlement compriaing a particular region.
An optimum combination of the functions of individual settlementa within a
region also facilitates improving the spheres of labor application.
15
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE UNLY
The worker structurel gives us an idea, although incomplete, of the specifics
of urban and rural spheres of labor application as a whole.
StructurQ of Workers Employed in Urban and Rural Branches of the National
Economy in 1975 (in percent)
total city country- proportion of ru-
side ral workers in to-
tal emgloyed in the
national economy
average annual number of work-
ers in the national economy 100 100 100 35.1
inc lud ing :
in branches o� the productive
sphere 70.8 65.2 81.3 40.3
_ among them:
in agriculture 23.5 1.6 63.8 95.4
in branches of social produc-
tion 26.8 31.9 17.5 22�9
among them:
in social and cultural ser-
. vices 16.2 18.2 12.5 27�2
in trade and personal ser-
vices 10.6 13.7 5.0 16.3
in other branches 2.4 2.9 1.2 29�1
Under present conditions, the countryside's proportion of all workers employed
in the national economy barely exceeds 35 pe-rcent and is tending to decrease.
Workers in rural areas are employad basically at agricultural labor, and they
accoLnt for nearly 64 percent of all rural workers, 53 percent being employed
in social production and upwards of 10 percenC in private subsidiary farming.
- Contemporary processes occurring in urban and rural spherea of labor applica-
tion axe ambiguous. On the one hand, spheres of I abor application are ex-
panding faster in the cities than in rural areas. On the other, prereqtii-
sites are being created for the process of drawing together the structure af
these spheres in terms of their basic eleaients. Such prerequisites are,
first, a rise in the level of development of all production branches exist-
ing in rural areas, with a trend tawards increasing the share of nonproduc-
tion branches; second, the planned drawing together of the set of several
branchea of the producLion and nonproduction epheres (under a consolidated
- classification) located in both urban and rural areas; third, change in the
ratio of production to nonproduction branches in favor of the latter in the
structure of rural.workers.

1, The worker strucCure does not describe the level af development of spheres
of labor application, working conditiona, availability of labor to differ-
ent branches, and so on.
2. Rates of expansion of urban spheres of labor application exceed rural ones
- six-fold (in terms of number of Workers, without considering agricultural
production). 16
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
The following basic directions of improving and expanding spheres of labor
application are presently developing in rural areas: the industrialization
of agriculture, agroindustrial integration and associated processes of draw-
. ing the two forms of socialist property closer to one another; expanding
~ branchea of agricultural production servicing in rural areas; the g:.adual
concentration of branches proceasing agricultural output in rural areasl;
increasing opportunities for siting a number of subdivisions of branches
not associated with the national-economic APK [agroindustrial complex) in
- rural areas; developing the rurnl construction industry; developing the in-
frastructure; expanding recreation zones and spots (sanatoria, recreation
palaces, tourist centers, dispensaries, boarding houses, organizing recrea-
tion right in the villages, and so forth); creating an ecological service in
rural areas. The resolutions of the July and November (1978) CPSU Central
Comnittee plenums emphasized the necessity of developing the construction of
rural roads, improving services to the rUral population, and so on.
National, ethnographic, regional and historical features have a definite in-
fluence on developing spheres of labor application. Several of them facili-
tate, for example, the development of various kinda of handicraft industries,
and so forth. In many regions of the country, such development is ancouraged
_ and stimulated, inasmuch as it not only lessens the seasonal nature of labor
in rural areas, but also opens up opportunities for actualizing the needs of
a certain segment of the rural population for creative types of activity.
Changes in the rural production sphere and advances in nonproduction branches
_ are reflected ambiguously in the volume and structure of rural spheres of la-
bor application. On the whole, the number of workers in rural areas is now
_ decreasing. However, that decrease will probably be slowed, inasmuch as de-
velopment of the spheres of labor application is largely compensating for
the reduction in the number of agricultural workers by increasing the number
of workers in other branches (the process of increasing those numbers has al-
ready begun in a number of nonagricultural branches in rural areas).
Increasing the scope of enterprises of APK spheres Z and III in rural areas,
integrating a considerable portion of them with agricultural production and
putting agricultural output processing branches closer to raw material sources,
int�roducing new technologies, measures to smooth out the seasonal nature of
labor in rural areas, and so forth, will call forth qualitative changes in
working conditions in these branchea and,at certain stages, growth in the
numbera of workers employed in them.
At present, specialized branches and productions are being separated from
Che agricultural sphere and developed on an interfarm basis, with a higher
material and technical level than subsidiary shops and enterprises of kol-
khozes and sovkhozes. For example, from 1970 through 1977, the number of

1. Many reserves are available for expanding these branches in rural areas:
the number of workers at enterprises processing agricultural output and
living in villages is less than one-fifth of all workers in this sphere
of the APK.
17
FOR OFrICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
interFarm mixed feed enterprises increased 5.5-fold, the number of interfarm
- en:erprises for processing agricultural output increased from 14,000 to 37,000, -
and the number of agricultural livestock artificial insemination stations
r.early quadrupled. This process facilitates overcoming the isolation of eg-
riculCural producCion and raising the level of its collectivization. The in- .
tegration of agricultural enterprises with enterprises servicing agricul.ture
and processing its output is being expanded, and single enterprises shaping
the integraZ primary linics of the national-economic APK are being created.
In the Moldaviaii SSB, the number of workers employed at such enterprisea and -
encompassi.mg only the state secCor increased 1.8-fold from 1970 through 1976. Until quite recently, and even today, the low level of specializstion of APK
branches and enterprises in rura.l areas has permitted the same people to per-
form a wide range of jobs in producing all types of agricultural outpuC, pro-
cessing it, and servicing agriculture. Moreover, seasonal workers drawn into
agricultural work and law-skilled from the viewpoint of agricultural produc-
tion are coping with this. Therefore, improving the spheres of labor appli-
cation in rural areas assumes not only expansion of the range of specific
types of labor, but also a qualita4ively new level of such labor for rural
workers.
In some measure, labor in branches of material production not associated
with producing agricultural outFut meets these conditions. Depending on
regional features, these particular branches are represented by various en-
terprises and associations in the countryside. T'iic basic ones are industrisl
combines producing consumer goods, timber procurement establiahments, motor
vehicle enterprises, various transport services enterprises, construction
organizations, lumber combines, branches of city indusCrial enterprises, en-
terprises of the building materials industry, and others. In many of them, -
working conditions are better and the level of industrialization is higher
than in agriculture (availability af capital to labor is 1.5-fold higher).
These enterprises and associations differ from agricultural ones in their
higher level of collectivization, specialization and concentration of pro-
duction. They have broad opportunities for influencing the living conditions
of their workers by creating medical treatment, children's and sports insti-
tuCions, public catering enterprises, municipal, personal, cultural and edu-
cational services, and so forth, and the level of services at many of them
is higher than in analogous kolkhoz and sovkhoz enCerpriaes.
WiCh the development of these production facilities, not only are the spheres
of labor application in rural areas expanded, but the socioeconomic working
and living conditions of rural workers are also improved. Therefore, the
resources of material production brauches being developed in rural areas and
not part of the APR's must be used more than they are now for socioeconomic
transformations in rural areas. flowever, it should be noted that as a who.'.e,
- theae branches still lag considerably behind the level of economic develop-
ment of similar branches and production facilities in cities, and especially
in production and housing consCruction. The July (1978) CPSU Central Com-
mittee Plenum pointed out the necessity of working out concrete long-range
18
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
,
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
measures "to improve all organization of production, housing, cultural- and
- personal-services construction in the cauntryside, the funds for these pur-
poses having been increased."
New enterprises of material production brariches not connected with the na-
tional-economic agroindustrial complex are being created in rural areas and
existing ones are being expanded and renovated, and we plan to take a number
of enterprises and their branches out beyond the large cities. The siting
of industrial enterprises in small cities has a substantial influence on the
status and development of rural areas, given the development of transport.
At the Ju1y (1978) CPSU Central Committee Plenum, the development of road
construction was linked both to further development of agricultural produc-
tion and to raising the standard of living of the rural population. Devel-
opment of the network of roads in rural areas will facilitate expanding the
spheres of labor application of their residents.
All these trends testify to the necessity of an overall approach to improv-
ing the urban and rural production sphere. Raising the level of development
and c:ianging the structure of the rural production sphere, the processes of
agricultural industrialization and agroindustrial integration determine the
basic t:rends of advances in the social forms of spheres of labor application
in rural areas. The most important of these trends is the drawing together
and development of the two forms of socialist property. Development of in-
terfarm ties on a base of integration and cooperation, intensifying the pro-
cess of transforming kolkhozes and sovkhoxes into industrial-type enterprises
facilit.ates further equalizing the ecoizomic conditiuns of managing enterprises
related W the different forms of property, strengthening the material and
technicr...l base of agricultural production, overcoming the multibranch nature
of agr.'�.cultural enterprises, and so on. All this will permit eliminating
such features of the agricultural sphere af labor application as interbranch
differentiation of working conditions within enterprises and associations,
which is currently manifested in very different directions: availability of
equipment, worker skills, level of labor mechanization, and so on.
The development of industrial enterprise subsidiary farms is characteristic
of the present stage. Their basic function is to meet the need for food pro-
ducts o� the enterprise's workers, and to an extent also those of residents
of the settlement where the industrial enterprise is located (especially if
the industrial enterprise is in a rural area).
The level of equipment availability on subsidiary farms of industrial enter-
prises ordinarily meets the requirements of modern agricultural production,
and they employ a full-time staff of workers. Basic produceion workers are
drawn in on a large scale only during taut periods of agricultural work.
The more extensive creation of subsidiary farms at industrial enterprises in
a number of the country's regions, especially in eastern ones where consider-
able numbers of city-dwellers are drawn into agricultural work, would facili-
tate growth in agricultural production through beCCer labor organization and
the use of industrial enterpriae reservea.
19
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
only on the amount of such funds, but also on haw they are used. Currently,
the lack of adeyuate organizational-economic and administrative ties between
branches and enterprises leads to a scattering of funds. The law level of
collectivization of a majority of the enterprises located in rural areas
often causes a duplication of investments in sirnilar production facilities
and enterprises of both the production and nonprcxiuction spheres. Kolkhozer,
sovkhozes and state enterprises relaCed to different ministries and depart-
- ments and enterprises and services of the consumers' cooperative system have
available to them certain funds which go to develop the spheres of labor ap- f~
plication in the countryside and to develop rural areas in general. However,
_ the lack of a unified program for developing urban and rural- areas and the
disconnected directions of capital investment lead to a scattering of mater- -
ial means and to their ineffective use.
The current branch approach and departmental discontinuity of enterprises
and farms in rural areas and the absence of ties among them do not permit
the comprehensive solution of production and social problems of overcoming
differences between the city and the countryside. Under these conditions,
nonagricultural branches, by appropriating some rural labor resources, in-
fluence social transformations in the countryside inadequately. Therefore,
it is possible to solve problems associated with developing spheres of labor
application in rural areas given the systematic actualization of the rights
stated in the USSR Constitution of local organs of governmental suthority
and administration in rural areas, by which the Soviets of People's Deputies
guide all branches of state, economic and sociocultural construction, approve
economic and social development plans and the local budget, coordinate and
supervise the activity of enterprises within the territory of the Soviets
in the areas of land use, nature protection, constructionf consumer goods
producCion, sociocultural, personal and other services to the population.
Solving these problems vill be facilitated by the integrational processes
between industry and agriculture, as well as by combining the efforts of
interfarm and agroindustrial associations and enterprises with enterprises
and organizations of other departments for the purpose of improving working
and living conditions for the rural population and developing rural areas
as a whole. The materials of the 25th CPSU Congress note that: "The more
dynamic the national economy and the mo.re quickly its branch and territorial
structure change, the more critical becomes the task of coordinating the de-
velopment of material production and the nanproduction sphere with the avail-
ability or labor resourcea." Implementntion of this task assumes systematic
strengthening of the comprehensive development of the city and the country-
side and an increasing weakening of their socioeconomic specifics.
' COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo Pravda, Voprosy ekonomiki, 1979
11052
_ CSO: 1823
21
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
TRANSPORTATION
UDC 656.61
CALCULATING CARGO FLEET TONNAGE RESERVES
Moscow TRUDY GOSUDARSTVENNOGO PROYEKTNO-IZYSKATEL'SROGO I NAUCHNO-ISSLEDOVA-
TEL'SROGO INSTITUTA MORSKOGO TRANSPORTA in Russian No 48, 1977 pp 14-27
[Article by V. K. Lerner]
[Text] Concept and Classification of Reserves. idith the rapid technical
progress of today, social production is characterized by continued deepen-
ing of the division of labor process, by a high degree of specialization,
and by an increasingly complex technical and economic structure. Strict
proportionality in the development of individual branches of the economy
is becaming increasingly necessary, and increasingly difficult to ensure.
Even given the most perfect planning and the most precise management of the
economy, disproportions resulting from numerous objective and subjective
causes arise among its branches and subdivisions.
IC is possible to ensure stability and smoothness in the process of social
expanded reproduction only given the presence of reserves in all branches
and links of tbz national economy.
Reserves are definite opportunities, resources, natural, financial and other
~ reserves which are used for their intended purpose only when necessary. In
~ the words of A. Ye. Probst, "any national economic plan, if deprived of re-
.,i serves, loses all maneuverability and is transformed into a rigid, ossified
and therefore lifeless scheme."1
Eliminating disproportions in the development of individual branches of the
economy through the use of reserves enables us to avoid considerable finan-
; cial losses. However, the creation and maintenance of reserves, in turn, re�-
quires certain expenditures. Such levelsof reserves as will allow minimal
total loGses due Co a lack of reserves on the one hand and minimal expendi-
tures on creating and maintaining them on the other should therefore be con-
sidered optimum.

1. A. Ye. Probst "Importance of Reserves to National Economic Planning" in
, the book "Sovershenstvovaniye planirovaniya i upravleniya narodnym khoz-
yaystvom" [Improving National Economic Planning and Management], Moscow,
Izd-vo Nauka, 1976, pp 110-126.
22
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Determining optimum resezve amounts is one of the most important tasks of
national economic planning and management.
Quite a bit of research has been done in this area in the Soviet Union and
abroad. It has touched on various branches of the economy, including rail
and river transporC.
This is a very pressing problem for maritime transport, which plays a domi-
nant role in fore ign-trade shipments in the USSR. However, up until the
early 1960's, the national economic demand for foreign trade shipments was
not covered by the domestic fleet, forcing us to charter a large number of
foreign ships. The creation of reserves was therefore very difficult. Sub-
sequently, the ma.ritime fleet tonnage grew rapidly, and its participation in
foreign trade shipments increased accordingly. Whereas in 1961, Soviet ships
accounted for only 36 percent of all export-import cargo shipped, by 1970
that share had reached 56.5 percent. In 1961, Soviet maritime fleet ships
carried 54.1 percent of the cargo subject to delivery by the Soviet side,
and in 1970 95.2 percent.
In the absence of serious disturbances, this ratio has continued to the pre-
sent.
Under these cond itions, the problem of creating maritime transport reserves
is entirely capable of solution.
It is known that transport output is completely absorbed during the produc-
tion process. It cannot be accumulated, stored or, consequently, kept in
reserve. Theref ore, as applicable to transport, and to maritime transport
in particular, one can speak basically of a reserve of production capacities,
as for example, tonnage, warehouse space, auxiliary floating facilities, lift
and transport machinery, and so on.
However, maritime transport activity is associated with a demand for the out-
put of other branches of the economy, which generates the circulating capi-
tal for maritime transport. This includes fuel, lubricants, minor and non-
durable equipment, and all manner of "house-keeping" ieems. In terms of its
= basic operating activity, circulating capital accounts for only three percent
- of all maritime transport capital. Nonatheless, the lack of a definite re-
serve of the former can and at timee does lead to disruption$ of fleet op-
eration.
This article will not examine questions of establishing reserves of cnmmodity
stores. Z'heref ore, while noting the unquestioned legitimacy of asking those
questions, let us move on to an analqsis of production capacity reserves.
Let us note first of all that production capacity reserves can be divided
into the follow ing groups: reserves for expanding production, planned ca-
pacity reserves, reserves due to imbalanced capaciCies, insurance reserves.
23
_ FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02148: CIA-RDP82-00850R040240020011-5
- FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Reserves for Expanding Production. These reserves are understood to mean
stocks to build new production capacities: docks, spur tracks, ship's re-
pair shops, and so on.
Planned Capacity Reserves. This group includes reserves to ensure stable
operation of maritime transport.
It is known that operation of the maritime fleet is characterized by great
unevenness resulting from the coffiplex interaction of economic, political,
weather and technical factors.
The basic economic reasons are: unanticipated trade deals, redistribution
of cargo among the various types of transport, re-addressing cargo, and so
on, and fluctuations in charter-ship market conditions. _
The basic political reasons are: military operations in different regiona
of the globe, strikes in the ports of capitalist countries, increases or de-
_ creases in the volume of shipments to individual countries as a result of
changes in political policies, and so forth.
The basic weather reasons are: seasonal operation (for portions of the sea
which freeze fully or in part), weather conditions (delays due to storms,
fog, torrential rain, and so forth).
The basic technical reasons are: delays in drawing up documents, temporary
closings of ports or canals to perform maintenance, changes in navigable
channels, and so on.
I Reserves Due to Imbalanced Capacities. In studying the reserves of this
I rou it is a ro riate to recall the " ramids" PrinciPle formulated b
~ g P~ PP P PY Y
i S. M. Vishnev for examining problems of an optimum system of national eco-
~ nomic reserves: "Analysis of interbranch balances shows that the 'sphere of
I material production can be divided up into blocks. It is necessary that the
capacity reserves within the individual blocks be interdependent. At the
; same time, the branch blocks themselves can be ordered to form a kind of pro-
duction 'pyramid' (or 'cone') with blocks of the raw material and energy
i branches as the base and the light industry block as the peak."
The block-hierarchical structure of the aggregate of branches of social pro-
; duction points to a logical path for a systematic process of creating ade-
~ quate capacity reserves; it is appropriate to begin by broadening the base
j of the "pyramid."
~ In our task, the peak of the "pyramid" is the basic plan indicators for ma-
I ritime transport operation for moving a specified amount of cargo in certain
~
1. S. M. Vishnev, "Problems of An Optimum System oF Nakional Economic Re-
~ serves," in the book "Ekonomika i matematicheskiye metody" [The Economy
; and Mathematical Methods], Vol 2, 3rd ed, Moscow, Izd-vo Nauka, 1966, pp
; 370-380.
~
24
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
directions. The necessary fleet carrying capacity is calculated based on
the amount oE this work, as is tonnage. In this regard and with considera-
tion of all coefficiants (carrying capacity use, ballast run use, and so on)
fleet carrying capacity must exceed cargo capacity by the size of the re-
serve. In turn, the throughput capacity of the ports must exceed adequate
fleet carrying capacity by the size of the throughput capacity reserve.
The size of the reserve must grow as one moves from the peak of the "pyra-
_ mid" to its base.
But whereas a shortage of fleet carrying capacity can in some measure be
compensated for by chartering foreign tor..nage, a shorCage of port through-
put capacity cannor be made up operationally, which unavoidably leads to
disruption of the transport process.
It is known that the development of our maritime ports still lags behind
fleet growth. This lag is manifested in significant nonproductive ship moor-
- ings in port, which comprise approximately 25 percent of all anchorage time.
Nonproductive anchorage is equivalent to taking some ships out of operation.
- Thus, the imbalance of fleet and por*_ capacities leads to losses of fleet
~ carrying capacity and to large loseas.
Capacities imbalance also occurs within ports. For example, a majority of
the ports have no shortage of wharves. At the same time, they do not have _
enough warehousQ facilities or enough of certain types of lift-transport -
machinery. The manpower deficit, which reduces maritime port throughput
capacity, is especially acute.
Insurance Reserves In Case of Accident or Nonplanned Maintenance. Oceango-
ing ships are exposed to the risk of accidents while sailing and while at
anchor in unprotected ports or roads. Moreover, a ship is a complicated,
expensive piece of technical equipment in which the malfunctioning of a f
single unit, device or installation sometimes leads Co long delays in the
delivery of cargo and to large losses. The problem of providing the mari-
time fleet with reserves in case of accident is therefore very important.
The above enables us to indicate the basic, and in our view very pressing
directions of research in the area of maritime transport reserves:
For the fleet: 1) tonnage reserves for cargo transport, passenger, auxili-
ary-service and technical fleets; 2) spe.ed reserves; 3) container and barge
reserves for container ships and transport barges; 4) crew reserves;
for ports: 1) mooring reserves; 2) warehouse reserves; 3) railroad track
reserves; 4) reloading equipment reserves; 5) port fleet reserves; 6) port
worker reserves;
in the material-technical supply system: 1) fuel and lubricants reserves;
2) reserves of minor and fast-wearing equipment, "house-keeping" supplies,
- and so on; 3) reserves of motor and other means of transport.
25
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
In addition to the enumerated reserves, one should bear in mind those at
ship's repair enterprises, as well as monetary (currency) reserves. The -
- latter are especially important to maritime transport. Although a shortage
of tonnage can be made up by chartering foreign vessels, it would be extremely -
unwise to count only on the international charter market and rejecC a reserve
of our own in the form of additional f1eeC carrying capacity. Given such an
approach, the activity oF our own fleet would be made completely dependent
on foreign ship-owners, which would enable them to dictate charter rates.
This would lead to ?arge unplanned expenditures of currency.
Of course, the above does not indicate a rejection of the chartering of for-
eign tonnage. But it must be chartered when that is to our advantage, for _
only in that instance will the result of chartering operations mean a sav-
ings rather than a loss.
In this article, only one of the problems needing research which has been
indicated above is examined, that of cargo transport fleet tonnage reserves.
I
Maritime Fleet Carrying Capacity Reserves. The exisCing planning method an-
ticipates a tonnage reserve.l In order to do this, factor ICP is introduced
into the appropriate formula. However, neither its value nor the method of
calculating it is defined.
In its calculations, the economic planning administration of the Ministry of
the Maritime Fleet uses a five-percent adjustment in Che five-year plan for
tonnage not delivered from shipbuilding industry, and one percent in annual
planning. However, this adjustment must noC be viewed as a reserve, since
it is used to calculate the basic fleet composition. It was already sCated
above that by reserve, we mean a certain excess of tonnage in case of unfore-
seen circumstances.
The factors requiring that the maritime fleet have a reserve of tonnage can
be broken down into three groups:
1) specific and inherent to the operation of maritime transport itself;
2) those resulting from the needs of organizations using the services of
maritime transport;
3) those due ro causes which are international in nature.
First Group of Factors. The maritime fleet is influenced by various circum-
stances which reduce its carrying capacity. A majority of them are more or
- less systemic in nature and are therefore taken into account when drawing up
plans.
However, unforeseen events which cannot be anticipated in advance sometimes
affect fleet operation. They are set down only in reporting indicators which

1. "Metodicheskiye ukazaniya k sostavleniyu gosudarstvennogo plana razvitiya
_ narodnogo khozyaystva SSSR" [Methods Instructions for Compiling the State
Plan for USSR National Econamic Development], Moscow, Izd-vo Ekonomika,
1974, 791 pages. 26
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USi ONLY
reflect fleet operations in a previous period and cannot, of course, be ta-
ken into account when drawing up the new plan.
It is just these evenCs which are looked at when calculating the reserves
needed.
1. Force Ma,jeure (accidents, loss of ships, diversion Co rescue operations
or towing, and so on). These factors are not considered when drawing up the
plan, but statiatics prove that the maritime f leet loses a certain portion
of its carrying capacity each year due to them.
2. Heavy Ice. In some years, the harsh winters lead to losses of fleet
- carrying capacity due to difficult ice conditions in the Arctic and in noa-
freezing and partially-freezing seas. This factor is generally taken into
account in plan indicators. However, in individual cases unexpected losses
occur. For example, in the winter of 1971-1972, the fleet lost carrying ca-
pacity due to heavy ice in the usually non-freezing Black Sea.
3. Unexpected Accumulation of Ships in Ports. In drawing up the plan, plan-
ning organs take into account nonproductive anchorages of Soviet ships in
ports, which we indicated above comprise about 25 percent of the anchorage
time and result from the uneven nature of maritime fleet operation. However,
in individual cases, idle time greatly exceeds the average used for that plan-
ning. Unexpected accumulations of ships in ports leads to "bottlenecks" and
to large losses of fleet carrying capacity.
4. Failure to Meet Tonnage Delivery Schedules. An analysis of compliance
with commercial tonnage delivery schedules for 1971-1972 revealed a large
number of deviations from schedules. This occurred in considerable messure
due to the reasons described in praceding points. However, even given the
most precise, efficient management of the fleet, it is evidently impossible
to achieve absolutely precise observance of ship movement schedules. The
availability of reserve tonnage would enable us to reduce to a minimum de-
viations from the schedule, which ie especially important to Che fleet be-
ing uaed on regular lines. Strict meeting of schedules, agreements and ton-
nage delivery schedules not only prevents losses, but also sCrengthens the
prestige of the ship-owner as a partner who conscientiously meets the obli-
_ gationa he asaumes.
Second Group of Factors. This group includes factors influencing maritime
transport activity through its clientele.
1. Unplanned Shipments. There have been large unplanned shipments: in
1967 (export cargo from the Baltic to Cuba, as well as re-export cargo from _
Canada and Mexico to Cuba); in the first half of 1970 and in 1971 (from
Black Sea ports to Mediterranean ports); in 1972 (from Brazil, as well as
from the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Columbia and San Salvator). There .
were also unplanned shipments in 1963-1964 and 1974-1975. In all these and
other instances, recourse had to be made to additional chartering, although
reserve tonnage could have been used very effectively had it been available.
' 27
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Of course, it is inexpedient to hold in reserve tonnage capable of handling
all unplanned shipments, including large ones, since it would be hard to
keep in use in other years. And there is no need for such a large reserve.
Yractice has shown that if jusC 20-30 percent of the tonnage required for
unplanned shipments is concentrated in the necessary direction at the very
atarC, which is quite possible using a reserve, there will be no artifi.cially
higher charter rates in the corresponding market section.
Table 1. Actual Leasing of Ships Relative to the Plan, in percent
~ ~1)
\
I (2) 1070T
(2) Q~-11i1
n~
t
I
~ 3 1
~
ro.~
!

~
.
1,�,11T
: �u�
;5-~()~~i,y~,1114r1 Ifoti I~
i I

Cy.01 ~~y,1114rt
pT,
- I U: 11;
I SU j 75 I
1964
1118
63
I957
i u, i 33 I
I965
91
-
: 1958
121 I 106
1966
81
97
14)`,9
75 I ;127 I
1967
lU3
254
ISII~U
119 I40
19 li5
85
150
' I',Il; I
77 63 ~
1969
83
124
; I962
9.-1 31
1970
123
70
1963
92 111
1971
75
8C,
1972
102
92
Key:
~
' 1. Year
3.
Dry
cargo
2. Fleet
4.
Bulk
oil
~ 3. Unplanned Ship Leasing. It follows from Table 1 that the actual leasing
requirements of outside organizations and ministries for Ministry of the Ma-
ritime Fleet ships often exceed the planned amounts. On average over a num-
ber of years, this excess has been 0.35 percent of the total numbes of ton-
nage-days in operation for the dry-cargo fleet and 0.65 percent for the li-
quid-cargo fleet. True, it also follows from this table that the picture
; was exactly the opposite for a number of other years, that is, the actual
leasing of ships was less than planned. However, the seemingly "surplus"
tonnage which developed was used, naturally, for planned shipments and could
therefore not compensate for the shortage of tonr,nge in those years when the
actual leasing of ships was higher than planned. Such compensation can be
made only through a reserve. The Ministry of the Maritime Fleet has often
been forced to refuse to lease shipe to outside organizations. The presence
of reserve tonnage Would permit a reduction in or the complete elimination
I of the number of refusals.
~ Third Group of Factors. We include in this group political factors and those
j associated with fluctuations in charter uiarket conditions.
! 1. Strikes in Foreign Ports. In the capitalist countries, port strikes
; have become a permanent phenomenon in connection with inflation and the deep-
ening (especia'l1y in recent years) of crisis processes in the economy. Thus,
320 to 400 ships per day were delayed in British ports from 14 July through
2 August 1970 in connection with a strike by 47,000 dock-workers. The value
I
' 28
FOR OFFTCIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
of the cargo on-board these ships during the strike has been estimated at
500 million pounds sterling. Even larger strikes occurred in British ports
in 1972. Large ship idle-Cime lossea were recorded during atrikes in ports -
in Italy, Japan and Holland (1972) and also in Canada.
Use of reserve tonnage could compensate to a certain exteret for losses of
carrying capacity caused by ships being delayed in foreign ports.
2. Carrying Capaciky Losses Resulting from Closings of Canals, Ports, and
so on. The large losses of fleet carrying capacity due to the closing of
' the Suez Canal in 1967 are widely known. Only in 1975 did the canal begin
operating again. Ship carrying capacity losses were considerable in Vietnam
from April 1972 through MRrch 1973.
3. Events of a Political Nature. The Soviet Union, true to its interna-
tional duty and to the interests of the world communist and workers' move-
ment, constantly supports peoples insisting on their right to independence
and social progress. In carrying out this policy, certain tasks are en-
trusted to the Soviet maritime fleet, which must be able to concentrate the
necessary amount of tonnage in the needed directions without being dependent
on fluctuations in the charter market. A typical example is the Soviet Un-
ion's breaking the economic blockade of the Republic of Cuba. USSR maritime
transport played a large role in this. Whereas shipments on Cuban routes
were inconsequential prior to 1960, they increased significantly in 1960.
However, in this regard, more than half the cargo was shipped on foreign
vessels. In 1961 and 1962, the shipments continued to grow rapidly, but
the Soviet fleet's share remained as before. In 1963, it began to increase,
and since 1965, practically all shipments on Cuban routes have been made by
the Soviet fleet.
The shipments on a large scale by the Soviet fleet to Vietnam during the Am-
erican aggression should also be remembered.
In order to carry out such shipments successfully, with minimal involvement
by foreign tonnage, the maritime fleet needs a carrying capacity reserve.
4. High Charter Rates. An analysis of market conditions shows that a higher
demand for tonnage is felt periodically in the charter market. During such
periods (1947, 1951, 1956, 1967 and 1970, for example), charter rates in-
crease, which creates good opportunities for exporting transport output.
On the basis of an analysis of fluctuations in charter rates and of change
in the portfolio of orders and idle tonnage of the world transport fleet,
the necessary maritime fleet carrying capacity reaerve for years of favor-
able charter market conditions has been disclosed.
Calculating the Maritime Fleet Carrying Capacity Reserve. Reserve tonnage
cannot be determined as an independent value. It can be calculated only in
relation to the tonnage of the main fleet, which is taken as being optimum
29
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
in this particular problem. Such an assumption is fully justified, inasmuch
As the goal of the study is not to determine the total amount of maritime
fleet tonnage, but to calculate a certain additional amount Jtn the event of
unanticipated economic,political, Cechnical and accidental events as examined
in the preceding section.
It is important to note that the above-enumerated factora generally do not
operate simultaneously. Therefore, the total reserve for all factors over
a number of years is less than the total reserves for individual factors.
The demand for adciitional fleet carrying capacity in terms of individual
factors is illustrated in Table 2[page following]. The line of totals in
the table describes by year of the calculation period the needed reserve, R,
of carrying capacity relative to the total Ministry of the Maritime Fleet
fleet tonnage in percent.
As was noted at the start of the article, the optimum reserve should be taken
to be that at which the total income lost, on the one hand, and expenditures
on maintaining the reserve, on the other, are minimal over a number of years.
Mathematically, this condition can be described as follows. '
We must determine nlin I C, (k) + CR),
(1)
where Cp(IZ) is the income lost due to absence o� a reserve;
rR is expenditures on maintaining reserve tonnage.
So, the task is to determine the optimum reserve tonnage amount using the
criterion of minimum losses to maritime transport, losses being understood
to mean not just direct expenditures on maintaining the reserve, but also
income lost by not having it.
The calculation for lost income due to lack of reserve dry-cargo fleet ton-
nage is given in Table 3[second page following], in which revenues 11 from
dry-cargo fleet shipments during the first year of the calculation period
are taken as 100 percent.
As the reserve tonnage proportion increases, the amount of revenue lost de-
creases by the amount Qf revenue from operating the reserve ships (Table 4
[second page following]. For example, in the last year of Che calculation _
period, the demand for reserve tonnage, R, was 11.4 percent (see Table 3),
; but due to the lack of reserve, the revenue lost,CP(Ri=27.0 percent. Rad
the maritime fleet had available to it a reserve equal to one percent of the
; total fleet tonnage, the income lost would have been correspondingly decreased
- to 237;'10 ,4
Cl' 100 - 24,6 percent (see Table 4) . -
Given a two-percent reserve,
23; xJ,.t Q0 �
Gp (R) - 101i Percent.
. 30.
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
r4
O I
r
GI:
C.
0
>
I
-r4
41 .a

~
'
o
1
IV
~
.
l~
-t'
-t
N G~
Nc~
rn
G'
~
Ri .~G I
C I : C I
^ I
~
-Y' I
~ I
O I O
IO C

O

~
-
CV
~
I
�1
~
I
ao
=
.
or. -M
~
H ~

_
ce
p
I
I
O~
:0
I GV O I
O
C I
:V
:V
�r1 O
1j 4+
c
-v4 4) ~
I
I~
~
v
I MI
I~
I
~
C
I
O
y!
~
C
~
i
w
~
~
.

I
I

C?
JJ Ci
GJ
CV
I^t
ICID
~I
I
:
~ I
-
I
G
=
~
i
V
I
~
~
I
~

1
-li
~
~ M
"
~
H
� ~
-
M
I

I
I^
I
'
'C ~
r

-
rl ~ ~
, _ . . .
C
-
.
.
.
.
.
�
~
~
-r4 H'

~
.
.
r,
c
O
'C3
~41 I
. . n .
~ rt
.
m
G
;
u

c-i
o
F
U
~
'L
C
=
rr

A
�
?
J . C'i �
-
a
O
~
n
n
C
'
~
:
C
2
O
X.
~

'
I_~C_:^~�
r.
�
_

~
U

o
o

~
I
.LJ

=
j=
r'
~
V 07

c1
rG'-
~
U
C7
A C~

' 4 a u p �f
~
~
z
cc
c-"
ca
_
}
$4
v
c �
~
' u
�
`
~
p
n
o
E
y
y~
Q, .

~
,
cli
.
,
~
. cC .
~ a
-
a
o
~

c
u
G
U
.-4 G
I
-
~ i f" t~ i0 K Y
G
r'
_
c^
1-
:L
44,4
.
r,
~
~
~
O
U r d~
C
%
t
a
C
a)
cc
`
C.
�
,
~
q~
.
O
a
$ u t-~ c
:3
x
d
~
oa
c:
m
ca
m
~
U
m
~
I
N
.74 M
.
~7
co
t~
co
C:
o
.

~
H
N
0
,4
a
co
H
31
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
y
tA N
4J ~4
v -
a
~
q
p ~ O
.
O
ci c
y
M I ~
rl N "~7
>
~
,4
o c,,_
w i
0 TJ
�
~
c+
a
i w q
~

oaa~4
~ .r+ a Cv

`r+� o a ao �a a,
C;
a
44 1 ~ o
`d
a~
~�1
~
i
.,a
oc
`d 1
~

weoai
0 41
W $4
G1 41 Ai 'rl
rl tJ N i'+ S~ (A 60 O.C+
Gl H G R N G m u
I
~ o
a aCd td ac 4+ u
> Y: r-1 4 rl MI tA 0 A
N N
60
0
q ~
p
-

i
N ~ ~ ~
0 wx
~
. . . . . . . .
N c~'1 ~ V1 ~O 1~ 00 C~ O
GV

w
^ N
I
rl W
V M
v
p
JJ
10
CI Q
.14
H
~
~
~
�
1 r7
�
~
~ 'Q
O
41
�
r4
V ~
~
.
v
~
~
O
etl
u
:5
0
0:3

!
C
44
~
'
~
+
s
o
o w
eQ
o
m w
o0
00
6~
H
O
~
V O
~
~ N
uca
~
~

1
A
u
'
.
oor+
O.
o
,
p
~
W ~
pv
c
nH
Hp~+
~
u
c7 oi
w ,-i
~
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Table 3. Calculating Revenue Lost C,,(R) Due to Lack of Dry-Cargo Flaet
Reserve, in percent
I 2) 1'na pac-ioi n nro nrpuu,a
Rosa .,:em, I
~ 1�ii ^-i~ :l~ii
i
I!
R (from Table 2)

' cd (ll) - jilll
100
116 I
123
141
13,2
316 I
2,5
14,7
13,2

3,1.
20,7
xey:
1. Indicator
2. Year of the calculation period
7-ii I S�ii
1::, 5
171
193
237
2,0
29,0
39,2
11,4
3,1
19,6
7-5,7
27,0
Table 4.
Calculating Change in Revenue Lost Cj,(R)
At Different Values ot
Dry-Cargo
Fleet Reserve Tonnage
Proportion, in
percent
(1 Al 0.1 pc-
2) ;").t pacWnioro ucpnoaa
(3)
'
aepoa u ~
rnu-
uGutc
I (
c_ .~~.iapmic
uon�pII
aoaoaa.
~
iiance juo-.
I
I-i,
I
2-ii
,t.1,
I I
4-ii
S- ii
G-ii
i�ii
I
6-i~

~
T.1
I I
0
13,2
4,2
3,1
20,7
3,1
~19,6
75,7
27,0
196,6
1
12,2 ,
3,0
1,9
19,3
1,5
47,9
73,5
24,G
154,2
:
2
11,2 ; i,S
0,,'
17,9
-
46,2
71,9
22,2
171,9
3
1u,2
0,6
-
16,5
-
44,5
70,0
19,8
161,6
'
4
9,2
-
-
15, I
-
42,3
(iti, I
17,4
152,6
8,2
-
-
13,7
-
41,1
66,2
15,0
144,2
7.2
-
-
12,3
-
39,4
64,3
12,6
135,8
7
1i,2
-
-
10,9
-
:17,7
62,4
10,2
127,4
8
.5,2

-
9,,5
-
36,0
60,5
7,8
119,0

4 ,'3 i-

8,1
-
3�1,3
53,6
:~,~1
11U,(i
IU
3,2 -
-
6,7
-
32,6
-56,7
3,0
1u2,2
11
2,'>
-,3
-
3~),:1
,~},S
0,6
93,8
1`~
1
-
3,9
-
29,2
.52,9
-
37,2
I
13
0,2 I-
~
-
2,5
-
27,5
;il,()
-
81,2
~
14
-
1,1
-
25,8
�19,1
-
76,0
'
15
- f -
~

-
-
24,1
47,2
-
71,3
xey:
1.
Reserve as
a percentage
of total
tleet
tonnage
2.
year of the
calculation
period
' 3.
Total reven
ue losses, in percent
Given an 11.4-percent reserve (the required value), the revenue loss is zero.
! Revenue lost was calculaCed similarlq for the remaining years. Total losses
~ for the eight years, given change in the reserve as a percentage of total ton-
nage of from zero to 15 percent, are given in the far right-hand column of
TabZe 4.
Table 5[page following] gives calculations of expenditures Cir on maintain-
; ing the reserve tonnage.' Here, too, all values are expressed in percentages
32
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Table 5. Calculating Expenditures C� on Maintaining Dry-Cargo Fleet
Reserve Tonnage, in percent
(2) r~,:~ ~~,�i~~~~~,:~ (5)
a n j
I I- ~ I'!�n I:i�n I I�ii I S�ii I G�ii I "-ii
~3~P:ICX01L: tt00C-
7!,~t
79,6 ~
57,0
~J5,9
112,0
121,6 I
i3i,,G
157,7
-
nanuo>ry ~jmu
.ii: onio�ul ti;uo
( A0.`:q1::\1 R
60311Cl1U'�1 ' �':lY
{4~i1Tp81'bl il:l
co;tep>r.a,uie
,r�sepua ;i;ii:
~ 0 At)IIC IS
~.Ul11CN TJ:1117�
iK C�
j
l),i
l),J
11~11
1,0
1 1
l,?
1.4
1,(i
S.%
.2
1,4
I,t;
1,5
2,I1
2,2
2,4
2,8
3,2
17,4
3
2.1
2.4
2,5
3,0
3,0
3,li
1,2
4,8
25,6

3,1
3,0
�1,0
3,7
4,8
i~.(i
6,4
33,4
~
3,-5
3,6
3,5
-5,I1
4,4
6.0
7,0
8,0
41,0
(i
.1,2
4,1
4,0
6.0
5,1
7,2
8,1
9,6
48,6
7
.1, 1)
I 4,6
4,5
i,l)
5,8
8,4
9,5
11,2
:iG,2
s
5,1;
5,1
5,11
3,0
6,5
9,6
II.'_'
12,8
63,8
c)
6,,;
5,6
5,5
9,0
7,2
10,8
IZ,I;
14,4
7I,~1
(1
:
~,ll
I
6,1
6,(1
10,1)
7,9
1'?,0
I-l,ll
ICi,l1
79,1)
II
7,7
~ 6,6
6,5
11,0
8,6
l;i,'?
I.5,4
I7,6
1(;,fi

ti,�4
7,1
7,0
Il,
I
9,3
14.4
Ili,s
18,8
9:3,8
1'3
9.1
~ 7,6
I 7,5
13,t)
10,0
15,G
18,2
19,7
IIlU,7
1 1
Ei,?
8,l
(1
~ 8,
f 11,0
10,7
IG,S
1~1, G
20,6
11;,.~
I;>
I(0,1
8,6
5
I 8,
I 14,8
11,4
18,0
�_1,U
I 21,5
1 l13,9
Key:
1. Indicators
2. Year of the calculation period
3. Ba.sic fleet expenditures relative to revenues in the base year
4. Expenditures on maintaining the reserve at the following proportione
of total tonnage
5. Total expenditures
relative to revenues from shipments irr the base year. It is evident from
the table that, as the reserve increases, total expenditures on maintaining
it over the eight years increase. In this regard, consideration is given to
the fact that some reserve ships are idle in years when the reserve exceeds
the required amount. In this instance, their maintenance is less expensive
due to reductions in crews, fuel expenditures, and so forth. Expenditures
on tonnage partly idle are given in Iightface in Table 5. For example, in
the last year of the calculation period, the demand for reserve was 11.4
percent of the total dry-cargo fleet tonnage (see Table 2). Consequently,
all the reserve tonnage above this amount would have been idle.
It should be noted that in this particular case, the word "idle" is used
quite hypothetically and only to stress the unevenness of the fleet reserve
requiremer_ts over a number of qears. Ordinarily, even with unfavorable char-
ter market conditions, it is possible Co use ships for "gif" shipments.
However, this possibility is not considered in the calculations made here.
33
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
- Graph of Change in Losses As a Function of Dry-Cargo Fleet Reserve Tonnage
Proportion
A
C, i
190
160
140
IZO
J00
C10
60
40
~?n
v
~ The calculation results are given in the drawing. The abscissa gives the
I reserve tonnage proportion R and the ordinate total losses in the form
of lost revenue and expenditures on maintaining the reserve. Line C,,(R) de-
scribes change in total revenue lost over eight years as a function of the
change in the reserve tonnage amount; line C,? describes expenditures on
' maintaining the reserve. Line Cr= Cp(R)+ CR is composite, reflecting change
in total losses. It is evident from the graph that .min C corresponds to
R= 11 percent. Consequently, the optimum reserve tonnage amount equals 11
. percent of total dry-cargo fleet tonnage.
Analogous calculations for the bulk-oil fleet yield R= 47..
These data, obtained on the basis of an analysis of fleet operation, should
i be viewed as preliminary. When calculating for the long range, considera-
tion must be given to possible fluctuations in the factors determining the
' demand for reserves. Thus, there are grounds for assuming that the influence
of the factors indicated in points 5 and 8(see Table 2) will decrease signi-
; ficantly. At the same time, the demand for reserves might increase for fac-
tors 7 and 9. Implementation of the changes outlined in the lOth Five-Year
Plan in the structure of the domestic fYeet tawards increasing the proportion
of specialized ships, as well as the Cransition to fundamentally new methoda
, of shipping cargo, will have a great influence on the size of the reserve.
34
i
I FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
~
i
i
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02108: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFF?CIAL USE ONLY
All these circumstances must be paid attention to when calculating optimum
reserve amounts for the long term. I
In connection with improvement in the atruction and the creation of an auto-
mated control system for maritime tranaport, with the shift from planning
based on what has been achieved to planning based on normatives, special im-
portance is acquired by the studying of unforeseen factors which disrupt the
stability and smoothness of the transport process, as well as by the creation
of optimum reserves capable of forestalling Che negative effects of these
factors.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "'rransport", 1977
11052
CSO: 8144/0111
35
FGR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5

APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02108: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
TRANSPORTATION
BRIEFS
PATROL CRAFT BASE--At the end of the Kurland Gulf, by the mouth of the
Dvina River, the Soviets are inetalling a new base capable of serving as
a headquarters for the highspeed missile-launching ships and patrol craft
based in the Baltic Sea. iupply dmpa and repair facilities have recently
-
been crnnpleted. [Text] [Paris VALEURS ACTUELLES in French 22 Oct 79 p 321
TRUCK FACTORY DECENTRALIZED--For strategic reasons, the Russians have =
decided to decsntralize their truck manufacturing.plant on the banks of
the Kama River. A factory for the manufacture of [truck] garts has been
built at Neftekamsk in Bashkiriya. [text] [Paris VALEURS!ACTUELLES in
French 22 Oct 79 p 321
END
CSO: 3100
~

f -
~ 36
I
i FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY =
APPROVED FOR RELEASE: 2007/02/08: CIA-RDP82-00850R000200020011-5